evaluation of the potential of technical education …
TRANSCRIPT
EVALUATION OF THE POTENTIAL OF TECHNICAL
EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAININGS IN SOCIO-
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF FEDERALLY
ADMINISTERED TRIBAL AREA’S YOUTH
Submitted by
SAMI ULLAH
PH.D (SCHOLAR)
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS
UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR
2015-16
EVALUATION OF THE POTENTIAL OF TECHNICAL
EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAININGS IN SOCIO-
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF FEDERALLY
ADMINISTERED TRIBAL AREA’S YOUTH
A dissertation submitted to the University of Peshawar, Pakistan in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Economics
Supervised By:
PROF. DR. ZILAKAT KHAN MALIK
Submitted by
SAMI ULLAH
PH.D (SCHOLAR)
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS
UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR
2015-16
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION
I declare that the thesis entitled “Evaluation of the potential of technical education and vocational
trainings in socio-economic development of Federally Administered Tribal Area’s Youth”
submitted by me for the award of degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Economics is the
record of work carried out by me during the period from Oct, 2015 to March, 2019 under the
supervision of Prof. Dr. Zilakat Khan Malik (Professor in the Department of Economics,
University of Peshawar, Pakistan) and has not been submitted earlier for the award of any degree
in this or any other University or Institution of Higher studies.
I further declare that this thesis has not plagiarized and the material obtained from other sources
has been duly acknowledged in the thesis.
Signature of the Candidate Date: 04, April, 2019
DEDICATIONS
This work is dedicated to my parents and sons;
Muhammad Rohail Rashid
Muhammad Sohail Rashid
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praises are to ALLAH Almighty, the most beneficent and merciful, Who bestowed upon me
the health and determination to complete this study successfully. Countless salutations be upon
the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), the gleam of guidance, faith and knowledge for the humanity.
I wish to express my sincerest gratitude to Prof. Dr. Zilakat Khan Malik, my supervisor for his
untiring support and scholarly guidance throughout the course of this dissertation.
Immense gratitude, profound indebtedness, and heartful thanks are extended to Graduate Study
Committee members; Prof. Dr. Zilakat Khan Malik, Dr. Sajjad Ahmed Jan, Prof. Dr. Himayat
Ullah Khan, and Prof. Dr. Qamruz Zaman, whose valuable ideas and help enabled me to
complete this difficult task.
I am indebted to Dr. Naila Nazir, (Associate Professor and Chairperson) of the Department of
Economics, University of Peshawar, for his help and guidance during the study. My heartedly
appreciation and recognition are also extended to other staff members of the Department of
Economics, University of Peshawar especially Dr. Nadeem Iqbal and Dr. Amjad Amin for their
support in need.
Special thanks to Higher Education Commission for financial support for the study and to the
youth of FATA who heartedly participated in the survey.
Finally, I sincerely and heartedly extend my deepest and humbled gratitude to my parents for
their moral and financial support. I am also grateful to my parents for their prayers, cooperation
and encouragement.
Sami Ullah
ABSTRACT
In the modern world economy; the conversion of human resources to human capital, and the
potential of technical education and vocational training to enrich youth with practical skills, and
in turn, its impact on poverty and economic stability is highly focused today. Federally
Administered Tribal Areas- Development Authority (FATA-DA) since its inception in the year
2006, imparted technical & vocational training to more than fifty thousand FATA youth to
generate maximum employment and increase their earning. This study was conducted as an
evaluation study to examine the role of technical and vocational training of FATA-DA in the
socio-economic and political development of FATA youth. Primary data was collected randomly
at a single point of time (cross-sectional) from 400 respondents (200 from the treatment group;
200 from the control group) through well-structured close-ended questionnaires. Data was
collected directly through face to face interaction and somewhere through emails. The
quantitative research methodology was adopted where binary logistic regression model, multiple
linear regression model, cross-tabulation, chi-square test, and pie charts were used as analysis
tools. The results revealed that the age of the respondents, marital status, family size, father
education, father profession, family income, and employment status before training has a
positive and significant relationship with dependent variable “P” (Probability of participation).
The odd ratio (Exp (B)) for the above-mentioned variables is greater than 1 which indicates that
more likely a person would participate in vocational training of FATA-DA with an increase in
age, family size, family income, unmarried status, and when the father of the respondent is less
educated and unemployed. While exploring the impact of vocational training on employment and
earnings of FATA’s youth, the results revealed that participation in vocational training and
employment status before training were found to have a highly significant relationship with the
dependent variable, i.e. Probability of employment “Y”. The odds ratio indicates that with
participation in vocational training, the probability of being employed increases. The result also
indicated that if a person was unemployed before participation in the training, his probability of
being employed decreased. Multiple linear regression analysis was undertaken to examine the
impact of training participation and demographic variables on the monthly earnings of the
respondents. The output of analysis showed that training participation, age of the respondent,
family residence, and employment status before training were found to have a significant
relationship with the dependent variable “log of monthly earning”. The odd ratio’s indicated that
it is more likely a person will earn more after participation in vocational training, when he/she
was employed before, with an increase in age, and with residence outside FATA. It was also
observed that FATA-DA didn’t achieve its anticipated objectives of more than 50% relevant
employment among youth neither brought social and political change as such in the lives of
FATA youth. The result of the cross-tabulation analysis showed that young males who
completed a vocational training course from FATA-DA were not as much developed socially
and politically as were predicted. On maximum (70%) indicators of social and political
development, the respondents from the treatment group were found to either disagree or strongly
disagree. During the analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the program, positive responses
were observed from FATA’s youth on maximum number of quality parameters. However,
certain potential issues were noted by the researcher during the survey, i.e. training was not
properly linked with the relevant industries, lack of career guidance and counseling during and
after training, lack of internship facilities, and financial support to the successful trainees. It is
suggested that the vocational training must have strong linkages with the relevant industry for
conduction of practical work, internship facility, and paid employment. Training must be market-
oriented and demand-driven. Post-training measures like provision of financial support and tool
kits for self-employment, career guidance for choosing the right path, internship facility for easy
entrance into the labor market must be taken into consideration. Training duration may also be
extended up to at least 12 months. These measures may boost the outcome and impacts of the
human capital development initiative of FATA-DA in specific and other in general.
ACROYNMS
AJK Azad Jammu and Kashmir
ABI Annual Business Inquiry
CPEC China Pakistan Economic Corridor
CIE Counterfactual Impact Evaluation
CEDEFOP European Center for the Development of Vocational Training
ESS Employers Skills Survey
EU-LFS European Union Labour Force Survey
ELMPS Egypt Labour Market Panel Survey
FATA Federally Administered Tribal Areas
FATA-DA Federally Administered Tribal Areas Development Authority
FDIHS FATA Development Indicator Household Survey
FR Frontier Regions
GB Gilgit Baltistan
GOP Government of Pakistan
MLRM Multiple Linear Regression Model
NYDA National Youth Development Agency
ILO International Labour Organization
ICT Islamabad Capital Territory
ICCES Integrated Community Centre for Employable Skills
IBT Institute based training
KP Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
LFS Labour Force Survey
NSS National Skill Strategy
NSSO National Sample Survey Organization
NER Net enrolment rate
NAVTTC National Vocational and Technical Training Commission
MMR Maternal Mortality Rate
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Science
OJT On-job training
TVST Technical and Vocational Skills Trainings
TVET Technical Vocational Education and Trainings
UNDP United Nations Development Programs
US United States
UNESCO United Nation Educational & Cultural Organization
YETP Youth Employment Training Program
YJTP Youth Job Training Program
TABLE OF CONTENTS
S. No Contents Page
No
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study ……………………………………………..
1.2 Statement of the Problem ……………………………………………..
1.3 Research questions ……………………………………………………
1.4 Objectives of the study ………………………………………………..
1.4.1 Overall Objective ………………………………………………….
1.4.2 Specific Objectives ………………………………………………..
1.5 Significance of the study ……………………………………………..
1.6 Organization of the study ……………………………………………..
1
1
6
8
8
8
8
8
9
2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………
2.2 Concept of human capital development ……………………………….
2.3 Impact of technical and vocational skills development on productivity,
employment and earnings ……………………………………………...
2.4 Role of technical and vocational skills development in national growth
2.5 Impact of technical and vocational skills development on
organization’s performance and productivity ………………………
2.6 Impact of technical and vocational skills development on social and
political development of individuals and communities ……………......
2.7 Summary ……………………………………………………………….
10
10
10
12
23
24
26
30
3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………….
31
31
3.2 Theoretical framework …………………………………………………
3.2.1 Human capital theory ……………………………………………….
3.2.2 Signaling/Screening Model ………………………………………….
3.2.3 Job Matching/Information Based Model …………………………….
3.3 Concept of human capital development …………………………….
3.4 Hypothesis of the study ………………………………………….….
3.5 Vocational Training Program of FATA-DA …………………………
3.6 Research method ………………………………………………………
3.7 Target population ……………………………………………………...
3.8 Sample size and Sampling techniques …….…………………………
3.9 Primary Data and Data collection tools ……………………………
3.10 Source of Secondary Data …………………………………………
3.11 Data Analysis …………………………………………………….
3.11.1 Descriptive statistics ……………………………………………...
3.11.2 Regression Models/Regression analysis ……………………….
31
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34
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36
37
39
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41
4
FEDRALLY ADMINISTERED TRIBAL AREAS (FATA)
4.1 Introduction............................................................................................
4.2 Geography of FATA ………………………………………………….
4.3 Demography of FATA ………………………………………………..
4.4 Political Setup in FATA ………………………………………………
4.5 Socio-Economic Conditions ………………………………………….
4.5.1 Occupation and Livelihood in FATA ……………………………..
4.5.1 Employment Situation in FATA …………………………………..
4.5.3 Multidimensional poverty in FATA ……………………………….
44
44
44
46
47
48
48
48
49
4.5.4 Education/Literacy in FATA ………………………………………
4.5.5 Health situation in FATA ………………………………………….
4.5.6 Disability and Social Protection in FATA………………………...
4.5.7 Housing, Assets, Information and Communication in FATA ……
4.5.8 Environment, Water and Sanitation in FATA ……………………
4.5.9 Technical & Vocational Education and Training in FATA ……..
49
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5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………
5.2 Data Analysis …….………………………………………………….
5.2.1 Demographic information of the respondents ……………………
5.2.2 Determinants of participation in Vocational Training of FATA-DA
5.2.3 Impact of Vocational Training of FATA-DA on employability of
FATA’s youth ……………………………………………………………
5.2.4 Impact of Vocational Training of FATA-DA on earnings of FATA’s
youth ………………………………………………………………………
5.2.5 Impact of TVST of FATA-DA on Social and Political Development
of FATA youth ……………………………………………………………
5.2.6 Analysis of Strengths and Weaknesses of Vocational Training of
FATA-DA …………………………………………………………………
53
53
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61
65
69
82
6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
6.1 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………
6.2 Recommendation ……………………………………………………….
6.3 Future Research Prospects ……………………………………………
92
91
97
100
References …………………………………………………………………
Annexure ………………………………………………………………….
101
117
LIST OF TABLES
Table
No. Title
Page
No.
1.1 Demographic and Socio-economic parameters of FATA 5
3.1 List of technical and vocational trades 38
4.1 Agency/FR wise population of FATA 46
5.1 Demographic profile of the respondents 55
5.2 Determinants of participation in vocational training of FATA-DA 59
5.3 Omnibus Tests of Model Coefficients 60
5.4 Hosmer and Lemeshow Goodness of fit 60
5.5 Classification Table 64
5.6 Impact of vocational training on Employability of FATA Youth 63
5.7 Omnibus Tests of Model Coefficients 64
5.8 Hosmer and Lemeshow Goodness of fit 64
5.9 Classification Table 65
5.10 Impact of vocational training on monthly earnings of FATA youth 65
5.11 Analysis of Variance table (ANOVA) 68
5.12 Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey test 68
5.13 Reduction in poverty level 70
5.14 Increase in life-long learning 71
5.15 Participation in voluntary communal and social activities 72
5.16 Caring more about risky health behaviors 73
5.17 Education for female of FATA 74
5.18 Appreciate women of FATA for doing job outside their homes 75
5.19 Preference for educated life partner 76
5.20 Perceptions about family planning 77
5.21 Feeling self-confidence and sense of responsibility 78
5.22 Financial support of needy people in the community 79
5.23 Participation in political engagements 80
5.24 Participation of FATAs women in political activities 81
5.25 FATA merger with KP 82
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig.
No. Title
Page
No.
3.1 Graphical presentation of human capital theory 32
3.2 Signaling/Screening Model 34
4.1 Geographical map of KP and FATA 45
5.1 Normal P-P Plots and Scatterplot 69
5.2 Training was good and fruitful 83
5.3 Balance between theory and practical portion 83
5.4 Trainers were well educated, sincere and trained 84
5.5 Availability of well-equipped laboratories 85
5.6 Training linkage with relevant industries 85
5.7 Market Demand for trade 86
5.8 Career counseling sessions 87
5.9 Cooperation of College administration and FATA-DA officials 87
5.10 Training duration 88
5.11 Tool kits provision 89
5.12 Course completion certificate provision 89
5.13 Financial support for self-employment 90
5.14 Field internship after completion of IBT 91
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
This study was undertaken to evaluate the potential contribution of technical education and
vocational training in the socio-economic and political development of Federally
Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) youth. FATA Development Authority (FATA-DA)
Peshawar is imparting technical and vocational training to FATA youth since the year 2006-
07. FATA-DA spent a huge chunk of its development budget annually on these training to
transform the available human resource in FATA to valuable human capital. These trainings
are supposed to bring positive changes in the social, political, and economic well-being of
this highly deprived and marginalized community in Pakistan.
Technical education and skills development means to educate the people and trained them for
better employment and to makes them economically more productive. Technical education
and vocational skills training deal with the study of technologies, the attainment of practical
skills, and information relating to occupations in different sectors of economic life. It
enhances human potentials to stimulate self-employment and entrepreneurship development
(Finch & Crunkilton, 1999). Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) focuses
on delivering technical knowledge and skills required for a specific firm, industries or
production unit. TVET is tertiary education which is concerned with accredited training in
job oriented technical and vocational skills. It covers a large number of careers which is
required by the industries. The courses in the field of construction, engineering, agriculture,
health, hotel and tourism management, Information technologies and vocational trades, etc.
offer as per market demand and the need of the people (the State of Queensland, 2015).
According to Nigerian National Policy on Education, vocational education as an essential
part of general education, preparing for effective participation in the world of work, an aspect
of lifelong learning, creating responsible citizenship, facilitating poverty alleviation, and an
instrument for promoting environment-friendly sustainable development (the Federal
Republic of Nigeria, 2004).
In the modern world policy, the role of higher-order skills in the global knowledge-based
economy; the potential of TVET to train youth with the abilities to grab existing
opportunities, and its impact upon worldwide poverty and social stability is highly focused
2
(King & Palmer, 2010; UNESCO, 2010, 2012). It is supposed that technical and vocational
skills play an important role in the socio-economic and sustainable development of nations
(UNESCO, 2004). Technical and vocational skills are of great concern for the people in the
21st century because of their keen importance in economic development (Jallah, 2004). It is a
general but authentic concept that technical and vocational skills could be used as an effective
tool in reducing unemployment in rural areas that eventually will reduce migration of the
people to the urban cities (UNESCO, 2010). A person with technical skills will be relatively
more productive and will earn more money. On the micro-level, investments into education
were regarded as a means to create earnings, thereby contributing to the reduction of
individual poverty (Cobbe, 1975; Tilak, 2002).
Besides increasing the rate of employability and return on investment, technical skills ensure
the execution and completion of development projects on time (Booth & Snower, 1996).
Technical education and vocational training are essential tools to increase labor mobility,
firm productivity, and adaptability of new technologies, thus increase firms’ competitiveness
and reduces imbalances in the labor market (Cailods, 1994). The Asian tigers focused heavily
and invest a lot in both physical and human capital and saw the face of economic growth and
development (Asian Development Bank, 2004). Technological advancement has shifted the
demand toward higher-order technical skills in the labor market (World Bank, 2002). Human
capital development through technical and vocational training not only increases the chances
of employment of individuals and their monthly earnings but also leads to increases
organizational performance and encourage growth in firms' productivity. Focus on employee
development by an organization lead to the creation of self-fulfilling insight of enhanced
output by the employees (Katcher & Snyder, 2003). Human capital development through
education and skills training effects organizational productivity by increasing the success of
quality projects, reducing chances of project failure, reduction in staff turnover, minimizing
supervision needs, and increasing abilities to carrying out more projects by bringing changes
in employees behavior, etc. (Nel et al., 2004).
Looking into the 2nd
dimension of human capital theory, education, and skills development
benefits the nation or region concerned by generating economic growth. Although it
remained controversial, it is almost commonly adopted by governments as a fundamental
instrument to economic growth and development (Rees, 1997). Many human capital theorists
insist that education and training have the capacity to affect the level of productivity of labor
in various economies (Kahan, 1965). The World Bank (1993) highlights the astonishing role
3
of human capital development through education and vocational training in East Asian
countries like Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Thailand, and Singapore.
It claims that the economic success and growth of these nations mostly due to the talents of
her people, as these countries are poor in natural resources. According to Ashton and Green
(1997), it is difficult to link education and training directly with the economic development of
countries although it can be linked in indirect ways, i.e. through employment, earning, and
poverty reduction. Certainly, the positive relationship between education, employment, and
earnings is one of the most prominent findings of modern economics (Blaug, 1972); where
earning differentials are the common measure of the economic value of education and
training (Carnoy, 1994).
Despite economic benefits; technical skills breed considerable social benefits that can be seen
in the form of a decline in crime rate, decrease in mental illness, better health conditions,
better schooling of children, and social cohesion. In this regard, it can easily be observed that
technical education and the provision of skills have a significant effect on the socialization of
the youth community (Gaskov, 2000). Excessive academic literature presents that technical
and vocational training has the potential to bring positive effects on individual well-being
(Hayman et al., 2007; Maclean & Wilson, 2009). TVET can help improve the quality of life
for all. Education and training empower people, raise workers' incomes, improve the quality
of work, enhance citizen’s productivity, promote job security, social equity, and social
inclusion. From a social viewpoint, education and training are tools for fighting against
individual poverty by promoting equal opportunities in terms of labor, social context, and
citizenship (International Labour Organization, 2008). Research conducted by the European
Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (CEDEFOP) has shown that technical
education and vocational training can foster confidence and self-esteem in individuals,
contributing to their engagement with families and society. With education and training,
sensitive social issues like violence and crime ratio reduce and individuals become more
integrated into their families, community, or society as a whole (CEDEFOP, 2011).
Technical and vocational training can play a significant role in the transformation of rural
communities by making people empowered to make decisions and take action to improve
their social, cultural, economic, and political lives in a way that result in a broad positive
impact on society as a whole (Shaw, 2011). It can enhance a wide range of so-called ‘life
skills’ such as communication, motivation, teamwork, responsibility, violence prevention,
and training in reproductive health which shows that vocational training is increasingly
accepted as a way of enhancing youth capability sets (Debrah, 2013). In most countries of
4
the world, technical and vocational education schemes are started to make underprivileged
citizens believe that they have a bright future. Prominently, these schemes have provided a
means of reducing the psychological pressure of socio-political and economic trauma that is
bedeviling most of the underdeveloped countries. It has been observed that if the youth of a
country deprived of vocational and technical skills, there are the tendencies of becoming
caught up in the web of depression, hopelessness, juvenile delinquency, social aggression,
and economic dependency. The above observations have been the greatest cause of
prostitution, thuggery, and hooliganism for most of the youth who remained deprived of such
skills training programs (Elebute, Mashood & Shagaya, 2016).
The importance of technical and vocational training cannot be ruled out for the socio-
economic development of the country. Promotion of technical and vocational training is
considered to be the key part of any development initiative that aims to improve the socio-
economic wellbeing of the people, to generate employment, and to eradicate poverty
(Grierson & Young, 2002; GOP, 2013). The government of Pakistan knowing the fact
established an apex body in December 2005 in the form of the National Vocational &
Technical Training Commission (NAVTTC) for the promotion and regulation of the TVET
Sector in the country. The NAVTTC provides policy directions to bring it to the international
standard (National Skills Strategy, 2009-13).
Pakistan is a country where a major portion of the population falls in the age bracket of 15 to
35 years (Janjua & Irfan, 2008). The existing capacity of the Technical and Vocational
Education and Trainings (TVET) sector in Pakistan for providing demand-driven training in
market-oriented trades remained insufficient for the fast-growing youth population (Janjua &
Irfan, 2008). In Pakistan, the labor force participation rate is relatively low, i.e. 54.4% in
comparison to other developing countries. Also, the proportion of trained workers in Pakistan
is very low in comparison with other South Asian countries (World Bank, 2017). It has been
contended that technical and vocational education and training in Pakistan is not very
relevant to labor market demand. It has been estimated that 60% of TVET graduates of the
year 2015 were unemployed a year after, i.e. in 2016 (New Lens Pakistan, 2016). In one of
his study, Kemal (2005) indicated that in Pakistan there is a general neglect of the human
resource development (HRD) as portrayed in its low Human Development Index (0.562)
along with minimum consideration in the technical and vocational skills development.
Though FATA is the most backward part of the country and its socio-economic indicators are
the lowest but some of these indicators like imparting vocational skill training to youth
showed that FATA was neglected in the fast. No serious efforts were made to enrich the
5
FATA’s youth with job matching skills. As a result, most of its youth had no jobs or sources
of income and led them to illicit activities. The table below shows the overview of the socio-
economic and demographic parameters of FATA.
Table 1 Demographic and Socio-economic parameters of FATA
Parameter/Variable Rate/Ratio
Average Household Size Rural: 7.6
Urban: 7.6
Average Dependency Ration Rural: 1.2
Urban: 1.0
Literacy rate (Overall Average) (33.3%)
Births delivered in a health facility 31.6%
Total fertility rate 5
Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) 395/100,000
Fully immunized Children 33.9%
Stunted prevalence 48.6%
Labor force participation Crude Activity Rate: 24.2%
Refined Activity Rate: 35.2%
Child Labour 6.9%
Household with members working outside FATA 7.6%
Home ownership 90.1%
Houses made of mud (Kacha) 74.8%
Houses with electricity connections 85.3%
Houses with LPG connections 32.8%
Children with disability 0.7%
HH who get micro loan 29%
Adult literate population 28.4%
Average distance to school 1.8 km
Proportion of women married at the age of 18 or earlier 74.4%
Unemployment rate 7.4%
Population living below poverty line 52.3%
Multi-dimensional poverty index 0.337
Average per capita income 470$
Source; GOP, 2015
6
FATA-DA, after its establishment in the year 2006-07, gave priority to the technical and
vocational skill development sector and sent its first batch of boys to different training
institutes of the country in May 2007. Technical and vocational training were FATA-DA's 1st
initiative in the skills development sector. Another project namely “FATA Youth Skills
Development through Field Internship” was also initiated to support the trained youth of the
1st project. From the fiscal year, 2007-08 to the fiscal year 2017-18, more than 1800 million
rupees have been allocated to technical and vocational skills development in FATA. So far
more than 50,000 youth (23296 male and 22700 female) have been trained in more than 70
vocational trades/courses (FATA-DA, 2018). It was predicted by FATA-DA officials and
other stakeholders that beneficiaries of that initiative will go through self-employment along
with paid jobs; their earning will increase that will improve their socio-economic and
political well-being. It was also predicted that this training will bring a positive change in the
social and political lives of youth in FATA. In the last 10 years, no one, either it is an agency,
firm or individual has evaluated these skills development initiatives of FATA-DA to know,
whether these programs have improved the socio-economic position of FATA’s youth. Either
these programs have tackled the issue of youth unemployment in the area concerned. The
strengths and weaknesses of these programs have also not been studied in the fast. This study
was, therefore, designed to study in detail, the potential of technical and vocational training
of FATA-DA, its impacts on employment of FATA’s youth, their monthly earning, poverty,
health and mental status, and their social and political development.
1.2 Statement of the problem
Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) blessed with immense natural resource
potential, still, FATA has the lowest socio-economic indicators (USAID, 2013). Federal
Government after a comprehensive consultative process formulated a long-term plan (2006-
15) for sustainable development under the FATA Sustainable Development Program (FATA-
SDP) with an outlay of US $2.06 billion. FATA has a sizeable pool of underdeveloped
human resources in the region. Aware of the tenacious need for human resource development
in FATA, FATA-DA started an effort for the development of unskilled youth through its
technical and vocational training in the year 2006-2007. In ten years since inception,
according to its annual development report 2016-17, the Skills Development Program had
been able to train over fifty-two thousand, five hundred and ten male and female individuals
across FATA in a wide range of marketable skills. The Skill Development Programme has
lately become one of the priority avenues for the government as well as the donors, hence
7
over 2.8 billion rupees (2857.85 million) has been spent by FATA-DA on technical and
vocational skills development from the year 2006 to 2016-2017 in FATA (FATA-DA, 2017).
A considerable amount of annual development fund goes to the skill development sector of
FATA-DA and persistently increasing from the last 10 years.
With all these efforts of skills development and technical and vocational training; the
problem of poverty, illiteracy, youth unemployment, crimes ratio, and rural-urban drift, etc.
are still high in the region as compared to another part of the country. The adult literacy rate
in the study area (33.3%) is far less than the national average (58%). In the case of females,
the rate is only 12.7% compared to 47% for the rest of the country. The population growth
rate is 2.41% with a fertility rate of 5. The youth unemployment rate in FATA is 11.8%
which is greater than the rest of the country (5.6%). The Labour force participation rate in
FATA (24.2%) is less as compared to the rest of Pakistan where the rate is 32.3%. Looking
into the poverty situation in FATA, 52.3% of people are living under the poverty line (<1.25$
a day). The multidimensional poverty index (education, health, living standard) is 0.337 as
compared to 0.197 for the rest of the country. 58% of people have no access to safe drinking
water. The maternal mortality ratio in FATA is 395 as compared to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
province where it is 275 per 100,000 live births (Government of Pakistan, 2017; FATA
Secretariat, 2015; Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2018). Limited changes can be seen in the
socio-political behaviors of FATA youth. Most of the FATA youth are still violent and
warmly participate in anti-state activities in and outside the country. Recently, Pashtun
Tahafuz Movement (PTM) led by Manzoor Pashtin, Mohsin Dawar and Ali Wazir from
FATA emerged as an anti-state movement. According to them, PTM is working with its
agenda for the rights of Pashtun Tribal but still unclear. FATA-DA spent a huge chunk of its
development budget (more than 1800 million rupees) in the skills development sector in the
last ten years but to date, no one evaluated its impact on the economic, social, and political
development of FATA youth. To do justice with government resources, it was therefore
expedient to evaluate the impact of vocational training of FATA-DA on the socio-economic
and political development of FATA youth. This research was conducted as a gap analysis
between the expected outcome from the stakeholders and the actual outcome.
8
1.3 Research questions
i. What are the determinants of participation in vocational trainings of FATA-DA?
ii. What are the impacts of vocational trainings of FATA-DA on employment, and
earning of FATA’s youth?
iii. What are the impacts of vocational trainings of FATA-DA on poverty, adult learning,
social and political development of FATA’s youth?
1.4 Objectives of the study
1.4.1 Overall Objective
i. To analyze the socio-economic and political impacts of vocational training of FATA-
DA on FATA’s youth.
1.4.2 Specific Objectives
i. To analyze the determinants of participation in vocational trainings of FATA-DA.
ii. To evaluate the impact of vocational trainings of FATA-DA on employment, and
earning of FATA’s youth.
iii. To evaluate the impact of vocational trainings of FATA-DA on poverty, adult learning,
social and political development of FATA’s youth.
iv. To examine the strengths and weaknesses of vocational trainings of FATA-DA.
v. To suggest corrective measures and recommendations for designer, planners, policy
makers and implementers of technical and vocational training.
1.5 Significance of the Study
Many technical and vocational skills development programs have been initiated (completed
and ongoing) in Pakistan but little to no evaluation studies have been conducted to examine
critically the efficiency, relevancy, effectiveness, and sustainability of these programs on
individual growth and development (gross root level). This research is significant in the sense
that it exposed the success or failure of vocational training of FATA-DA in terms of
employability, earnings, and poverty reduction, social and political development of FATA
youth. This research bridges the breaches in the literature on youth skills development
interventions of FATA-DA and provides a lens with which to determine whether these
programs have any sustainability for unemployed youth or not. The study also contributes to
the existing body of knowledge on the role of vocational training in enhancing youth
9
employment and can be used as a reference material by researchers in future. The outcome of
this study identified the potential of vocational training in reducing youth unemployment and
poverty in FATA especially. The findings are expected to provide useful and
practical information to planners and decision-makers that would guide policy thinking and
practice as far as delivery of vocational training for youth employment is concerned and
prompt more research to be done on the area of vocational training especially for youth living
in marginalized communities. This study contributes to current poverty reduction and FATA
development strategies of the government. Moreover, gaps in the design and delivery of the
programs at various levels were critically analyzed and suggestions and recommendations for
effective service delivery were put forward. The findings inform on areas of improvement in
current implementation practices of the vocational training of FATA-DA.
1.6 Organization of the study
The study conducted was divided into six chapters. The first chapter, Introduction comprises
the background of the study, statement of the problem, research questions, objectives of the
study, significance of the study, and organization of the study. Chapter two presents a review
of the previous studies conducted in the field of human capital development. Chapter three
describes the conceptual framework, research hypothesis, and research methodology adopted.
This chapter provides an overview of the variables, study population, sample size, data
collection techniques, descriptive statistics, and regression models, etc. used. In chapter four
the study area (FATA) was briefly described. Chapter five of this study presents an analysis
of data, results, and discussions. Here the results were discussed about the findings of the
previous relevant studies. Summary, conclusion, limitations of the study, and policy
recommendations were put in chapter six.
10
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the previous literature on human capital development and the impacts
of technical and vocational training on the socio-economic development of communities. It is
evident from the previous literature that education and training play a vital role in human
capital development. The previous literature also witnessed the positive impact of technical
and vocational training on poverty reduction, youth employment, increase in income or
earning potential, and individual productivity. The literature shows that technical and
vocational training has private as well social benefits. It has benefited individuals, societies
and organizations, etc. The previous literature also witnessed that some time vocational
training program has not been as much productive as it was anticipated.
2.2 Concept of human capital development
Classical economists put forward the concept of human capital that later on developed into a
theory (Fitzsimons, 1999). Schultz (1961) considered human capital development as one of
the key factors for economic growth and development of a nation. Phiri and Alexander
(2009), Sen (1999), Grubb and Marvin (2004) stated that human capital development
significantly adds to socio-economic development and freedom of nations. Economists had
viewed the concept of human capital in several ways. Firstly, Schultz (1961) viewed skills,
knowledge, education, and abilities possessed by individuals as property (Youndt, 2004).
Also, Rastogi (2002) considered competency, knowledge, behavior, and attitude of
individuals as human capital. Secondly, De la Fuente and Ciccone (2002) considered human
capital as working skills and knowledge obtained by individuals through education and
vocational skills training but this opinion neglects the experience acquired during life. The
third perspective by Romer (1990) considered human capital as the main source of economic
activity.
Modern economists like Schumpeter, Schultz, Becker, and Hanushek have been challenged
by the issues of human capital development for years. They recognized the central role of
such development in the enhancement of individual workers' capabilities, the standard of
their livings, and the prosperity of nations. According to above mentioned scholars and
thinkers, workers productive capabilities determined by factors like technical and soft skills,
motivation, ability, health, and job satisfaction. For example, according to Anya (2011) and
11
Dike (2012), due to low investment and less preference for human and physical capital
development Nigeria is facing many socio-economic and political issues today.
Schultz (1961) for the first time used the term “Human Capital” to describe the contribution
of education, training, human competencies, and abilities to a worker's productivity and his
future earnings. Schultz (1993) worked on increasing returns on investment in education.
This concept brought certain changes in economic thought. He was of the opinion that
individual abilities increase with an education that significantly deals with inequality in
fluctuating economic conditions. He also mentioned that human capital development is
investments in education, vocational and skills training, apprenticeship, and the health of
individuals. He argued that investment in education and skills training combined with
investment in health care etc. principally accounts for the productivity gains of developing
economies over underdeveloped countries (Schultz, 1961, 1993).
Schumpeter (1942) and Becker (1993) laid the foundation that how investment in human-
capital development (general education and specific training) influences future real earnings
of the people. According to Becker (1993), general education results in general human capital
development while the provision of technical and vocational education results in the
development of specific human capital. Becker (1993) conducted a study in the US and found
that most on-job training fall in the category of specific training. He thinks that graduates of
general education and specific training have a difference in earnings. It is therefore
mentioned in the human-capital framework, that the economic prosperity of a nation up to a
greater extent rest on the stock of its physical and human capital. He found that negligence of
a nation’s investment in general education and specific training has far-reaching
consequences on the welfare of that specific nation (Becker, 1993). General education,
technical education, and vocational training are instruments for improving the productive
capabilities of individual workers and improving their living standards (Becker, 1993).
Hanushek (2005) like Schultz and Becker also studied the importance of investment in
human capital development in developing countries in South Asia. By conducting a mixed-
method study he examined the education system of many countries in South Asia and from
developing nations and stressed schooling and training as a way to improve students learning
and productive capabilities. He collected primary data from government officials and experts
in the field of human capital development through interview schedule and secondary data
from government documents/records. He concluded from the results that quality of education
is not the only factor but economic institutions also play an important role in determining
nation growth, particularly in developing countries. Hanushek (2005) put forward his
12
suggestions that every government needs to focus investment in her human resource as it has
direct benefits for individuals as well as for the whole of the nation.
2.3 Impact of technical and vocational training on productivity, employment, and
earning
Min and Tsang’s (1990) examined the relationship between technical vocational training with
workers’ productivity in Auto Industry in China. Primary data was collected from individuals
who went through general and vocational education to see whether these two different routes
to education have a different impact on productivity levels. They concluded that vocational
school graduates at secondary level working in factories holding more relevant jobs and were
more productive than general school graduates.
Hanushek and Kym’s (1995) study on human capital development suggests that no nation can
think about the national growth and development, employment, and improvement of its
citizens without bringing education (general and technical) into the question. They were of
the view that a shortage of technically skilled manpower tends to hinder workers and national
productivity and economic growth.
According to (Perkins et al, 2001), human resource development plays an essential role in the
economic health of a nation. Richardson (1998) conducted a study in Australia to examine a
panel of unemployed youth whether participation in youth employment training program
offers just a temporary relief from unemployment, or otherwise. The researcher went through
Bivariate Probit Analysis in order to control for selection bias. He evaluated the effect of
participation in the Youth Employment Training Program (YETP) on the probability of being
employed up to an average of 26 months after completion of their respective training. The
researcher observed little evidence that subsidized jobs break up when the subsidy expires but
large and significant effects of participation on the subsequent employability.
Delajara et al. (2006) evaluated the impact of the vocational training program (PROBECAT-
SICAT) on the unemployed in Mexico. Both propensity score matching method for non-
parametric measures of average effects and parametric measures of average effects correcting
for selectivity bias were used. They observed a positive effect of the training program on
salaried employment for many years and an irregular (sometimes positive and sometimes
negative) effect for self-employed persons. According to the selection method, the minimum
positive wage effect was observed for salaried persons and a positive (varying) effect was
observed for a self-employed person. According to the propensity score matching method, a
negative wage effect was observed all the time.
13
Alam (2007) evaluated the influence of human capital development on labor market
outcomes and observed a powerful effect. He noted that investment in technical education
and vocational training benefits both individuals and society as a whole. He opined that “the
return for a society on investment in education and training will be a skilled and efficient
workforce that can boost economic growth and global competitiveness while the return for an
individual will be better employment, increased earning and better quality of life.
Technical Education and Vocational Training (TVET) perceives an opportunity for youth
who lack resources and motivation to continue with higher education. Many have claimed
that TVET equipped youth with essential skills for successful entry into the labor market and
enhance chances of a successful professional career. Ryan (2001) in one of his influential
papers summarized the cross-country evidence and concluded that vocational training
programs, especially apprenticeships, increases the chances of the early employment. In
another study, Quintini and Manfredi (2009) exposed the key role of widespread
apprenticeships in the patterns of school-to-work transitions in the United States of America
and Europe.
In the year 2013, CEDEFOP (European Center for the Development of Vocational Training)
has inquired about the relationship between TVET and school-to-work transition using data
of the European Union Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS) 2009. The results revealed that TVET
graduates enjoy an earlier transition to work relative to graduates with low to medium level
general education. They are more likely to have a permanent job with fewer chances of
qualification mismatch. Wolter and Ryan (2011) contended that technical education and
vocational training are providing ready to use skills, facilitating school to work transition.
Hanushek, Wobmann, and Zhang (2011) studied the employment patterns of graduates with
general and vocational education and observed that individual with general education
background faced worse employment situation in comparison with individuals of similar age
with specialization in vocational courses. In the UK, the returns to vocational and academic
schooling were compared where a markedly lower return was noticed for vocational
education than academic (Robinson, 1997).
Dearden et al. (2002) confirm that academic education leads to higher returns but in the case
of early school leavers, it was observed that the majority of vocational training programs
increase monthly earnings relative to no vocational qualification. More recently, Bibby et al.,
(2014) in a study compared economic returns to different curricula of vocational education
and concluded that returns to workplace level vocational training (On-job training were
higher than from institute-based vocational education. TVET participation leads to
14
employment, which in turn raises earnings, which in turn enables a rise in other well-being
effects (Hollander & Mar, 2009).
Osterbeek and Webbink (2007) evaluated the effect of extending a 3-years basic vocational
training program in the Netherlands with one year of academic education. Adopting a
difference-in-differences approach, they investigated the effect of change in duration on
earnings twenty years later but do not find any significant effect.
Kazilan et al. (2009) conducted a study in Malaysia to determine how technical education and
vocational training has empowered individuals with employability skills. They collected
primary data from 450 respondents (teachers and students) at different technical and
vocational training institutes through well-structured questionnaires. Frequency tables, bar
charts, t-test and ANOVA etc. were used as descriptive analysis tools. The study
hypothesized that knowledge and skills acquired in industries and in technical and vocational
training institutes would boost individual workers’ productivity. The result indicated a
positive significant relationship of education and job training with employability and higher
productivity of individual workers. The study also suggested that student’s basic and
technical skills needed to be improved; as these skills empower graduates with employability
skills and increase their productivity.
Blasco et al., (2012) evaluated the French training system by adopting a more integrated
approach focusing on both On-Job Training (OJT) and Institute Based Training Programs
(IBT) and showed their impact on the distribution of the employment duration. By using data
(1998–2003) from French Survey Formation Qualification Professionals; they concluded that
younger and more educated individuals were more likely to participate in a training program
and workers of age 26 and below were more likely to get enrolled in a longer duration
training program. Several multi-state transitions models with unobserved heterogeneity were
used in the study showed that training increases the probability of re-employment for
unemployed youth, and training of unemployed leads to an increase in re-employment
stability.
Benjamin (2013) re-examined social return to education in different cities of the United
States of America (USA) in the year 2012. Using US Census data a large positive impact was
observed on average wages in the year 1980 while in 2012 impact was almost zero. Even the
impact was observed negative for low skilled workers in the same year.
Uddin (2013) examined the role of technical and vocational education in poverty reduction in
Nigeria. Data from 150 students were collected in eighteen local government areas of Edo
State by using Descriptive Survey Design. The study revealed that technical and vocational
15
education can play an important role in poverty reduction as well as making Nigerian youth
self-employed and reliable in industries. The study further suggested the government focus
on functional technical and vocational education backed by soft loans and microcredit for
reducing poverty and youth unemployment.
Kramarz and Martina (2015) studied the impact of education and training in combating youth
unemployment. They focused on the supply aspect of youth unemployment in their study.
The study ended with three major conclusions; education and training play a crucial role in
long-run labor market outcomes in the lower class and in middle-class families. The study
also focused the preventive strategies of disadvantaged background children where empirical
finding showed both education and training possesses central importance in early childhood
interventions concerning both cognitive and non-cognitive skills. Thirdly remedial strategies
towards disadvantaged families’ youth who have experienced or experiencing unemployment
were discussed.
Pena (2010) studied the effect of the Youth Job Training Program (YJTP) in Latin America,
Europe, and the United States of America (USA). It was concluded that these programs have
yield maximum return in terms of employment and earnings for youth particularly women in
Latin America. These programs were found more effective based on completion level and
length of the training program.
Wodon and Minowa (1999) re-evaluated a program “Training for urban unemployed” by
using the availability of the program at the state level (instrumental variable) as determinants
of individual participation to control for endogeneity problem. It was concluded that
PROBECAT does not increase the wage of the participant nor does it decrease youth
unemployment. They also concluded that PROBECAT may not be considered beneficial for
the medium to long run still it may be considered for providing a short-term temporary safety
net. They also mentioned that most training programs in OECD countries have been found
with limited impacts on wages and employment. They suggested improvement and strategies
formulation for long term benefits.
Maclean and Wilson (2007) evaluated a youth training program for the Dominican Republic
to find out its labor market impacts. For data collection, a random sample of trainees and
youth from the control group were selected after 10 to 14 months of their graduation. They
found a significant impact on hourly wage and health insurance courage conditional to
employment. However, no significant impact of the training program on the subsequent
employability of trainees was observed.
16
Fitzenberger and Prey (1996) evaluated the effect of training on employment and income
(wages) of the training participants in East Germany. Using a simultaneous equation model, a
positive effect of training on employment and wages was found.
Karasiotou (2004) estimated the effect of general education and vocational training on labor
market outcome (wages, labor supply, and unemployment) in Belgium using data from
Belgium Households Survey. Individuals in the age limit 18 to 65 years who have completed
initial education were included in the survey. Currently enrolled students in vocational
education after conventional education was also included in the study. Using Hausman-
Taylor estimators, a significant positive effect of initial education was observed both for
earnings and employment. It was also concluded that continuous vocational training and
lifelong learning further enhance the gains. The same effect was observed for labor supply
and unemployment time.
Hall (2009) conducted a study on economically marginalized and displaced rural
communities in Appalachia where she investigated the economic impact of technical
education and vocational training program. She examined the relationship between human
capital development strategies and rural community revival, employment situation, post-
industrial re-development strategies, and socio-economic history from the year 1930 to 2009.
By undertaking a qualitative type study, it was concluded that human capital development
programs in the shape of short term technical training have no significant impact on long
term adjustment strategies of a marginalized community like economic diversification and
structural unemployment.
Wambugu (2002) studied the relationship between education, employment, and earnings in
rural and urban Kenya where he concluded the positive significant impact of education on
public and private sector wage employment for both men and women. People with lower
education have greater chances of getting agricultural employment and those with greater
education have minimum chances of employment in the same sector. The highest monetary
return for primary education was observed in the informal sector and for secondary education
in the private sector. Again the returns were higher for females than for a male.
Enefiok and Sunday (2014) studied the impact of education, training, and economic
empowerment of the people on the socio-economic development of Akwa Ibom State,
Nigeria. The study revealed that from the year 1999 to 2012, the government of Nigeria had
focused on training and retraining of workers; hence witnessed vibrant, efficient, and result-
oriented changes in the public sector. It was revealed that most of the beneficiaries of
empowerment programs have got self-employment and becomes employers of labor.
17
Rayan (2015) conducted a study to examine the role of Technical Vocational Education and
Training (TVET) in sustainable development in the Philippines. A quantitative type study
was undertaken where data was collected from 271 graduates, 2 administrators, 4 faculty
members, and 4 students. Mean, percentage, frequency, and ANOVA were used as statistical
analysis tools. It was concluded that TVET significantly increases the chances of
employability, wages, skill utilization, and workforce readiness.
Raimi and Akhuemonkhan (2014) conducted a study in Nigeria to answer the question “Has
Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) impact on employability and national
development? Data was collected through purposive sampling techniques from 20
respondents of three different colleges in Lagos city. Content analysis and thematic analysis
methods were used as statistical techniques for analyzing data. It was concluded that TVET
has less effect on employability and national development. The result also revealed that
certain important factors like funding, expertise, collaboration with relevant industries, and
public perception about TVET are hindering the effectiveness of TVET in employability as
well in the economic development of nations.
Ntallima (2014) conducted a study in the Morogoro area of Tanzania to assess the role of
technical and vocational training in youth employment. Factors affecting training graduates in
getting employment, comparing Vocational Education Training Authority (VETA) and non-
VETA graduates’ income from employment, attitudes of employers towards graduates, etc.
were also a part of the study. A cross-sectional research design was used where primary data
was collected from 120 respondents selected through snowball sampling technique. 12
instructors and 10 employers were also interviewed. Descriptive statistics were used as an
analytical technique. To measure the attitude of employers towards graduates, the Likert scale
was used. Binary regression analysis was used to determine factors affecting vocational
training graduates in getting employment, and a T-test was used to compare VETA and non-
VETA graduates' income. The results indicated that the average income of non-VETA
graduates was relatively more than VETA graduates. It was also concluded that technical and
vocational education and training positively contribute to youth employment.
Anderson (2014) conducted a study in Sweden to find out the impact of advance vocational
education and training (AVET) on the earnings of the individual. To control for selection
bias, the researchers adopted four different techniques i.e. instrumental variable method,
fixed effect estimate, Hausman-Taylor estimates, and propensity scoring method. Panel data
(1996-2008) from eight different labor markets in Sweden was used. The result revealed that
18
earnings of AVET graduates were higher from return on investment in comprehensive
education. Effect on income was estimated in the range of 3-8 percent.
Hirshleifer et al. (2016) conducted a study in turkey to examine the impact of vocational
training on the employment of unemployed youth. It was concluded that the impact of
training on youth employment was positive but insignificant and close to zero. It was found
that over the first year the training has statistically significant effects on employment,
however, after three years these effects have also dissipated. It was also observed that training
impacts were stronger where training was offered by private institutions.
Ninette et al. (2014) evaluated the impact of the technical and vocational skills training
program of the Integrated Community Centre for Employable Skills (ICCES) in two different
regions of Ghana. The study was conducted with the aim, how the program delivered young
people with good skills and productive employment. Relevant information was gathered by
filling questionnaires, conduction of interviews, and observations. The results revealed that
the program had been helpful to the people studied in enriching them with valuable skills and
in making them secured with gainful employment. The results also revealed that after
training, a positive change was observed both in the social and economic life of the
respondents.
Almeida et al. (2015) investigated the impact of technical education and vocational courses
on the hourly wages of individuals who completed a course of technical vocational education
in comparison to general conventional education. The results showed that individual with a
course of technical vocational education has higher wages (9.7%) than those with general
education. The results were statistically significant at the upper secondary level. The results
also revealed that returns were higher for the individuals having courses in construction,
health, commerce, and management. Again the returns were higher for individuals with
technical-vocational courses after secondary education. The results also indicated that for
individuals who have obtained a tertiary level of education, the differential impact of
technical-vocational courses was null. It was concluded that the effect of tertiary courses
outweighs the effects of technical-vocational courses at the upper secondary level.
Krafft (2013) conducted a study to find out the returns to vocational schooling and skills in
Egypt. A rich panel data set “Egypt Labour Market Panel Survey (ELMPS)” was used in the
study. Significant returns were calculated for older adults while in the case of fresh graduates
the returns were limited and near to zero for vocational secondary education. The results
revealed that returns to vocational training especially in craft skills are considerable even for
19
fresh graduates. The study also concluded that formal vocational education and training is not
the best route for getting employable skills and higher wages.
Ahmed (2016) explored the safety net aspect of vocational education and training (VET) in
terms of labor market incentives in India. National Sample Survey data was used to explore
the wage, employment, and unemployment status of the individuals who participated in the
labor market after completion of his course. It was observed that VET has a positive
significant impact on wages and a significant number of individuals participated as salaried
workers. However, the study revealed that unemployment from VET was quite high for those
who had lower levels of general education.
Chakravarty et al. (2017) evaluated vocational training programs in Nepal for its labor market
outcomes. The study examined the employment effect of youth vocational training programs
using a “fuzzy” regression discontinuity design. It was concluded that participation in
training programs increased non-farm employment by 28%. The result showed that
participation in the training program generated average monthly earning gains of 29$ (171%).
The result also showed that the impacts of training programs were almost double for women
than for men.
Riphahn and Zibrowius (2015) conducted a study in Germany (East & West) to find out labor
market returns to apprenticeship and vocational training. Three labor market outcomes i.e.
un-employment, full-time employment, and labor wages were focused in the study. A
significant positive effect with no difference for different types of training and no significant
changes in the returns over time was recorded. However, a small difference for East and West
Germany and gender was observed.
Reis (2012) examined the effect of vocational training on labor market outcomes
(employment and wage) in Brazil. Data for the empirical analysis was collected from the
Brazilian metropolitan areas and estimated through propensity score matching. The results
indicated that vocational training increases earnings as well as the probabilities of formal
employment of laborers. It was also concluded from the study that vocational training seems
to be more effective for less educated and more experienced laborers/workers.
Duraisamy (2002) estimated the returns to education by age-cohort, gender, allocation, and
education type in India by using the data from the surveys of the National Sample Survey
Organization (NSSO). Along with other things it was estimated that return for technical and
vocational diplomas and certificates were higher than general education particularly in the
case of a male. He also put forth that increase in demand for persons with technical skills was
possible because of the rapid industrialization in the past decade.
20
Reinhard et al. (2016) evaluated the effects of vocational training on unemployment duration
in Germany. The findings of the study revealed that vocational training prolongs
unemployment duration in eastern Germany. It was noted that locking in effect is a serious
problem of vocational training programs.
Bishop and Mane (2004) studied the impacts of vocational education and training on the
labor market’s earnings. An Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression was applied and
included as many observable characteristics as possible to control for self-selection bias. It
was concluded that individuals taking certain vocational subjects in secondary schools were
earning more wages and showed higher participation rates than general education students.
Lee and Coelli (2010) conducted a study in Australia to evaluate the impacts of vocational
education certificate level qualifications for distinct groups of students (Secondary education
completed & Secondary education not completed). By using propensity score matching they
estimated the differential impacts of the certificate on employment and earnings of
completers and non-completers of the secondary schooling. The results indicated that there is
no advantage of low-level vocational courses after completion of secondary education but a
significant impact for those who do not complete secondary education.
Hanushek et al. (2011) analyzed the impacts of vocational education in long-term
employment trends by using a difference-in-differences approach to control for selection bias
for 18 different countries. It was concluded that the relative advantage of vocational
education diminishes with time because vocational education leads to slower adaptability to
structural and technological changes in the economy. Furthermore, they observed
heterogeneity of employment effects; the pattern is more pronounced in countries with
apprenticeship programs like in Germany, Denmark, and Switzerland and it was not clear for
countries with institute-based vocational education.
Oliveira (2015) in his study estimated the returns of vocational education and general
education on wages. The author analyzed 16-year panel data following individuals since their
first job. He concluded that vocational education has a return of an additional 2% over
general education in terms of wages. However, the rate of growth of wages seems to be
smaller for vocational education students and is surpassed after eight years of experience.
Cruz (2015) conducted a study to assess the impacts of vocational education on students’
academic and labor market performance using a Counterfactual Impact Evaluation (CIE)
approach. The results revealed a positive impact of being enrolled in vocational education on
transition, graduation, and dropout rates (school performance) and employment rate, average
salary, and average worked months per year (labor market performance). It was also observed
21
that students enrolled in vocational education have lower chances of proceeding to higher
education.
Sarojini et al. (2015) evaluated both short and long-term impacts of vocational training on
unemployed youth in Turkey. The average impact of vocational training on employment was
found positive, but close to zero and statistically insignificant. The results were found much
lower than that were expected. It was also found that after one year of training completion the
vocation training has had a significant effect on employment. Furthermore, it was noted that
positive impacts were stronger in case vocational training offered by private
institutions/organizations. However, after three years these effects have also been dissipated.
Javed and Haider (2009) conducted a study in Pakistan to determine the impacts of technical
& vocational training on earnings. They used cross-sectional data from Labour Force Survey
2005-06 and concluded that training was not statistically significant in the determination of
wages, due to its quality. Based on empirical evidence from the study they recommended that
vocational training institutions should ideally devise their training in the light of market
demand and industries requirements. Empirical results also emphasized improvement in the
quality of training.
Aguas and Machado (2012) conducted an evaluation study on whether secondary vocational
education affects monthly labor earnings in Brazil. Using 2007 Pesquisa Nacional por
Amostra de Domicilios (PNAD) data, they conducted empirical analysis through OLS,
Treatment Effect, and Propensity Score Matching method. The results revealed that
attainment of secondary vocational education is closely associated with an increase in
monthly labor earnings. An increase of 20% to 24% was observed in all three methods. They
also concluded that decision to attend vocational education programs does not seem to be
correlated with unobserved productive characteristics of workers.
Hotchkiss (1993) conducted a study in the US on the effects of vocational schooling on youth
employment and monthly wage in 1980. The results showed that vocational schooling has no
returns in terms of employment and earnings even after controlling for training-related
occupational choice.
Malamud and Pop-Eleches (2010) conducted a study in Romania to find out the difference in
the impact of vocational education graduates and general educational graduate. The results
revealed that vocational education graduates are significantly more likely to be employed as
manual workers and craftsmen. However, the difference was not significant between the two
types of graduates in terms of market participation rates, unemployment rates, duration of
unemployment, and household income.
22
Stanwick (2005, 2006) and Sherman (2006) investigated labor market outcomes
(employment) from a different level of vocational education and training after six months.
They found the outcome of vocational training six months after completion depends on the
level of vocational education and training undertaken. They also considered initial outcomes
by gender and observed that males had a smoother transition to work, obtaining better
employment outcomes six months after training compared to females.
Moenjak and Worswick’s (2003) conducted a study in Thailand to find out the labor market
outcomes of technical and vocational training at the secondary level controlling for several
demographic variables and personal characteristics. They noted a significantly higher return
to TVET at secondary level than general education at the same level.
Psacharapoulos and Patrinos (1993) evaluated the impact of TVET at the secondary level on
individual earnings in 11 Latin American countries. They concluded that TVET graduates
have significantly higher monthly earnings and in some cases 20% higher than general
secondary education students. The results revealed that the impact on earnings is significantly
higher in four countries after controlling for costs of schooling and foregone earnings.
Strawinski et al., (2016) compared labor market outcomes to general education and
vocational education at the upper-secondary level. By using the standard Mincerian equation
the estimated results showed that vocational education graduates on an average level have a
higher likelihood to have a permanent job and earn more than general education graduates.
However, at a higher level, general education graduates had higher wages than vocational
education graduates.
Lopez and Nicodemo (2012) conducted a study in Spain to analyze the successful transition
from school to work for vocational education graduates. The purpose of the study was to
compare the outcome of vocational high school to that of vocational college. The relevant
difference was observed neither in duration nor in the estimates across the two types of
vocational education. It was recommended that apprenticeship increases the hazard rate to
employment from both types of vocational education.
Coupe & Vakhitova (2011) assessed the impacts of vocational education on labour market
outcome in Ukraine. Their estimations showed that monthly income/earnings were increased
by 2.6% with one year increase in education at vocational school as compared to 4.4% and
5.8% for professional education and general education respectively. They concluded that
possible reasons for these changes were the rising share of workers who earn above minimum
wage.
23
Hujer et al. (2006) conducted a study in Eastern Germany to analyze the effect of vocational
training on unemployment duration. The results revealed that the impact of vocational
training on unemployment duration was significant but negative. The results were based on
the hypothesis that the programs offered were not compatible with market demand.
Bazzoli et al. (2017) conducted a study in the year 2010-2011 in Italy to understand the cost-
effectiveness of vocational training by comparing the benefits with costs incurred during the
implantation stage. Their study focused on long-duration vocational training courses for
unemployed people in the Trento Province of Italy and observed a positive significant impact
on the probability of being employed after three years of completion. A positive significant
effect on individual monthly earnings was also observed but after two-three years of
completion, the overall benefits did not cover the overall costs incurred.
Richardson and Berg (2002) analyzed the effects of the vocational employment training
program; the most expensive and ambitious active labor market policy programs for the
unemployed in Sweden. The study focused on the rate of individual transition from
unemployment to employment. The results showed a significant positive effect on exit to
work. The magnitude of the effect was large just after completion of the course but
diminished afterward.
2.4 Role of technical and vocational training in national growth
Amjad (2005) conducted a study in Pakistan to study the impact of vocational training and
technical skills development on national productivity and competitiveness. It was concluded
that the skilled labor force plays a key role in the transformation of the national economy
from labor-intensive to skill-intensive one. He also concluded that a skilled workforce
efficiently increases national productivity and competitiveness.
Kazmi (2017) in his study conducted in Pakistan concluded that vocational training and
technical skills development are essential for bringing improvement in the productivity of the
labor force. Both are important factors of human capital development in a country. He
proposed that countries should increase expenditure on vocational training and skills
development of labor force for rapid industrialization and economic growth.
Khilji et al., (2012) conducted a study to examine the impact of vocational training and skill
development on economic growth in Pakistan. To determine the nature of the relationship
among the variables, Johnson co-integration and error correction methods were used. To
determine the direction of the relationship they applied granger causality with an error
24
correction framework. The study concluded that an increase in public expenditure in the
education sector and technical training increases the literacy rate and stock of human capital
in a country. A positive relationship between literacy rate and rate of vocational training was
found.
Oluwatobi and ogunrinola (2011) studied the impact of human resource development on
economic growth in Nigeria. The analysis was done through Augmented Solow Model using
secondary data. Real output was taken as the dependent variable and government expenditure
on education, health and labor force, etc. were taken as explanatory variables. It was
concluded that expenditure on human capital development has a positive significant impact
on the level of real output in the Nigerian economy.
Bandara et al. (2014) conducted a study in Tanzania to find out the two-way relationship
between human development and economic growth. Systemic evidence of a two-way
relationship was found where human development enhances economic growth and vice versa.
It was concluded that key growth variables like income per capita and expenditure per capita
have less effect on human development while variables like wealth, durable assets, and bank
account have more effect. In general economic growth was found to be the primary source of
human development in Tanzania. A significant positive effect of schooling, literacy, and food
security on growth proxies was observed.
Bashir et al. (2013) studied the impact of vocational training and skill development on
economic growth in Pakistan. Secondary data from the year 1980 to 2010 on different
variables were used for analysis. To determine the nature and direction of the relationship
among variables, Johnson-cointegration with error correction method and granger causality
test with error correction framework were used respectively. It was concluded that technical
skill training leads to human capital development hence increase labor force participation and
GDP.
2.5 Impact of technical and vocational training on organization’s performance and
productivity
Human capital development through technical and vocational training not only increases the
chances of employment of individuals and their monthly earnings, but also leads to increase
organizational performance and encourage productivity growth. Focus on employee
development by an organization lead to the creation of a self-fulfilling prophecy of enhanced
output by the employees (Katcher & Snyder, 2003). Human capital development decreases
the operational cost of the organization. Organizations consider employee development as a
25
targeted investment in making the workers stronger that can provide exponential benefits to
the organization. Furthermore, trained employees inclined to stay with the same organization
hence reduce employee turnover (Katcher & Snyder, 2003).
Dearden et al. (2000) conducted a study to evaluate the impacts of training on industrial
productivity in a panel of British companies. A significant positive impact was observed
where it was estimated that a 5% increase in the probability of training participation, 4%
increase in productivity, and a 1.6% increase in wages occurred. In another study, it was find
out that in the case of early school leavers, the majority of vocational education and training
programs increase monthly earnings relative to no vocational qualification. One exception is
the VET course (NVQ2) often undertaken during employment which was observed to hurt
monthly earnings.
Harris et al. (2005) examined the impact of technical skills on firm-level productivity by
using data from the Annual Respondents Database (ARD). They used the Cobb-Douglas
production function as an analytical tool and concluded plants with gaps were less productive
than those that did not perceive any gaps. They also compared innovative plants with the
more qualified workforce to non-innovative ones and found innovative plants 5% more
productive. Looking into regional differences it was observed that region does not have a
significant impact on plants productivity.
Galindo-Rueda and Haskel (2005) by using the data from the Annual Business Inquiry (ABI)
conducted a study to investigate the impact of skills on firm performance and wages of labor.
They found a positive relationship between technical skills and the productivity of the
workforce. It was noted that higher qualifications have a strong effect on productivity while
lower-level skills were observed to have little impact. It was also observed that higher wages
were correlated with higher skills. The authors found that the benefit of higher skills was
reflected in higher productivity and hence in greater wages. Higher productivity was
observed in the firms located in areas where the local workforce proportion was higher with
higher qualifications. Wages were also found to be higher in areas with a greater density of
highly educated workers.
Konings and Vanormelingen (2010) evaluated the effect of training on wages of workers and
firms' productivity in Belgium. To control for endogeneity problems, a strategy proposed by
Caves, Frazer and Ackerberg was adopted during analysis. Data was collected from more
than 17000 firms. It was concluded that training played its role more on the productivity side
than wage. The marginal productivity of workers increased with training. The results
indicated a 23% productivity premium and a 12% wage premium for a trained
26
worker/employee. A slightly higher impact of training in non-manufacturing sectors was
observed compared to the manufacturing sector. A larger impact was observed in the
chemical industries, rubber, and plastic sector.
Kum et al. (2014) conducted a study on Enterprise Systems Connections (ESCON)
consulting employees in South Africa to find out the impact of training on their work
performance. Primary data was collected through a well-structured questionnaire from a
random sample selected from ESCON consulting employees. By applying a quantitative
research method it was concluded that continuous training and management support can
improve the performance of employees in an organization.
Jan et al. (2015) conducted a study to evaluate the importance of human resource investment
for organizations and an economy. They concluded with findings that human resource
development through education and training plays a significant role in a country's economic
development. They also concluded that it maximizes productivity and return to the
organization as well as breed huge benefits to society as a whole in the shape of social,
economic, and political stability.
Sabir et al. (2014) evaluated the impact of training on the productivity of employees in
Electric Supply Company in Pakistan. A quantitative research approach was adopted where
data from randomly selected 150 employees was collected through well-structured
questionnaires. A significant positive relationship was noted among dependent and
explanatory variables hence concluded that training and skilling of employees have a positive
impact on company productivity.
2.6 Impact of technical and vocational training on social and political
development of individuals and communities
The measurement of social benefits of vocational training is much difficult than the economic
benefits, as social benefits tend to be more diffuse. Both social and economic benefits are
strongly interconnected. For example, participation in vocational training can generate high
employment which leads to a reduction in income inequality, increase life satisfaction, and
then a stable society. Less social benefits have been reported so far owing to the fact of lesser
research in this area (CEDEFOP, 2011). Furthermore, vocational and general education to a
large extent substituted for each other in literature which makes it difficult to measure the
unique social benefits of vocational training.
27
The association between human capital development and social awareness is based on a close
inter-relationship that results in socio-economic and political development (Lazerson &
Grubb, 2004). Investment in vocational training and skills development is beneficial for
individuals, society, and a nation. The return on investment for an individual is a better career
path and earnings and is global competitiveness and economic development for the nation
and society (Alam, 2008). Effective utilization of vocational skills training inculcates
essential skills and capabilities in youth that would help them become self-confident. In a
study on technical vocational training, Akyeampong pointed out that these trainings are not
important only for their economic contribution but also for their positive role in social,
cultural, and political development (Akyempong, 2002).
Vocational skills development reduces the economic dependency of family members on each
other. In a study, it was concluded that adult learning caused improved earnings, decreased
poverty, provided health benefits and brought considerable returns for one’s children, etc.
(Sabates, 2008). The association between adult learning and community welfare contents
from a social capital perspective which argues that adult learning promotes an active lifestyle
that helps preserve community resources (Merriam & Kee, 2014). Unemployment among
youth is a major economic and social problem with consequences of skill shortages in the
economy, underutilization of human capital, poverty among youth, the potential increase in
drug use, and criminal behavior (Dettmann & Günther, 2013; Meager, 2009). In a study on
data taken from National Child Development Study (NCDS), it was revealed that adult
learning (Vocational and Leisure Courses) has a significant positive effect on the
socialization of adults. The effect was observed in social and health outcomes i.e. reduction
in the use of alcohol and smoking, increase in physical exercise, and other related measures
of life satisfaction (Feinstein & Hammond, 2004). In another study by Feinstein, the effects
of higher and vocational education were found less robust on depression and obesity
(Feinstein, 2002). Self-esteem, gaining self-competencies, social integration, gaining a sense
of hope and purpose are direct outcomes of education that result in better health conditions
and wellbeing (Hammond, 2002). Self-esteem and confidence associated with vocational
courses had also been reported by Dawe (2004). In another study, Hammond mentioned that
failure to succeed in learning can have negative long-lasting effects on learners (Hammond,
2004). National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) surveyed Indigenous
Australians’ community reported that 90% of respondents had gained self-confidence and
communicated better to people as a result of undertaking vocational courses (Butler et al.
forthcoming).
28
The demands of employment for vocational training and increased skills put pressure on the
individual to delay marriage and avoid parenthood at earlier stages (Blackwell & Baynner,
2002). Durkheim (1956) wrote that developing a “sense of belonging to a larger society”
should be the fundamental aim of formal (Institute based) and non-formal (Vocational)
education regardless of the setting in which it emerges. Vocational education and training
have immeasurable gains to the community as a whole. For instance, after controlling for
one’s income, the amount of money and time devoted to charity and civic engagements
respectively, is directly associated with employment and earnings, and indirectly with job
skills and training (Wolfe & Haveman, 1997). Goel, (2010) stated that vocational skills and
knowledge have a considerable effect on the social development of any nation thus plays an
essential role in the economic development of a country. It was concluded in a study that
more skilled workers volunteered twice as many hours as low skilled personnel and donated
50% more to charities. This good feature of human capital development through vocational
training may lead to social cohesion and integrity (Hodgkinson & Weitzman, 1998). More
skilled and educated people contribute to the formation of a good society in many ways. They
make a conversant choice during voting, add positively to political stability and
democratization, care more for human rights, and are more trusted by others (Wolfe &
Haveman, 2002). Van de Werfhorst (2016) concluded that vocational education graduates
had a lower level of political interest and engagement as compared to general education
graduates. He further suggested that this type of rigid differentiation of educational
institutions may form a threat to democratic equality. Vocational training raises job skills and
earning potential of the individual which results in a decline in the crime rate. Crime becomes
less attractive for a highly skilled and employed workforce. Schuler et al. (2002) in one of his
study conducted in England found that the ultimate benefit from vocational education and
skills training are growth in lifelong learning, increase in self-confidence, social cohesion,
and active citizenship of individuals. It also results in the extension of friendship and social
networks (Schuller et al. 2002). The effect of skill development on the individual worker and
organization ends in an increase of social awareness that eventually leads to socio
development (Beach, 2014). Vocational education and technical skills training are the most
important factors for economic growth and social inclusion in a country (Nilsson, 2010).
Nilsson (2010) concluded his study by indicating the need of determining the period where
the company based skill development training starts to affect productivity, long-run economic
growth, and social development. The findings of a study in Southern Punjab revealed that
foreign funds play a significant role in boosting vocational training which is then a cause to
29
alleviate individual poverty. It was also concluded that vocational training generates viable
human capital for socio-economic development (Hayyat & Chughtai, 2016). In a study in
Nigeria, it was concluded that acquisition of technical and vocational skills improve socio-
economic condition of people and help to transform men into a self-reliant and economically
stable person. It helps to reduce the incidence of militancy, restlessness, kidnapping, and
other social immoralities among youth (Isaac & Ph, 2014). The typical short term vocational
training programs have significant effects on individual performance levels and self-
confidence. However, no absolute evidence is available to determine its impacts on most
social behaviors, delinquency, employment, and lifestyles (Knox & Chicago, 1981).
The existing literature has shown an indirect relationship between vocational education and
socio-economic wellbeing through intermediary variables i.e. income and earnings etc.
Variation in this relationship also depends on the socio-cultural context of rural/indigenous
communities as well as on the learning environment (Stanwick, Ong & Karmel, 2006). More
importantly, social contact, friendship, solidarity, family concepts, sense of belonging and
supportive environment, etc. are factors affecting the socialization of individual during the
training process
Brilli and Tonello (2014) evaluated the role of social capital development on organized crime
reduction in the adolescent. The results showed that organized crimes in adolescents reduced
by 2.47% with a one-point increase in enrolment ratio. The effect was not the same for both
persistent and non-persistent organized crime. Hayat and Chughtai (2015) studied the role of
vocational training in poverty alleviation through the moderation role of foreign funds in
southern regions of Punjab province. Seven cities of Southern Punjab were selected as a
study area where data was collected from randomly selected individuals. The results showed
that foreign funds play a significant role in boosting vocational training which is then a cause
to alleviate individual poverty. They also concluded that vocational training generates viable
human capital for socio-economic development.
Lange and Topel (2006) conducted a study on the social value of education and human
capital in the United States of America (USA). The study was based on the notion that human
capital development is an engine for economic growth. They concluded a significant positive
relation between average education and average earnings across the states in the US. Social
return to education was found exceeding private return to education in contrast with job
market signaling theory which implies that private return is higher than a social return.
Nwojiewho and Chidinma (2014) conducted a study to evaluate the impacts of technical
education and vocational training programs on the socio-economic empowerment of rural
30
dwellers in South Nigeria. It was concluded that technical and vocational skills acquisition
has a significant impact on the socio-economic empowerment of the rural people. The
acquisition of these skills greatly helps to empower and transform men into a self-reliant
person and make them economically sustainable. Technical skills development greatly helps
to ameliorate the incidence of youth militancy, restlessness, kidnapping, and other social
immoralities through socio-economic development.
Bennett (2016) evaluated the impact of education both general and technical on crime
reduction in Denmark. Controlling for other factors like genetic and environmental, it was
revealed that secondary education significantly reduced crimes in males. Among the two-
mode of education, General education was found more effective than vocational education in
crime reduction.
2.7 Summary of the literature review
The previous literature in the field of technical and vocational skills training and human
capital development showed that human capital development intervention has been studied in
many countries of the world. These interventions have been successful in bringing positive
significant impacts on individual and national growth and development. Human capital
development interventions had impacted in maximum cases the socio-economic conditions of
people. Technical skill training was also found to have significant impacts on worker
productivity and organizational performance. Social changes like poverty reduction, crimes
reduction in youth, betterment in health status, civic engagements, etc., and political thinking
were observed to have a close connection with human capital development. Certain studies
also concluded with no significant economic and social outcome for technical vocational
skills training and programs. The reason for less, zero, or negative impacts was; low-quality
training, deficiencies in training delivery, or methodologies of researches adopted. Certain
studies have put valuable suggestions for bringing innovations and betterment in skills
development training.
31
CHPATER 3
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the theoretical framework on which the whole body of the research is
based. This chapter also comprises the study area, target population, sample size, sampling
technique, research design, data collection technique, and regression models, etc.
3.2 Theoretical Framework
3.2.1 Human Capital Theory
Political economists like Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, and Alfred Marshall, etc. first
identified the concept of Human Capital. Later on, in the 1960s, the human capital theory
emerged as neoclassical economic theory that proposed a causal relationship between
investment in education, development of human capital, and increase in economic growth
(Mincer, 1958; Schultz, 1963; Becker, 1964). Neoclassical economists noticed that the rate of
growth in the United States (US) economy in the 20th century was exceeding the rate of
investment in physical capital. They suggested that it was due to their increased investment in
human capital which has enhanced the capacity and efficiency of the workforce. They
proposed that labor capacity can be increased with investment in education and training
because of its non-homogeneous nature. Through education and training, the productive
capabilities including technical and soft skills, knowledge, and talent of an individual can be
improved to produce better economic output and earn more money (Thurow, 1970). These
productive capabilities could be improved through education, training, and experiences
(Mincer, 1981).
Human capital theorists were of the view that like physical capital investment, the human
capital investment could also be evaluated through rational economics decision models.
Certain assumptions were made during the conceptualization of human capital theory
regarding the link between education, training, individual earnings, income distribution, firm
productivity, and overall economic growth. Assumptions were: (1) Efficient investment could
be determined for optimal allocation of educational resources. (2) Educational investment
results in increased productivity that leads to increase individual earnings. (3) Overall
economic growth is related to increase investment in education at the national level that
results in a more equal distribution of income. According to Schultz (1971), the most
32
distinctive feature of our economic system is development and growth in human capital
through education and skills training. Otherwise, there would be only hard and manual work
followed by individual poverty except for those who have income from real estate. Schultz
(1971) has classified investment in human capital into; Schooling and higher education, pre-
school learning, post-school training and learning, health, migration, information, and
investment in children. Hence, the concept of human capital has been used in a variety of
ways, i.e. Becker (1975), in his book on human capital discussed the investment in human
capital in the context of the labor market. Investment in human capital also could be
discussed in relation to changes in infertility decisions and mortality (Becker, 1992).
Fig 1 Graphical Presentation of Human Capital Theory
3.2.2 Signaling/Screening Model
The signaling/Screening model was first developed by Andrew Michael Spence in 1973. In
describing the variants of this model, the three terms, i.e. signaling, screening, and sorting are
often used interchangeably. This theory is based on certain assumptions. (1) Different people
have different distinctive levels of efficiency, not affected by their education. (2) Extra
education incurs extra costs, which are different for low-productivity and high-productivity
workers. Those who have learning capabilities acquire the signal more cheaply, i.e. they
spend less time on study. (3) There is a disproportionate level of information regarding
workers’ productivity, i.e. individual workers know their skill level, but potential employers
do not. (4) Education/Schooling levels can be perceived without cost. An employer cannot
see the actual productivity of a potential worker; instead, they use educational qualifications
Technical & Vocational
Training
Skills Development
(Soft & Vocational Skills)
-Employment Generation
-Increase in Income/Earning
Personal Development,
Social Development,
Political Awareness,
Poverty Reduction,
Improvement in health care etc.
33
to predict one ability and productivity. Based on that assumption, employers make hiring
decisions, and set wages. In contrast to human capital theory, this model explains that
education may act as a signal of the productive capacity of individuals. This theory is based
on imperfect information about the potential of the employee. The employer therefore may
use educational attainment as a signal of employee capabilities. If employers' beliefs are
subsequently confirmed by actual experience then employers will continue to use education
attainment as a signal of workers' capabilities and will offer higher wages to more educated
employees. In response to a positive relationship between educational attainment and labor
wages, individuals will have an incentive to invest in education. Looking into the difference
between human capital theory and signaling model, According to the human capital theory
education is productive both privately as well socially while in the signaling model education
is only privately productive where an individual with high mental ability benefit from
investing in education) but no effect on total goods and services (socially unproductive). In
the human capital model, a causal relationship exists between schooling and worker
productivity/earnings while in signaling theory, education has no causal relationship with
worker’s productivity and earning where schooling and earnings of individual are related to a
third factor i.e. workers ability. An example to verify signaling theory of Michael Spence
(1973) is as under; suppose there are two individuals, i.e. one is more productive having the
productivity level of 2, and the other one is less productive having the productivity level of 1.
Suppose employers believe that type 2 individuals have a schooling level equal to or greater
than S*, and type 1 individual has a schooling level less than S*. Firms pay salaries/wages to
workers according to their anticipated productivity level; those with S* level or more are paid
a salary/wage equal to 2, and those with less than S* level of schooling are paid a salary/wage
equal to 1. E1 is lifetime earnings for workers with less than S* years of schooling and E2 for
workers with equal to or more than S* years of schooling. The relationship between E1, E2,
and S* is illustrated in the Figure below.
34
Fig 2 Signaling/Screening Model
Figure 1 Lifetime benefits associated with education, Spence, A. M. (1973).
3.2.3 Job-Matching or Information-Based Model
This model was introduced by Roger Farmer. In contrast to the human capital model,
according to job matching or information based model, information plays a significant role in
helping to forecast the benefits of alternative educational choices. The said model helps
individuals in finding the most suited careers for them-the types of jobs and occupations
where they are likely to do well. Just like human capital theory, job matching or information-
based model is of the notion that education bears both private and social benefits with a little
difference. The human capital theory stresses the attainment of skills and potential that is
valued in the labor market. On the other hand, a job-matching model stresses the attainment
of information about one's capabilities and talents. The former concentrates on the increase in
skills directly provided by schooling whereas the later one highlights the role of education in
identifying the most productive applications of a given set of skills.
3.3 Concept of Human Capital Development
Classical economists put forward the concept of human capital that later on developed into a
theory (Fitzsimons, 1999). Schultz (1961) considered human capital development as one of
the key factors for economic growth and development of a nation. Phiri and Alexander
35
(2009), Sen (1999), Laserson and Grubb (2004) stated that human capital development
significantly adds to socio-economic development and freedom of nations. Economists had
viewed the concept of human capital in a number of ways. Firstly, Schultz (1961) viewed
skills, knowledge, education, and abilities possessed by individuals as property (Youndt,
2004). Also, Rastogi (2002) considered competency, knowledge, behavior, and attitude of
individuals as human capital. Secondly, De la Fuente and Ciccone (2002) considered human
capital as working skills and knowledge obtained by individuals through education and
vocational skills training but this opinion neglects the experience acquired during life. The
third perspective by Romer (1990) considered human capital as the main source of economic
activity.
Modern economists like Schumpeter, Schultz, Becker, and Hanushek have been challenged
by the issues of human capital development for years. They recognized the central role of
such development in the enhancement of individual workers' capabilities, the standard of
their livings, and the prosperity of nations. According to above mentioned scholars and
thinkers, workers productive capabilities determined by factors like technical and soft skills,
motivation, ability, health, and job satisfaction. For example, according to Anya (2011) and
Dike (2012), due to low investment and less preference for human and physical capital
development Nigeria is facing many socio-economic and political issues today.
Schultz (1961) for the first time used the term “Human Capital” to describe the contribution
of education, training, human competencies, and abilities to a worker's productivity and his
future earnings. Schultz (1993) worked on increasing returns on investment in education.
This concept brought certain changes in economic thought. He was of the opinion that
individual abilities increase with an education that significantly deals with inequality in
fluctuating economic conditions. He also mentioned that human capital development is
actually investments in education, vocational and skills training, apprenticeship, and the
health of individuals. He argued that investment in education and skills training combined
with investment in health care etc. principally accounts for the productivity gains of
developing economies over underdeveloped countries (Schultz, 1961, 1993).
Schumpeter (1942) and Becker (1993) laid the foundation that how investment in human-
capital development (general education and specific training) influences future real earnings
of the people. According to Becker (1993), general education results in general human capital
development while the provision of technical and vocational education results in the
development of specific human capital. Becker (1993) conducted a study in the USA and
found that most on-job training fall in the category of specific training. He is of the opinion
36
that graduates of general education and specific training have a difference in earnings. It is
therefore mentioned in the human-capital framework, that the economic prosperity of a
nation up to a greater extent rest on the stock of its physical and human capital. He found that
negligence of a nation’s investment in general education and specific training has far-
reaching consequences on the welfare of that specific nation (Becker, 1993). General
education, technical education, and vocational training are instruments for improving the
productive capabilities of individual workers and improving their living standards (Becker,
1993).
Hanushek (2005) like Schultz and Becker also studied the importance of investment in
human capital development in developing countries in South Asia. By conducting a mixed-
method study he examined the education system of many countries in South Asia and from
developing nations and stressed schooling and training as a way to improve students learning
and productive capabilities. He collected primary data from government officials and from
experts in the field of human capital development through interview schedule and secondary
data from government documents/records. He concluded from the results that quality of
education is not the only factor but economic institutions also play an important role in
determining nation growth, particularly in developing countries. Hanushek (2005) put
forward his suggestions that every government needs to focus investment in her human
resource as it has direct benefits for individuals as well as for the whole of the nation.
3.4 Hypothesis of the Study
Ho: Demographic characteristics do not determine the probability of participation of
FATA’s youth in vocational training of FATA-DA.
Ho: Participation in vocational training of FATA-DA does not increase the chances of
employment of FATA’s youth.
Ho: Participation in vocational training of FATA-DA does not increase the monthly
earning/wage of FATA’s youth.
Ho: Participation in vocational training of FATA-DA does not contribute to poverty
reduction, social and political development of FATA youth.
37
3.5 Vocational Training Program of FATA-DA
FATA-DA being a specialized agency for prompt development in infrastructure and in
human capital started interventions in FATA in the year 2006. Human capital development
being the priority sector of FATA-DA was focused and huge amount of development budget
(Approx. Rs. 2.8 billion) were allocated to vocational trainings. More than 52000 male and
female in the age 16-35 were trained in more than 70 different market oriented trades. 90% of
trainings were of duration 6 months each. 10% were of either 3 months or of 12 months
duration. Program focused more than 70 different vocational trades listed in Table 1 below.
Students were recruited through open competition within agency quota and were invited
through an advertisement in daily news as well as through official website of FATA-DA.
Basic eligibility criteria were candidates having FATA Domicile and fall in age group of 16-
35. Education requirement varied from middle to matric in different category. According to a
report of FATA-DA Skill section, 95-96% of trainees completed their training. After 1-2
years of training completion, it was observed that 36% of trainees were employed in any
category while 24% were found employed in the category of training (Relevant employment)
(Ullah & Malik, 2019). An unpublished study conducted by M&E Section of FATA-DA also
showed 25-27% relevant employment for male youth of FATA after training completion.
38
Table 3.1 List of technical and vocational trades
Auto Electrician
Auto Mechanics
Basic Electrician
Building Painter
Carpet Weaving
Office Automation & Management
Computer (Hardware)
Cutting, carving, polishing of precious
and semi-precious stones
Domestic Electrician
Dress making and tailoring techniques
Electrician
Fabric and Garments Productions
Gemology & Carving
Gemology & Faceting
General Electrician
Heavy Machinery Operator
Industrial Electrician
Laboratory Assistant
Land Surveying (With Auto CAD)
Marble and Granite mining, cutting,
polishing
Light Engineering
Leather Goods
Masonry
Material Testing
Computer Networking Technician
Telecom Technician
Control Room Operator
Advanced Auto Mechanic (EFI/CNG)
Construction Safety
ACUDUCT Insulator
Mobile Phone Repairing
Plumbing
Quantity surveyor
Refrigeration/Air-conditioning Repairing
Sheet Metal Works
Steel Fixer
Surveyor Civil
Turner Machinist
TV/ Radio Repairing
Wood Technology
X-Ray Machine Operator
Call Centre Operator
Stitching Machine Operator Training
Fan Development & Parts Manufacturing
Conventional Machinery Operator
Course
Electrical equipment and electric fan
testing course
Fan Assembly Course
Auto CAD 2D, 3D
CAD/CAM course
Computerized Numerical Control (CNC)
Mechanic-II (Engine)
Mechanic-II (Chasis)
Optical Fiber Cable Jointing
Motor Winding Stitching Machine
Operator Training
Fan Development & Parts Manufacturing
Conventional Machinery Operator
Course
Electrical equipment and electric fan
testing course
39
Tile Mason
Plaster Mason
Block Mason
Fall Ceiling
Scarf Folder
Football Stitching
Leather Upper Cutting Stitching
Fan Assembly Course
Auto CAD 2D, 3D
CAD/CAM course
Machinery Course
Mechanic-II (Engine)
Mechanic-II (Chasis)
Lasting Computerized Numerical Control
Optical Fiber Cable Jointing
Source: FATA-DA, 2017-18
3.6 Research Design
A cross-sectional research design was used in the study where data was collected at a single
point of time from 400 respondents. The quantitative research method was adopted where
each respondent was asked the same questions (standard format) in order to ensure that the
entire data sample can be analyzed fairly. Quantitative research design is one of the strongest
ways to prove or disprove a hypothesis by using different statistical techniques.
3.7 Target Population
The population is the entire set of data that is of interest to the researcher. Target population
refers to the group of people or objects from which the sample is to be taken (Saunders et al.,
2003). All the male youth of FATA (740552 in the age limit 15-34 years according to the
2017 population Census) was the target population for this study. Among them, 200
respondents were selected from the treatment group (23296 male of FATA that have been
imparted vocational training in about 70 different market oriented trades by FATA-DA in the
last 10 years) and 200 respondents from the control group (the remaining male individual
who were not selected for any course). The control group was selected from the population of
the individuals, who had applied for any course with FATA-DA but were not given the
opportunity to avail any vocational training in any desired course due to limited seats and
competition. The study was restricted to male youth only. Due to cultural constraints and
accessibility issues, female beneficiaries were not considered in this study. Project
beneficiaries were those who had completed any vocational course and non-beneficiaries vice
versa.
40
3.8 Sample Size and Sampling Techniques
The sample size aims to have an appropriate number of respondents to participate in the
study. The sample for this study was selected from the target population scientifically by
using the following Slovin’s formula for sample selection. Slovin's formula allows a
researcher to sample the population with the desired degree of accuracy (Stephanie, 2013).
Sample size (SS) = 𝑁
1+𝑁(𝑎)2
Where N= Target population from which sample to be drawn
a = Margin of error at 95% confidence level i.e. 100%-95% = 5%
Sample size was calculated as under using the above mentioned formula:
Sample size (SS) = 740552
1+740552(0.05)2 = 399 ≡ 400
A stratified simple random sampling technique was used for data collection where it enabled
the researcher to collect data from both strata i.e. treatment and control group. During the
selection of sample size from both stratum, disproportionate stratification was done where
sample size from both stratum i.e. treatment and control group were not proportionate to the
population size of both strata. Disproportionate sampling enables the researcher to select an
adequate sample from two uneven groups to avoid underrepresentation of one stratum. Again
in taking a sample from two separate groups i.e. treatment and control, an equal chance of
selection was given to individuals in each group (random selection).
3.9 Primary Data and Data Collection Tool
Primary data was collected from 400 male youth of FATA (200 from the treatment group and
200 from the control group) through well-structured self-administered questionnaires.
Maximum questionnaires were filled by face to face interaction while certain numbers of
questionnaires were sent to respondents through emails. The questionnaires comprised all the
necessary information like demographic characteristics of the respondents, socio-economic
status, livelihood structure, employment, wages, and questions on socio-economic and
political impacts of vocational education and about the information on training delivery, etc.
3.10 Sources of the Secondary Data
This study was primarily based on primary data collected directly from respondents through
questioners. Secondary information such as total population of FATA, total youth population,
41
lists of male youth trained by FATA Development Authority, youth employment ratio, rural
poverty, data on FATA socio-economic indicators, etc. whenever required were taken from
FATA-DA annual reports, FATA Secretariat website, and reports, Pakistan Economic
Surveys, Labour Force Surveys, FATA Development Indicators Household Survey 2013-14
(FDIHS), Pakistan population census (2017), published and unpublished journals, thesis,
books, etc.
3.11 Data Analysis
The collected data was sorted and analyzed by using SPSS version 17 and MS-Excel 2010.
Both descriptive and regression tools were used during data analysis.
3.11.1 Descriptive Statistics and Cross Tab Analysis
Frequency tables were used as descriptive analysis tools to describe the demographic and
socio-economic characteristics of individuals. Likert items scale was used to analyze the
impact of vocational of FATA-DA on the social and political development of FATA youth.
Cross-tabulation analysis in SPSS was conducted to compare the results for treatment and
control groups on Likert items scale. Again the same method was used for the data collection
on strengths and weaknesses parameters of the said program. Pie charts were used for the
description of the results.
3.11.2 Regression Model/Regression Analysis
(a) Determinants of participation of FATA youth in Vocational Training of FATA-DA.
In order to analyze the determinants of participation of youth in vocational training of FATA-
DA, the following binary logistic regression model was used. The binary logistic regression
model is used when the dependent variable has two possible outcomes. This type of analysis
is also called predictive analysis. It is used for the description of data and to find out the
relationship between binary dependent variables and predictors. Here dependent variable is
expected as a stochastic event i.e. employed or unemployed. Binary logistic regression is
used to avoid the shortcoming arise during linear regression analysis like the probability of
occurrence of an event may fall outside (0/1) interval. The Binary logistic regression used
was;
𝑃𝑖 =
𝛽𝑂 +𝛽1𝐴𝑔𝑒 + 𝛽2 𝑀𝑆𝑡+ 𝛽3𝐹𝑆𝑧 + 𝛽4 𝐹𝑅+𝛽5𝐸𝑑𝑢 + 𝛽6 𝐹𝐸𝑑 + 𝛽7𝐹𝑃 + 𝛽8 𝐹𝐼+ 𝛽9𝐻𝐻 +
𝛽10 𝑆𝐵𝑇+𝜀𝑖 (1)
42
Where,
Pi represents the probability of participation of individual i in vocational training.
𝛽𝑂 = Intercept term
Age = Age of the respondents
MSt = Marital status of the respondents
FSz = Family size of the respondents
FR = Family residence of the respondents
Edu= Education/qualification of the respondents
FE = Education/qualification of the father of the respondents
FP = Profession of the father of the respondents
FI = Family income of the respondents
HH= Household Head of the respondents
SBT= Employment status of the respondents before participation in Institute based training
ɛ = error term
(b) Impact of the Vocational Training of FATA-DA on probability of employment of
FATA’s youth.
To evaluate the impact of vocational trainings of FATA-DA on probability of relevant
employment of FATA youth, the following binary regression model was used to compare the
outcome of both treatment group and control group.
𝑌𝑖 = 𝛽𝑂 + 𝛽1𝑇𝑃+𝛽2𝐴𝑔𝑒 + 𝛽3 𝑀𝑆𝑡+ 𝛽4𝐹𝑆𝑧 + 𝛽5 𝐹𝑅+𝛽6𝐸𝑑𝑢 + 𝛽7 𝐹𝐸𝑑𝑢 + 𝛽8𝐹𝑃 +
𝛽9 𝐹𝐼+ 𝛽10𝐻𝐻 + 𝛽11 𝑆𝐵+𝜀𝑖 (2)
Where,
Yi = Probability of relevant employment of the respondents
𝛽𝑂 = Intercept term
TP = Participation in vocational training of FATA-DA
Age = Age of the respondents
MSt = Marital status of the respondents
FSz = Family size of the respondents
FR = Family residence of the respondents
Edu= Education/qualification of the respondents
FE = Education/qualification of the father of the respondents
FP = Profession of the father of the respondents
43
FI = Family income of the respondents
HH= Household Head of the respondents
SBT= Employment status of the respondents before participation in Institute based training
ɛ = error term
(c) Impact of Vocational Trainings of FATA-DA on monthly earning/wage of the
FATA’s youth.
To determine the impact of vocational training of FATA-DA on monthly earnings of FATA
youth, the following multiple linear regression model was used where the log of
wage/earnings was regressed on the participation of the individual in technical vocational
training programs and another demographic variable. The log transformation of
wage/monthly earnings reduces the effects of earnings outliers so that the distribution is
closer to a normal distribution and is easier to interpret.
𝐿𝑜𝑔 (𝑊) = 𝛽𝑂 + 𝛽1𝑇𝑃+𝛽2𝐴𝑔𝑒 + 𝛽3 𝑀𝑆𝑡+ 𝛽4𝐹𝑆𝑧 + 𝛽5 𝐹𝑅+𝛽6𝐸𝑑𝑢 + 𝛽7 𝐹𝐸𝑑 +
𝛽8𝐹𝑃 + 𝛽9 𝐹𝐼+ 𝛽10𝐻𝐻 + 𝛽11 𝑆𝐵𝑇+𝜀𝑖 (3)
Where
Log (W) = denotes the logarithm of the monthly wage/earning
𝛽𝑂 = Intercept term
TP = Participation of FATA’s youth in vocational training of FATA-DA
Age = Age of the respondents
MSt = Marital status of the respondents
FSz = Family size of the respondents
FR = Family residence of the respondents
Edu= Education/qualification of the respondents
FE = Education/qualification of the father of the respondents
FP = Profession of the father of the respondents
FI = Family income of the respondents
HH= Household Head of the respondents
SBT= Employment status of the respondents before participation in Institute based training
ɛ = error term
44
CHAPTER 4
FEDERALLY ADMINISTERED TRIBAL AREAS (FATA)
(Geography, Demography, Political Setup and Socio-Economic Conditions)
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents an overview of FATA, its geography, political setup, and socio-
economic conditions. FATA due to its difficult geography, political setup, and having
deteriorated socio-economic conditions makes it a special area for researchers and
policymakers.
4.2 Geography of FATA
FATA spread over an area of 27,220 square km (3.4% of Pakistan) with a total population of
5001676. FATA stretched for a length of 450 km between the latitude of 31o and 350o North
and longitude of 69o and 71
o East (GoP, 1984). FATA comprises seven Tribal Agencies
(TAs) and six Frontier Regions (FRs). The area is subdivided into three regions i.e. Northern
FATA, Central FATA, and Southern FATA. The northern region of FATA comprises two
agencies i.e. Bajaur Agency and Mohmand Agency. The central FATA comprises three
agencies and two FRs i.e. Khyber Agency, Orakzai Agency, Kurram Agency, FR Peshawar,
and FR Kohat. The Southern region of FATA comprises two agencies i.e. North Waziristan
Agency and South Waziristan Agency and four FRs i.e. FR Bannu, FR Lakki Marwat, FR
Tank, and FR D.I.Khan). Area wise South Waziristan Agency is the largest in FATA with a
total area of 6619 km2 (24.3% of FATA) and Orakzai is the smallest agency with a total area
of 1538 km2 (5.6%) (GoP, 2017). FATA is situated in the east of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and
in the south of Baluchistan province along the Durand line. From the Northside, FATA is
bounded by District Lower Dir of KP province and on the east, it is bounded by districts of
D.I.Khan, Lakki Marwat, Bannu, Karak, Kohat, Peshawar, and Charsadda of KP province.
From the southeast, FATA has a border with Dera Ghazi Khan of Punjab province. From the
south, it is bounded by two districts of Baluchistan province i.e. Zhob and Lala Musa.
Afghanistan is situated to the west of FATA. FATA lies along the Indus River and in the
ranges of Sulaiman and Hindukush mountains that are generally impenetrable. Historically,
famous passes like Khyber pass, Nawa pass, Gursal pass, Kharlachi pass, Ghulam khan pass,
Gomal pass, Tochi pass, Gandab pass, Paiwar rout, and Angoor Adda pass run through
FATA connecting Pakistan with Afghanistan, Sub-continent and the Central Asian Republics
45
(Galgano & Palka, 2012). Historians accepted that FATA has a central role in the region due
to its geopolitical position in the area (Ahmed, 1977). US government has taken an extreme
form of interest in FATA due to its paramount importance to them (Yusufzai, 2008).
According to Markey (2008), more invasions in the course of history have been seen in this
area than in any other region of Asia. FATA had been all the time in the forefront of all such
adventures (Hussain, 2008).
Figure 4.1 Geographical Map of KP (erstwhile NWFP) & FATA
Source: http//www.khyber.org/maps
The whole tribal belt is a twist of difficult mountain ranges crossed by a number of narrow
but long valleys with water streams for cultivable land. Some mountains are barren like that
of Khyber Agency and Mohmand Agency and some are uneven like that of South Waziristan
Agency. The highest mountain range is Sikaram Peak where the Pak-Afghan border is
46
situated about 4755 meters above sea level (Population Census Organization, 2001). The
famous Takht-i-Suleiman is located in FR D.I. Khan Area of FATA is the highest peak in the
Suleiman Range which is 3,487 meters above sea level. The above-mentioned routes and
passes are important in the sense that the people of Afghanistan are extensively using it for
repatriation and for trade purposes. This mountainous region is home to the majority of the
Pashtun population with dozen of tribes and sub-tribes. The relative importance of FATA can
be denied at any sense for the state of Pakistan.
4.3 Demographic Profile of FATA
FATA is the home for 5,001,676 individuals (2.4% of Pakistan population) living in 558379
households (1.73% of households in Pakistan) (GoP, 2017). In FATA, 4,859,778 individual
(97.1%) reside in rural areas and 141,898 individuals (2.9%) resides in urban areas. The
population growth rate was recorded as 2.41 % where it was a little bit high in urban areas
than the rural area in FATA. Among them 2,556,292 (51.1%) are male, 2,445,357 (48.7%)
are female and 27 (0.0005%) are transgender. Detail of population and household agency
wise are presented in the table below.
Table 4.1 Agency/FR wise population and households in FATA (2017 population
Census)
S.NO AGENCY/FR Area(Sq.
Km) POPULATION HOUSEHOLDS
1 FATA (Overall) 27220 5,001,676 558,379
2 Bajaur Agency 1290 1,093,684 120,457
2 Mohmand Agency 2296 466,984 48,118
3 Khyber Agency 2576 986,973 111,558
4 Kurram Agency 3380 619,553 67,244
5 Orakzai Agency 1538 254,356 31,253
6 North Waziristan
Agency 4707 543,254 59,003
7 South Waziristan
Agency 6620 679,185 80,717
8 FR Peshawar 261 64,691 7,065
9 FR Kohat 446 118,578 14,339
10 FR Bannu 877 43,114 4,188
47
11 FR Lakki Marwat 132 26,359 3,348
12 FR Tank 3229 36,389 4,165
13 FR D.I.Khan 2008 68,556 6,924
Source: GOP, 2017
As evident from Table 4.1 above, Bajaur Agency is the largest one (population-wise) among
agencies in FATA with a total population of 1,093,684 individuals (21.9%) and Orakzai
Agency is the smallest one with a total population of 254,356 individuals (5.1%). Among
FRs, FR Kohat is the largest one with a population of 118,578 (2.4%), and FR Lakki Marwat
the smallest one with a population of 26,359 (0.5%) (GoP, 2017).
4.4 Political Setup in FATA
The political system remained weak in FATA for ages. Academicians and analysts have
mentioned several reasons for the lack of political organization and development in FATA.
Firstly, the British control over Tribal lands in 1948 and its division into two administrative
segments ‘Lar & Bar’ mean upper and lower played a critical role in political weakness in
FATA (Barth, 1959). Secondly, certain discriminatory policies were adopted which hindered
political transformation in FATA. The indigenous “Khudai Khidmatgar Movement” was also
restrained by the British Government hence party-based system not flourished in this area.
The British supported the FATA’s elders, bribed them hence made them corrupt, and with the
policy of divide and rule break their might and the British Government succeeded in
achieving their great design (Wadley, 2014). After its control in FATA, the British
Government devised an administrative control system in the shape of a political agent that
stopped the tribesmen to develop a system of their own. Again the division of FATA into 13
administrative divisions in the form of Tribal Agencies and Frontier Regions further
weakened the sense of unity among tribesmen. After the independence of the sub-continent,
the Government of Pakistan also failed to devise a better policy for tribal Pashtuns and kept
them deprived of representation and political rights (Trench, 1987). Till 1997, The tribal
people were not given the right to vote and to elect their representative to present them in
National Assembly. Even after the endowment of the universal adult franchise to the tribal
people, their representatives in the national legislature cannot legislate for them and their
privileges and constitutional rights were denied (Haq, Khan & Nuri, 2005). Besides these
discriminations, the tribal people were also kept deprived of representation at the local and
provincial level (International Crisis Group, 2006). After the Ayub Khan basic democratic
48
system, the successive governments from time to time promulgated the local government
system in FATA but no practical steps were taken to implement it in a real sense. Today there
are about 2 million registered voters in FATA who elect 12 MNAs to present them in
National Assembly but they are again unable to legislate for tribal areas (Khan, 2005).
4.5 Socio-Economic Conditions in FATA
FATA is amongst the poorest and socio-economically the most lagging area in the country.
FATA consistently ranks lowest in the country in terms of human development indicators
like literacy, healthcare access, potable water access, unemployment rates, average income,
etc. Despite the prevailing bleak circumstances, the regions exhibit potential for workforce
development, in which a considerable proportion of youth resides. The workforce is largely
unskilled, further hindering commercial and industrial expansion. The detail on different
indicators below shows the worse socio-economic situation prevails in the area.
4.5.1 Occupation and Livelihood in FATA
Due to lack of education in FATA, most of its community is engaged in Agriculture,
Livestock rearing, labor, and local businesses. Some of its people are abroad mostly in gulf
countries for earning a livelihood for their families. Certain families of Wazir and Mehsud
tribes have purchased land in Bannu, Lakki Marwat, and D.I.Khan districts for the purpose of
farming and some have started real estate business in major cities of the country. Cross
border trade is also undertaken heavily in FATA. Certain youth have also given jobs in local
force i.e. levies, Militia, and Khasadar force. The women folk are mostly engaged in
agricultural work, collection of fuel wood and bringing water apart from doing the household
work, serving their children and males (Khan, 2017).
4.5.2 Employment Situation of FATA
The employment situation in FATA is worse than in other parts of the country. The crude
activity rate for FATA is 24.2% as compared to 32.3% for the rest of the country with a huge
gender gap (male 38.6% and female 5.9%). The crude activity rate is higher in FRs than in
Agencies. Among agencies, Bajaur Agency has the highest crude activity rate than others
(25.5%). At the same time, the refined activity rate stands at 35.2% compared to the national
average of 45.5%. A gender gap exists here as well i.e. for males the ratio is 56.4% and for
females, it is 8.6%. Again the ratio is higher in FRs (40.4%) than agencies (34.7%). About
7% of children in FATA are involved in child labor. This figure is higher in FATA than KP
where it is 5.8%. Bajaur has the highest share (11.6%) of children in the labor force as
49
compared to other agencies (FATA Secretariat, 2015). 7.3% of people in FATA in the age
bracket 10-64 are unemployed. This ratio of unemployment in FATA is higher than the
national average and other provinces of the country. Again Bajaur Agency has the highest
rate (11.2%) among all. The highest rate of unemployment prevails in youth fall in the age
bracket 15-24 years (10.8%). This age group remained the main resource pool for militant
recruitment in the near past. Underemployment in FATA among people fall in the age
bracket 10-64 is 5.2%. Bajaur Agency among others has the highest percentage of people
(15.7%) underemployed. 50% of Labour are working in unskilled jobs hence earning a
limited amount (FATA Secretariat, 2015).
4.5.3 Multidimensional Poverty in FATA
In Pakistan, 38.8% of the population lives in poverty. The situation is worse in the rural area
especially in FATA where the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) is 0.337 which is
higher than the national average, Punjab, Sindh, KP, and Gilgit Baltistan and less than
Baluchistan only. The poverty Incidence in FATA is 73.7% and the severity is 45.8%. Two
third (73%) of people in FATA living in poverty due to lack of education, health facilities,
employment facilities, and poor living standards (UNDP, 2016; FATA Secretariat, 2015).
4.5.4 Education/Literacy in FATA
As far as education is concerned, the overall literacy rate in FATA is 33.3%; far less than the
national average (58%) as well as other provinces of the country. The overall literacy rate in
FRs (45.5%) is higher than agencies (31.3%). Gender disparity exists in the overall literacy
rate. For males, the ratio is 49.7% and for females, the ratio is 12.7%. Similarly, the adult
literacy rate in FATA is 28.4% far less than the national average of 57%. There is a marked
gender gap in adult literacy as well in FATA. The adult literacy rate for a male is 45% as
compared to 7.8% among female. The Net Enrolment Rate (NER) at primary level (age 6-10
years) of both sexes in FATA is 52.1% which is lower than the rest of Pakistan (65%), KP
(67%), Punjab (72%), Sindh (56%) but higher than Baluchistan (44%). NER in Agencies for
both genders (52.4%) is slightly higher than that in Frontier Regions that is 48.5%. Among
individual Agencies, Mohmand Agency has the highest NER (64.7%). Female primary NER
in FATA is less than that of males which is 38.7% and 62.3% respectively. Literacy rate in
FATA is also closely associated with socioeconomic status: literacy rates are highest in the
top fifth quintile of the population with regard to per capita consumption. The average
distance from homes to schools for currently enrolled students has been recorded 1.8 km for
50
both sexes in FATA. In terms of time, the average time taken by a student while traveling to
school in the case of both sexes was recorded as 23 minutes. According to 15.8% of students
in schools were of the view that education quality was worse; 23.3% told that it was better
and 61.0% of students remained neutral (FATA Secretariat, 2015). On-going skirmish in
FATA has had a severe impact on educational institutions and could account for the
perceived overall lack of improvement in the education sector.
4.5.5 Health Situation in FATA
The overall health situation in FATA is not satisfactory. It is worse of its form in rural
FATA. Health services and infrastructure is insufficient and somewhere not even exists.
Rural areas in FATA suffer the most due to the unavailability of medical care facilities and
lack of awareness among the masses on health related issues. Health coverage in FATA
suffers from substantial deficiencies which include lack of sufficient human resources and
financial resources, lack of accessibility, flagging environment, and ignorance about
healthcare. It is due to lack of essential health facilities in FATA, the area has to have a high
occurrence of health issues like high maternal mortality rate (MMR) that is higher
(395/100,000) than KP (275/100,000). About 30% of the births attended by skilled personnel
which are very less than the national average (86%). The fertility rate in FATA is 5 as
compared to 3.8 in Pakistan. The majority of women (74.4%) are married by the age of 18.
The share of fully immunized children in FATA is 33.9% far below than rest of Pakistan
which is 76%. It was found that 27.9% of children in age bracket 0-59 months had
experienced illness at least once in the past 30 days. Problems due to malnutrition (wasting,
stunted growth, underweight) among children in FATA are slightly higher than the rest of the
country. Other fatal illnesses like diarrhea, pneumonia, malaria, and tetanus, etc. are more
frequent than in other parts of Pakistan. 36.2% of Basic Health Units (BHUs), the most basic
facility in the healthcare system are located at an average distance of 6.7 km in FATA.
Women face major constraints in using health care facilities, requiring permission from male
relatives, and are not allowed to travel alone (FATA Secretariat, 2015).
4.5.6 Disability and Social Protection in FATA
Disability and Social protection indicators are important to be considered. Disability shows
the dependency of one segment of society on the other. About 0.7% of people in FATA are
disabled in any form. The level of disability is highest in Kurram Agency (1.4%) than in
other regions. A small gender gap exists; the female disability rate (0.9%) is slightly higher
51
than their male counterpart (0.6%). The share of households getting micro-credit/loan in
FATA is 29.0%. The biggest source of micro-credit/loans is relatives (44.1%) followed by
friends (36.0%). Daily household consumption is the biggest reason for which people borrow
money from others followed by livestock farming and agribusiness. Under assistance through
safety net programs in FATA, 26.1% of households are the beneficiaries of the Benazir
Income Support Program (BISP). This accounts for the remarkable majority (87.9%) of social
protection support going to households in FATA. Mohmand Agency received the highest
share (61.3%) under social protection and the highest share (56.4%) under BISP funding than
other agencies while the Orakzai agency received the lowest share (4.9%) and (1.7%)
respectively. Other programs such as Zakat, Baitul mal, Pensions Schemes, and EOBI are
also helping the people but in a much smaller proportion (FATA Secretariat, 2015).
4.5.7 Housing, Assets, Information and Communication in FATA
In FATA most of the households (90.1%) own their homes as compared to the national
average of 86%. The ratio is higher in FRs (96.1%) than agencies (89.1%). Mohmand
Agency has the highest rate (98.7%) of homeownership among agencies. In FATA very low
proportion of households living in rented houses (5.1%) as compared to part of the country.
The majority of the houses are kacha (74.8%) as compared to 34.5% in Pakistan. Similarly,
the share of pacca houses is less than the remaining part of the country i.e. Punjab, Sindh, KP,
and Baluchistan, etc. The majority of the households (85.3%) have electricity connections but
there is excessive load shedding in FATA. In summer, availability of electricity is as low as
3-4 hours/day and in winter it is from 3-5 hours/day. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is
available to less than half (32.8%) of households in FATA. 11.4% of households have
telephone connections and 48.2% i.e. near to half are using solar power as a source of energy;
mostly for lighting purposes. The source of information in FATA is radio. The percentage of
households using radio is considerable (71.8%). Other modes of information are very low;
9.5% of households using television as a source of information, 2% use newspapers, 0.1%
use the internet and 16.4% are getting information from cell phones and telephones (FATA
Secretariat, 2015)
4.5.8 Environment, Water and Sanitation in FATA
In FATA only 1% of the land is under forest cover. 90-95% of people are using cow dung as
a fuel source. Another source of fuel is charcoal, shrubs, crop residue, and solar power. The
share of households using LPG as a source of people is very low as mentioned earlier. There
52
is no proper system of garbage collection in FATA. Municipal services in the area under
study are negligible. 31.4% of households use stream canal/ river/pond and spring for
drinking purposes. 25.3% of households have installed hand pumps. Piped water accounts for
only 8.9% of drinking water in FATA. This ratio of piped water is much lower than the
national average (30%) and other parts of the country. Conversely, the use of
canal/stream/pond, etc. water for drinking purposes is much high in FATA than in other parts
of the country. The average distance of water sources in FATA is; 50.6% of water is within
the house and 39.4% within a distance of 1 km. The majority of people (51.7%) are using
ditch latrines. This proportion is very high than the national average of 14 %, Punjab (5%),
Sindh (29%), and KP (15%). The proportion of houses with flush latrines is 38.3%. About
10% of the people have no toilet facility. A huge chunk of households in FATA (64.3%) has
no drainage system while 20.8% of households have open drainage systems. Only 6.3% of
households have underground sewerage/drainage system (FATA Secretariat, 2015).
4.5.9 Technical & Vocational Education and Training in FATA
FATA is blessed with a huge human resource in the form of youth but due to flaws both in
the quality and quantity of technical and vocational education; this resource pool is not so
many productivities. The situation of TVET is not so good all over the country but it is
present in a worse form in FATA. An analysis report on the TVET sector in Pakistan by
NAVTTC in 2017 indicated that drop out in the TVET sector is 27% in FATA which is much
more than other parts of the country. In FATA, 09 technical 52 vocational institutes are
imparting technical and vocational training to FATA youth which is 2% of the total
institutions in Pakistan. Among them, 50% vocational and 80% technical are public sector
institutes. In all public vocational institutes in FATA, there is a capacity of 7248 instructors
to be employed but only 341 instructors are presently imparting vocational education to
FATA youth. According to the survey “English Speaking course” is the most popular course
which is about 21% of the supply of vocational courses followed by tailoring which is 14% of
the total supply (95-100% in the case of female). Computer and IT courses have 13% total
supply in the TVET sector in FATA. The annual share of skilled workforce from FATA is
less than 1% overall while its share in country population is 2.2%. Intervention is needed in
order to increase the share of FATA in the skilled workforce by at least up to 2% (NAVTTC,
2017).
53
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter comprises the analysis of data collected from the respondents, results, and
discussions with reference to studies and findings of previous authors in the area concerned.
Descriptive statistics, Binary Logistic Regression Model, Multiple Linear Regression Model,
Chi-square, cross-tabulation on Likert scale items, and pie charts were used as analysis tools.
The analyses were conducted in Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17
and MS-Excel version 10.
5.2 Data Analysis
5.2.1 Demographic Information of the Respondents
Data on demographic variables collected from the respondents is mentioned in detail in table
5.1. The study was kept limited to the male youth of FATA. A sample size of 400 was
selected by using a standard formula mentioned in chapter 3. Among 400 respondents, 200
were randomly selected from the treatment group (participated in vocational training) and
200 from the control group (not participated in vocational training). Females were not
included in the study due to restrictive environment and cultural constraint although the
concerned program of FATA-DA is extended to female youth also.
The ages of the respondents were in the range of 16-35 years for both treatment and control
groups. The percentages of the respondents; 46.5% and 61.5% in category 16-20 years; 39%
and 28.5% in category 21-25 years; 12.5% and 7% in category 26-30; 2% and 3% in category
31-35 for treatment and control group respectively. Most of the respondents were recorded
unmarried during data collection i.e. 80% and 76% for treatment and control respectively.
20% and 24% were found married for treatment and control groups respectively. Education
of the respondents was categorized into 05 categories with a minimum level “Primary” and
maximum level “Master”. 2% and 1.5% of respondents were educated only up to primary
level, 21% and 30% were having education up to matric level, 53% and 40% up to FA/FSc
level, 16.5% and 21% up to BA/BSc level, 7.5% and 7.5% up to MA/MSc level in treatment
group and control group respectively. The results indicated that most of them from both
groups were having FA/FSc level education. In the case of father education of the
respondents, 45.5% and 23.5% of fathers were found uneducated, 21% and 35% were having
54
primary level education, 14.5% and 13% were matriculate, 10% and 6% were educated up to
FA/FSc, 6.5% and 16.5% up to BA/BSc, 2.5% and 6% up to MA/MSc level respectively for
treatment and control group.
Respondents from the treatment and control group were asked about their father's profession.
26.5% and 24% were found unemployed at the time when their sons applied for any technical
and vocational course with FATA-DA, 45.5% and 56% were self-employed, 25.5% and
14.5% were government employees, 2.5% and 5% were private employees respectively in
treatment and control group. The respondents were also investigated about the income status
of their families. 2% and 9% families fall in income group “5000 and below”, 11% and 21%
in income group “6,000-10,000”, 20% and 26.5% in income group ‘11,000-15,000”, 19.5%
and 12.5% in income group “16,000-20,000”, 47.5% and 31% in income group “20,000
above” respectively for treatment and control group. The family size of the respondents was
also recorded. 5.5% and 9% families were recorded with 5 & below members; 28.5% and
52% were having 6-8 members; 37% and 29% were having 9-12 members; 29% and 10%
were having above 12 members from treatment and control group respectively. 22% of the
families from the treatment group were living outside their concerned agency while in the
case of the control group the ratio was 15%. Most of the families; 78% from the treatment
group and 85% from the control group were living inside their agencies. On parameter
“Household head”, it was observed that 97% of families of the respondents were headed by
someone other than the respondent himself and only 3% of families were headed by the
respondent himself. The result was the same both for the treatment and control group. It was
noted that 81.5% of the respondents from the treatment group were employed before coming
to Institute based training (IBT). 59% from the control group were employed and 41%
unemployed when they were rejected from admission in the skills development program.
55
Table 5.1 Demographic information of the respondents
Respondent Information
Treatment Group Control Group
Frequenc
y (%)
Frequenc
y (%)
Age of Respondent
16-20 93 46.5 123 61.5
21-25 78 39.0 57 28.5
26-30 25 12.5 14 7.0
31-35 4 2.0 6 3.0
Total 200 100.0 200 100.0
Marital Status
Unmarried 160 80.0 152 76.0
Married 40 20.0 48 24.0
Total 200 100.0 200 100.0
Respondents
Education
Primary 4 2.0 3 1.5
Matric 42 21.0 60 30.0
FA/FSc 106 53.0 80 40.0
BA/BSc 33 16.5 42 21.0
MA/MSc 15 7.5 15 7.5
Total 200 100.0 200 100.0
Father Education
Nil 91 45.5 47 23.5
Primary 42 21.0 70 35.0
Matric 29 14.5 26 13.0
FA/FSc 20 10.0 12 6.0
BS/BSc 13 6.5 33 16.5
MA/MSc 5 2.5 12 6.0
Total 200 100.0 200 100.0
Father Profession
Unemployed 53 26.5 48 24.0
Self Employed 91 45.5 113 56.0
Government
Job 51 25.5 29 14.5
Private Job 5 2.5 10 5.0
Total 200 100.0 200 100.0
Family Income 5000 and Below 4 2.0 18 9.0
56
6000-10000 22 11 42 21.0
11000-15000 40 20.0 53 26.5
16000-20000 39 19.5 25 12.5
Above 20000 95 47.5 62 31.0
Total 200 100.0 200 100.0
Family Residence
Outside Agency 44 22.0 30 15.0
Inside Agency 156 78.0 170 85.0
Total 200 100.0 200 100.0
Family Size
5 or less 11 5.5 18 9.0
6-8 57 28.5 104 52.0
9-12 74 37.0 58 29.0
Above 12 58 29.0 20 10.0
Total 200 100.0 200 100.0
Household Head
Any other 194 97.0 194 97.0
Self 6 3.0 6 3.0
Total 200 100.0 200 100.0
Employment Status
before training
Not Employed 163 81.5 118 59.0
Employed 37 18.5 82 41.0
Total 200 100.0 200 100
Source: Field Survey, 2018
5.2.2 Determinants of participation in vocational training of FATA-DA
To analyze the determinants of participation in vocational training of FATA-DA, a binary
logistic regression analysis was conducted. In order to improve the participation rate in
TVET, it is important for policymakers and concerned organizations to understand the
mechanism underlying participation decisions of youth. Information on the predictors of
TVET participation also enables policymakers to design and target appropriate strategies for
policy-relevant subgroups. The probability of participation in any course of vocational
training of FATA-DA was regressed by both individual and household characteristics which
were supposed to have a significant relationship with the dependent variable individually.
The output of binary logistic regression analysis in Table 5.2 shows that variable; the age of
57
the respondents, family size, father education, father profession, family income, employment
status before training, and marital status of the respondents have an overall significant
relationship with the dependent variable in the equation i.e. probability of participation.
Certain other important variables like respondent education, family residence, and household
head were found to have insignificant relation (p-value > 0.05) and were found individually
not a good predictor.
It is evident from the results that as a whole, the age of the respondents has a significant
relationship with the dependent variable “P”. With the increase in age of the respondents, the
probability of participation of individual in vocational training of FATA-DA increase. The
unstandardized coefficient B value (.152) of age group “26-30 years” showed a positive but
insignificant relationship with dependent variable “P”. The odd ratio of age (3) showed that
individuals in age group “26-30 years” are 1.164 (16%) times more likely to participate in
skills development program than other groups of lesser ages. These findings are in line with
the findings of Blasco et al. (2012). They concluded in their study conducted in France that
individuals with more education and age likely to participate more in short-term employment
training programs as compared to workers below age 26 which were found more likely to get
enrolled in a longer duration training program. The same situation exists in FATA, where
individuals of lesser ages prefer attainment of general education than vocational. After
completion of general education, most of the individuals are unable to start the job, either due
to low quality of education, or then due to unavailability of relevant jobs, warmly participate
in vocational training. They are interested in availing benefits in the form of free training, a
monthly stipend of Rs. 2500, free stay in hostels, consumption of free time, and a verified
certificate at the end. The variable family size as a whole was observed to have a significant
positive relationship with dependent variable “P”. The results of binary logistic regression
analysis indicated that with an increase in family size the probability of participation of the
respondents in skills development program increased. The higher impact was observed in
case “FSiz (3)”, then in case “FSiz (2)”. The respondents belonging to families having more
than 12 members and families having 9-12 members are 6.19 and 3.16 times respectively
more likely to participate in the said program as compared to small size families. In large-size
families, due to the availability of a maximum number of young males, it is convenient for at
least one young member to spare time and to avail the opportunity of participation in the
skills development program. The variable father education was also found to have a positive
significant relationship (p<0.05) with dependent variable “P”. The greater impact was
observed in case “FEdu (1)”, where it was indicated that respondents whose fathers were
58
illiterate are 6.208 times more likely to participate in vocational training of FATA-DA as
compared to other categories. The possible reason was; the highly educated parents are
normally working in good positions earning more and can easily deliver their children
college/university education. The poor uneducated parents mostly working hard as laborers,
farmers, and drivers, etc. well feel the importance of technical vocational skills for their
young sons.
Father profession was observed to have a positive significant relationship with dependent
variable “P”. The result in table 5.2 shows that individual whose fathers were in government
service participated more than others. The odd ratio interprets that they are 3.19 times more
likely to participate in vocational training of FATA-DA. The early people of FATA were
placed at different low-scale positions in government organizations like in security agencies,
levies, Khasadar, etc., and in-class 4 despite their low-level education. It is logical that those
who are already in service knows the benefits and are more likely to give their children
education and skills training. Family income of the respondents was observed to have a
positive significant relationship with dependent variable “P”. Odd ratios of family income
categories “FI (3) and FI (4)” indicated that individual belonging to families having monthly
income 16,000-20,000 and more than 20,000 are 5.75 and 5.22 times respectively more likely
to participate in the said program of FATA-DA. An increase in family income increases the
probability of participation of the respondents. These findings are in line with most other
studies that were looking at the relationship between family incomes, educational quests, and
labor market outcomes. All of them observed that family income has a positive, although
small, effect on enrollment decisions of individuals in labor market training programs
(Psacharapoulos, 1989; Behrman et al., 1994; Behrman & Knowles, 1997; 1999; 2002). The
influence of the marital status of the respondents on the dependent variable was also
investigated. The results indicated that the marital status of an individual has a significant
positive relationship with the probability of participation in the skills development program.
The odd ratio of variable MSt (1) in Table 5.2 shows that unmarried individuals are 2.39
times more likely to participate in skills development programs than married individuals. A
married individual might be due to their heavy engagement in family matters and
responsibilities would have less chance to spare time and to participate in such like the
program. Employment/working status before IBT (Institute-based training) also determines
the decision of an individual for his/her participation in labor markets program. The output
indicated that employment status has a positive significant relationship with dependent
variable “P”. The odd ratio of variable SBT (1) in table 5.2 shows those individuals who were
59
unemployed before participation is 2.92 times more likely to participate in TVST of FATA-
DA. The change of status from employed to unemployed increases the probability of
participation. It’s very understandable that unemployed individuals have more time to
participate. It remains better for them to avail both financial and technical opportunities.
Monthly stipend amount Rs. 2500 and free hostel accommodation in cities for 6 months
compel them to avail the opportunities although it was observed that most of them have no
sincere efforts to gain technical skills to make their future.
Table 5.2 Determinants of participation in vocational training of FATA-DA
Variable B S.E. Wald Sig. Exp(B)
Age --- --- 8.014 .046 ---
Age(3) .152 .915 .027 .868 1.164
FSz --- --- 25.596 .000 ---
FSz(2) 1.150 .485 5.616 .018 3.158**
FSz(3) 1.823 .530 11.823 .001 6.188*
FEd --- --- 25.182 .000 ---
FEd(1) 1.826 .687 7.069 .008 6.208*
FEd(3) 1.292 .703 3.376 .066 3.639***
FPr --- --- 7.017 .071 ---
FPr(3) 1.160 .657 3.119 .077 3.190***
FI --- --- 16.960 .002 ---
FI(3) 1.750 .683 6.569 .010 5.755**
FI(4) 1.654 .662 6.251 .012 5.228**
SBT(1) 1.072 .274 15.293 .000 2.920*
MSt(1) .871 .345 6.367 .012 2.390
Constant -4.652 1.446 10.346 .001 .010*
Model
Summary
-2 Log
likelihood
Cox & Snell R
Square
Negelkerke R Square
423.825 .279 .372
Source: Field survey, 2018
*Significant at 1% level,
**Significant at 5% level,
***Significant at 10% level
60
Negelkerke R Square (NRS) in binary logistic regression analysis like R2 in linear regression
analysis explains to the extent explanatory variables explain the variation in the dependent
variable. The value of the Negelkerke R Square test (0.37) indicated that 37% of the variance
in the outcome or dependent variable has been predicted by predictors in the model. The NRS
value (0.37) is logical considering the recommendation of a minimum value of 0.15 (Row
and Chestnut, 1983; Mitchell and Carson, 1989). Again the low value of Negelkerke R
Square is attributed to the field of study. In social science where human behavior is studied,
this value typically lower than 0.2 i.e. 20% (Becker & Tomes, 1986). Regardless of the NRS
value, the significant coefficients for different variables still represent the mean change in the
dependent variable for one unit change in the explanatory variable while holding other
constants. Certain diagnostic tests were also conducted to find out the overall significance of
the model, predictability, and goodness.
Table 5.3 Omnibus Tests of Model Coefficients
Chi-square Df Sig.
Step -1.679 1 .195
Block 130.692 20 .000
Model 130.692 20 .000
Source: Field Survey, 2018
Omnibus Tests of Model Coefficients, Sig. p-value (0.000) is less than 0.05, indicated that
overall the model is significant and a good predictor.
Table 5.4 Hosmer and Lemeshow Goodness of fit
Chi-square Df Sig.
4.273 8 .832
Source: Field Survey 2018
The Hosmer and Lemeshow goodness of fit test provides a Chi-square test of whether the
model is a good fit to the data or not. The significant p-value (0.832) is greater than 0.05,
hence we cannot reject the null hypothesis and showed that the model was a good enough fit
61
to the data. The classification table 5.6 below shows the overall percentage (74.5), indicated
that about 74% of the outputs were correctly predicted by the model.
Table 5.5 Classification Table
Observed
Predicted
Training Participation
Not
Participated Participated
Percentage
Correct
Training Participation
Not Participated 146 54 73.0
Participated 48 152 76.0
Overall Percentage 74.5
Source: Field Survey, 2018
5.2.3 Impact of Vocational Training of FATA-DA on Employment of FATA youth
Technical and vocational training are usually imparted in almost all the countries of the world
to maximize the employability ratio among youth. Germany and Poland have achieved the
maximum level of youth employability due to their organized technical and vocational
education system. FATA-DA TVST aims to reduce unemployment among FATA youth and
enable them to compete in the labor market for gainful employment. To evaluate the same a
binary logistic regression analysis was conducted. Probability of being employed “Y” was
taken as the dependent variable and regressed by a number of explanatory variables including
training participation and some personal and family characteristics of the respondents. All the
explanatory variables included in the model were supposed to have a significant relationship
with the dependent variable “Y”. The results of the regression analysis showed that only two
variables i.e. training participation (TP), family size (as a whole), and employment status of
respondents before training (SBT) were found to have a significant relationship with the
dependent variable “Y”. P-values for these two variables were observed less than 0.1%. All
other variables included in the model i.e. age of the respondents, marital status, respondent
education, father education, father profession, family income, and being a household head
were found to have insignificant relation (p-value > 0.1) with the dependent variable and
were found not good predictor individually.
Table 5.7 shows that variable training participation “TP” is a highly significant (0.007) and
positive (B=0.663) relationship with the dependent variable “Y”. With participation in TVST
62
of FATA-DA, the chances of employability increased. The odds ratio (1.940) indicated that
individuals from the treatment group (who participated) are 1.94 times more likely to be
employed as compared to individuals from the control group (not participated). These
findings are similar and in line with the findings of Richardson (1998), Delajara, et al.,
(2006), Ryan (2011), CEDEFOP (2013), Hanushek, Wobmann and Zhang (2011), Kazilan et
al. (2009), Blasco et al. (2012), Pena (2010), Wodon and Minowa (1999), Fitzenberger and
Prey (1996), Karasiotou (2004), Wambugu (2002), Ibok and Ibanga (2014), Rayan (2015),
Ntallima (2014), Hirshleifer, et al. (2016), Ninette et al., (2014), Ahmed (2016), Reis (2012),
Cruz (2015), Sarojini et al. (2015), Stanwick (2005, 2006), Sherman (2006), Lopez-Mayan
and Nicodemo (2012), Bazzoli et al. (2017) and Richardson and Berg (2002).
In all these studies, the impact of technical and vocational skills development, training, and
qualification on unemployment duration and employability of youth was investigated. All the
mentioned studies were concluded with the findings that a significant positive relationship
exists between technical vocational qualification and employability of youth. However; the
impacts at some places were less than others depending on the quality of the training
delivered or due to labor market position. In this study, it was conducted that participation in
vocational training can significantly increase the chances of employability of youth as
compared to a non-participant. Talking descriptively, It was observed during the survey that
72 out of 200 respondents from the treatment group were employed (paid or self-
employment) at least 12 months after completion of their courses which accounts for only
36%. Among 72 employed individuals, 48 respondents which account for 66.6% in employed
and 24% overall from the treatment group were having relevant employment to their
concerned trade/technology. The outcome of the vocational training of FATA-DA under
study is still not good as it was anticipated. 64% of the respondents who had completed 6
months of training in any trade/technology 2-3 years before under that program were still
looking for gainful employment while 76% were looking for relevant employment. The
results in the table also revealed that the family size of the respondents as a whole up to
certain extant have significant relation with the dependent variable “Y”. Unstandardized
coefficient (0.443) of FSz. (2) indicates a positive relationship with the dependent variable
and odds ratio (1.558) shows that individuals residing in families having family members 6-8
are 1.56 times more likely to be employed after training completion but again the relationship
was not significant.
The employment status of the respondents before training (SBT) was also observed to have a
highly significant (p-value 0.001) relationship with dependent variable “Y” but
63
unstandardized coefficient (B = -0.795) for SBT indicates a negative relationship. To
interpret the result, it can be stated that those individuals who were unemployed/not working
before IBT (Institute based training) as compared to employed individuals are less likely to
find a paid job or start self-employment after completion of any course under TVST of
FATA-DA as the odds ratio for this specific variable in table 5.7 is less than 1 (0.451). The
possible explanation is; those individuals who were working/employed somewhere before
availing a course under the skills development program of FATA-DA were due to their
previous market experience, market exposure and know-how easily entered into the labor
market after completion of institute-based training. Again some of them were having links in
the market with employers and some were self-employed which made them the way easy for
starting a job or self-employment as compared to others. Those who were not employed
before training were mostly students enrolled in general education and after completion of the
vocational course; they continue their general education hence remained unemployed at the
time of the survey.
Table 5.6 Impact of vocational training on employment of FATA’s youth
Variables B S.E. Wald Sig. Exp(B)
TP(1) .663 .247 7.195 .007 1.940*
FSz --- --- 6.488 .090 ---
FSz(2) .443 .461 .926 .336 1.558
SBT(1) -.795 .249 10.198 .001 .451*
Constant -.701 .451 2.421 .120 .496
Model
Summary
-2 Log
likelihood Cox & Snell R Square Negelkerke R Square
300.646 .166 .229
Source: Field Survey, 2018.
*Significant at 1% level,
**Significant at 5% level,
***Significant at 10% level
The value of Negelkerke R Square (0.229) indicated that 23% of the variance in the outcome
or dependent variable has been predicted by predictors in the model. The NRS value (0.23) is
64
logical considering the recommendation of a minimum value of 0.15 (Row & Chestnut, 1983;
Mitchell & Carson, 1989). Again the low value of Negelkerke R Square is attributed to the
field of study. In social science like economics, sociology, political science, etc. where
human behavior is studied, this value typically lower than 0.2 i.e. 20% (Becker and Tomes,
1986). Regardless of the NRS value, the significant coefficients for different variables still
represent the mean change in the dependent variable for one unit change in the explanatory
variable while holding other constants. Certain diagnostic tests were also conducted to find
out the overall significance of the model, predictability, and goodness of fit.
Table 5.7 Omnibus Tests of Model Coefficients
Chi-square Df Sig.
Step -1.231 1 .267
Block 21.399 5 .001
Model 21.399 5 .001
Source: Field Survey, 2018
Omnibus Tests of Model Coefficients, Sig. p-value (0.001) is less than 0.05 as indicated in
table 5.8 above shows that overall the model is significant and a good predictor.
Table 5.8 Hosmer and Lemeshow Goodness of fit
Chi-square Df Sig.
7.665 7 .363
Source: Field Survey, 2018
The Hosmer and Lemeshow goodness of fit test provide Chi-square test of whether the model
is good fit to the data or not. The significant p-value (0.363) is greater than 0.05, hence we
cannot reject null hypothesis and showed that the model was good enough fit to the data. The
classification table below shows overall percentage (69.5), indicated that 69% of the outputs
were correctly predicted by the model.
65
Table 5.9 Classification Table
Observed
Predicted
Employment Status Percentage
Correct No Yes
Step 1 Employment Status No 542 14 97.5
Yes 226 18 7.4
Overall Percentage 70.0
Source: Field Survey, 2018
5.2.4. Impact of vocational training of FATA-DA on earning/wages of FATA’s youth
To investigate the impact of vocational training of FATA-DA on monthly earnings of FATA
youth, the Multiple Linear Regression Model (MLRS) was used as an analysis tool. The
backward method was adopted where the results showed significant coefficients for intercept
and four explanatory variables i.e. training participation (TP), age of respondents (Age),
family residence (FR), and employment status of the respondents before training (SBT).
Variables training participation, age of the respondents, and employment status before
training were found to have a positive relationship with the dependent variable, and family
residence was observed with a negative relationship. All other variables i.e. marital status,
respondent education, father education, father profession, family income, and the household
of the family were observed to have insignificant relation with log monthly earnings of the
respondents.
Table 5.10 Impact of vocational training on monthly earnings of FATA youth
Variables
Unstandardized
Coefficients T Sig. Collinearity Statistics
B Std. Error Tolerance VIF
(Constant) .638**
.320 1.995 .047 --- ---
Training
Participation 1.627
* .189 8.628 .000 .919 1.089
Respondent Age .369* .120 3.080 .002 .974 1.027
Family
Residence -.430
** .235 -1.831 .048 .982 1.018
66
Status before
training .963
* .204 4.718 .000 .938 1.067
Model
Summary
R R Square Adjusted
R Square
Std. Error of the
Estimate
Durbin-
Watson
.463h .214 .206 1.80744 1.859
Source: Field Survey, 2018
*Significant at 1% level,
**Significant at 5% level,
***Significant at 10% level
The results in table 4.11 above indicate that participation in vocational training of FATA-DA
has increased the monthly earnings of the FATA youth by 1.63 percentage points. The
relationship is highly significant (0.000) at a significance level of 1%. These findings are
similar and in line with the findings of similar studies conducted by Reis (2012), Patrignani
and Conlon (2011), Bandiera et al. (2012), Kemple et al. (2004; 2008), Alam (2007), Bishop
and Mane (2004), Dearden et al. (2002), David et al. (2007), Karasiotou (2004), Rayan
(2015), Anderson (2014), Almeida et al. (2015), Ahmed (2016), Chakravarty et al. (2017),
Oliveira (2015), Cruz (2015), Aguas and Machado (2012), Psacharapoulos and Patrinos
(1993), Strawinski et al. (2016), Coupe and Vakhitova (2011), Bazzoli et al. (2017).
In all these studies, a significant positive return to technical and vocational education and
training were observed in term of increase in wage/earnings of individuals.
Similarly, the results indicated that the monthly earnings of the respondents increased with an
increase in his age. With one unit increase in age of the respondent, monthly earning
increased by 0.37 percentage points. According to Axel Borsch-Supan of the Max Planck
Institute for Social Law and Social Policy, “On balance, older employees’ productivity and
reliability is higher than that of their younger counterparts. He says experience and mental
maturity helps the older workers shown to perform well when it comes to organization,
writing and problem solving and also older workers can learn skills better when they are
given incentive and opportunity (Rivers & Barnett, 2016). A significant but negative
relationship was observed between the family residence of the respondents and his monthly
earnings. The results in table 5.11 show that individuals residing in their respective agencies
are earning less than those living outside agencies. Shifting family residence from urban
locality to inside in agency (rural) tends to decrease monthly earnings of individuals by 0.43
67
percentage points. Businesses that provide skills-intensive employment are crowded in urban
areas i.e. in cities and towns, where a larger market exists and allows closer vicinity to
customers and suppliers, and better matching between employers and employees. The
concentration of businesses and people in urban areas ease the promotion and adoption of
innovative ideas. These benefits may enhance the productivity of businesses and workers,
contributing to higher urban wages (Marre, 2017). Again inside agencies due to the
availability of lesser opportunities and prevailing poverty, the demand for skilled workers is
less that results in a decline in wages.
The employment status of individuals before taking part in Institute Based Trainings (IBT)
was also found to have a positive significant impact on the monthly earnings of the
respondents. Those who were employed before participation in the skills development
program of FATA-DA are earning more by 0.963 percentage points than their unemployed
counterpart. This is very logical in the sense that individuals who were employed were
having market know-how and more experience than fresh graduates hence paid or earning
more. Again some were self-employed like auto mechanic, tailors, and mobile repairer, etc.,
and just after completion of IBT continue their job. As the model has multiple explanatory
variables, hence the standardized coefficient (Beta) showed the relative importance of each
variable separately. It was observed that among explanatory variables, training participation
(TP) with a B-value (1.627) has a higher impact on dependent variables i.e. log of monthly
earnings than others, which was highly desirable.
The model summary shows that the adjusted R2 value is 0.206. The value of adjusted R2
predicted that 21% of the variation in the dependent variable “log of monthly earnings” was
explained by explanatory variables in the model. The R2 value (0.206) is logical considering
the recommendation of a minimum value of 0.15 (Row & Chestnut, 1983; Mitchell &
Carson, 1989). Also, this is attributed to the field of study, i.e. any field that attempts to
predict human behavior, such as sociology, psychology, and economics, etc. typically has R-
squared values less than 20% (Becker & Tomes, 1986). Humans are simply harder to predict
than physical processes. Hence, it is utterly expected that the R-squared values is generally
low. The Durbin Watson test statistic (1.86) shows no evidence of first-order linear
autocorrelation in the model. The critical value of no autocorrelation is 1.5 < d < 2.5.
The ANOVA test also called F-Test (a test of significance in multiple regression model)
shows that the model is highly significant and rejected the null hypothesis of independence. It
is assumed that there is a significant relationship exists between dependent and explanatory
variables.
68
Table 5.11 Analysis of Variance table (ANOVA)
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 731.729 11 66.521 20.543 .000a
Residual 2551.655 788 3.238
Total 3283.383 799
Source: Author, 2018
The table 5.10 also showed no evidence of multicollinearity among explanatory variables.
Tolerance values are near to 1 and variance inflation factor (VIF) values less than 5 indicated
zero existence of the problem of multicollinearity. The model was also tested for
homoscedasticity and normality of residuals with Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey test in Eviews and
with an eyeball test of Q-Q plot of z* pred and z*presid in SPSS.
Table 5.12 Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey test
F Statistics 0.982753 Prob.(3,286) 0.4012
Obs*R square 2.958991 Prob. Chi square (3) 0.3980
Scaled explained SS 0.334300 Prob. Chi square (3) 0.9535
Source: Field survey, 2018
The Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey test results in table 5.12 shows that Observed R Square
probability value is greater than 5% (0.3980>0.05), and hence we accept null hypothesis
which mean the model has zero evidence of heteroscedasticity. The result for
heteroscedasticity was also cross verified by using Q-Q plot of z* pred and z*presid in SPSS.
The plot shows the same result.
69
Fig 5.1 Normal P-P Plot of Regression Standardized Residual and Scatterplot
Normal P-P Plot of Standardized Residual Scatterplot
Source: Field survey, 2018
5.2.5 Impact of vocational training of FATA-DA on Socio-Economic and Political
Development of FATA’s youth
Education and skills development programs have been observed to have positive impacts on
adolescence and youth, the time when a critical decision is made like about marriage, life
partner, fertility, careers, social and political thoughts, healthy or risky health habits, etc.
These decisions dramatically impact individual lives with potential long-term consequences
for society. Vocational training of FATA-DA was designed for bringing positive changes in
the youth of this marginalized community. Data was collected from the respondents on Likert
items on different parameters and cross-tabulation in SPSS version 17 was conducted to
compare the results for both groups.
5.2.5.1 Reduction in poverty level after participation in vocational training
Reduction in poverty among youth in FATA was one of the key objectives of the vocational
skills development program initiated by FATA-DA. As evident from literature in the earlier
chapter that human capital development through education and training has reduced
individual poverty in many countries. Respondents were asked if they have observed a
reduction in their poverty level after availing any course from FATA-DA. The results in table
5.13 show that the poverty level of the respondents has reduced significantly after
participation in vocational training of FATA-DA. A significant difference was observed
between both groups were 23.5% of respondents from the treatment group were recorded to
70
agree with the statement as compared to 16.5 from the control group. Similarly, 11.5% were
recorded strongly agree from the treatment group as compared to 2% from the control group.
These findings are in line with existing literature discussed earlier in this chapter. Rothwell
and Kazanas (2006) stated that effective technical training leads to an increase in the
performance of crafts men, hence their wages. On the micro-level, investments in human
capital formation through education and training were regarded as means to create earnings,
thereby reducing individual poverty (Cobbe, 1975; Tilak, 2002). The highly significant
Pearson Chi-Square test value (0.000) shows that a significant difference exists between the
treatment and control group.
Table 5.13 Reduction in poverty level
My poverty level has reduced Total
Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree
Strongly
Agree
Participati
on in
vocational
training
Yes 39(19.5%) 36(18%) 55(27.5%) 47(23.5%) 23(11.5%) 200(100%)
No 28(14%) 56(28%) 79(39.5%) 33(16.5%) 04 (2%) 200(100%)
Total 67(16.75%) 92(23%) 134(33%) 80(20%) 27(6.8%) 400(100%)
Pearson Chi-Square Value = 26.25 (0.000)
Source: Field Survey, 2018
5.2.5.2 Increase in life-long learning of FATA youth
Lifelong learning is defined as "all learning activity is undertaken throughout life. The
purpose of lifelong learning was to bring improvement in knowledge, skills, and
competencies. Vocational training was also supposed to have increased the life-long learning
of FATA youth. The results in table 5.14 show that the life-learning of the individuals
increased with participation after participation. Among agree with the statement; 53.1% from
the treatment group outnumbered 46.9% from the control group. Similarly, among strongly
agree; 72.2% from the treatment group outnumbered 27.8% from the control group. These
findings are supported by the statement of Wobmann (2008), who stated that TVET could
improve the non-cognitive skills of low-skilled adults hence results in the enhancement of
their lifetime skill acquisition and learning. The highly significant Pearson Chi-Square test
71
value (0.000) shows that a significant difference exists between the treatment and control
groups.
Table 5.14 Increase in life-long learning
My life-long learning has increased Total
Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree
Strongly
Agree
Participation
in vocational
training
Yes 13(6.5%) 21(10.5%) 42(21%) 85(42.5%) 39(19.5%) 200(100%)
No 10 (5%) 37(18.5%) 63(31.5%) 75(37.5%) 15 (7.5%) 200(100%)
Total 23(5.8%) 58(14.5%) 105(26.2%) 160(40%) 54(13.5%) 400(100%)
Pearson Chi-Square Value = 20.29 (0.000)
Source: Field survey, 2018
5.2.5.3 Participation of FATA’s youth in voluntary communal and social activities
Social activeness and nearness to the community are considered in the direct effects of
education and training programs. Educated individuals have a level of involvement with
organizations and civic groups (Kaplan et. al, 1994; Semen, 1996). Respondents were asked
if they had developed a sense of nearness to community and participation in voluntary social
engagements; as the FATA youth have been violent in the near past due to disengagements in
community. The result revealed that respondents from the treatment group had not developed
a sense of volunteerism with participation in the skills development program of FATA-DA.
Among strongly disagree with the statement; 77.8% of respondents from the treatment group
outnumbered 22.2% from the control group. Similarly, among those who were found to
disagree; 85.8% from the treatment group outnumbered 14.4% from the control group. In a
group of those who were either agree or strongly agree; respondents from the control group
exceeded respondents from the treatment group. The training remained unsuccessful due to
its short duration, the lesser interest of students, and the minimum focus of trainers to divert
the mentality of FATA’s youth towards nearness to community and voluntary social
engagements. Again the respondents from the control group were mostly students of general
education so they had a better sense of social engagements. The highly significant Pearson
Chi-Square test value (0.000) shows that a significant difference exists between the two
groups.
72
Table 5.15 Participation in voluntary communal and social activities
Participation in voluntary communal and social activities
Total Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree
Strongly
Agree
Participation
in vocational
training
Yes 28(14%) 77(38.5%) 30(15%) 52(26%) 13(6.5%) 200(100%)
No 08(4%) 13(6.5%) 79(39.5%) 67(33.5%) 46 (23%) 200(100%)
Total 36(9%) 90(22.5%) 109(27.2%) 119(30%) 59(14.8%) 400(100%)
Pearson Chi-Square Value = 90.471 (0.000)
Source: Field survey, 2018
5.2.5.4 Caring more about risky health behaviors
Reduction in risky health behaviors like smoking, drinking, less sleeping, giving less time to
physical exercise, etc. are directly related to education and skills development. The same was
discussed by Thoits in his study in 2010. Positive relation exists between education and one’s
own health (Wolfe & Zuvekas, 1997). The respondents were asked whether they had
developed a sense of caring for risky health behaviors. The result revealed that participation
in the skills development program of FATA-DA has no significant impact on building a sense
of caring for risky health behaviors. Among those who strongly disagreed and disagree with
the statement; 76.5% and 59.1% respectively were from the treatment group as compared to
23.5% and 40.9% from the control group. Among those who were found to agree and
strongly agree; respondents from the treatment group were found less (39.5% and 23.4%
respectively) than the control group (60.5% and 76.6% respectively). These findings are in
line with the findings of Stanwick et al. (2006) where they concluded in Australia that higher
level qualifications were closely associated with better health outcomes and healthy life
behaviors while lower-level VET qualifications were not. Spending less time in institutes (6
months) and less focus of instructors towards building the sense of caring health and adopting
healthy life practices in FATA youth might be the major reason. The highly significant
Pearson Chi-Square test value (0.000) shows that a significant difference exists between the
treatment and control groups.
73
Table 5.16 Caring more about risky health behaviors
Caring more about risky health behaviors
Total Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree
Strongly
Agree
Participation
in vocational
training
Yes 13(6.5%) 13(6.5%) 90(45%) 58(29%) 26(13%) 200(100%)
No 04(2%) 09(4.5%) 13(6.5%) 89(44.5%) 85(42.5%) 200(100%)
Total 17(4.2%) 22(5.5%) 103(25.8%) 147(36.8%) 111(28%) 400(100%)
Pearson Chi-Square Value = 1.01 (0.000)
Source: Field survey, 2017
5.2.5.5 Perception of FATA’s youth about female’s education
Among the social development indicators, the acceptance of female education holds a central
position. The existing female literacy rate (3%) and drop out ratio (70.6%) among girls in
FATA, is perhaps the lowest in the World. Despite that girls’ schools have been functional in
FATA for decades, but still, such a low-level female literacy rate expose volumes of the
social indifference and obstacles at the community level to the women's education in FATA.
Respondents were asked about their perception of female education in FATA. The results
revealed that with participation in the skills development program of FATA-DA, the
perception of FATA youth towards female education has not changed. Among respondents
who were found to agree and strongly agree with female education, 53% and 62.9%
respectively were from the control group more than 47.1% and 37% respectively from the
treatment group. Those who strongly disagreed and disagree with female education; 52.6%
and 89.7% respectively were from the treatment group as compared to 47.4% and 10%
respectively from the control group. According to Bennett (2016), general education is more
effective than TVET in bringing social change and awareness among the masses. Chi-Square
test value (0.000) shows that a significant difference exists between the 2 groups.
74
Table 5.17 Perception of FATA’s youth about education of female
Perception about female education in FATA
Total Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree
Strongly
Agree
Participation
in vocational
training
Yes 20(10%) 26(13%) 31(15.5%) 77(38.5%) 46(23%) 200(100%)
No 18(9%) 03(1.5%) 14(7%) 87(43.5%) 78(39%) 200(100%)
Total 38(9.5%) 29(7.2%) 45(11.2%) 164(41%) 124(31%) 400(100%)
Pearson Chi-Square Value = 33.63 (0.000)
Source: Field survey, 2018
5.2.5.6 Appreciating women of FATA for doing job outside their homes
In the FATA context, where it is a male-dominated society, women are rarely allowed to
work outside their homes. One of the purposes of educating FATA youth was to change their
mentality and attitude towards working women. Like social, political, and educational; the
economic status of women in FATA is also not better. They have no access to income-
generating activities like jobs and businesses. Even women-specific chores like tailoring are
not appreciated in FATA. The most sordid aspect is that women of FATA have had little
awareness regarding their economic rights. A courageous lady, Farida bibi from Khyber
Agency attempted to create economic rights awareness among women of her area, was killed
in her hometown Ghundi Killi, in Jamrud on July 4, 2012. The respondents were asked
whether they appreciate women of FATA for working outside their home. It was observed
that the skills development program of FATA-DA has not changed the perception of FATA
youth towards working women. Respondents who were strongly disagree were more from the
treatment group (65.3%) than the control group (50%). In the group of respondents who
agreed and strongly agree with the statement were more from the control group (61.7% and
60.8% respectively) than the treatment group (38.3% and 39.2%). The Pearson Chi-Square
test value (0.001) shows that a significant difference exists between the 2 groups.
75
Table 5.18 Appreciating women of FATA for doing job outside their homes
Appreciating women of FATA for doing job outside
homes Total
Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree
Strongly
Agree
Participation
in vocational
training
Yes 49(24.5%) 18(9%) 63(31.5%) 41(20.5%) 29(14.5%) 200(100%)
No 26(13%) 18(9%) 45(22.5%) 66(33%) 45(22.5%) 200(100%)
Total 75(18.8%) 36(9%) 108(27%) 107(27.8) 74(18.5%) 400(100%)
Pearson Chi-Square Value = 19.35 (0.000)
Source: Field survey, 2018
5.2.5.7 Preference for educated life partner
Education has a strong influence on individuals in the selection of educated life partner. In
the educated and socially developed community, people prefer educated person to be his/her
life partner. It’s an important indicator to gauge the effectiveness of interventions like skills
development and education programs in bringing social changes in the life of individuals.
The respondents were asked for the choice of educated life partner where no significant
difference was observed between treatment and control group. The Pearson Chi-Square test
p-value (0.440>0.05) is insignificant and lead to acceptance of the null hypothesis of no
difference between treatment and control group. It was observed that during skills training to
FATA youth, they were only delivered technical skills. No such counseling or promotions in
life skills were focused during training.
76
Table 5.19 Preferences for educated life partner
Preferences for educated life partner
Total Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree
Strongly
Agree
Participation
in vocational
training
Yes 28(14%) 35(17.5%) 35(17.5%) 64(32%) 38(19%) 200(100%)
No 20
(10%)
29(14.5%) 44(22.0%) 61(30.5%) 46(23%) 200(100%)
Total 48(12%) 64(16%) 79(19.8%) 125(31.2%) 84(21%) 400(100%)
Pearson Chi-Square Value = 3.755 (0.440)
Source: Field Survey, 2018
5.2.5.8 Perceptions about family planning
According to the economic theory of fertility II, parents desire to have less number of
children with higher human capital investment. Increasing return to human capital
development results in a decline in bringing children (Pradhan, 2016). As evident from
demographic information that most of the parents in FATA have a maximum number of
children. Respondents were asked for their liking towards bringing more children and
regarding family planning. No significant difference was observed among the groups
(treatment and control). The Pearson Chi-Square test p-value (0.224) is greater than 0.05 and
leads to acceptance of the null hypothesis of zero difference between groups. These findings
are inconsistent with the findings of Baird et al. (2010) and (Baired, McIntosh, & Ozler
(2011) who found that schooling resulted in delays in childbirth and marriage. According to
them, early marriages and maximum childbirths are closely associated with lower investment
in education and with lower earnings. In the FATA context, due to the stronger influence of
culture, 6 months short duration programs may not be enough alone to change the perception
of FATA youth towards family planning or bringing more or fewer children.
77
Table 5.20 Perceptions about family planning
Perception about family planning
Total Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Agree
Participation
in vocational
training
Yes 21(10.5%) 35(17.5%) 30(15%) 77(38.5%) 37(18.5%) 200(100%)
No 11 (5.5%) 36(18%) 43(21.5%) 77(38.5%) 33(16.5%) 200(100%)
Total 32(8%) 71(17.8%) 73(18.2%) 154(38.5) 70(17.5%) 400(100%)
Pearson Chi-Square Value = 5.683 (0.224)
Source: Field survey, 2018
5.2.5.9 Inner feeling of self-confidence and sense of responsibility
Noe et al. (2003) pointed out that as employees undergo training, their confidence level
increase and their value can also be confirmed. TVET to enhance a wide range of capabilities
led to the inclusion of so-called ‘life skills’. These embrace communication, teamwork,
motivation, responsibility, training in reproductive health, and violence prevention which
shows that TVET is increasingly recognized as a way of enhancing young people’s capability
sets (Debrah, 2013). Education and skills training bring self-confidence and a sense of
responsibility among youth. The respondents were asked if they were feeling self-confidence
and a sense of responsibility after participation in TVST of FATA-DA. The result revealed in
the group of strongly disagree and disagree, individuals, 64.3% and 63.6% of the respondents
respectively were from the treatment group as compared to 35.7% and 36.4% respectively
from the control group. On the other hand, respondents who were found to strongly agree
with the statement were 63.7% from the control group as compared to 36.3% from the
treatment group. Due to the short duration, fixed curriculum, and lesser focus of trainers, the
FATA-DA training program didn’t develop a sense of responsibility among the youth of
FATA. The highly significant Pearson Chi-Square test value (0.002) shows that a significant
difference exists between the treatment and control groups.
78
Table 5.21 Inner feeling self-confidence and sense of responsibility
Feeling self-confidence and sense of responsibility
Total Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree
Strongly
Agree
Participation
in vocational
training
Yes 9(4.5%) 07(3.5%) 38(19%) 101(50.5%) 45(22.5%) 200(100%)
No 05(2.5%) 04(2%) 21(10.5%) 91(45.5%) 79(39.5%) 200(100%)
Total 32(8%) 11(2.8%) 59(14.8%) 192(48.0) 124(31%) 400(100%)
Pearson Chi-Square Value = 16.70 (0.002)
Source: Field survey, 2018
5.2.5.10 Financial support of needy people in the community
With human capital development, chances of employment and earnings increase. Education
and training create employment that further enhances earnings and leads people to become a
giver. It’s the symbol of an educated and well-groomed society that people are involved in
financial support of the needy people therefore creates a situation of brotherhood and
generosity. The respondents were investigated for this type of kind behavior during the
survey. The result revealed that in the category of strongly disagree and disagree individuals;
81.2% and 95% respectively were from the treatment group as compared to 18.8% and 5%
from the control group. On the other hand, those who agreed and strongly agree with the
statement were more from the control group (60.6% and 76.3% respectively) as compared to
less (39.4% and 23.7%) from the treatment group. It was concluded that the skills
development program of FATA-DA was not successful in bringing significant social changes
in the lives of FATA youth. The highly significant Pearson Chi-Square test value (0.000)
shows that a significant difference exists between the treatment and control groups.
79
Table 5.22 Financial support of needy people in the community
Financial support of needy people in the community
Total Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree
Strongly
Agree
Participation
in vocational
training
Yes 13(6.5%) 19(9.5%) 79(39.5%) 67(39.4%) 22(11%) 200(100%)
No 03(1.5%) 01(0.5%) 22(11%) 103(51.5%) 71(35.5%) 200(100%)
Total 16(4%) 20(5.0%) 101(25.2%) 170(42.5) 93(23.2%) 400(100%)
Pearson Chi-Square Value = 88.059 (.000)
Source: Field Survey, 2018
5.2.5.11 Participation in political engagements
One of the purposes of education and training is to create decision-making skills; to bring
political awareness and interest of participation in politics among youth. People of FATA due
to certain discriminatory policies of government remained deprived and unaware of their
political rights. Respondents from both treatment and control groups were asked if they were
in favor of a democratic system of government in Pakistan and if they had any interest in
political activities etc. In the category of strongly disagree and disagree; a maximum number
of respondents i.e. 61.5% and 80% were recorded from the treatment group as compared to
38.5% and 20% from the control group. On the other hand, those who were found to agree
and strongly agree with the statement; 53.2% and 61.5% respectively were from the control
as compared to 46.8% and 38.5% from the treatment group. These findings are supported by
the study of Werfhorst (2106) where he concluded that vocational education graduates had a
lower level of political interest and engagement as compared to general education graduates.
He further warned that this type of rigid differentiation of educational institutions may form a
threat to democratic equality. The Pearson Chi-Square test value (0.000) shows that a
significant difference exists between the 2 groups.
80
Table 5.23 Participation in political engagements
Participation in political engagements
Total Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree
Strongly
Agree
Participation
in vocational
training
Yes 16(8%) 24(12%) 35(17.5%) 88(44%) 37(18.5%) 200(100%)
No 10(5%) 06(3%) 25(12.5%) 100(50%) 59(29.5%) 200(100%)
Total 26(6.5%) 30(7.5%) 60(15%) 188(47) 96(24%) 400(100%)
Pearson Chi-Square Value = 19.659 (0.001)
5.2.5.12 Favor of participation of FATA's women in political activities
In FATA in a male-dominated society, women are not allowed to participate in activities
other than agricultural activities and household chores. Political role and participation of
women in politics remained impossible in the past. In 1996, the President of Pakistan, Farooq
Leghari, introduced electoral reforms in FATA, as a by-product, women also got the right to
vote. In the 1997 general election, women’s voted in significant numbers but it was done
under the instructions of their males to defeat the rival tribes’ candidates (Tierney, 2000).
This time FATA’s women were given little participation on reserve seats. This shows the
level of political and social disempowerment of tribal women of Pakistan. The respondents
were asked about their perception towards women's participation in political activities and
observed that a major chunk of youth from the treatment group was found either disagree or
strongly disagree. 77.8% and 65.6% of respondents in the category of strongly disagree and
disagree respectively were from the treatment group as compared to 22.2% and 34.4% from
the control group. On the other hand, those respondents who were found to agree and
strongly agree were more from the control group (65% and 60% respectively) than the
treatment group (35% and 40%). The Pearson Chi-Square test value is highly significant.
81
Table 5.24 Participation of FATA's women in political activities
Participation of FATA's women in political activities
Total Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree
Strongly
Agree
Participation
in vocational
training
Yes 28(14%) 40(20%) 50(25%) 50(25%) 32(16%) 200(100%)
No 08(4%) 21(10.5%) 30(15%) 93(46.5%) 48(24%) 200(100%)
Total 36(9%) 61(715.2%) 80(20%) 143(35.8) 80(20%) 400(100%)
Pearson Chi-Square Value = 38.159 (0.000)
Source: Field survey, 2018
5.2.5.13 Perception about FATA’s merger with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) Province
For the last few years, FATA’s merger with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa was the government's
priority. With the merger, it was expected that a change will occur in the tradition, economy,
politics, and socio-economic development of FATA. The merger would also increase the
financial share of tribal people in the Federal Divisible Pool (FDP) and National Finance
Commission Award (NFC) (Ali, 2018). A significant number of well-known elders and
associations have strongly rejected the idea of merging FATA with KP. They were of the
view that a merger will replace one corrupt system in the shape of a political agent with a
more corrupt system in the form of police and judiciary (Qazi, Qazi & Bashir,
2018). Respondents were asked about their concern about FATA’s merger with KP province.
The results revealed that the maximum number of respondents 60.2% in the category of
strongly agree were those who didn’t participate in the training program of FATA-DA as
compared to the less number of respondents from the treatment group (39.8%). The numbers
of respondents in other categories are somewhat similar. The highly significant Pearson Chi-
Square test value (0.001) shows that a significant difference exists between treatment and
control group.
82
Table 5.25 FATA merger with KP
Favor of FATA merger with KP
Total Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree
Strongly
Agree
Participation
in vocational
training
Yes 20(10%) 17(8.5%) 33(16.5%) 81(40.5%) 49(24.5%) 200(100%)
No 25(12.5%) 15(7.5%) 10(5%) 76(38%) 74(37%) 200(100%)
Total 45(11.2%) 32(8%) 43(10.8%) 157(39.2) 123(30.8%) 400(100%)
Pearson Chi-Square Value = 18.223 (0.001)
Source: Field survey, 2018
5.2.6. Analysis of Strengths and Weaknesses of the Vocational Training Program of
FATA-DA.
Human Capital Development is a pathway for the socio-economic and political development
of individuals and nations. Human resources can nicely be transformed into human capital
through quality education and effective skills training. Strengths and weaknesses of any skills
development program may lead to either success or failure of that program. FATA youth
were imparted skills training in the well-known public and private sector institutions in
Peshawar, Nowshera, Abbottabad, Swat, Swabi, and some cities of Punjab province.
Respondents were asked about the quality and design of the training delivered to them. The
data was collected from respondents on the Likert items scale and results were presented on
the pie chart.
5.2.6.1 The training was good and fruitful
The quality of education and training is considered an important supply-side factor expected
to affect the demand for education and training (Hansushek, 1995; Kremer, 1995). Quality
skills training ends inefficient output leads to a better outcome and long lasting impacts.
Quality of any vocational skills development program directly affects employability and
earnings of labor. The respondents were asked whether the skills training imparted to them
was good and fruitful. 58% of the respondents were found to agree and 19% strongly agree
with the statement that training was good and fruitful. 13% of them were found to disagree
and 3% strongly disagree while the remaining 7% remained neutral to the statement. The
majority of the respondents were found in favor of the quality of vocational skills training
83
Strongly Disagree
3% Disagree
13% Neutral
7%
Agree
58%
Strongly Agree
19%
Strongly Disagree
3% Disagree
14%
Neutral
13%
Agree
58%
Strongly Agree
12%
imparted but still, the program has not been successful in achieving maximum relevant
employment as it was deemed.
Fig 5.2 Training was good and fruitful
Source: Field Survey, 2018
5.2.6.2 Balance between theory and practical portion
Nubler (2009) concurred that the courses and standards offered in the TVET are considered
to be insufficient, lacking quality learning materials and tools. Wagner (2005) pointed out
that skills development depends on several factors including; the inclusion of practical as
well as theoretical components in appropriate proportion so individuals must demonstrate that
they can perform all the key functions in business. The respondents were asked whether the
balance between theory and practical portion remained appropriate in vocational skills
training imparted to them. It was noted that 58% of the respondents were found to agree and
12% strongly agree with the statement. Only 14% were found to disagree and 3% strongly
disagree. The remaining 13% of the respondents remained neutral. According to the
researcher's observations, the institutes to avoid heavy costs incurred on practical give more
priority to the theoretical portion which is not suitable in technical skills training.
Fig 5.3 Balance between theory and practical portion
Source: Field Survey, 2018
84
Strongly Disagree
1% Disagree
13%
Neutral
11%
Agree
56%
Strongly Agree
19%
5.2.6.3 Instructors education, training expertise and sincerity
Institute standard, course curriculum, and instructors' expertise are equally important for
fruitful training delivery. The success and failure of training programs equally depend on
teachers/trainers' background knowledge of the course, technical skills, dedication, and
sincerity. If the instructors are technically qualified, trained and sound, they can train the
students well for practical challenges in the job market. The respondents were asked whether
their instructors were well educated, technically skilled, dedicated, and sincere. The results
revealed that 56% of the respondents were found to agree and 19% strongly agree with the
statement. 13% of the respondents were found to disagree and 1% strongly disagree. The
remaining 13% were neutral.
Fig 5.4 Tutors were well educated, sincere and trained
Source: Field Survey, 2018
5.2.6.4 Availablity of well equiped laboratories
In the field of technical education and vocational training, laboratory setup and equipment
availability play an essential role. The vocational training system lacks internal and external
efficiency because of a shortage of training materials and equipment that results in a low
employment rate and earning level of graduates (ATE, 2011). Makombe et al., (2010) in their
study argued that with better equipment and learning materials, we could enable the students
to do better in their learning. Hence the individuals who participated in TVST of FATA-DA
were asked about the availability of well-equipped laboratories and training equipment in
training institutes. The result revealed that 53% were found to agree and 16% strongly agree
with the statement. 13% were found to disagree and 8% strongly disagree with the statement.
10% of the respondents remained neutral.
85
Strongly Disagree
8% Disagree
13%
Neutral
10%
Agree
53%
Strongly Agree
16%
Strongly Disagree
14%
Disagree
34% Neutral
15%
Agree
29%
Strongly Agree
8%
Fig 5.5 Availablity of well equiped labouratories
Source: Field Survey, 2018
5.2.6.5 Institute Based Training (IBT) linkeges with relevant industries
Another important aspect of technical and vocational skills training is its linkages with
relevant industries. Strong linkages guarantee the success of vocational skills training
programs in terms of gainful employment and market-oriented trades/technologies. The
reason behind the successful technical training program of Germany and Poland is its strong
linkage with industries. During the survey, 37% of the respondents were found to either agree
or strongly agree with the linkage of their training program with relevant industries while
48% of them were found to either disagrees or strongly disagree with the statement. 15% of
the respondents remained neutral. According to the researcher's observations, there is no such
proper linkage of the skills development program of FATA-DA with relevant industries. The
existing linkages if found were for a very short period. UNESCO (2012) and World Bank
(2012), argues that there is a need to enhance collaboration with industry in the provision of
in‐ house training at workplaces to upgrade the skills of graduates and other employees in
line with technological advancements as well as the new ways of conducting business.
Fig 5.6 Training linkages with relevant industry
Source: Field Survey, 2018
86
Strongly Disagree
7%
Disagree
23%
Neutral
11% Agree
45%
Strongly Agree
14%
5.2.6.6 Market demand for the concerned trade/technology
Another important aspect of technical education and vocational training is its market demand.
Trainees of some of the best technical and vocational skills training programs are still looking
for employment after a long period due to the lack of market demand for that specific trade
they were imparted training. Hujer et al. (2006) in a paper stated that the effect of vocational
training on unemployment duration in Eastern Germany was significantly negative due to the
hypothesis that the programs offered were not compatible with market demand. According to
Brunello and Rocco (2015), the wage and employment returns to VET are higher in countries
where the relative supply of VET graduates was low with high demand. The results on
responses revealed that 59% of the respondents were found to either agree or strongly agree
with the statement that they were given training in trades having high market demand. 30% of
the respondents were found to either disagree or strongly disagree with the statement. The
remaining 11% were found neutral.
Fig 5.7 Market demand for trade/technology
Source: Field survey, 2018
5.6.2.7 Career counselling and guidence
Career counseling and guidance is the process of supporting vocational graduates to accept
and develop an adequate picture of themselves and to make them aware of their role in the
practical world environment (Ejezi, 2001). Practical vocational guidance and career
counseling programs are needed more than ever because of technological advancement in a
changing world (Dokubo & Dokubo, 2013). Students due to fewer understandings of job
markets remain jobless after successful completion of vocational training courses. Market
exposure and visits during study times proved to have good impacts on students learning
about market ticks. The respondents from the treatment group were asked about career
counseling and guidance they were given during or after IBT. The results revealed that 44%
of the respondents were found either agree or strongly agree while 45% were found to
87
Strongly Disagree
7%
Disagree
38%
Neutral
11%
Agree
33%
Strongly Agree
11%
Strongly
Disagree
5%
Disagree
19%
Neutral
11%
Agree
50%
Strongly Agree
15%
disagree or strongly disagree about the statement. The remaining 11% were neutral to the
statement. Here again, according to the researcher's observation, career guidance and
counseling are not practicing as such in our technical-vocational institutions.
Fig 5.8 Career councelling and guidance
Source: Filed survey, 2018
5.2.6.8 Cooperation of College Administration & FATA-DA Officials
Cooperation of College/Institute administration and program sponsoring agency plays a
positive role in the successful delivery of technical and vocational skills training program.
Cooperation and persistence guidance from both sides have significant impacts on outcome.
Strong coordination, follow-up visits, timely monitoring, and Ex-ante and Ex-post evaluation
may identify issues on time during training. Again it can expose the real face of progress
towards goals and targets. The respondents were investigated whether the institute
administration during training and FATA-DA officials during and after training remained
cooperative and supportive with them. 50% of the respondents were found to agree and 15%
were found to strongly agree with the statement. Only 24% of them were found to either
disagree or strongly disagree. The remaining 11% were found neutral.
Fig 5.9 Cooperation of college administration & FATA-DA officials
Source: Field survey, 2018
88
Strongly Disagree
6% Disagree
37%
Neutral
5%
Agree
40%
Strongly Agree
12%
5.2.6.9 Training duration
In reaching the goal of maximum employment of youth after delivery of technical and
vocational skills training to them, the training period (duration) play a significant role.
According to Rosholm and Skipper (2009) often the training the rural people receive is
inappropriate to the skills base needed for their local community and the local industries. The
training is often short term, not geared to providing trainees with lifelong sustainable living
and working skills. FATA-DA mostly imparted 6 months vocational skills trainings to both
male and female of FATA. The respondents from treatment group were investigated whether
the training duration was enough. The results on their responses revealed that 40% of the
respondents were found agree and 12% strongly agree. 37% of the respondents were found
disagree and 6% strongly disagree with the statement. 5% of the respondents remained
neutral to the statement.
Fig 5.10 Training duration
Source: Field survey, 2018
5.2.6.10 Tool kits provision to successful trainees
Tool kits are generally provided to trainees after successful completion of technical and
vocational skills training. Tool kits provision is very helpful for generating self-employment.
Most of the trainees in skills development programs heal to poor families and are unable to
start self-employment due to a lack of essential tools and equipment. Government or other
agencies' back-up in terms of tool kits and essential equipment provision are needed in many
cases. They were asked whether they were provided tool kits after course completion from
FATA-DA or any other government or private agency. The results revealed a major part of
the respondents (79%) were found either disagree or strongly disagree with the statement.
Only 17% of the respondents were found agree and strongly agree. The remaining 4% were
found neutral to the statement.
89
Strongly Disagree
44%
Disagree
35%
Neutral
4%
Agree
13%
Strongly Agree
4%
Strongly Disagree
4% Disagree
6%
Neutral
3%
Agree
63%
Strongly Agree
24%
Table 5.11 Tool kits provision
Source: Field survey, 2018
5.2.6.11 Provision of course completion certificates
A course completion certificate acts as a signal for the abilities of the graduates. Timely
provision of course completion certificate enhances the probability of successful trainees to
find a job and become employed just after the course completion. Delay in the provision of
course completion certificates delays the application process for jobs. In government-
sponsored programs, certificate provision normaly takes a longer time, therefore, the
respondents were asked whether they were provided course completion certificates on time.
Based on the responses of the respondents, it was concluded that 63% of the respondents
were found agree and 24% strongly agree; they were provided a certificate on time. Only
10% of the respondents were found either disagree or strongly disagree with the statement
and the remaining 3% were found neutral.
Fig 5.12 Course completion certificates provision
Source: Field survey, 2018
90
Strongly Disagree
41%
Disagree
43%
Neutral
4%
Agree
9%
Strongly Agree
3%
5.2.6.12 Post training financial support for self-employment
One of the major objectives of imparting technical and vocational skills training to the youth
of FATA is to generate an environment of self-employment. Self-employed become
employer of other which is a healthy activity for job creation in an economy and economic
development of a country. Again self-employment needs financial soundness to be initiated.
Most of the technical and vocational skills training graduates in FATA failed to established
self-employment due to a lack of financial resources. The respondents were asked if they
were supported financially for self-employment after completion of IBT by a sponsoring
agency or any other. The results revealed that respondents have not been supported
financially for self-employment by any agency. Only 12% of the respondents were found
either agree and strongly agree while a maximum portion (84%) were found either disagree
and strongly disagree. 4% remained neutral to the statement.
Fig 5.13 Financial support for self-employment
Source: field survey, 2018
5.2.6.13 Post training field internship facility after completion of IBT
The facility of field internship after completion of Institute Based Training (IBT) is one of the
key aspects of any education and employment generation program. Field Internship enables
the fresh graduate to enter into the labor market easily. Competent graduates perform well
when given internship or field sessions or they become innovative and entrepreneurs. In this
junction, they will be easily employed or will start self-employment. The respondents were
asked if they were offered any field internship facility after course completion. 83% of the
respondents were found either disagree or strongly disagree with the statement while 12%
were found agree and strongly agree. The remaining 4% of the respondents were neutral.
91
Fig 5.14 Post training field internship facility
Strongly Disagree
56%
Disagree
22%
Neutral
4%
Agree
11% Strongly Agree
7%
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CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Conclusion
In the near past, natural resources were excessively used for economic growth by countries in
the world. Economists of the new world are trying to focus on human capital formation for
economic growth instead of depleting natural resources. Human resources of a country if
converted to human capital can be used for a country's economic growth; otherwise, it will be
a burden on the economy. Human resources can efficiently be converted into human capital
through general education, technical education, and vocational skills training, focus on soft
skills and health status. Pakistan's economy is facing the worst problem of unemployment
among youth. The share of youth unemployment has been estimated as 49% in the year 2017
(UNDP, 2017). In Pakistan, the labor force participation rate is relatively low i.e. 54.4% to
other developing countries. The proportion of trained workers in Pakistan is very low in
comparison with other South Asian countries (World Bank, 2017). In Pakistan, FATA is the
most backward area where a highly marginalized community resides. It has the lowest socio-
economic indicators in comparison to other parts of the country. The employment situation is
worse than in other parts of the country. The crude activity rate for FATA is 24.2% as
compared to 32.3% for the rest of the country. This ratio of unemployment in FATA is higher
than the national average and other provinces of the country (GoP, 2015). 50% of laborers are
working in unskilled jobs hence earning a limited amount. Multidimensional Poverty Index
(MPI) was recorded at 0.337 which is higher than the national average, Punjab, Sindh, KP,
and Gilgit Baltistan. The poverty Incidence in FATA is 73.7% and the severity is 45.8%.
Two third (73%) of people in FATA living in poverty due to lack of education, health
facilities, employment facilities, and poor living standards (UNDP, 2016; GoP, 2017). The
overall literacy rate in FATA is 33.3% (GOP, 2015). FATA-DA was given the mandate in
2006-2007 to boost employment generation, increase earnings, reduce poverty and develop
youth through technical education and vocational skills provision. FATA-DA got started and
imparted skills training to more than 52,000 youth (male and female) in about 70 different
trades/technologies. From the fiscal year, 2007-08 to the fiscal year 2016-17, more than 1800
million rupees have been spent in the skills development sector. The process is continued and
every financial year the budget goes on increasing in this sector. To do justice with
government resources, it was therefore expedient to evaluate the potential of vocational
93
training of FATA-DA in the socio-economic and political development of FATA youth. This
research was conducted as a gap analysis between the expected outcome from the
stakeholders and the actual outcome.
The research was mostly dependent on primary data collected from 400 male youth of FATA
(200 from the treatment group, 200 from the control group). The data was collected randomly
through well-structured questioners in the first half of the year 2018. Both direct (face to
face) and indirect (Email) modes were adopted during data collection. The research was
quantitative where binary logistic regression models were used to find out determinants of
participation in vocational training and to know the impact of skills trainings on
employability of FATA youth. To evaluate the impact of skills trainings under vocational
training on earnings of FATA youth; a multiple linear regression analysis was conducted. To
examine the social and political development contribution of vocational training to FATA
youth, the cross-tabulation analysis was undertaken to compare the outcome for treatment
and control group on data collected through the Likert scale. Information was also gathered
on strengths and weaknesses of the skills training on the Likert scale and results were
presented on pie charts.
Demographic information of the respondents showed that 54% of the respondents from both
groups fall in the age group 16-20 years; 33.7% in the age group 21-25 years; 9.75% in the
age group 26-30 years, and 2.5% in the age group 31-35 year. On the marital status
parameter, 78% of the respondents were found unmarried and 22% unmarried from both
groups. Overall 46.5% of the respondents were found with education up to FA/FSc level from
both groups followed by 25.5% respondents with education only matriculation. Share of the
respondents from primary education was quite less followed by individuals with master
degrees. It was noted that fathers of most of the respondents (34.5% overall) were illiterately
followed by only primary level education (28% overall). Fathers of 45.5% of the respondents
from both groups were self-employed while 25% were found unemployed. Most of the
respondents (39.2%) observed belonging to families having monthly income more than Rs.
20,000 followed by 23% overall with family income 11000-15000. Minimum of them from
both groups were found belonging to families with monthly income equal to or less than
5000. 81.5% of families overall were noted living in their respective agencies while 18.5%
were living outside agencies in urban areas. Maximum numbers of the respondents (40.2%)
were living in families having 6-8 members followed by 33% from families with members 9-
12. Only 11% of the respondents were noted with family members equal to or less than 5. It
94
was also observed that 97% of respondent’s families were headed by father, brother, or
mother while 3% were headed by respondents themselves.
It was observed during analysis of determinants of participation in TVST of FATA-DA that
age of the respondents (Age), family size (FSiz), father education (FEdu), family income
(FI), marital status (MSt.), and employment status before training (SBT) have significantly
relationship (p<0.05) with dependent variable “P”. The odd ratio (Exp (B)) for these
significant variables showed that an individual fall in age group “26-30” years is 1.164 times
more likely to participate in TVST than individuals from another age group. Similarly, a
person belonging to families having family size 6-8 and 9-12 are 3.18 and 6.19 times
respectively more likely to participate than others. The odd ratio for father profession
indicated that individuals whose fathers are government servants are 3.2 times more likely to
participate than others. Individuals belonging to families having monthly income of 16,000-
20,000 and above 20,000 are 5.75 and 5.22 times more likely to participate than individuals
whose families’ income fall in fewer income categories. Those individuals who were
unmarried and who were not employed before participation were 2.4 and 2.4 times more
likely to participate in skills training under vocational training of FATA-DA as compared to
married and employed individuals respectively. The value of the Negelkerke R Square test
(0.37) indicated that 37% of the variance in the outcome or dependent variable has been
predicted by predictors in the model while Omnibus Tests of Model Coefficients sig p-value
(0.000) showed that overall the model was a significant and good predictor.
From the results of binary regression analysis to find out the impacts of participation in
TVST on employability of FATA youth, it was concluded that two variable i.e. training
participation (TP) and employment status before training (SBT) were found to have a highly
significant relationship with dependent variable “Y”. The odds ratio (1.94) for training
participation showed that it is 1.94 times more likely a person will be employed when he/she
participate in skills training with FATA-DA than non-participants. Again the person will be
0.451 times less likely to find employment when he/she was not employed before
participation in skills training under vocational training because the unstandardized
coefficient value was observed negative (-.795).
Log of monthly earnings was also regressed by training participation (TP) under vocational
training of FATA-DA and certain other demographic variables. The outcome of multiple
linear Regression analysis showed that training participation, age of the respondents, family
residence, and employment status before training were having a significant relationship with
the dependent variable “Log of earning”. The unstandardized coefficient (B values) for these
95
variables indicated that participation in skills training under TVST increased the monthly
earnings of FATA youth by 1.627 percentage points. Similarly, with an increase in age of the
respondents, monthly earnings increased by 0.369 percentage points. In the case of the family
residence, those who were residing inside their respective agencies (FATA), were earning
less than those living outside FATA by 0.430 percentage points (B value = -0.430). The B
value for SBT showed that those who were employed in any category before participation in
skills training were earning more than unemployed participants by 0.963 percentage points.
Impacts on the social and political lives of participants were also studied during the research
as discussed in chapter four that FATA’s people are socially and politically lagging. Results
of the cross-tabulation analysis on Likert items showed that TVST of FATA-DA has not been
successful in bringing positive changes in the social and political lives of FATA youth. The
output indicated that with participation in skills training, reduction in the poverty level of
individuals and increase in life-long-learning occurred only. The respondents from the
treatment group were found disagree and strongly disagree in a greater percentage than
respondents from the control group in parameters like participation in voluntary communal
and social activities, in caring more about risky health behaviors, positive perception towards
women higher education and a job doing women in FATA, in preference for an educated life
partner, for family planning, for feeling self-confidence and social responsibility, in financial
support with needy people, participation in political engagements, women participation in
politics, and FATA’s merger with KP.
At last weaknesses and strengths of the vocational training of FATA-DA were also
questioned by the respondents. Likert scale items were used for gathering responses of the
participants regarding the training delivered to them in different technical and vocational
institutes across the country and the results were shown on pie charts. It was concluded that
77% of respondents were found to agree and strongly agree that training delivered to them
was good and fruitful. 70% of respondents were found to agree and strongly agree that the
balance between theory and the practical portion was kept appropriate. 75% of the
respondents were found to agree and strongly agree that their instructors were well educated,
trained, and sincere in imparting technical skills to them. 69% of the respondents were found
to agree and strongly agree that well-equipped labs were available inside the institutes for the
practical portion of the training. 37% of the respondents were found to agree and strongly
agree that the training was linked to the relevant industry while 48% were found to disagree
and strongly disagree with the statement. 59% of the respondents were found to agree and
strongly about the trade-in which they were offered training was having high market demand
96
while 30% respondents were found disagree and strongly disagree. 44% of the respondents
were found agree and strongly agree that they were given career counseling and professional
guidance before, after, or during the training, while 45% were found either disagree or
strongly disagree with the statement. 65% of respondents were found agree and strongly
agree with the statement that college administration and FATA-DA officials were found
cooperative during the study while 24% were found either disagrees or strongly disagree.
52% of the respondents were found either agree or strongly agree that training duration of 6
months was enough for fruitful training delivery while 43% were found either disagree or
strongly disagree. 79% of the respondents were found either disagree or strongly disagree that
they were provided tool kits after course completion while only 17% were found either agree
or strongly agree. 87% of the respondents were found agree and strongly agree that they were
provided course completion certificates on time. Only 10% were found either disagree or
strongly disagree with the statement. 84% of the respondents were found either disagrees or
strongly disagree that they were financially supported after training for starting self-
employment. Only 12% were found to either agree or strongly agree while 4% remained
neutral. In the case of provision of internship facility after IBT, 84% of respondents were
found to disagree and strongly disagree while 12% either agree or strongly agree.
6.1.1 Limitations of the study
This study was kept limited to the male youth of FATA. Meeting, contacting, and collecting
of data from females in FATA were impossible due to restricted environment and cultural
constraints. The sample size of the study was kept small (400) due to time constraints and
because of difficulties in data collection due to insecure law and order situation. Prime
Minister Youth Skill Development Program is extended to FATA youth and certain other
agencies also imparting training in this area but this study was kept limited to the
interventions of FATA-DA in the field of technical and vocational skills development. The
study relied primarily on primary data and does not recourse to the triangulation of
information from third-party sources outside the ambit of FATA Development Authority
operations. It is worrying that during the collection of data, the respondents may not have
given the researcher 100% correct data. It would have better to involved trainers, elders of the
respondents, FATA-DA officials, and employers in the study but due to time and resource
constraints, the study was kept restricted to the male youth of FATA only. 3 years diploma
courses in engineering and medical field was not included in this evaluation study. Impact of
1 year and less duration vocational short courses on socio-economic development of FATA
97
youth were evaluated only. The latter is a useful means to counteract biases in situations
where a high degree of congruity of interests amongst the respondent groups prevails. This
study focused only on a micro-level economic (individual employment, individual earnings,
individual poverty, etc.) and social benefits of the program. Impacts of vocational training of
FATA-DA on national growth and development did not remain a part of this studied.
6.2 Recommendations
Based on results generated from primary data collected from the beneficiaries of TVST of
FATA-DA about the quality of the training delivered to them and on its impacts on the socio-
economic and political life of FATA youth, the following recommendations are put forth.
These policy measures are would enable the concerned authorities in FATA-DA in special
and at the national level in general for bringing positive changes in design, delivery, and
supervision of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) to maximum its labor
market and social outcome in a sustainable impact.
6.2.1 Promotion of Life-Long Learning among FATA youth
Lifelong learning comprises of attainment of literary skills (understanding of letters and
numbers), Life skills (Psychological, Health promotion, livelihood, and income generation
skills), and occupational skills (employability through skills, reskilling and up-gradation of
skills, etc.). In Pakistan unfortunately, lifelong learning has not been fully embedded in
national policies. It has received little policy maker and government attention so far. To
ensure 100% delivery of lifelong learning among adults in Pakistan and on a priority basis in
FATA, the following measures may be adopted;
1. School & College-based learning system should be started in FATA
2. Declaration of learning areas in FATA
3. Establishment of community learning centers, Information Technology (IT) centers,
libraries, and workshops in FATA
4. The legal cover may be given to life-long learning activities in FATA.
6.2.2 Ensuring Demand-Based Selection of Trades
The results indicated an increase in employment creation by skills training but again the
TVST has been successful in achieving only 24% relevant employability. The wide repertoire
of training dispensed by FATA-DA (about 72 different trades/technologies) so far has not
delivered expected results and therefore needs to be pruned back only to those trades that are
98
relevant to market demand within and outside FATA. Conducting market analysis could also
prevent saturation of the market in the skills which are being provided. Training programs
should be demand-driven rather than supply-led. The involvement of local businesses when
selecting the relevant skills helps ensure their commitment to apprenticeships and
employment after training (Petersen, 2013). Relevancy of training to market demands needs
to be ensured based on information gathered from the local market as well as potential
markets abroad such as Gulf countries which are a prime destination for skilled and semi-
skilled workers of KP and FATA. The exercise should be initiated by taking up a need
assessment study for FATA first as this study found these to be preferred destinations by a
majority of the respondents.
6.2.3 Modification of the Selection Criteria for Optimal Results
The current selection criterion of FATA-DA in respect of pre-training education requirement
of at least 10th grade should be revised. The selection process should also involve aptitude
assessment of an applicant relevant to the trade preferred and should not be based entirely on
the candidate's own choice. Again the selection criteria should not be restricted to the cream
candidate in terms of general education. Less intelligent and lagging candidates in general
education may be given priority first in vocational skills training.
6.2.4 Career guidance and counseling mechanism
FATA-DA concerned section with the co-ordination of the technical and vocational institutes
where FATA youth are delivered skills training needs to incorporate a mechanism for career
guidance/counseling at pre-training stage, during training and post-training stage to help the
applicants choose trades that are relevant to their aptitude and in line with the market
demands. This would widen their slant towards employability, career building and would
expedite their placement in the market in the post-training phase.
6.2.5 Financial and Technical Support to FATA youth after IBT
Given that a reasonable level of wage employment opportunities within FATA would require
some time to obtain, FATA youth who have completed a course from FATA-DA should be
technically and financially supported to set up their business enterprises. In this regard,
FATA-DA may establish business incubation centers for technical and financial support and
extension of interest-free loans to the beneficiaries of skills training. Tool kits must be
provided in certain trades like electrician, mobile repairing, computer hardware, UPS and
99
Solar panel installation, etc. for producing ease in starting self-employment. Most of the
successful fail to start self-employment due to a lack of technical and financial resources.
6.2.6 Ensure robust M&E system in FATA-DA
Skills development is an important and expensive intervention that needs a systematic review
of the impact chain i.e. input, process, output, outcome, and its direct and indirect impact.
The reviews must chiefly focus on the question “Are we doing the right thing?” and
suggest/recommend corrective measures if the answer is not affirmative. It is therefore
recommended that a full time and dedicated subsection with the M&E section of FATA-DA
be created to support the TVET sector of FATA in achieving its objectives by conducting
tracer studies, training evaluations, and impact studies on a more regular basis and at planned
intervals. Additionally, the system of Technical Vocational Education & Training (TVET)
could benefit from the advice of a high-level strategic committee formed to guide and force
the sector to remain aligned with the current and futuristic labor market needs.
6.2.7 Create employment opportunities within FATA
Putting the beneficiaries in jobs within FATA should be a priority for speeding up the process
of development in the tribal region. The creation of jobs and entrepreneurial activities should
not be taken for granted simply by providing training in technical skills as such an
intervention merely facilitates the transition of beneficiaries to the world of work. Being
virtually a fallow field, the Labour Market inside FATA should be resurrected by stimulating
investment through a well thought out medium and long term strategy for industrial and
service sector development.
6.2.8 Increase training duration from 6 months to 12 months in certain trades
During the survey, the beneficiaries of skills training were suggesting an increase in time
duration of vocational courses. According to them, there were no such institutions (Public or
Private) who are taking employees based on 6 months short courses. Government and private
sector institutions give priority and demand at least one-year of diploma in vocational trades.
The duration if increased to 12 months instead of 6 months may create an opportunity for
beneficiaries to enter into good organizations.
6.2.9 Provision of field internship facility
Field internship facilities may be extended to every beneficiary of vocational skills training.
Field internship after IBT creates a pathway for fresh graduates to enter into an organization
100
for at least one year. Beneficiaries would become able to get hands-on experience through an
internship which will make them confident as well competent enough to go forward.
6.2.10 Strong linkages of vocational institutes with potential industries
In Pakistan in general and in FATA in specific, the linkages of vocational institutes and
relevant industries are very weak. In Germany and in Poland this aspect of strong linkages of
vocational and skills training program has made them able to achieve more than 90%
employability among youth. We have institutes not equipped with full machinery and
equipment. Again the labs are not well established in technical institutes and instructors are
also not technically sound. The maximum focus remains on theory only in the technical field
which needs to be diverted. Vocational trainees must be given practical training in relevant
industry so that they become used to heavy and modern machinery and equipment’s. The
government may bound the industries during the registration process for the provision of
vocational training graduate facilities of practical work in their industries at least in the case
of government-sponsored programs.
6.3 Future research prospects
FATA-DA is imparting training to both male and female youth of FATA. A detailed
evaluation study needs to be conducted on the female side as well as half of the government
budget in skills development program in FATA goes to female training. A detailed study
needs to be conducted to identify potential trade having high market demand for ensuring
maximum employability. Another comparative study needs to be conducted to compare the
economic output of 2 years medical diploma courses and 3 years diploma of associate
engineering. Prime Minister Youth Skills Development Program has been started in 2013-14
which is open to the youth of the whole of the country to tackle the issues of the skills gap,
individual poverty, and youth unemployment in the country. More than 4 billion rupees have
been spent so far in the last 3-4 years. The same needs to be evaluated properly for its success
and efficient delivery because millions of government budgets get allocated to that program
annually, which is increasing from time to time. Research gaps exist between public and
private sector technical institutions to compare them for efficient training delivery. A study
can also be conducted to examine the existing hindrances between the linkages of technical
and vocational institutes and potential industries.
101
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117
APPENDIX-I
QUESTIONARE
EVALUATION OF THE POTENTIAL OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND
VOCATIONAL TRAININGS IN SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF FATA
YOUTH
PERSONAL/DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
1.1) Name: ___________________
1.2) F/Name: __________________
1.3) Date of birth: _______________
1.4) Gender: o Male o Female
1.5) Marital Status in time of training: o Married o Unmarried
1.6) Family size: o Equal or less than 5 o 6 – 8 o 9 – 12 o more than 12
1.7) Contact No: ____________________ 1.8) Agency: _______________________
1.9) Family Residence (In the time of training) o Agency o Town o
City
1.10) Education (In the time of training) o Primary o matric o FA/FSc
o BA/BSc o MA
1.11) Father Education o Nil o Primary o matric o FA/FSc o
BA/BSc o MA
1.12) Father Profession o Unemployed o Government Job o Private Job o Self-
employed
1.13) Family income o Equal or less than 5000 o 6000-10000 o 11000-15000
o 16000-20000 o above 20000
1.14) Family Head o Father o Mother o Brother o Self
118
TRAINING RELATED INFORMATIONS
Trade/Technology (In which you got training) _________________________
Institute Name:___________________________________________________
Training Duration o 3 months o 6 months o 12 months o 2
year
Year of training__________ (Select year: 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015,
2016, 2017)
Month of completion______ (Jan, Feb, March, April, May, June, July, August, Sep,
Oct, Nov, Dec)
Have you availed internship (6 month or 12 months) after completion of training? o Yes o
No
When you started your internship? Month ____________ Year______________
When you completed your internship? Month ___________ Year _____________
Hint: 1. Mark/select any one degree for the following questions
Hint 2. Control group is not required to answer questions 2.9 to 2.23
The training was good and fruitful.
(a) Strongly disagree (b) Disagree (c) Neutral (d) Agree (e) Strongly Agree
The balance between theoretical and practical portion was appropriate
(a) Strongly disagree (b) Disagree (c) Neutral (d) Agree (e) Strongly Agree
Tutors were well educated, trained and sincere.
(a) Strongly disagree (b) Disagree (c) Neutral (d) Agree (e) Strongly Agree
The laboratories for practical work were well equipped with necessary equipment’s and
machinery (a) Strongly disagree (b) Disagree (c) Neutral (d) Agree (e)
Strongly Agree
The training was linked to the relevant industry
(a) Strongly disagree (b) Disagree (c) Neutral (d) Agree (e) Strongly Agree
During training Institute were used to give you exposure visit to relevant industries
(a) Strongly disagree (b) Disagree (c) Neutral (d) Agree (e) Strongly Agree
You were offered that specific training due to high market demand
(a) Strongly disagree (b) Disagree (c) Neutral (d) Agree (e) Strongly Agree
You were given career counseling sessions after training
(a) Strongly disagree (b) Disagree (c) Neutral (d) Agree (e) Strongly Agree
College/Institute administration was co-operative with trainees
(a) Strongly disagree (b) Disagree (c) Neutral (d) Agree (e) Strongly Agree
119
You were satisfied with the co-ordination of FATA-Development Authority official during
training
(a) Strongly disagree (b) Disagree (c) Neutral (d) Agree (e) Strongly Agree
Duration of the training was enough
(a) Strongly disagree (b) Disagree (c) Neutral (d) Agree (e) Strongly Agree
You were given tool kits after completion of training
(a) Strongly disagree (b) Disagree (c) Neutral (d) Agree (e) Strongly Agree
You were provided course completion certificate on time
(a) Strongly disagree (b) Disagree (c) Neutral (d) Agree (e) Strongly Agree
You were provided certain amount for starting your own work
(a) Strongly disagree (b) Disagree (c) Neutral (d) Agree (e) Strongly Agree
Your prior training relevant experience
(a) Nil (b) 3-6 months (c) 7-12 months (d) More than 12 months
3. EMPLOYMENT & EARNINGS INFORMATION
3.1 What was your status before training?
(a) Govt Job (b) Private Job (c) self-employment (d) studying (e) doing nothing
3.2 Your personal monthly income from job/employment before training
(a) Zero (b) Upto 5000 (c) 6000 – 10000 (d) 11000 – 15000 (e) Above
15000
3.3 Your current status after you received training from FATA Development Authority
O Doing Govt Job o Doing Private Job o Self-employed o Studying o
Searching Job
3.4 In case you are doing job; Name your Job please like doctor, engineer, shopkeeper,
labour, mechanic, driver etc.
--------------------------------------- & Address: ----------------------------------------------------------
120
3.5 When you start your first job/work after completion of internship?
Month ___________ Year ______________
3.6 Monthly wage/salary/income/profit etc. from your first job after completion of
internship?
(a) 0 (b) 1000 - 5000 (c) 6000 – 10000 (d) 11000 – 15000 (e) 16000 –
20000 (f) > 20000
3.7 How much wage/salary/income/profit etc. you are expecting in future?
(a) 0 (b) 1000 - 5000 (c) 6000 – 10000 (d) 11000 – 15000 (e) 16000 –
20000 (f) > 20000
4. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL IMPACTS
Using the scale below, please indicate the degree to which participation in training program
result in your social development.
1. Strongly Disagree 2. Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Agree 5.Strongly Agree
4.1) After training my poverty level has reduced 1 2 3 4 5
4.2) The training has increased my lifelong learning 1 2 3 4 5
4.3) After training I care the interest of people in society 1 2 3 4 5
4.4) After training I joined civic or social organization 1 2 3 4 5
4.5) After training I am spending a reasonable amount on my children’s education and health
1 2 3 4 5
4.6) After training I care more about my health 1 2 3 4 5
4.7) After training I feel that higher education (at least graduation) is very important for
females of FATA 1 2 3 4
5
4.7) I appreciate women of FATA for working/doing jobs outside their home
1 2 3 4 5
121
4.8) I prefer educated female for marriage purposes 1 2 3 4 5
4.9) I would like to have more than 3 kids (Children 1 2 3 4 5
4.10) I will provide my sons higher education 1 2 3 4 5
4.11) I will provide my daughters higher education 1 2 3 4 5
4.12) I feel self-confidence & sense of responsibility after training
1 2 3 4 5
4.13) After training I feel a change in my life style and habits
1 2 3 4 5
4.14) After training I use to help poor by donation from my income
1 2 3 4 5
4.15) After training I use to participate warmly in social and civic engagements
1 2 3 4 5
4.16) I am in the favor of democratic system of government
1 2 3 4 5
4.16) I took part in politics by giving vote to suitable candidate in the previous election
1 2 3 4 5
4.17) I appreciate women taking part in politics 1 2 3 4 5
4.18) I Favor the merger of FATA with KPK 1 2 3 4 5
Thanks
122
Item 1. Poverty level has reduced after skills training * Participation in training program
Crosstab
Participation in
training program
Total No Yes
Now my
Poverty
level has
reduced
after skills
training
Strongly Disagree Count 28 39 67
% within Now my Poverty level
has reduced after skills training 41.8% 58.2% 100.0%
% within Participation in training
program 14.0% 19.5% 16.8%
Disagree Count 56 36 92
% within Now my Poverty level
has reduced after skills training 60.9% 39.1% 100.0%
% within Participation in training
program 28.0% 18.0% 23.0%
Nutral Count 79 55 134
% within Now my Poverty level
has reduced after skills training 59.0% 41.0% 100.0%
% within Participation in training
program 39.5% 27.5% 33.5%
Agree Count 33 47 80
% within Now my Poverty level
has reduced after skills training 41.2% 58.8% 100.0%
% within Participation in training
program 16.5% 23.5% 20.0%
Strongly Agree Count 4 23 27
% within Now my Poverty level
has reduced after skills training 14.8% 85.2% 100.0%
123
% within Participation in training
program 2.0% 11.5% 6.8%
Total Count 200 200 400
% within Now my Poverty level
has reduced after skills training 50.0% 50.0% 100.0%
% within Participation in training
program 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 26.273a 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 27.759 4 .000
Linear-by-Linear
Association 4.733 1 .030
N of Valid Cases 400
Item 2
Now my life long learning has increased after skills training * Participation in training progra
m
Crosstab
Participation in training
program
Total No Yes
Now my life long
learning has
increased after skills
training
Strongly
Disagree
Count 10 13 23
% within Now my life long
learning has increased after
skills training
43.5% 56.5% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 5.0% 6.5% 5.8%
Disagree Count 37 21 58
124
% within Now my life long
learning has increased after
skills training
63.8% 36.2% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 18.5% 10.5% 14.5%
Nutral Count 63 42 105
% within Now my life long
learning has increased after
skills training
60.0% 40.0% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 31.5% 21.0% 26.2%
Agree Count 75 85 160
% within Now my life long
learning has increased after
skills training
46.9% 53.1% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 37.5% 42.5% 40.0%
Strongly
Agree
Count 15 39 54
% within Now my life long
learning has increased after
skills training
27.8% 72.2% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 7.5% 19.5% 13.5%
Total Count 200 200 400
% within Now my life long
learning has increased after
skills training
50.0% 50.0% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
125
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 20.297a 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 20.767 4 .000
Linear-by-Linear Association 10.054 1 .002
N of Valid Cases 400
Item 3
Participation in voluntary communal and social activities * Participation in training program
Crosstab
Participation in training
program
Total No Yes
Participate in
voluntary
communal and
social activities
Strongly Disagree Count 8 28 36
% within Participate in
voluntary communal and
social activities
22.2% 77.8% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 4.0% 14.0% 9.0%
Disagree Count 13 77 90
% within Participate in
voluntary communal and
social activities
14.4% 85.6% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 6.5% 38.5% 22.5%
Nutral Count 66 30 96
% within Participate in
voluntary communal and
social activities
68.8% 31.2% 100.0%
126
% within Participation in
training program 33.0% 15.0% 24.0%
Agree Count 67 52 119
% within Participate in
voluntary communal and
social activities
56.3% 43.7% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 33.5% 26.0% 29.8%
Strongly Agree Count 46 13 59
% within Participate in
voluntary communal and
social activities
78.0% 22.0% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 23.0% 6.5% 14.8%
Total Count 200 200 400
% within Participate in
voluntary communal and
social activities
50.0% 50.0% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 90.471a 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 97.500 4 .000
Linear-by-Linear
Association 59.379 1 .000
127
Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 90.471a 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 97.500 4 .000
Linear-by-Linear
Association 59.379 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 400
a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected
count is 18.00.
Item 4 I use to avoid risky health behaviors* Participation in training program
Crosstab
Participation in
training program
Total No Yes
I use to avoid risky
health behavior
Strongly
Disagree
Count 4 13 17
% within I use to avoid
risky health behavior 23.5% 76.5% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 2.0% 6.5% 4.2%
Disagree Count 9 13 22
% within I use to avoid
risky health behavior 40.9% 59.1% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 4.5% 6.5% 5.5%
Nutral Count 13 90 103
% within I use to avoid
risky health behavior 12.6% 87.4% 100.0%
128
% within Participation in
training program 6.5% 45.0% 25.8%
Agree Count 89 58 147
% within I use to avoid
risky health behavior 60.5% 39.5% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 44.5% 29.0% 36.8%
Strongly Agree Count 85 26 111
% within I use to avoid
risky health behavior 76.6% 23.4% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 42.5% 13.0% 27.8%
Total Count 200 200 400
% within I use to avoid
risky health behavior 50.0% 50.0% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 1.010E2a 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 110.058 4 .000
Linear-by-Linear
Association 66.887 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 400
a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum
expected count is 8.50.
129
Item 5 Perception of FATA’s youth about female education
* Participation in training program
Crosstab
Participation in training
program
Total No Yes
Perception of
FATA’s youth
about female
education
Strongly
Disagree
Count 18 20 38
% within Perception
of FATA’s youth
about female
education
47.4% 52.6% 100.0%
% within
Participation in
training program
9.0% 10.0% 9.5%
Disagree Count 3 26 29
% within Perception
of FATA’s youth
about female
education
10.3% 89.7% 100.0%
% within
Participation in
training program
1.5% 13.0% 7.2%
Nutral Count 14 31 45
% within Perception
of FATA’s youth
about female
education
31.1% 68.9% 100.0%
% within
Participation in
training program
7.0% 15.5% 11.2%
130
Agree Count 87 77 164
% within Perception
of FATA’s youth
about female
education
53.0% 47.0% 100.0%
% within
Participation in
training program
43.5% 38.5% 41.0%
Strongly Agree Count 78 46 124
% within Perception
of FATA’s youth
about female
education
62.9% 37.1% 100.0%
% within
Participation in
training program
39.0% 23.0% 31.0%
Total Count 200 200 400
% within Perception
of FATA’s youth
about female
education
50.0% 50.0% 100.0%
% within
Participation in
training program
100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 33.637a 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 36.564 4 .000
131
Linear-by-Linear
Association 16.809 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 400
a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum
expected count is 14.50.
Item 6 Favor of FATA’s women for doing job * Participation in training program
Crosstab
Participation in
training program
Total No Yes
Favor of FATA’s
women for doing
job
Strongly
Disagree
Count 26 49 75
% within Favor of
FATA’s women for
doing job
34.7% 65.3% 100.0%
% within Participation
in training program 13.0% 24.5% 18.8%
Disagree Count 18 18 36
% within Favor of
FATA’s women for
doing job
50.0% 50.0% 100.0%
% within Participation
in training program 9.0% 9.0% 9.0%
Nutral Count 45 63 108
% within Favor of
FATA’s women for
doing job
41.7% 58.3% 100.0%
% within Participation
in training program 22.5% 31.5% 27.0%
Agree Count 66 41 107
132
% within Favor of
FATA’s women for
doing job
61.7% 38.3% 100.0%
% within Participation
in training program 33.0% 20.5% 26.8%
Strongly Agree Count 45 29 74
% within Favor of
FATA’s women for
doing job
60.8% 39.2% 100.0%
% within Participation
in training program 22.5% 14.5% 18.5%
Total Count 200 200 400
% within Favor of
FATA’s women for
doing job
50.0% 50.0% 100.0%
% within Participation
in training program 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 19.354a 4 .001
Likelihood Ratio 19.565 4 .001
Linear-by-Linear
Association 14.554 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 400
a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum
expected count is 18.00.
Item 7 Preference for educated life partner * Participation in training program
133
Crosstab
Participation in
training program
Total No Yes
Preference for
educated life
partner
Strongly
Disagree
Count 20 28 48
% within Preference
for educated life
partner
41.7% 58.3% 100.0%
% within Participation
in training program 10.0% 14.0% 12.0%
Disagree Count 29 35 64
% within Preference
for educated life
partner
45.3% 54.7% 100.0%
% within Participation
in training program 14.5% 17.5% 16.0%
Nutral Count 44 35 79
% within Preference
for educated life
partner
55.7% 44.3% 100.0%
% within Participation
in training program 22.0% 17.5% 19.8%
Agree Count 61 64 125
% within Preference
for educated life
partner
48.8% 51.2% 100.0%
% within Participation
in training program 30.5% 32.0% 31.2%
Strongly Agree Count 46 38 84
134
% within Preference
for educated life
partner
54.8% 45.2% 100.0%
% within Participation
in training program 23.0% 19.0% 21.0%
Total Count 200 200 400
% within Preference
for educated life
partner
50.0% 50.0% 100.0%
% within Participation
in training program 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 3.755a 4 .440
Likelihood Ratio 3.766 4 .439
Linear-by-Linear
Association 1.816 1 .178
N of Valid Cases 400
a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum
expected count is 24.00.
Item 8 Perception about family planning * Participation in training program
Crosstab
Participation in training
program
Total No Yes
Perception Strongly Count 11 21 32
135
about family
planning
Disagree % within Perception
about family planning 34.4% 65.6% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 5.5% 10.5% 8.0%
Disagree Count 36 35 71
% within Perception
about family planning 50.7% 49.3% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 18.0% 17.5% 17.8%
Nutral Count 43 30 73
% within Perception
about family planning 58.9% 41.1% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 21.5% 15.0% 18.2%
Agree Count 77 77 154
% within Perception
about family planning 50.0% 50.0% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 38.5% 38.5% 38.5%
Strongly Agree Count 33 37 70
% within Perception
about family planning 47.1% 52.9% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 16.5% 18.5% 17.5%
Total Count 200 200 400
% within Perception
about family planning 50.0% 50.0% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
136
Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 5.683a 4 .224
Likelihood Ratio 5.748 4 .219
Linear-by-Linear
Association .212 1 .645
N of Valid Cases 400
a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum
expected count is 16.00.
Item 9 Inner feeling of self confidence and sense of responsibility
*Participation in training program
Crosstab
Participation in training
program
Total No Yes
Inner feeling of
self-
confidence and se
nse of responsibili
ty
Strongly
Disagree
Count 5 9 14
% within Inner feeling of self-
confidence and sense of responsi
bility
35.7% 64.3% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 2.5% 4.5% 3.5%
Disagree Count 4 7 11
% within Inner feeling of self-
confidence and sense of responsi
bility
36.4% 63.6% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 2.0% 3.5% 2.8%
137
Nutral Count 21 38 59
% within Inner feeling of self-
confidence and sense of responsi
bility
35.6% 64.4% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 10.5% 19.0% 14.8%
Agree Count 91 101 192
% within Inner feeling of self-
confidence and sense of responsi
bility
47.4% 52.6% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 45.5% 50.5% 48.0%
Strongly
Agree
Count 79 45 124
% within Inner feeling of self-
confidence and sense of responsi
bility
63.7% 36.3% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 39.5% 22.5% 31.0%
Total Count 200 200 400
% within Inner feeling of self-
confidence and sense of responsi
bility
50.0% 50.0% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 16.703a 4 .002
138
Likelihood Ratio 16.920 4 .002
Linear-by-Linear
Association 13.454 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 400
a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The
minimum expected count is 5.50.
Item 9
I usualy fianacially support needy people in the community * Participation in training progra
m
Crosstab
Participation in training
program
Total No Yes
Financial support
needy people in
the community
Strongly
Disagree
Count 3 13 16
% within Financial
support needy people in
the community
18.8% 81.2% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 1.5% 6.5% 4.0%
Disagree Count 1 19 20
% within Financial
support needy people in
the community
5.0% 95.0% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program .5% 9.5% 5.0%
Nutral Count 22 79 101
139
% within Financial
support needy people in
the community
21.8% 78.2% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 11.0% 39.5% 25.2%
Agree Count 103 67 170
% within Financial
support needy people in
the community
60.6% 39.4% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 51.5% 33.5% 42.5%
Strongly
Agree
Count 71 22 93
% within Financial
support needy people in
the community
76.3% 23.7% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 35.5% 11.0% 23.2%
Total Count 200 200 400
% within Financial
support needy people in
the community
50.0% 50.0% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 88.059a 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 95.513 4 .000
140
Linear-by-Linear
Association 74.717 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 400
a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum
expected count is 8.00.
Item 11.
I am in favor of democratic system of government in Pakistan * Participation in training prog
ram
Crosstab
Participation in training
program
Total No Yes
I am in favor of
democratic
system of
government in
Pakistan
Strongly
Disagree
Count 9 14 23
% within I am in
favor of democratic
system of
government in
Pakistan
39.1% 60.9% 100.0%
% within
Participation in
training program
4.5% 7.0% 5.8%
Disagree Count 7 20 27
% within I am in
favor of democratic
system of
government in
Pakistan
25.9% 74.1% 100.0%
% within
Participation in
training program
3.5% 10.0% 6.8%
141
Nutral Count 16 44 60
% within I am in
favor of democratic
system of
government in
Pakistan
26.7% 73.3% 100.0%
% within
Participation in
training program
8.0% 22.0% 15.0%
Agree Count 96 89 185
% within I am in
favor of democratic
system of
government in
Pakistan
51.9% 48.1% 100.0%
% within
Participation in
training program
48.0% 44.5% 46.2%
Strongly Agree Count 72 33 105
% within I am in
favor of democratic
system of
government in
Pakistan
68.6% 31.4% 100.0%
% within
Participation in
training program
36.0% 16.5% 26.2%
Total Count 200 200 400
142
% within I am in
favor of democratic
system of
government in
Pakistan
50.0% 50.0% 100.0%
% within
Participation in
training program
100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 35.163a 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 36.314 4 .000
Linear-by-Linear
Association 25.032 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 400
a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum
expected count is 11.50.
Item 12
I appreciate participation of FATA's women in political activities * Participation in training p
rogram
Crosstab
Participation in training
program
Total No Yes
I appreciate Strongly Count 8 28 36
143
participation of
FATA's women in
political activities
Disagree % within I appreciate
participation of FATA's
women in political
activities
22.2% 77.8% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 4.0% 14.0% 9.0%
Disagree Count 21 40 61
% within I appreciate
participation of FATA's
women in political
activities
34.4% 65.6% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 10.5% 20.0% 15.2%
Nutral Count 30 50 80
% within I appreciate
participation of FATA's
women in political
activities
37.5% 62.5% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 15.0% 25.0% 20.0%
Agree Count 93 50 143
% within I appreciate
participation of FATA's
women in political
activities
65.0% 35.0% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 46.5% 25.0% 35.8%
Strongly Count 48 32 80
144
Agree % within I appreciate
participation of FATA's
women in political
activities
60.0% 40.0% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 24.0% 16.0% 20.0%
Total Count 200 200 400
% within I appreciate
participation of FATA's
women in political
activities
50.0% 50.0% 100.0%
% within Participation in
training program 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 38.159a 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 39.193 4 .000
Linear-by-Linear
Association 30.065 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 400
a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum
expected count is 18.00.