ETHICS

4th

ESO

IES CERVANTES

2013-2014

ETHICS – 4th

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CONTENTS

UD 1. INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS ............................................................................. 3

UD 2. CONSCIENCE AND MORAL VALUES ............................................................. 6

UD 3. ETHICAL THEORIES ........................................................................................... 9

UD 4. OUR RIGHTS ...................................................................................................... 14

UD 5. HUMAN RIGHTS IN OUR MODERN WORLD ............................................... 17

UD 6. EQUALITY BETWEEN WOMEN AND MEN .................................................. 20

UD 7. DEMOCRACY ..................................................................................................... 23

UD 8. JUSTICE AND EQUITY ..................................................................................... 26

UD 9. GLOBALIZATION .............................................................................................. 30

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UD 1. INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS

OBJECTIVES

- * Know the difference between legality and morality

- Explain the distinction between morals and ethics

- * Understand that morality is based on freedom and human responsibility

- Appreciate the ethical importance of autonomy and free choice

- * Expose the different points of view about the foundation of ethics, appreciating

the divergence of positions that exist about this topic

CONTENTS

Ethics and Morals

There is an important difference between legal standards and moral standards. A legal

obligation is objective and based on the right, while a moral obligation is subjective and

is based on the moral conscience. Legal rules are based on the law. We know that

breaking them we can be punished. Moral standards, on the other hand, are dictated by

our own conscience. If we violate our moral standards we feel bad because we suffer

remorse.

Besides this difference between legality and morality, you should also know the

distinction between ethics and morality. Morals refer to individual standards about our

behaviour. Morality refers to the values and preferences that we have, concerning what

we think that is right and what we think that is wrong. Ethics, on the other hand, is a

theoretical reflection about the foundations of morality. Ethics is a part of philosophy

that tries to answer questions about morality.

Throughout time, people have offered different explanations about what is right and

what is wrong. Many of those reasons are based on tradition and custom. Ethical

theories try to go beyond this point, providing a foundation of morality that is based on

rational arguments and explanations.

Moral responsibility

Human beings can freely decide what to do. Unlike other animals, our behaviour is not

fixed by instincts. This ability to choose between various possibilities makes us free, but

it also makes us responsible for our actions. That is why we must be able to justify our

choices. This justification must be given to other people, but also to ourselves.

However we are not responsible for everything we do. For example, we are not

responsible for what we dream while we are sleeping or for the consequences of acts

that we have done unintentionally. People are responsible for those actions that we

perform freely and in full consciousness.

A very important ethical concept connected with freedom is the autonomy. We say that

a person is autonomous when he acts according to his own rules, deciding freely what

he wants to do according to the personal rules that he has chosen by himself. The

opposite happens when a person follows rules that have been set by others. In this case

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we say that the person is heteronomous, because he obeys rules that are external, as they

have been decided by other people.

Why should we behave properly?

Many philosophers have tried to find rational explanations for the foundation of ethics.

Philosophers rarely agree, so there are many different theories, which sometimes can

even be contradictory.

Some philosophers believe that ethics are based on reason, while others believe that

they are based on feelings. According to some philosophers moral action has to do with

the use of reason. Our reason helps us to think on what we really want to do and the

kind of life that we would like to have. These decisions can help us to choose what will

make us truly happy. According to other philosophers, morality has nothing to do with

reason because it is based on feelings and emotions, which are irrational.

Some philosophers think all people know what is good and what is evil. According to

these philosophers can discern what is good and what is bad by a kind of inner voice

called conscience, which is universal and common to all human beings. These

philosophers believe that values are universal and absolute, because they are the same

for all people in all places. However, other philosophers think that moral values depend

on the time and place in which we live. According to this relativistic view, moral

awareness is not universal, because it is something that we learn when we internalize

the norms of our society. According to this theory, the origin of morals must be found

while we are being raised, when we receive praise or punishment according to our

behaviour.

Some philosophers believe that in our life it is important to follow a few basic principles

that guide our behaviour. For these philosophers, for example, telling the truth is good

in principle, so lying is never justified under any circumstances. Other philosophers,

however, believe that considering the consequences of our actions is a very important

issue. According to this position, sometimes lying can be good depending on the

circumstances in which we find ourselves.

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QUESTIONNAIRE

1. What is the difference between legal standards of moral standards? Give two

specific examples in which moral and legal rules could be in conflict

2. Do you remember who Antigone was? What was the conflict that Antigone

suffered? Do you think she was right? Explain your answer

3. What is the difference between ethics and morals? Explain your answer

4. It is sometimes said that the difference between a person and an animal is that

human beings have a moral constitution or nature. What does this sentence

mean? Explain your answer.

5. Some philosophers believe that people are responsible because we are free.

Explain the meaning of these words.

6. Are we morally responsible for all the actions that we do? Explain.

7. What is autonomy? What is the opposite of an autonomous person? Explain

your answer with examples.

8. Do all philosophers agree in their opinions about the foundations of our moral

behaviour? Explain your answer in detail.

9. Some people base their moral choices on God's commands or on the law

established by God. This option is perfectly legitimate, though it creates a

problem. Do you know what this problem is?

10. Do you think that everyone can tell what is right from what is wrong? Who

should decide what is good and what is evil?

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UD 2. CONSCIENCE AND MORAL VALUES

OBJECTIVES

- Explain the concept of value, appreciating the importance of the individual in its

definition.

- * Distinguish moral values from other values, highlighting the key features that

characterize them

- Expose the absolutist and relativist conceptions about moral values, taking a

personal position in the debate about objectivism.

- * Know the difference between moral autonomy and heteronomy, and appreciate

its importance in contemporary pluralistic societies.

CONTENTS

Values

Values are the important features of something that make it important and estimable for

someone. For example, when we say that a person is beautiful or that a particular

behaviour is brave or that a character is admirable, we are referring to some values what

we consider important. It should be noted that the value can be found in the thing about

which we speak, but it also depends on the person who is able to appreciate it,

Conceptions about values

When someone says that a painting is very beautiful, where is this beauty located? Is it

within the painting? Or does it come from the person who appreciates and values it?

The philosophers do not agree on this point. There are some people who think that

values are entirely dependent on the person. For them, the painting is neither pretty nor

ugly by itself, because the beauty is created by the person who admires the work of art.

This position is called subjectivism, because it holds that values are subjective and

depend on the person. The consequence of a subjectivist position is that values are

relative. This picture that you like so much might be very ugly for me.

The opposite position is called objectivism. Objectivist philosophers argue that values

exist independently of the person who knows or appreciates them. So, a beautiful

picture will always be a beautiful picture, even if people are not able to acknowledge its

beauty. For these philosophers, beauty is a property of the painting, and if someone is

not able to admire it, then that must be because of his lack of education or sensitivity.

The truth is that, apart from philosophical discussions, people's opinions are not

unanimous. There are significant variations between individuals and also between

different cultures. This point is very clear when we talk about aesthetics (what is

beautiful and what is ugly), but it can also be found in the field of ethics (what is right

and what is wrong), which is a much more delicate issue.

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Moral Values

Besides values, which always refer to positive aspects, we could talk of the counter-

values that describe negative aspects. For example, courage is a value (because we

consider it positive), while cowardice is the corresponding counter-value (because it

seems negative). Beauty, which is a value, can be confronted with its corresponding

counter-value, ugliness, and so on.

It is important to realize that there are different types of values: instrumental, aesthetic,

ethical, scientific, religious...

Is there a hierarchy of values? Are some of the more important than others? Some

philosophers (as Hartmann and Scheler) thought so, but others do not agree with them.

Moral values are different from all other kinds of values. This distinction is very

important because moral values are attributable only to the actions of people (made in a

free and conscious way). When people think about moral values (such as goodness,

justice and respect), they have three very important features: they seem to be

mandatory, unconditional, and universal.

Conscience

The word conscience is a bit confusing because it is used with different meanings.

There are two senses of the term: psychological consciousness and moral awareness

In this unit we are particularly interested in moral conscience, which is the ability to

distinguish right from wrong. Our moral conscience makes judgements about our

actions, considering that they can be right and wrong. It also produces a corresponding

sense of satisfaction or remorse. But where does our moral conscience come from?

Philosophers have given two opposing positions about this issue. Some believe that

conscience is a universal and innate property of human beings. But others think the

opposite, and claim that conscience is a product of culture and education. The former

are sometimes called absolutist, because they defend the idea that moral values are

absolute and universal. The latter are called relativistic, because they believe that moral

values are relative and depend on people, countries or historical moments. This issue is

particularly important in our modern world. Nowadays, in our societies there are many

different people that have to coexist together. These people sometimes have diverse

customs and cultures, and they might even hold conflicting moral values.

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QUESTIONNAIRE

1. What are values? Could you give an example of three values that are important

to you?

2. What do you call the position that values are entirely dependent on the person

who judges? What about the opposition which says that the values exist

independently of the individuals recognize or appreciate? What is your opinion

on this matter?

3. Make a list with three values and three counter-aesthetic, three values and three

scientists and three counter-and three counter-ethical values.

4. Can we attribute aesthetic value to an object, such as a statue? And you can

attribute ethical values? Reasonably explains your answer.

5. What are the three fundamental characteristics of moral values? Explain clearly

and in detail each.

6. Do you consider coherent moral standpoint? Do you think that people are

generally coherent morally? Why? Could you give some examples?

7. There are two opposing positions on the origin of the moral conscience. Do you

remember what these two positions? With what are you most agree with? Why?

8. According to some philosophers, moral relativism can be catastrophic for

humanity. What do you think they mean when they make this claim? Do you

agree with them? Why?

9. What is the remorse? Why does it appear?

10. What do the terms autonomy and heteronomy? What is their relationship to

ethics and morality?

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UD 3. ETHICAL THEORIES

OBJECTIVES

- Know the basics of sophistic relativism, appreciating its relevance in our modern

ethical debates

- * Understand the main ideas of Socratic intellectualism, focusing on its

universalism

- * Understand the Aristotelian eudaemonism, explaining the meaning of virtue in

its philosophy

- Describe the meaning of pleasure in Epicurean ethics

- Understand the fundamental ideas of Stoic ethics

- * Distinguish between formal ethics and material ethics, providing suitable

examples

- * Understand the meaning of the categorical imperative in the context of Kantian

deontological ethics

- * Understand the basic approach of utilitarian ethics

- Outline the basic principles of Nietzschean vitalist ethics

CONTENTS

The ethics of the Sophists

The Sophists were philosophers who lived in Athens (Greece) during the fifth century

BC. They taught rhetoric, which is the art of speaking properly in order persuade and

convince other people. At this time Athens was a democracy. The Athenians gathered in

the main square, to discuss and vote the laws. So rhetoric was very important.

In ethics the Sophists were relativists. They believed that the rules vary depending on

the time and place, so there is nothing absolutely good or absolutely bad. They gave as

an example what happened in Sparta, a Greek city in which there was a military regime.

In Sparta, the children that were born with malformations were sent to death, as they

were not fit to be soldiers. The Sophists considered that such behaviour was correct in

Sparta though it was considered a serious crime in Athens.

Today there are many people who think like the Sophists. On the one hand, it is still

important to use the word to persuade people. People who talk on TV programmes are

trained to speak eloquently in order to convince us. We can appreciate this in the

advertisements, and also listening to politicians. On the other hand, there are those who

say that we have no right to interfere in the habits and customs of other people, because

they have a different way of life than ours. This position is called cultural relativism, but

it can have problematic consequences.

The moral intellectualism of Socrates

Socrates lived in Athens in the fifth century BC at the same time as the Sophists. But

Socrates was totally against the Sophists. Socrates defended moral universalism, a

theory according to which good and evil are always the same everywhere. This is

exactly the opposite of what Sophists thought. What happens, according to Socrates, is

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that not everyone strives to understand what is good. However, we all have a moral

conscience that can tell us what is right and what is wrong.

Socrates thought that people should listen to the voice of conscience in order to tell right

from wrong. He believed that when someone has discovered what is good, he will

obviously behave properly. This theory is called moral intellectualism, and is based on

the idea that knowing what is good is all we need in order to act well.

The Aristotelian eudaemonism

Aristotle was an important philosopher who lived in Athens in the fourth century BC.

The main idea of his ethics is the pursuit of happiness. Happiness for Aristotle is the

development of something that is unique to each of us: reason and our virtues, which we

acquire through practice and exercise.

According to Aristotle there are two types of virtues: intellectual (wisdom, intelligence

...) and moral or ethical (like generosity or courage). These virtues seek the middle

ground between two opposing ends. For example, courage is placed just between

recklessness and cowardice. Prudence is the intellectual virtue that leads to moral or

ethical virtues.

Epicurean Hedonism

Epicurus lived in Athens in the late fourth century and early third century BC. Epicurus

believed that the goal of ethics was happiness, consisting in pleasure. But pleasure

according to Epicurus' philosophy does not consist in excess or debauchery. On the

contrary, he aspired to have a calm and peaceful life. Epicurus though that pleasure is

what gives us peace and does not cause any pain. An important word in Epicurean

ethics is ataraxia which means tranquillity, serenity and equanimity. The Epicureans

believe that pleasure should never produce any pain after having enjoyed it.

Stoic ethics

The Stoic school was founded by Zeno of Citium, a philosopher who lived in Athens in

the fourth century BC. The Stoics believed that we should accept the law that governs

everything that happens around us, a law which is governed by fate. For them

everything was predetermined, so people cannot change destiny. What is written is

inevitable and cannot be changed. All we can do is face our destiny with dignity and

resignation. So the Stoics thought that we must face our fate with ataraxia or

imperturbability.

The Kantian deontology

Kant was an important German philosopher who lived in the eighteenth century. His

ethical proposal is completely different from all previous ones. According to Kant

classical ethical theories are MATERIAL. This means that they are hypothetical,

heteronomous and a posteriori. They are hypothetical because they are only valid if you

agree with the purpose proposed by that particular ethical theory. They are

heteronomous because the rules are not created by us, but come from outside. And it is

a posteriori because they are based on experience. For example, Epicurean ethics

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recommend avoiding excess and living with moderation in order to obtain pleasure.

These recommendations are only valid if we truly want to seek pleasure. My conscience

does not make these rules, because they are dictated by the pursuit of pleasure. And

finally, in order to know what gives pleasure and what causes suffering, we need to try

different possibilities and reach conclusions based on experience.

Kant wants to develop a different ethics, not material but FORMAL. This means that

the ethical theory should not have any specific content. It only cares about how you

should create your own moral standards. Kant developed an ethical theory that was

universal, autonomous and a priori. It is universal because it can be for anyone, and its

validity is general because it does not seek any particular purpose. It is autonomous

because each individual makes his own rules. And it is a priori because it is not

necessary to use the experience to know what to do.

How do Kant's formal ethics develop these characteristics? Kant's ethics is based on

the idea of duty, so it is said to be a deontological theory. We must obey the

CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE which states that you should behave with other people

just as you want them to behave with you, and you have to treat people as human beings

and not as objects.

Kantian ethics does not tell us specifically how we should behave. We set our own

standards which will be correct if they follow the categorical imperative. For example,

the rule "I will lie to take advantage of other people” does not respect the categorical

imperative. This rule does not treat other people as you would like them to behave with

you. On the other hand, the rule “I always tell the truth" respects the categorical

imperative, and can be used as a correct moral standard.

Utilitarianism

The utilitarian theory was proposed by Bentham and Mill, two English philosophers

who lived in England in the nineteenth century. Utilitarianism is based on psychological

hedonism, according to which human beings naturally tend to seek pleasure and avoid

pain. Utilitarian philosophers believe that utility decides what is morally correct. A

particular action will be good when it produces the greatest happiness for the greatest

number of individuals.

Although it seems like a common sense idea, utilitarianism led to its ultimate

consequences can be very shocking. Imagine an extreme case. Suppose that several

people need transplants of various organs. In order to cure them we could kill a healthy

person, bringing happiness to those in need. That would produce an unhappy dead

individual, and seven or eight happy persons. Would this be acceptable? Mill said it was

not fair because it did not respect the basic rights of the person you want to kill.

Utilitarianism is nowadays a very influential theory. For example, when our rulers

create new laws they are supposed to seek with them the greatest happiness for the

greatest number of people.

Nietzsche's ethics

Friedrich Nietzsche lived in Germany in the nineteenth century. Nietzsche criticized

harshly Christian ethics. Nietzsche thought that Christian ethics are totally wrong,

because Christian ethics subjects us and encourages us to be humble and resigned.

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Nietzsche believed that this made people suffer in this world, trusting that God would

reward them with heaven after death. But Nietzsche was an atheist. He did not believe

in God or eternal life. For him there is only this life, so we must dare to live it intensely.

Living an intense life, however, is not an easy task. If we live intensely that means that

sometimes we have moments of euphoria and sometimes lowest moments. Daring to

live like this, even if it means trampling on others, is only available to a few. Nietzsche

believed that there was a moral for lords, suitable for those who dare to live their lives

with intensity. But there is also a moral for slaves, followed by those cowards who do

not dare to live fully and prefer to go to the comfort of the Christian religion and its

promises of salvation in another world.

Nietzsche believed that the people of his time were not able to live according to the

moral for lords. But he thought that in the future these lords would appear. Someone

who dares to live fully, giving up the false promises of Christianity and maximizing

your life would be a more than a normal human being, he would be a super-human. In

the future, the super-human should dare to change all moral values and inaugurate a

new way of living on Earth.

QUESTIONNAIRE

1. What was the Socratic moral intellectualism? What did Socrates think about the

people that behave badly? According to Socrates, what should be done to change

these people's behaviour?

2. Why Aristotle’s ethical theory is called eudaemonism? According to Aristotle,

what is the objective that should guide our behaviour? Give a specific example

to clarify your answer.

3. In Epicurus' opinion, which should be the goal in our lives? Why is his theory

called hedonistic?

4. The Epicurean philosophers had a very "bad reputation". They were accused of

indulging all kinds of excess and debauchery in their pursuit of pleasure at any

cost. Do you think these critics had understood what Epicurus proposed?

Explain.

5. What is the main recommendation of Stoic ethics? Do you remember what was

the highest aspiration that these philosophers sought to achieve?

6. What do we mean when we say that someone takes a disgrace "stoically"? Does

this expression agree with the true sense of the Stoic philosophy?

7. What is utilitarian ethics? Why is it sometimes compared with the philosophy of

business?

8. What are Nietzsche's ideas about ethics? Why did he criticize Christianity so

harshly? What is your opinion about his ethical theory?

9. Kant distinguished material ethics from formal ethics. Could you explain what is

the difference between them? Clarify your answer with examples.

10. What is the Kantian "categorical imperative"? Do you remember how Kant

formulated the categorical imperative? Why is it said that Kant's ethics are

deontological? Explain your answer

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UD 4. OUR RIGHTS

OBJECTIVES

- Understand the meaning of individual rights within the framework of democratic

citizenship, appreciating the active and participatory dimension that this implies

- Appreciate the relationship between the rights acknowledged in positive law and

the fundamental values from which they derive

- * Identify key civil, political and socioeconomic rights recognized in the UDHR

and the Spanish Constitution

CONTENTS

The rights and duties of the citizens

"Rights" refer to the ability that we have to demand something that belongs to us.

"Duties" are things that we must fulfil. Rights and duties go together and depend on

each other.

The foundation of people’s rights can be found in some basic values that we consider

essential in our society: freedom, equality, dignity, justice and peace.

A citizen is an active and responsible member of society. Citizens have civil rights,

political rights and economic rights, but they also have reciprocal duties and obligations

to the community to which they belong.

Civil rights

As stated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and our Constitution, all

citizens have a number of civil rights that protect personal freedom. The most important

civil rights are: right to life and physical integrity, right to personal liberty and security,

right to equality before the law and freedom, no discrimination, right to personal and

family privacy, right to the free expression of ideas, right to receive true and plural

information, right to freedom of thought and worship

Political rights

For a long time only civil rights were legally acknowledged. At first, the people's rights

related to collective political action were not included in the legislation. These political

rights guarantee the possibility for all citizens to participate actively in public life. The

most relevant political rights are: right of assembly and expression, freedom of

association, right to participate in political parties and trade unions, right to make a

strike.

The economic and social rights

Over time modern societies acknowledged more rights, related to the social and

economic welfare of the citizens. The most important socio-economic rights are: right to

free education, right to health, right to social security (unemployment insurance, social

benefits for people with difficulties, etc..)

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The three generations of human rights

Getting the recognition of our rights has not been easy. After the French Revolution,

which occurred in the late eighteenth century, and after a long struggle, the State finally

acknowledged some basic civil and political rights. Civil and political rights are

sometimes called first generation rights.

The social and economic rights were obtained much later, during the nineteenth century,

when citizens were mobilized to demand their recognition from public authorities.

These socio-economic rights are called second generation rights.

The rights of first and second generation are included in the Universal Declaration of

Human Rights, and in the Spanish Constitution.

The rights of third generation appeared later, when the peoples of the Third World got

their political independence in the mid-twentieth century. Then it became clear that it

was necessary to establish a number of additional rights related to solidarity among the

different nations and peoples that coexist in our planet. These third generation rights

include: right to self-determination, right to social and economic development, right to a

clean environment...

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QUESTIONNAIRE

1. What do we mean when we say that human beings "have rights just because they

are persons”?

2. People's rights are based on a set of core values from which they derive. Could

you name the fundamental values on which we organize our living in democratic

societies?

3. What is the meaning of "citizenship"? Could you explain it giving some

examples?

4. What are civil rights? Could you name the most important among them?

5. What are the political rights? Can you identify some of them?

6. What are the most relevant economic and social rights included in our

Constitution?

7. Have all human rights been recognized at the same time? Explain your answer

8. Could you explain the difference between the rights included in the first, second

and third generations?

9. What are the rights of solidarity between peoples? Could you give an example?

10. Do you believe that all human beings can freely exercise their rights everywhere

in the world? Explain your answer

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UD 5. HUMAN RIGHTS IN OUR MODERN WORLD

OBJECTIVES

- * Assess the situation of human rights in our current world, identifying some of

the cases in which these rights are not respected

- Value the task of non-governmental organizations and international institutions

in order to foster human rights in the world

- * Assume the importance of our personal contribution to promote respect for

human rights in our environment

CONTENTS

People's rights are not always respected

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that people's rights are universal,

imprescriptible and inalienable. This means that we all have these rights, that nobody

can ever take them away from us, that we can neither give them away to anyone, nor

give them up, even if we want to.

Although we all have the same human rights, the truth is that there are many places

where these rights are not respected. This is particularly true in countries without

democracy, where the most fundamental rights are often violated. There are places

where freedom is not recognized to citizens, who are not allowed to freely express their

ideas. There are regions where torture is common. There are still places where women

do not have the same rights as men, because they cannot even drive a car. But the worst

situation occurs when there are wars. Currently there are over thirty wars in the world,

although some of them have little space in the news on TV.

By far, the most important right is the right to life and personal security. But even

nowadays this right is not granted to all people on Earth. Thousands of people suffer

from starvation, and many millions do not have an adequate health service. In some

countries there is still death penalty and in many others torture is a common practice.

There are some great areas where human rights are still not respected, especially in the

poorest and least developed regions of the world. The main problems have to do with

violence against women, weapons illegal trade, death penalty, torture and illegal

detentions, lack of international justice, malnutrition and problems of access to clean

water and schooling.

International organizations and NGOs

There are several international organizations that struggle to defend human rights and

help people in difficult situations. Many of these organizations rely on the UN,

UNHCR, UNRWA and UNICEF. The UNHCR is responsible for assisting refugees.

UNRWA provides assistance to the Palestinians who have had to leave their homes by

the conflict with Israel. UNICEF provides support to children with difficulties, which

are often the weakest and those who suffer the most. In addition, FAO is responsible for

providing food assistance when needed, and WHO seeks to improve the health situation

in the world.

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In addition to these international organizations, there are also NGOs that strive to

improve the situation of human rights in the world. Some of these NGOs are Doctors

Without Borders, the Red Cross, Amnesty International, Oxfam and Caritas.

What can we do?

The most important thing we can do is know and respect human rights. We can also

help others to realize that we must respect all people. We should not be silent when we

see that the rights of other people are not respected. And we also can participate in

campaigns and mobilizations that seek to improve the situation of human rights in the

world.

Moreover, there are different organizations involved in the defence and protection of

human rights. In our country, human rights are protected by the constitution and the law

protects anyone who reports its violation. If this does not work, we can also go to the

European Court of Human Rights. Globally there is also an International Criminal

Court, which is in charge of trying the most serious violations to human rights such as

genocide or war crimes. Unfortunately, there are still some countries which do not

accept the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court.

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QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Do you think that human rights are respected everywhere? Give at least three

examples to illustrate your answer.

2. Why do you think that rights are not respected in war situations? Who are the

most affected people in these cases?

3. Can you give the name of one international organization that helps to defend

human rights? What do they do?

4. You know what is an NGO? Is there any NGO that is dedicated to promoting

human rights?

5. What can we do in defence of human rights? Give concrete examples to clarify

your answer.

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UD 6. EQUALITY BETWEEN WOMEN AND MEN

OBJECTIVES

- * Reject all kinds of sex discrimination and adopt a responsible position in

defence of gender equality.

- * Assess the importance of the historical struggle for the recognition of equality

between women and men, appreciating the evolution of women's rights and

recognizing that we must still fight to strengthen gender equality.

- Understand the gravity of gender violence situations, developing a critical

attitude against it.

CONTENTS

Gender difference

Men and women are not only different in their biological characteristics, but they also

differ in the way they behave. Sex refers to the biological feature that makes someone

be a man or a woman. On the other hand, gender is what makes a person be a male or

female. Gender has to do with the different roles assigned to women and men in society.

Sex differences are inherited, but gender roles are acquired. These gender roles are not

always the same, but they change with time and place.

In recent times there have been major changes in gender roles. Nowadays both women

and men can work and share housework tasks equally. Unfortunately, this is not always

the case, because there are still men who try to impose their dominance over women.

Domestic violence occurs when a man wants to subject a woman taking advantage of

her. Domestic violence can include insults, humiliation, scorn, beating and even the

death of the victim. These situations are very serious, as they are a terrible violation of

the rights of people, so we should all do our best to avoid them.

Discrimination and rejection

Unfortunately, the rights of the people are not always respected. We say there is

discrimination when someone is being treated unfairly in a different way compared to

other people. For a long time, women have been discriminated because some of their

basic rights (such as the ability to study, to work or to vote) were not respected. This

attitude is called male chauvinism or sexism. Sexism consists in a wrong belief,

according to which men are superior and they should rule over women.

Sometimes people are discriminated because of their physical features. Racism consists

in victimizing those who have a different skin colour or special physical traits.

Xenophobia is different, because it appears when people from other countries are

discriminated just because of their origin. There are still other kinds of discrimination.

For example, homophobia occurs when homosexuals are discriminated just because of

their sexual orientation.

An extreme case of discrimination occurs when people are unfairly separated and

treated in a different way. This is called segregation. For many years, racial segregation

was practiced in countries like the United States or South Africa, but nowadays this

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unjust policy has been abandoned. This attitude is very negative because it doesn't

respect our personal differences, forgetting that despite our individual features all

human beings are basically equal.

The struggle for equality between women and men

As you know, women have been discriminated for centuries. Throughout history, the

important posts in society were traditionally reserved only for men.

Women have been deprived of education and kept apart from public life for a long time.

For this reason, most of the historical figures that appear in our history books are men.

However, despite all obstacles along history women have also been highlighted in many

fields of science and culture. We can point to philosophers as Hypatia of Alexandria or

Hildegard of Bingen, to painters such as Sofonisba Anguissola or Frida Kahlo, to

scientifics like Emmy Noether and Marie Curie, to musicians such as Lili Boulanger

and Clara Schumann, to politicians like Victoria Kent and Clara Campoamor, to writers

such as Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz, the Brontë sisters, Emily Dickinson, Emilia Pardo

Bazán or Rosalía de Castro...

The recognition of equality between women and men has been a long and difficult

struggle. For example, when the French revolutionaries fighting for freedom proclaimed

the Republic in the late eighteenth century, one of their first decisions was to proclaim

the Declaration of the Rights of the Man and the Citizen. According to this statement,

all men were equal and had equal rights, but there was no mention of women anywhere.

To change this situation, Olympe de Gouges wrote a Declaration of the Rights of the

Woman and the Citizen. Unfortunately, her initiative failed, and women remained

second-class citizens for a long time.

It was necessary to fight for many years in order to accept that we are all equal and have

equal rights. One of the pioneers in the defence of women's rights was Mary

Wollstonecraft, who defended in the nineteenth century equality between women and

men. For decades the suffragettes fought for recognition of the women's right to vote.

However, they found a large resistance. The first country in the world to grant women

the right to vote was New Zealand in 1893. In Spain, the initiative of Clara Campoamor

granted women the right to vote in 1931. Until then, only men had the right to vote in

our country.

Currently, in our country men and women have the same rights before the law.

Notwithstanding this, inequalities still exist. Sometimes there are still differences in the

salary that men and women earn for a similar work. There are still many more men than

women in key posts in economy, administration and politics. In many homes, women

are still responsible for the housework and the raising of the children. So we need to

keep fighting in order to get a real equality in practice between men and women.

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QUESTIONNAIRE

1. What is the difference between sex and gender? Could you explain your answer

with some examples?

2. Gender roles have changed a lot over time. Which were the gender roles of men

and women in Spain a century ago? How are they alike and how do they differ

from our current gender roles? Give specific examples.

3. What is domestic violence? Why do you think that it appears? How could we

help the victims who suffer it? Explain.

4. What is sexism? Do you think that our modern society is still sexist? What could

we do to combat sexist attitudes in our daily lives?

5. Could you provide the name of at least five women who have excelled

throughout history in a relevant field of science or culture? Try to find different

examples than those which appear in the notes.

6. What did Olympe de Gouges do? Was her initiative successful? Explain your

answer

7. What was the contribution of Mary Wollstonecraft to the movement for women's

rights? Explain.

8. What was Clara Campoamor's contribution in the defence of women's rights?

Explain.

9. What was the suffragist movement? Do you know when and where it appeared?

Did the suffragettes success in their fight?

10. Are there still exist differences between men and women in our society? Explain

your answer with specific examples.

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UD 7. DEMOCRACY

OBJECTIVES

- * Recognize the virtues of democracy over other alternatives such as fascism or

communism

- * Identify the key features that should characterize a political system in order to be

considered a real democracy

- Analyse some of the major problems that modern democracy has to face nowadays

CONTENTS

The democratic state

Democracy is a system of government in which power resides in the people. Although

this form of government nowadays is common, the truth is that is was not very usual in

the past. Throughout history there have been different political regimes: empires,

monarchies, feudal or absolutist states...

Some Greek cities such as Athens were democratic in antiquity. However, in Athens

only Athenian free men were real citizens. Women, slaves and foreigners were excluded

from democracy.

Modern democracy began to spread only after the independence of the United States

and the French Revolution. After these events, democracy became a common form of

government in many countries.

Today it is considered that a state can only be legitimate if it is democratic. Democracy

is preferable to other forms of political organization for several reasons:

Attempts to build alternative political systems, such as fascism or communism,

have caused millions of deaths and terrible suffering

Democracy provides procedures for participation and involvement in public life,

promoting the autonomy of citizens

Democracy encourages dialogue and consensus, enabling the search for common

good based on political equality

However, democracy has its weaknesses. For example, as they are more transparent,

democratic systems make their limitations and errors clearly visible.

The development of democratic states has fostered the acknowledgment of the people's

rights. First of all, some basic civil rights were recognized, including the right to safety

and property, the guarantee against arbitrary detention, etc.. In a second phase some

political rights were also acknowledged, including the right to universal suffrage, the

right of assembly, association and strike, etc.. Later also economic and social rights

were recognized such as the right to education, health and social services (second

generation rights). Finally, modern societies have also recognized the rights of peoples

to self-determination, development and solidarity (third generation rights). For this

reason, modern countries are called “social and democratic States of Law”.

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Requirements of a democratic state

Currently the majority of the world's States are considered to be democratic. However,

only a few of them meet all the requirements of a true democracy. These requirements

are the following:

The citizens must be free

All people should be equal before the law

The branches of government (executive, legislative and judicial) should be

separated

There should be free and frequent elections, with universal suffrage, in which

everyone can participate and be elected

There must be freedom of expression and association

There should be access to accurate and plural information

The authorities should govern independently and autonomously, serving the

general interests

Some current problems of democracy

Our modern democracy is not a direct democracy. It is a representative democracy.

Direct democracy is unworkable in modern societies, because fo the complexity and

slowness of decision-making procedures.

There are different formulas that can be used to translate votes into parliamentarian

seats. They all have their advantages and disadvantages. In majoritarian electoral

systems, the seat is awarded to the candidate with the highest number of votes. This

system allows the formation of large majorities in parliament, but it also makes small

parties to be under-represented. In proportional electoral systems, the seats are allocated

proportionally to the number of votes received. This system reflects the will of the

people expressed at the polls, but it also has some problems because of the great number

of different parties that are generally represented. As these parties do not always agree,

the formation of a stable majority in the parliament can be very difficult.

Another important issue related to electoral systems is the list settings. In some places

closed lists are used. This means that each party presents a list of candidates, but

citizens can not choose between them. Thus, in practice the voter can only choose the

party. The alternative system, with open lists, lets the voter select the specific people he

wants to choose, marking them on the ballot. The open list system implies a complex

organization, but it also ensures a more genuine participation by citizens.

The fact that our democracy is indirect makes people feel that they are far from public

affairs. Many people abstain in the elections and refuse to participate in political life.

Many citizens feel that the parliamentary discussions do not address the really important

issues that ordinary people care about.

The decisions of the rulers are often conditioned by the influence of media or lobbies.

Moreover, globalization has reduced the political options of the government.

Political parties have a rigid structure that sometimes seems to be more interested in

preserving their power than in developing policy initiatives to improve the lives of

citizens. So often their messages are directed to the public only when elections are

close.

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QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Has democracy been a frequent political system throughout history? What forms

of political organization have been predominant in each historical period?

2. During the twentieth century democracy has been harshly criticized. In several

countries it was replaced by other forms of organization that were considered

better, such as fascism or communism. Do you think that these alternatives are

preferable to democracy? Why? Explain your answer

3. What are the main features of a real democracy? Explain your answer carefully.

4. Current democracy also has its limitations and problems. Make a list of these

problems and analyse its significance and its impact on our society.

5. It is sometimes said that democracy is worthless because it is not able to solve

our problems. According to this opinion, it might be preferable to have a strong

political system with a determined government who could take quick and firm

decisions in order to address the serious problems of the people. What do you

think about this opinion? What would you say if someone told you this?

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UD 8. JUSTICE AND EQUITY

OBJECTIVES

- Recognize the difference between law and morality

- * Distinguish conventionalist theories from natural law theories, appreciating the

implications of both of them regarding the existence of a human nature

- Know the Platonic theory about the four virtues

- Assess how the Sophists established the distinction between physis and nomos in his

analysis of justice and law

- * Learn the basics of Platonic criticism of the relativist theory in his analysis of justice,

analysing its relevance for our modern world

- Know how medieval thought linked the idea of justice to the divine law imposed by

God in the world

- * Know the utilitarian interpretation about law and justice

CONTENTS

Justice and law

Modern democracies are democratic constitutional states. In these political systems all

citizens are under the rule of law. The branches of government are separated

(legislative, executive and judiciary) are they are also subject to the law. The rights and

freedoms of the citizens are recognized by law.

The basic rule of a democratic state is the Constitution. The Constitution sets out the

basic rights and duties, as well as the general guidelines of political organization.

In modern societies, there is an important difference between morality and law.

Morality is individual and is based on personal conscience. The law, however, is the set

of rules established by the State, so it affects all citizens. The right is usually divided

into private and public. Private law regulates private relations between individuals (such

as in a sale or a contract), while public law takes into account the general interests of the

State.

What is the foundation of legal norms? There are two competing theories on this

subject:

- The theory of natural law defends the existence of natural rules that include

rational and universal principles valid for all people at all times, based on human

nature

- The conventional theory holds that laws are the product of agreement among

people, because society is not natural but artificial. Society is the product of a

"contract" which replaced force by rules. According to this view, people do not

have a fixed human nature or essence.

Moral virtues and justice

Every human being has distinct personal features with innate and acquired parts. The

acquired part of our personality is called character. The character is formed by a set of

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habits or usual ways of behaviour. Moral habits are those that influence others and have

consequences for other people. Positive habits are called moral virtues and negative

moral habits are called vices.

A virtue is a habit which predisposes us to act in a positive way that is consistent with

our idea of what is good.

The Greek word for virtue is "areté", which means "excellence". For Plato the main

virtues were four: temperance, fortitude, prudence and justice.

Theories of justice

In ancient Greece, justice meant "order and proportion," referring to the adjustment of

parts to a whole in which each thing occupies its rightful place.

In classical Greece the Sophists introduced an important distinction between the cosmic

and natural law (physis) and the social and political order (nomos). Natural laws are

stable and permanent, but human laws depend on the collective decision taken by men,

so they may change depending on the time or place (relativism).

Plato did not agree with the relativism of the Sophists. Plato believed that there is an

ideal natural order that should be performed in society. To achieve this balanced order

society must be wisely governed. This can only be achieved if the power is in the hands

of philosophers. A proper society should be organized making each kind of person

focus on what they do best. This is, according to Plato, the only way to achieve a social

order based on justice.

Aristotle thought that social justice is a virtue. People can only develop a good life

within the community, so ethics must be attached to politics. Aristotle made an

important distinction between general justice and particular justice. General or legal

justice has to do with the law, which must pursue the common good and must be

applied to everyone equally. Particular justice is applied to specific individuals in their

relationships with others and with society. It is possible to distinguish two different

kinds of particular justice: commutative and distributive.

Commutative justice is applied in trade. It assumes an order between equal people

protecting the right of every individual to have what belongs to him. Commutative

justice is based on a principle of balance between what is given and what is received.

Commutative justice is, for example, which should regulate a sale to be fair.

Distributive justice applies to deliveries that should be made according to criteria such

as merit or need based on a principle of fairness. Distributive justice governs relations

of the individual with society (on issues such as the taxes that everyone must pay or the

state aid that is received by individuals)

In medieval times Christian thinkers argued that the natural order of the world and

society has been established by God. For them Justice consisted in maintaining and

preserving this order.

The separation of religion and justice did not occur until modernity. The philosophers of

the modern age thought there were rights and natural laws that were independent of

religion. According to this natural law theory, laws are fair only if they agree with the

natural order of things that we can learn through the use of reason. The social contract

theory also appears in the modern age. According to this theory, the human being is

social by nature, but he lives in society because he has an agreement with others in

order to live peacefully.

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For nineteenth-century utilitarian thinkers, the law must respond to the interests of

individuals. The law will be fair when it promotes the greatest good for the greatest

number of people. So what is useful is also just and fair. .

The positivist theory of law appeared later. According to the positivist theory, the only

laws that exist are those that have been created by the people. This view is contrary to

natural law because it denies the existence of natural laws

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QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Do you remember the difference between law and morality?

2. What is natural law? What is the difference between this theory and the

conventionalist approach? Which of these two positions do you find most

compelling?

3. What do the natural law theory and the conventionalist theory imply about

human nature? Explain your answer

4. Could you explain what the "character" is? Which is the connection between

character and the virtues and vices?

5. What were the four main virtues according to Plato? Do you think that this

theory about virtues is still valid today? Explain.

6. Clarify the difference between legal justice and particular justice using concrete

examples.

7. What is the difference between commutative justice and distributive justice?

Could you explain your answer with specific examples?

8. What is the meaning of the difference between the laws of nature (physis) and

human laws (nomos)? Explain with examples

9. Plato didn't agree with the relativist view that Sophists held about human laws.

Try to clarify which was Plato's position on this issue.

10. What is the positivist view of law and justice? Do you agree with this

interpretation? Give clear reasons for your answer.

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UD 9. GLOBALIZATION

OBJECTIVES

- * Understand the basic features of the globalization process, relating it to the historical

development of relationships between the peoples of the Earth

- * Recognize the existence of positive and negative aspects of globalization, evaluating

the different interpretations that can be made about this phenomenon

- Appreciate the importance of the cultural dimension of globalization and its impact on

traditional cultures and minority

- * Know the name and the basic objectives of the most relevant international

organizations, assessing the problems that limit their effectiveness in achieving peace

and combating inequality in the world.

- Know the main differences between rich and poor countries, reflecting about this

unfair situation

- Relate the problem of poverty with the consequences of colonization and the

subsequent economic exploitation

- Understand that wars are linked to inequality and injustice

- Recognize the existence of marginalized people in our own societies, learning to

combat prejudice against them

CONTENTS

The global village

Throughout history, different peoples have developed in a more or less independent way

during a long period of time. However, since the discovery of America in the sixteenth

century, the relationships between the peoples of the world have been more and more

important. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Europeans developed vast sea

routes to facilitate trade, and so the relationship between countries increased.

The nineteenth century is sometimes called the colonial era. European countries sought

resources and cheap workers in the South, as the British did in India. At this time an

unequal interdependence between countries was established. According to this unfair

situation, some countries get benefits, but others lose out.

In the twentieth century, after two world wars, the colonies became politically

independent, but economic and social inequalities still persist. Now the domain is more

economic than military or political. This new situation is known as neo-colonialism

Today the expansion of capitalism and the development of transport and communication

have greatly strengthened relations between the peoples of the world. Today we live in a

big global market and our world is more interconnected than ever. This process of

growing interrelationship between all parts of the world is called globalization. Modern

globalization has been made possible by the development of communications and new

technologies.

Although the world is more united than ever, our planet has a scandalous inequality in

life forms. Rich countries (U.S., Europe, Japan), with 20% of the population, enjoy

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power and wealth, while 80% is divided between developing countries and the countries

of the Third world.

The economic dimension of globalization

Currently there are many planetary-scale economic exchanges. In our world, every day

goods and capital are interchanged, yet there are many difficulties for the movement of

people (as reflected by the phenomenon of illegal immigration)

In the current capitalist economic system, exchanges are regulated by the law of free

market. Companies are taking advantage of offshoring and the global division of labour

for profit, which has led to a clear dominance of transnational corporations.

One consequence of this situation is the appearance of serious inequalities between

countries. Economic relations are not balanced, because poor countries provide raw

materials for export and cheap labour, while rich countries protect their economies and

get rich at the expense of others. Furthermore, the serious problem of foreign debt on

poor countries is a burden that prevents them from reaching a fully developed standard

of living.

Is globalization beneficial or problematic? For some it is an irreversible process that has

its good side. These people think that globalization is positive and desirable, because it

provides a way to solve the world's problems. However, there are also people who argue

that globalization is negative, because it is unfair and it is increasing inequalities

between peoples.

Cultural dimension of globalization

Globalization also has a cultural aspect, related to lifestyles and ways of thinking. In

this respect we also find conflicting views about it. Some believe that cultural

globalization is good because it will create a universal culture as an enriching mix

between all forms of life. But others believe that the process is expanding the culture of

the dominant countries with a commercial and ethnocentric logic that leads us towards

impoverishing standardization that eliminates traditional cultures (as happens, for

example, to minority languages, which tend to disappear)

Political dimension of globalization

We can talk about a political dimension of globalization, associated with the loss of

decision-making power of national states and the increasing power of transnational

corporations. To channel this problem it has been necessary to create international

regulatory organizations, with the following objectives:

UN - Maintain peace, promote cooperation, foster safety and human rights

UNESCO – Promote cooperation in education, science and culture

ILO - Improve working conditions (wages, minimum working age, freedom of

association)

UNICEF - Help children

ITJ - Resolve disputes between States, prosecute war criminals

BM - send help to developing countries

IMF – Give loans to countries for debt relief

WTO - Regulation of trade between countries

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However, problems persist because although the objective is to ensure peace and fight

injustice, the actions that are performed are not always effective. One of the reasons for

this relative failure is the democratic deficit of these institutions, where not all countries

have the same decision-making or the same influence.

Inequalities in our current world

There are major economic and social inequalities in our current world. In general, there

is a broad difference between rich countries (USA, Canada, Europe, Japan, Australia

and New Zealand) from the rest of the world. Rich countries, with 20% of the world

population, accumulate 80% of the planet's wealth. Other countries suffer from poverty,

malnutrition, population problems, low schooling rate, health problems, energy

shortages, poor industrialization, poor infrastructure and internal political and social

difficulties.

The origin of these differences can be found in colonization. Rich countries imposed an

economic system of massive exploitation of resources to poor countries. Rich countries

obtained raw materials from monoculture with cheap labour, selling manufactured

goods to the poor countries.

After the Second World War the colonies won political independence, but remained

economically dependent on the rich countries. Currently, poor countries lack capital and

powerful industries, supporting a serious debt which they cannot pay. They also suffer

from serious social and political problems inherited from the colonial era. These

inequalities have often led to wars, with serious consequences for the local population,

the economy and the environment.

Currently, economic and social inequalities continue. Since the 70's diverse

international organizations have been created in order to combat poverty and reduce

inequality. These agencies began implementing neoliberal economic measures:

relocation, labour flexibility, privatization of social protection systems, etc... Globally,

they have facilitated the flow of capital and goods, but they have also hindered the

movement of people (illegal immigration). These policies have not been able to

eliminate hunger or reduce inequalities in a significant way. Many people think that the

deregulatory and liberalizing trend has been discredited after the severe economic crisis

that occurred in 2008.

The Fourth World

Poverty is also present in the rich countries, home to a large number of marginalized

people who suffer severe social discrimination.

Discrimination usually has its origin in our negative prejudices. Prejudice helps us to

reassure our hearts with excuses before an unfair state of things.

Faced with marginalization we must defend the essential equality of all people.

Differences between people are natural, but social inequalities are not, and must fight to

reduce them.

Discrimination can only be eliminated by affirming the principle of equality, combating

negative attitudes towards other people and learning how to put ourselves in the place of

the others (empathy).

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QUESTIONNAIRE

1. What was colonialism? What kind of relationship did at this time exist between

the metropolis and its colonies?

2. After the two world wars, the colonies won their political independence. But

have they managed to become financially independent? Why do they say that the

former colonies are still subject to rich countries?

3. Is wealth fairly distributed in our modern world? Explain your answer with facts

and figures.

4. What is debt? Why is it so problematic for poor countries? What could be done

to solve this problem?

5. What is offshoring? What are the advantages that it can provide for a company?

Can you think of what might be the consequences of this process?

6. Why do some people think that globalization harms minority cultures? Explain.

7. What is a transnational company? How do these companies benefit from

economic globalization?

8. Do you know what the UN is? What is the main goal of this organization? Why

do you think that UN is not always able to achieve its proposed goals?

9. Name five international organizations explaining its name and the goals that

they try to achieve.

10. Find information about the MILLENNIUM GOALS of the United Nations. Do

you think that these goals are too ambitious? Could they be achieved? Do you

think that they will actually be achieved? Why? Explain.

11. Could you identify the richest and poorest countries in the world with the help of

a map? How many people are there in the richest countries? And how much

wealth is accumulated in these countries?

12. What are the main differences between the rich North and the poor countries of

the South? Explain.

13. What was colonization? What was the impact of this process on colonized

countries? Use concrete examples to clarify your answer

14. Colonized countries gained independence in the second half of the twentieth

century, but their problems didn't disappear. Could you explain the main

problems that they had to face after decolonization?

15. Why is it said that wars are related to inequality? Explain your answer

16. What were the neoliberal policies pursued by rich countries in recent decades?

Explain your answer

17. Could you explain what “relocation” and “offshoring” mean? What effects do

these practices have? How are they linked to the phenomenon of globalization?

18. Rich countries have also been affected by globalization. How has globalization

changed our everyday lives in developed countries?

19. What do we mean when we talk about the "Fourth World"? What is the origin of

this situation?

20. Do you think it possible to combat the prejudice against marginalized and

impoverished people? What could we do to overcome this situation?