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168 Ethical perspectives


6.1 Developing spiritual intelligence andhigher consciousness

Dorothy Sisk

Addressing spiritual intelligence provides opportunities for students to honorlife’s most meaningful questions: How can I make a difference? Why am I here?Does my life have meaning? Discussing such questions engages students withsomething larger than their ego; connecting to the lives of others, to nature andto the mystery of being alive. In this chapter, spiritual intelligence is defined asthe capacity to use a multi-sensory approach, including intuition, meditation andvisualization to tap one’s inner knowledge to solve problems of a global nature(Sisk and Torrance 2001).

The psychological base for spiritual intelligence

Carl Jung was convinced that myths represent what is universally known byeverybody, linking us with our past and to contemporary human society (Campbell1971). Jung’s four functions of consciousness are sensing and intuition by whichfacts and the fact-world are apprehended; feeling and thinking involved in judgingand evaluation. Feeling and intuition are essential to the development and use ofspiritual intelligence. Jung (1969) described the theory of synchronicity, as aninner psychic condition and an external event coming together in a way that canbe perceived as having a meaningful coincidence.

Dabrowski (1967) divided his theory of disintegration into two parts:Over-excitabilities (Oes) which interact with special talents and abilities of theindividual. He identified five over-excitabilities (Oes) – psychomotor, sensual,imaginational, intellectual and emotional – which interact and manifest incapacity to care, insatiable love of learning, vivid imagination and endlessenergy. These capacities form the core of spiritual intelligence (Sisk and Torrance2001). Individual development comes through a process of lower cognitive-

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Ethical perspectives 169

Table 6.1.1 Dabrowski levels of positive disintegration

Level I(Primary Integration)

Level II(Unilevel Disintegration)

Level III(Spontaneous MultilevelDisintegration)

Level IV(Organized MultilevelDisintegration)

Level V(Secondary Integration)

Source: Dabrowski and Piechowski 1977.

Individuals at this level are described as being primarilyegocentric, rigid and stereotypical.

Level I individuals lack empathy and self-examination, andthey tend to blame others when something goes wrong.

Individuals are influenced by their social groups, and theyare moral relativists with no clear-cut set of self-determinedvalues.

Level II individuals display the beginning of shame, andextreme or changeable identification with others.

Individuals have developed a hierarchical sense of values,and their inner conflict is made up of a struggle to live up totheir higher standards.

Level III individuals can become depressed and anxious withtheir perceived lack of achieving these established goals.

Individuals are well on the way to self-actualization, and theyhave figured out how to reach their ideal goals.

Level IV individuals manifest high levels of responsibility,reflective judgement, empathy and authenticity.

Individuals have mastered their personal struggle regardingself, and disintegration has been transcended by theintegration of their values and ideals.

Level V individuals live a life in service to humanity, andaccording to the highest universal principles of love andcompassion; manifest dynamisms of responsibility, autonomy,empathy, and perfection.

Level V individuals are committed to universal principles;identify with humanity; and their lives reflect thecompassion and forgiveness that represent the core oftheir being.

emotional structures being disintegrated and replaced by higher level structures(Table 6.1.1).

Carl Rogers (1980) had a deep trust in human nature, and said people havean internal biological drive to fully develop their capacities and talents, which hecalled the actualizing tendency. Rogers, like Jung, suggested that people areinfluenced by feeling-experiencing processes, and information processing whichmay be akin to dream-states and meditation. Rogers proposed the Qualities of the

Person of Tomorrow (Rogers 1980), and Table 6.1.2 includes many of the qualitiesof spiritual intelligence (nos. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10 and 12).

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Maslow (1968) described human evolvement through five basic categories ofneeds: physiological, safety, love, esteem, all leading towards self-actualization.Maslow said that satisfaction of lower needs (Deficit values), allows higher needs(Being values) to be fulfilled. Being values are associated with growth motivationand expanded horizons, and include wholeness, perfection, justice, beauty, uni-queness, creativity – all important aspects of spiritual behavior. Maslow alsodeveloped his concept of peak experiences as movement toward perfect values,and he described self-actualized people as individuals who manifest the positivequalities of self-awareness, creativity, spontaneity, openness to experience, self-acceptance, and the special qualities of democratic character and social interest.

From this brief summary of the key tenets of Jung, Dabrowski, Rogers, andMaslow, several concepts of spiritual intelligence emerge. Dabrowski’s Level Vof development in which individuals live a life in service to humanity with loveand compassion, represent the core behaviors of spiritual intelligence (Sisk andTorrance 2001). Individuals with the capacity to care, and insatiable love areindividuals who manifest spiritual intelligence or self-actualization as describedby Maslow (1968). They demonstrate the Qualities of the Person of Tomorrow asdescribed by Rogers (1980). People manifesting spiritual intelligence are open toa multisensory way of knowing, using the core capacities of meditation, intuition,and visualization as proposed by Jung (1969).

The scientific base for spiritual intelligence

Science as a search for truth

Neuroscientist Candace Pert (1997) describes science as a spiritual endeavor thatexplores the linked system of ‘bodymind’. Pert concludes that neuropeptides

Table 6.1.2 Qualities of the Person of Tomorrow, by Rogers

1 Openness (open to new experience and ways of seeing and being)2 Desire for authenticity (value of open communication)3 Skepticism regarding science and technology (distrust of science used to conquer

nature and people; sees science used to enhance self awareness)4 Desire for wholeness of life, body, mind and spirit5 Wish for intimacy, new forms of communication and closeness6 Process person (aware that life is change, welcomes risk-taking and the change

process)7 Caring (eager to help, nonjudgemental)8 Symbiotic attitude toward nature (ecologically minded, feels alliance with nature)9 Anti-institutional (antipathy for highly structured, bureaucratic institutions)

10 Authority within (trusts own experiences and moral judgements)11 Unimportance of material things (money and material status symbols not main goal)12 Yearning for the spiritual (wish to find meaning and purpose in life that is greater

than the individual)

Source: Rogers 1980: 350–351.

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(strings of amino acids) are responsible for emotions, not just anger and fear, butalso awe and bliss. Pert (1997) emphasizes the important role of intuition in herscientific discoveries and says that a higher intelligence comes to us via ourmolecules and cannot be received from the five senses alone.

Consciousness in the brain

The brain research conducted by Rodolfo Llinas and Urs (1993) suggests thatconsciousness or mind is a state of the brain that is intrinsic, rather than theresult of sensory experiences, and that when we dream, the brain switches off theouter world and attends to its inner processes. Zohar and Marshall (2000) reportthat the brain appears to have a transcendent dimension, and the brain cansynthesize perceptual and cognitive events into a larger more meaningful whole.

Energetic network

Caroline Myss (1996) suggests that the human body can be viewed as a vastenergetic network where spirit, matter, and power intersect. Myss has studiedthis energy system and its link to consciousness and spiritual traditions, demon-strating how the body encodes thought, converts it into matter, and stores itwithin specific areas of the body.

Greg Braden (1997) also discusses the interconnectedness of the body withenergy. Magnetite can be found in the brains of birds and mammals, includinghumans, and it allows us to tune into, and to respond to, the magnetic field ofthe earth. Braden reports that previous cultures were sensitive to this and builttemples or used natural sites which exhibited the requisite geographical cyclicconditions to tap altered states of consciousness.

Everything in the universe is connected

Fritjof Capra (1991) says that the image of the universe is that of an inter-connected, dynamic whole whose parts are interdependent and need to beunderstood as patterns.

From this exploration of science, there emerges a concept of a consciousuniverse in which we interact as part of a continuous connected process of unity.The brain research of Llinas (1987) and Ramachandran and Blakeslee (1998)suggests that there may be an intrinsic area of the brain, the temporal lobe, thatcan be included as a brain state of spiritual intelligence.

The basis for spiritual intelligence derived from ancientwisdom and eastern mysticism

Thoth, an ancient Egyptian sage, is credited with the invention of sacred hiero-glyphic writing, and he is portrayed as a scribe with the head of an ibis. Theancient Greeks identified Thoth with their god Hermes, the guide of souls in the

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realm of the dead. Hermes promoted reflection and meditation, and taught thatan enlightened being belongs to nature, and feels unity with everything.

The ancient Essenes were communal agriculturists living in harmony withnature: a simple, peaceful life with a pure tradition of eating no meat or drinkingalcohol. The Essenes’ practice of the ‘communions’ expressed an exceptionalknowledge of psychology: the morning communion opened the mind to har-monious forms of energy and brought them into the physical body, the eveningcommunion put the subconscious into contact with the superior cosmic forces,and the storehouse of information so that problems can be solved duringsleep. The Essenes linked body and the mind to form a dynamic unit: theybelieved love to be the primordial source of energy, harmony and knowledge,providing dynamic harmony to all cells, organs, and senses. They believed ‘will’to be the key to the manifestation of this great source of energy through creativeimagination.

There are three central concepts in the Sufi tradition: the heart, the self, andthe soul. Heart refers to the spiritual heart that contains our intelligence, wisdom,and power to love. In western culture, logical reasoning is considered the highesthuman skill; the Sufi tradition calls this the lower intellect, useful in schooling,and in learning skills related to worldly success. The Sufi’s higher intellect enablesunderstanding of spiritual truths and the meaning of life. Abstract intellect,according to the Sufi tradition, must have the light and wisdom of the heart.

The essence of Hinduism is found in Moksha or liberation. When one experi-ences concretely and personally that everything is Brahman (the inner essenceof all things), then one becomes liberated and recognizes that everything isconnected, sensing the unity and harmony of all nature, including ourselves.

Buddhism enshrines four Noble Truths. The first truth accepts that thehuman situation is suffering; the second truth attributes the cause of all sufferingto our clinging and grasping; the third truth states that suffering can be endedwhen we reach a state of liberation called Nirvana. The fourth truth points to aneightfold path: Right Belief, Resolve, Speech, Right Conduct, Daily Occupation,Effort, Alertness, and finally the ecstasy of Selfless Meditation.

Zen teaches that words cannot express ultimate truth: Zen Enlightenmentis active participation in everyday life, not withdrawal from it, and whenEnlightenment is attained, there is wonder and mystery in every single act. Zenstresses naturalness and spontaneity to focus on the process of Enlightenment,to realize that we become what we already are from the beginning.

The major purpose of Confucianism is to provide an ethical basis for thetraditional Chinese family system, life in society and ancestral worship. Taoism isconcerned with observing nature and discovering the way or ‘Tao’. Humanhappiness in Taoism is achieved by following the natural order, acting spontane-ously and trusting intuitive knowledge. The Chinese believe in an ultimatereality that underlines and unifies all things, and is an all-embracing whole.

Confucianism is rational, masculine, active and dominating, whereas Taoismis intuitive, feminine, mystical, and yielding, and the contrast of yin and yang isreflected in these two dominant trends of thought.

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Jewish Kabbalah teaches that the human being consists of a spirit that rep-resents the highest degree of existence, a soul which is the seat of good andevil attributes, and a coarser spirit or life of the senses that is closely related tothe instincts of animal life. Above the life of the senses soars the soul, and abovethe soul soars the spirit which is ruled and illuminated by the light of the life.

The Native American philosophy is earth-centered, and the creator ismanifested in every bush and tree, in the gifts of food and shelter, in nurturing,and in the fulfillment of the everyday needs of life. Native Americans believe inthe interconnectedness of all things, the circular nature of the universe, and therightness of both birth and death in the overall scheme of creation. Eastman(1980) said everything has a soul, the rocks, the seven directions, the wind andwater, the earth and fire, the plants and animals, the sun, the moon and stars.The Sioux Native American tradition teaches that spirits can step out of thebody, and spirit travel. Mails (1991) says that in the old days, people did notseparate daily life from spiritual life: when Fools Crow was asked to describespiritual power, he said that it felt like energy or electricity when it movesthrough you.

Native American people tapped their intuition through visions, and theybelieved one gains wisdom by visualizing. They believed in the intuitive way ofknowing, and preferred innermost thoughts over learning through the senses.

The ancient wisdom and eastern mysticism, and the wisdom and traditions ofNative American and indigenous people share a common strand for building aconcept of spiritual intelligence: the concern for unity, and the interrelationor connectedness of all things, with all things viewed as interdependent andinseparable from the cosmic whole, the Creator and Creative force. Ultimatereality is called ‘Brahman’ in Hinduism, ‘Dharmakaya’ in Buddhism, ‘Tao’ inTaoism and ‘Wakan-Tanka,’ by the Native American. These common elementsare similar to the fundamental feature of the world-view of a conscious universethat emerges from science.

The role of education in developing spiritualintelligence

Support is growing for home schooling in the United States, and for the useof federal funds for private religious schools: some individuals are reacting toperceived hostility toward their views; some resent the neutrality of the schools;and others feel that schools are ignoring the central aspect of living a meaningfullife. With the growing cultural diversity in schools all over the world, and morechildren representing Islamic, Hindu and Buddhist traditions in their families –learning about other religious traditions may help to prevent cultural wars in ourschools. Palmer (1999) describes the current challenge to education:

Fear is everywhere – in our culture, in our institutions, in our students, inourselves – and it cuts us off from everything. Surrounded and invaded byfear, how can we transcend it and reconnect with reality for the sake of

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teaching and learning? The only path I know that might take us in thatdirection is the one marked spiritual.

(Palmer 1999: 6)

Palmer (1999) says the price that has been paid for a system of education sofearful of things spiritual is that it fails to address the real issues of life – dispens-ing facts at the expense of meaning, and information at the expense of wisdom.Such schooling alienates and dulls, and he defines ‘spiritual’ as a quest forconnectedness with self, with others, with the worlds of history and nature, andwith the mystery of being alive. This definition represents spiritual intelligenceas proposed by Sisk and Torrance (2001). The disciplines of history, physics,psychology and literature can be taught using connectedness as an organizingtheme. Teachers can focus on the big picture, and provide students oppor-tunities to explore how connectedness applies to them as individuals.

Palmer (1999) has created a teacher training program The Courage to Teach

during which teachers examine the spiritual questions that are at the heart of theseason in which they attend. Teachers report several outcomes; for example,feeling more grounded and flourishing in their selfhood and home lives, and lesslikely to burn out, and feeling that they are better teachers, able to deal withconflict and change peacefully and with hope.

Educators want to address the broader implications of Gardner’s (1983) inter-personal and intrapersonal intelligences, Goleman’s (1995) emotional intelligence,and the interconnectedness of learner and teacher, local and global commun-ities, and the cosmic world which represent the core of spiritual intelligence(Sisk and Torrance 2001). Suhor (1999) says that the current diversity in schoolsprovides access to many traditions and strategies including writing from theinner self: he forecasts greater recognition of methods like imaging and medita-tion saying spirituality grows in classrooms when teachers view themselves asagents of joy and conduits for transcendence, rather than merely as licensedtrainers or promoters of measurable growth.

Noddings (2000), at Teachers College, Columbia University, has developedcurriculum to address spiritual questions, suggesting that teachers address theexistential questions of ‘How should we live?’ ‘Is there meaning to life?’ ‘Why isthere something, rather than nothing?’ She also recommends that schools havegardens and animals so that students experience and build a strong awareness of,and connection with, nature.

Sisk and Torrance (2001) stress that spiritual intelligence develops throughcompassion, interconnectedness with self and others. Students need to solve realethical dilemmas of today: they need to explore the core values underlyingcompassion, honesty, fairness, responsibility and respect, and applying these corevalues in education will

• build a common language• help define a common purpose• develop and maintain trust

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• influence the school climate to enhance the teaching and learning goals• provide the basis on which to nurture the spirit, and create a deeper sense of

meaningfulness.

Wesley (1999), a principal in New York, says education is about content andtheme, full of energy and pathos, and master teachers give themselves fully andselflessly to their art. He emphasizes that most students have little identitybeyond home and school, and feel they are anonymous nobodies, but throughthe way teachers treat, challenge, and coach students, they can become some-bodies. He stresses that believing in students is not only good for them, but is apowerful ennobling experience for teachers.

Miller (1999), a professor at the University of Toronto in Ontario, says holistic,connected learning can provide a broader vision of education, as well as improveacademic ability and performance. He suggests a balance between individualand group learning, analytic and intuitive thinking, content and process, andlearning and assessment. He stresses the need for classrooms to become learningcommunities, places where people know one another, and feel responsibilitytoward the total environment.

Many educators are aware that students are seeking answers to questionsabout the meaning of life, and there is a need to encourage spirituality in theclassroom. The Passages Program (Kessler 1999) addresses six interrelated yearn-ings: the search for meaning and purpose, the longing for silence and solitude,the urge for transcendence, the hunger for joy and delight, the creative drive andthe need for initiation. She stresses that if we are educating for wholeness, citizen-ship and leadership in a democracy, spiritual development belongs in school.

Many school districts have added service learning projects to their gifted pro-grams, and to requirements for graduation. Krystal (1999) says that service learningshould be at the core of every curriculum because it provides purpose for stu-dents, and nurtures their spirit as few experiences can. Students report thatservice learning helps them to know they can make a difference in someone’slife, and in their community.

Earth Force in Alexandria, Virginia, is a service learning program that can beintegrated into science or social studies, and it follows a six-step process:

• take a community environment inventory• select a problem• research the problem and investigate the cause• identify options for influencing policy and practice, and look for ways to

define a course of action• plan and take action in the civic arena• celebrate and assess the completion of the project.

Boston (1999) calls this a transforming experience in the lives of students.Brown (1999) says that spiritual education is not about creating some kind

of educational Nirvana, it is about waking up to the sacredness of everyday

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learning. He stresses by separating the intellect from the other senses and fromthe body itself, all of our intelligence suffers.

Educating for spiritual development embodies the goal of developing studentscapable of discovering what is essential in life; and ways to strengthen spiritualintelligence for learning are listed in Table 6.1.3.

Conclusion

Inherent in the seven ways of developing your spiritual intelligence is finding asense of purpose, and creating a vision (Table 6.1.4). Once the vision of yourgoals is created, then you will need to make a commitment to these goals,followed by an intention to carry through toward your identified goals. It isessential for the development of your spiritual intelligence that you sense theconnectedness of everything-to-everything, and to shift your locus of authorityand perception in your life from external to internal. Equally essential to thedevelopment of your spiritual intelligence is for you to recognize and to honoryour relationship to the earth.

Table 6.1.3 Likely traits of spiritual intelligence and ways to strengthen for learning

Likely traits

• Uses inner knowing• Seeks to understand self• Uses metaphor and parables to

communicate• Uses intuition• Sensitive to social problems• Sensitive to their purpose in life• Concerned about inequity and injustice• Enjoys big questions• Sense of Gestalt (the big picture)• Wants to make a difference• Capacity to care• Curious about how the world works/

functions• Values love, compassion, concern

for others• Close to nature• Uses visualization and mental imaging• Reflective, self-observing and self-aware• Seeks balance• Concerned about right conduct• Seeks to understand self• Feels connected with others, the earth,

and the universe• Wants to make a difference• Peacemaker• Concerned with human suffering

Ways to strengthen for learning

• Provide time for reflective thinking• Use journal writing and processing• Study lives/works of spiritual

pathfinders• Use problem-solving (predicting)• Conduct service learning projects• Use personal growth activities• Use problem-based learning on real

problems• Provide time for open-ended

discussion• Use mapping to integrate studies/big

themes• Develop personal growth activities• Service learning projects• Integrate science/social science• Use affirmations/think-about-thinking• Employ eco-environmental approach• Read stories and myths• Use role playing/sociodrama• Goal setting activities• Process discussions• Trust intuition and inner voice• Stress unity in studies• Use what, so what, now what model• Negotiation-conflict sessions• Study lives of eminent people

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Table 6.1.4 Seven ways to develop or raise your spiritual intelligence

1 Think about your goals, desires, and wants in order to bring your life into perspectiveand balance, and identify your values

2 Access your inner processes and use your vision to see your goals, desires, wantsfulfilled, and experience the emotion connected with this fulfillment

3 Integrate your personal and universal vision, and recognize your connectedness4 Take responsibility for your goals, desires and wants5 Develop a sense of community by inviting more people into your life6 Focus on love and compassion7 When chance knocks at your door, invite it in, and take advantage of coincidences

Key questions

1 How are the principles of global education connected to the development ofspiritual intelligence?

2 What role does locus of control play in the development of spiritual intelligence?3 How can teachers of diverse gifted students develop their ethical perspect-

ives while celebrating their ethnic diversity?

References

Boston, B. (1999) If the water is nasty, fix it. Educational Leadership, 56(4): 66–69.Braden, G. (1997) Awakening to Zero Point. Bellevue, WA: Radio Bookstore Press.Brown, R. (1999) The teacher as contemplative observer. Educational Leadership, 56(4): 70–73.Campbell, J. (1971) The Portable Jung. New York: Penguin.Capra, F. (1991) The Tao of Physics. Boston, MA: Shambahla.Dabrowski, K. (1967) Personality Shaping through Positive Disintegration. Boston, MA: Little

Brown.Dabrowski, K. and Piechowski, M. M. (1977) Theory of Levels of Emotional Development:

Volume I, Multilevelness and Positive Disintegration. Oceanside, NY: Dabor Science.Eastman, C. (1980) The Soul of the Indian. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska.Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of Mind. New York: Basic Books.Goleman, D. (1995) Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam.Jung, C. (1969) Collected Works. Translated by R. F. C. Huyll, Bollingen Series XX.

Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Kessler, R. (1999) Nourishing students in secular schools. Educational Leadership, 56(4): 49–

52.Krystal, S. (1999) The nurturing potential of service learning. Educational Leadership, 56(4):

58–61.Llinas, R. (1987) Mindfuluess as a functional state of the brain, in C. Blakemore and

S. Greenfield (eds) Mindwaves. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Llinas, R. and Urs, R. (1993) Coherent 40-Hz oscillation characterizes dream state in

humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 90: 2078–2081.Mails, T. (1991) Fools Crow, Wisdom and Power. Tulsa, OK: Council Oaks Books.Maslow, A. (1968) Toward a Psychology of Being. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.Miller, J. (1999) Making connections through holistic learning. Educational Leadership, 56(4):

46–48.

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Myss, C. (1996) Anatomy of the Spirit. New York: Crown.Noddings, N. (2000) Educating for Intelligent Belief or Unbelief. New York: Teachers College

Press.Palmer, P. (1999) Evoking the spirit in public education. Educational Leadership, 56(4): 6–11.Pert, C. (1997) Molecules of Emotion. New York: Scribner.Ramachandran, V. S. and Blakeslee, S. (1998) Phantoms in the Brain. New York: William

Morrow.Rogers, C. (1980) A Way of Being. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.Sisk, D. A. and Torrance, E. P. (2001) Spiritual Intelligence: Developing Higher Consciousness.

Buffalo, NY: Creative Education Foundation Press.Suhor, C. (1999) Spirituality: letting it grow in the classroom. Educational Leadership, 56(4):

12–16.Wesley, D. (1999) Believing in our students. Educational Leadership, 56(4): 42–45.Zohar, D. and Marshall, I. (2000) Connecting with our Spiritual Intelligence. New York:

Bloomsbury Publishing.

6.2 Reclaiming soul in gifted education:the academic caste system in Asian schools

Mary Anne Heng and Kai Yung Brian Tam

In Singapore, as in other Asia-Pacific countries such as Hong Kong, Korea andJapan, intense academic competition pervades schools. Although Singapore hasimpressive performance in international mathematics and science competitions(Keys et al. 1996), a recent poll of at least twenty countries reported that Asianstudents scored second-lowest in enjoyment of math and science (School daze 2002).

The academic caste system

Academic success in a school culture of ruthless academic competition leavesmany students increasingly dissatisfied with themselves, as pointed out by a14-year-old student: ‘In some ways, school encourages superficial success,because society encourages this’ (Heng 1999). A number of fundamental ques-tions follow: Do schools educate for life? Is there meaning to school beyond theacademic ‘A’? Roeper (1995: 142) cautions: ‘education has become a one-sided(academic) instrument. . . . it does not stress the development and the growth ofthe self. Yet it is this inner self . . . that is the central point of their lives’.

In a twelve-nation survey in 1998, Singaporean youth rated goals of ‘gettingrich and having social position’ as a major aspiration. A subsequent study(Wake-up call for Singapore youths 2000) indicated that Singaporean teenagersexhibit narrow-mindedness, tend to be smug and egocentric, and see the paperchase as the means to a good life. Hong Kong conducted a similar youth surveyin 1998, and the results revealed that 30 percent of respondents equated successwith good academic results, 25 percent rated ‘fulfillment of goals’ and 15 percent

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rated ‘having a prosperous career’ as measures of success (Commission on Youth2002). The then Acting Education Minister, Tharman Shanmugaratnam, pointedout that Singaporeans make good employees but few can think out-of-the-box,much less lead. Furthermore, Singaporeans tend to be more interested in sus-taining their current lifestyle rather than pursuing their dreams (Changing intime for the future 2003).

In Hong Kong, admission to prestigious kindergartens and primary schools iscompetitive, often requiring interviews and examinations. Parents begin plan-ning by relocating their homes near the preferred school; children are preparedfor entry examination(s) two to three years in advance with interview skills,musical skills and knowledge, language proficiency in Mandarin and English,and problem-solving skills. Parents invest tremendous time and resources believingthat a good primary school ensures better secondary and university education.

The competitive Asia-Pacific economies have long experienced a school cul-ture that engenders an academic caste system and correspondingly high levelsof stress. A survey of 500 students aged between 13 and 19 from Hong Kong,Shanghai and Taiwan found that nearly 40 percent of teenagers polled in Shang-hai and Taiwan, and more than 20 percent of those polled in Hong Kong ratedstudy fears as the foremost factor in suicidal thoughts (Teens crushed by studypressure 2003). The survey also reported tremendous pressure from intensecompetition among peers, high expectations and copious school assignments.In Singapore, one in three primary school children finds life not worth living;nearly four out of five spend as many as three hours daily on homework; andseven out of ten receive extra classes after school (Gregory and Clarke 2003).

Table 6.2.1 is a typical daily schedule for high school students in Korea(School daze 2002). Korean parents typically send their children to ‘cram school’by age 7 to give their children a headstart on the academic track. Notoriouslyknown for contributing to a childhood of ‘examination hell’, East Asian schoolsgenerate an elite of ‘winners’ and an underclass of ‘losers’. The biggest problemwith Asia’s schools today is the cumulative, detrimental effects of high-stakes

Table 6.2.1 A typical daily schedule for high school students in Korea

6:50 a.m. Wakes, gets dressed for school and eats some toast7:40 a.m. Walks to school8:10 a.m. Attends a 40-minute English comprehension lesson8:50 a.m. – 4:30 p.m. Classes5:00 p.m. Eats some rice cakes, starts homework6:00 p.m. Private math tutorial8:00 p.m. More homework8:50 p.m. Leaves home for cram school9:20 p.m. Attends English lesson at cram schoolMidnight Teacher drives student home12:30 a.m. Arrives home, takes a shower, does more homework, has a

snack, plays computer games2:00 a.m. Time for sleep – for less than five hours

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assessment and an unhealthy focus on school grades: children no longer linksubstantive learning with schooling as they struggle to cope with relentless,almost crushing, school pressure (Gregory and Clarke 2003).

Reflective of a more pervasive problem of all developed economies, in recentinterviews conducted by the New York Times, sixth graders showed intense pre-occupation with getting into the right college to gain access to good jobs (Newman2000). A college freshman survey by the Higher Education Research Institute,University of California, Los Angeles (2004) reported only a small number ofcollege freshmen said it was important to ‘develop a meaningful philosophy oflife’, while interest in being ‘well-off financially’ was rated the most important.

Many young people today do not have any understanding that their liveshave a higher purpose. . . . from the poorest to the most affluent, (they)are imprisoned by our culture’s obsession with material things. . . . Insteadof fostering meaningful discourse, tolerance of divergent thinking, and theopportunity to get to know ourselves and each other, schools today lookmore like huge centers for testing preparation.

(Lantieri 2001: 2–3)

Failure to nurture soul in schools: half-sighted versuswhole-sighted vision

Webster’s (1971: 2176) definition of soul reads: ‘the immaterial essence or sub-stance, animating principle, or actuating cause of life or of the individual life’.Kessler (2000: x) refers to soul as the ‘inner life – the depth dimension of humanexperience – a student’s longing for something more than material, fragmentedexistence’. The notion of soul in education does not concern issues of religion,but life philosophy, a more penetrating attempt at ‘seeing’ and ‘knowing.’ West-ern ways of knowing and understanding reality often center on the observable,on perceiving reality as divorced from an understanding of self and others.

The Chinese characters for ‘busy’ and ‘blindness’ have the same pronunciation,suggesting figuratively that incessant activity could render people blind to therealities around them. P. Palmer (1993) refers to this as ‘half-sightedness’, seeingthings with only one eye: the other eye, representing spirit or soul, offers anotherlens to seeing and understanding reality. Palmer argues for ‘whole-sighted’ edu-cation that should reappraise the fundamental assumptions underlying educationalpolicies and practices and the impact they have on children’s learning.

In Asia and elsewhere, competitive learning environments are typically char-acterized by a narrow focus on right answers and test outcomes – half-sightededucation. Whole-sighted education encourages learners to question, take risksand pursue passions, looking beyond academic excellence and nudging the learnerin pursuit of meaning and purpose.

Most modern teaching, even at university level, is about facts disconnectedfrom a philosophy of the whole (Martin 2000). Thomas S. Popkewitz in Rogers(2000: 269) cautions that a major contradiction exists in which the ‘good

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intentions of teachers, manifested through their university-certified pedagogicalpractices, limit the possibilities for genuine intellectual experiences for all childrenin schools, particularly children of color and poverty’.

Borland (1996: 134) urges educators to question the extent to which we aredealing with something real when we talk about ‘gifted’ and ‘average’ children asif those labels referred to discrete categories of human beings. In our half-sightedclassification of children as gifted or learning-disabled, we are grossly simplifyingthe complexities of learner needs and capabilities.

Education is about teaching individuals to read and write, and to acquire skillsto earn a living, and grade standards matter; but what about children’s spirit,vision, curiosity and imagination? Should education not also be about celebrat-ing diversity and talents, respect and perseverance? Most importantly, shouldeducation not also be about helping children discover meaning, purpose,compassion and joy in life?

The changing nature of community points towards more globalized eco-nomies and cosmopolitan living with young people in search of new culturalcontexts and identities. Although educators and policy-makers proclaim theimportance of education that maximizes children’s potential, the system usuallyestablishes ‘one-size-fits-all’ standard tests to judge success or academic potential.Our world children need an education grounded in a sense of self-realization forliving and being.

Reclaiming soul in education through the Evolving SelfModel

The Evolving Self Model stems from the authors’ search for meaning andmission, as they sought to understand themselves and aspire to be of service tocommunity. The Evolving Self Model (Figure 6.2.1) delineates four broad philo-sophical beliefs that guide the individual’s search for self-understanding in relationto family and peers, and the wider perspective of service to the community.

The Evolving Self Model has its conceptual roots in the thoughts and ideas ofConfucius and Dewey who embrace the widest perspectives that illuminate ‘soul’in education. Confucius believed in living an experience, and Dewey conceived ofexperience as the touchstone of life.

Confucius charted a developmental path for his students, beginning with thegrowth of self, then self in relation to achieving family harmony, and then self inrelation to peace and order in the empire ( J. Palmer 2001). He perceived learningas the foundation of self-development:

If one loves humaneness but does not love learning, the consequence ofthis is folly; if one loves understanding but does not love learning, the con-sequence of this is unorthodoxy; if one loves good faith but does not lovelearning, the consequence of this is damaging behaviour; if one loves straight-forwardness but does not love learning, the consequence of this is rudeness;if one loves courage but does not love learning, the consequence of this is

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Believing in

unique talents

Pursuing

dreams

Seekin

g dee

p

meanin

gs

Being

perse

vera

nt

SELF

FAMIL

YA

ND

PE

ER

S

TOS

EEK

CO

MM

UN

ITIE

S

TOSERVE

rebelliousness; if one loves strength but does not love learning, the con-sequence of this is violence.

( J. Palmer 2001: 1)

Confucius was concerned with finding the right way or dao to handle a situation.This involves finding the developmental path that begins with the self, as shownin Figure 6.2.1. The journey begins with a deep understanding of the uniquenessand talents of self. For educators, this means valuing children for their uniquetalents, striving to understand the whole child. We need to help children answerquestions such as: Who am I? What is the meaning and purpose of life?

The second philosophical belief is seeking deep meanings to unite thought andaction, morality and fact, body and mind, individual and community (Grange2003: 15–16). Dao seeks real balance, not harmony achieved at the expense ofothers. Good teachers help students find connection and purposeful directionin their learning, encouraging meta-understanding of self, family, peers andcommunities.

Figure 6.2.1 Evolving Self Model: from seeking self to serving communities.

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The third philosophical belief concerns helping children pursue dreams bydeveloping the life of the mind and the spirit: helping children ask big, tran-scendent questions, developing courage to find a vocation that brings meaningand self-fulfillment.

The fourth philosophical belief highlights the importance of perseverance inpursuing the best for all, and enduring personal hardships.

Resonant with Confucian beliefs, Dewey (1916) was concerned with theenhancement of democratic community together with developing the concept ofthe unique self. He viewed schools as life itself, rather than a preparation for life.

[We must] make each one of our schools an embryonic community life,active with types of occupations that reflect the life of the larger society, andthroughout permeated with the spirit of art, history, and science. When theschool introduces and trains each child of society into membership withinsuch a little community, saturating him with the spirit of service, and pro-viding him with the instruments of effective self-direction, we shall have thedeepest and best guarantor of a larger society which is worthy, lovely, andharmonious.

( J. Palmer 2001: 177)

In summary, we believe that a school culture should be guided by four philo-sophical beliefs:

• individuals are uniquely talented• education should seek deep meaning, and help children discover connection

and purpose• children should be encouraged to pursue dreams• children should develop perseverance through adversity.

What can teachers do?

John Gardner (1984 [1961]: 144) asks if it is possible for people to achieveexcellence if they don’t believe in anything. He argues that talent in the serviceof beauty or justice is one thing; talent in the service of greed or tyranny is quiteanother. Roeper (1997) philosophizes:

True success in teaching gifted children can only be achieved when thepassions of the child – her soul and mind – are accepted as the foundationsupon which we bridge society’s expectations as well as our own.

(Roeper 1997: 166)

She strongly urges educators to nurture the psyche of the child towards self-actualization, while developing understanding of the wider world.

A young Singaporean teacher with a personal record of high achievement,and a recent award acknowledging him as an outstanding educator, says:

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I used to cry myself to sleep in secondary school. I needed reassurance thatit was okay to question and to search. My parents felt that I had found mypath, but I couldn’t really communicate with them, in a deep sense. . . . Ateacher could have helped to push boundaries to help me find me.

Tharman Shanmugaratnam (2004) emphasizes that the greatest challenge inSingapore education is to ‘provide more space for kids to pursue theirpassion . . . [t]o create a culture of intellectual curiosity in children . . . and aspirit of initiative to try something different, even if one might fail’.

Handy (1998) uses the hungry spirit as a metaphor for the emptiness people feelafter the quest for material and academic success to the exclusion of anythingelse. He writes:

I am angered by the waste of so many people’s lives, dragged down bypoverty in the midst of riches. I am concerned by the absence of a moretranscendent view of life . . . and by the prevalence of the economic mythwhich colours all that we do. Money [and traditional conceptions of success]is the means of life and not the point of it. There must be something that wecan do to restore the balance.

(Handy 1998: 3)

P. Palmer (1997) writes that we teach who we are: he emphasizes that goodteaching cannot be reduced to a technique; good teaching comes from theidentity and integrity of the teacher. Good teachers join self, subject and studentsin the fabric of life because they teach from an integral and undivided self; theymanifest in their own lives, and evoke in their students, the quest to develop theintellect, to realize the self and to search for meaning.

McLeod (1996) describes deep learning as having shifts in cognitions, atti-tudes, emotions and values. Grauerholz (2001) proposes that teachers use peda-gogical approaches that consciously promote student learning on levels beyondthe cognitive, incorporate diverse methods that engage students in personalexploration, relate course material to their own lives and help students clarifytheir own values and responsibilities to others. Teachers need to love questionsand to live in search of answers. Pleiss and Feldhusen (1995) emphasize the crit-ical role of a teacher/mentor who not only contributes knowledge and expertise,but also models the self, providing values, vision and life goals.

Csikszentmihalyi and Larson (1997: 179) identify the development of a per-sonal life theme as the ultimate achievement in the path of personal growth. Thisrefers to a process of ‘transforming misfortune in one’s life – or in the widersocial environment – into a goal that gives direction and meaning to a wholelife’. This puts the individual on a path of determined perseverance, enablingsignificant self-growth despite the presence of major obstacles. In their work withadolescent populations, Csikszentmihalyi and Larson (1997) note that only asmall number of adolescents actually develop authentic life goals. The majorityare content to pursue life themes scripted by society, namely, getting a degree, agood job, marriage and children.

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Conclusion

Confucius and Dewey viewed education as thinking about life. Writing thischapter has given us an opportunity to look back to our own education and thecultures we grew up with, seeking to understand self in the larger context ofhumanity beyond self.

Key questions

1 Academic biases in the education of children with high ability exist, despiteencouraging educational reform efforts on many fronts. Identify possiblesources of academic biases in your country. What can be done to minimizeor eliminate these biases?

2 ‘Half-sightedness’ refers to seeing things with only one eye, with the othereye, representing spirit or soul, offering another lens to seeing and under-standing reality (P. Palmer 1993). What are some examples of a half-sightedvision of education? How would perspectives differ with a more whole-sighted vision of education?

3 To develop a life or depth dimension in the education of the gifted, theEvolving Self Model put forward in this chapter highlights a culture ofschool that: (a) believes in the unique talents of all children, (b) seeks deepmeaning and helps children discover connection and purpose, (c) encour-ages children to pursue dreams, and (d) encourages children to be perseverantin times of adversity. What are some specific ways in which teachers couldplay a part in helping their children?

References

Borland, J. B. (1996) Gifted education and the threat of irrelevance. Journal for the

Education of the Gifted, 19: 129–147.Changing in time for the future (2003) The Singapore Straits Times, 4 October: 26.Commission on Youth (2002) Youth in Hong Kong: A Statistical Profile 2002. Retrieved

10 November 2003 from http://www.info.gov.hk/coy/text/eng/report/youth_statistical2002full. htm

Csikszentmihalyi, M. and Larson, R. (1997) The growth of complexity: shaping meaning-ful lives. NAMTA Journal, 22(2): 177–195.

Dewey, J. (1916) Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. NewYork: The Free Press.

Gardner, J. W. (1984 [1961] ) Excellence: Can We be Equal and Excellent Too? New York:W. W. Norton.

Grange, J. (2003) John Dewey and Confucius: ecological philosophers. Journal of Chinese

Philosophy, 30: 419–431.Grauerholz, L. (2001) Teaching holistically to achieve deep learning. College Teaching,

49(2): 44–50.Gregory, K. and Clarke, M. (2003) High-stakes assessment in England and Singapore.

Theory into Practice, 42: 66–78.Handy, C. (1998) The Hungry Spirit. London: Arrow.

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Heng, M. A. (1999) Scrutinizing common sense: the role of practical intelligence inintellectual giftedness, unpublished doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, ColumbiaUniversity, New York.

Higher Education Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles (2004)The American Freshman: National Norms for Fall 2003. Retrieved 1 March 2004 fromhttp://www.gseis.ucla.edu/heri/news_freshman.html

Kessler, R. (2000) The Soul of Education: Helping Students Find Connection, Compassion, and

Character at School. Alexandria, VA: ASCD (Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevelopment).

Keys, W., Harris, S. and Fernandes, C. (1996) Third International Mathematics and Science Study:

First National Report (Part 1). Slough, UK: National Foundation for Educational Research.Lantieri, L. (2001) Why we need schools with heart and soul. Reclaiming Children and Youth,

10(1): 2–4.McLeod, A. (1996) Discovering and facilitating deep learning states. National Teaching and

Learning Forum, 5: 1–7.Martin, T. (2000) Man is a misshapen monster: G. K. Chesterton. Vital Speeches of the Day,

66(21): 659–664.Newman, F. (2000) Saving higher education’s soul. Change, 32(5): 16–23.Palmer, J. A. (ed.) (2001) Fifty Major Thinkers on Education: From Confucius to Dewey. New

York: Routledge.Palmer, P. J. (1993) To Know as We are Known: Education as a Spiritual Journey. New York:

HarperCollins.Palmer, P. J. (1997) The heart of a teacher. Change, 29(6): 14–21.Pleiss, M. K. and Feldhusen, J. F. (1995) Mentors, role models, and heroes in the lives of

gifted children. Educational Psychologist, 30(3): 159–169.Roeper, A. (1995) Annemarie Roeper: Selective Writing and Speeches. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit.Roeper, A. (1997) Listen to the gifted child. Roeper Review, 19: 166–167.Rogers, D. L. (2000) [Review of Thomas S. Popkewitz’s book Struggling for the Soul: The

Politics of Schooling and the Construction of the Teacher]. Contemporary Sociology, 29(1): 269–270.School daze (2002) Time, 15 April: 46–51.Teens crushed by study pressures (2003) The Singapore Straits Times, 28 November: A8.Shanmugaratnan, T. (2004) Tharman’s greatest challenge, Today, 18 February: 1–2.Wake-up call for Singapore youths (2000) The Singapore Straits Times, 24 February: 1.Webster (1971) Webster’s Third New International Dictionary. Springfield, MA: G&C Merriam.

6.3 Personal perspective: Muslim gifted –religious education in Saudi Arabia

Aisha Arshad

I am originally from Pakistan, but I lived in a two-bedroom apartment in Al-khobar, Saudi Arabia for sixteen years. The laws are strictly according to Islam, themajor religion; crime is rare. We felt lucky living in Saudi Arabia because we couldgo on a Haj pilgrimage to visit the two holy mosques, Masjod Al-Itaram (Mecca)and Masjod-e-Nabwi (Medina), the location of prophet Muhammad’s tomb.

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As well as learning English, I learnt the official language, Arabic. The men inSaudi Arabia wear a long white shirt called a tumb and a headdress, a gutrah. Thewomen have to cover themselves with a black veil called an abaaya when they areoutside their homes. I started wearing the abaaya when I was 10 years old. TheArab women in Saudi Arabia wear long straight dresses that may have embroideryor beads on them and gold jewelry. Women decorate their hands, feet andfingertips with henna. I love decorating my hands with henna for Eid.

Eid is the name of the two Muslim festivals. We celebrate Eid-Al a Fitr, afterthe month of Ramadhan, by praying, dressing up, giving gifts and visiting familyand friends. The second festival, Eidal-Adha, takes place after Haj. MiddleEastern food is light and healthy, consisting of lots of fresh vegetables, rice,chicken, lamb, grains, yogurt sauces and dips, pita bread and cheese. Alcohol isprohibited in Saudi Arabia; there are no illegal drugs there such as heroinbecause of severe punishment. Women are not allowed to drive in Saudi Arabiaand the only jobs they can hold are teacher, doctor or nurse.

In first grade I attended Manarat, a small private Muslim school, and had towear a uniform: a white blouse under a blue pinafore. We started the day withan assembly reciting the holy Quran, and singing the Saudi national anthem.Based on the British system, we were taught reading, English, Math as well asArabic and Islamic studies, physical education and art. The younger classes suchas kindergarten were coeducational, but from first grade, the class was all girls orall boys.

Up until the ninth grade I attended Dhahran Academy, a coeducationalAmerican-based international school. Other than the general subjects, we alsohad extracurricular courses such as art, music, band, home economics, French,Spanish, Arabic and various sports. Methods of instruction and assessment werevaried and included a blend of interesting projects, hands-on activities and fieldtrips. We attended school from Saturday to Wednesday with Thursday andFriday being the weekend. The students could wear anything they wanted withinthe school dress code. Most of my teachers were from the United States, but thestudent body was ethnically diverse, and throughout the year this diversity wascelebrated. Dhahran Academy was not a religious school, but the various holi-days were recognized. After graduating in ninth grade, many of the studentswent to the United States or different boarding schools around the world.

After completing the ninth grade, I attended Manarat-Al-Sharkia, an all-girlsIslamic school, and being used to the American system of education, studies inManarat, although in English, were at times a challenge for me. Although themajority of the students and teachers were Muslim, they came from variousparts of the world such as Asia, North America and Africa. In Manarat, we wererequired to wear a uniform, and had to cover ourselves with the veil and coverour faces when entering and leaving the school. As Muslims, everyday we hadbreak so that we could observe the afternoon prayer, and that gradually got meto try to pray five times a day facing Mecca. Other than the general educationsubjects, extracurricular education included arts and crafts, home economics,various sciences, and different clubs that students could join based on their

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interests. Islamic studies were part of the curriculum and a Quran and Arabicclass.

After completing the tenth grade my family and I moved to Orlando, Floridawhere I completed my education at University High School, pretty easy for mebecause it was just like Dhahran Academy including American history. I boughtjeans and T-shirts to fit in: it would be awkward to walk around in a shalwar

qamiz at school! There were hardly any Pakistani students and I really missedthat because there are so many Pakistanis in Saudi Arabia. I received mybachelor’s degree from University of Central Florida in elementary education,and am currently taking courses towards a master’s degree in reading education.What I really like about moving to Florida was that there is more independenceand job opportunities. So being independent, such as getting my first job teach-ing at the Muslim Academy, and driving was something I had to get used to. Ilove it here. I do really miss Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia and being ableto go on a pilgrimage. What I miss most, however, is the peace in Saudi Arabia.

6.4 Conflict resolution 5: religious intolerance

Gillian Eriksson

A student, who was an immigrant from China, had been attending an Americanelementary school in fifth grade for a few months. This student had a fluency inEnglish, and had demonstrated a keen interest in American culture and history.Much to the dismay of her traditional Chinese parents, she had striven to dress,talk and behave like her American peers. She was very advanced in technologyand mathematics and had been referred to the gifted program. The family hadlived in a system that had provided no exposure to religion. One day after recess,the student arrived in class very upset and politely asked to speak privately to theteacher. She said that she had met some other students on the playground, whohad told her that if she did not believe in Jesus that she would be ‘condemned toHell’ when she died. ‘Is this really true?’ the student asked the teacher.

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