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School of Engineering, University of Warwick

ES327 Project Report

A Feasibility Study on the Implementation of a

Micro-Hydro Scheme in Sioma, Zambia

3rd year MEng



ES327 Project Report


Hydro Scheme in Sioma, Zambia

Hans Petter Bjørnåvold

MEng Manufacturing & Mechanical Engineering


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Hydro Scheme in Sioma, Zambia

Engineering

School of Engineering, University of Warwick 0602641

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Author’s Self Assessment

The following project report details the micro-hydropower concept, principles and finally its

application to the case of Sioma, Zambia. In order to achieve this, both primary and

secondary data has been collected and analysed. The analysis of this data has led to

decisions involving the design, and improvements to it, as well as the selection of location. It

is the author’s intention that the Sioma micro-hydro project will be developed into a pilot

scheme for developing communities and consequentially will form the basis of future

engineering contribution. If the ancient techniques of micro-hydro schemes are reworked

and improved, important improvements within the engineering field are implicit and

infrastructure development is continuously emphasized.

If the project becomes a successful pilot scheme, the use of the research presented in this

report will be invaluable. It would form the basis of a “best practice guide” for future micro-

hydro implementations and hence have a significant influence on many communities.

Although the project so far has been successful, it cannot yet be considered an

achievement. The lack of accurate figures and measurements prevents this. Since it proved

impossible to organise a technical visit to Zambia during the given project time, all

calculations presented are based on estimated figures. Accurate surveying has not been

performed, nor has an exact location been chosen. Once this has been arranged, however,

and the second phase of the scheme development starts, it is the author’s belief that the

Sioma micro-hydropower development will be classified as an achievement.


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Summary

In light of this project, the application of micro-hydropower appears ideal for rural

communities, particularly in the developing world. The provision of electricity is a vital step

in developing infrastructure which, in turn, entails vast improvement to quality of life,

competitiveness of local businesses and learning opportunities. The first section of the

project consists of a literature review on the micro-hydro area, which is subsequently used

for analysis and application to the Sioma site, found in Section III, titled “Feasibility Study”.

The Sioma Falls were determined to be the most viable location for a potential site, with a

head of approx. 10 metres. The flow of water in the Zambezi is adequately high year round

so that the theoretical limit of power production does not limit the proposed project. A

flow of 0.587 m3/s in the penstock is necessary to develop the 46.1 kW of power that was

deemed necessary. HDPE was concluded to be the optimal penstock material, with a

diameter of approximately 0.6 metres. Canal and intake designs and dimensions have been

put forward, to ensure that the required flow is maintained.

Due to the low average income of the Sioma community and the high cost of completion, it

is not realistic to expect a return on investment. Therefore, the completion of the project

relies entirely on charity sponsorship of the £45,000 required. Sources for raising at least

parts of this sum have been found, in the shape of ZEEC1 and the Sioma Medical Clinic fund.

Once completed, the scheme will be completely self-sustaining with the income generated

from supplying a woodworking workshop and local businesses in the area compensating for

maintenance costs of approximately £2300 a year.

1Zambezi Environmental Education Camp, registered Zambian charity


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Table of Contents

Author’s Self Assessment...........................................................................................................2Summary ....................................................................................................................................3List of Tables and Illustrations ...................................................................................................6Section I - General......................................................................................................................7

1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................7

1.2 Final Project Specification ...........................................................................................8

1.3 Research Methodology ....................................................................................................9

Section II - Literature Review...................................................................................................102.1 Hydropower Generation: ...............................................................................................10

2.2 Micro-Hydro and Rural Development............................................................................12

2.3 Technical aspects............................................................................................................13

2.4 Turbines..........................................................................................................................15

2.5 Coupling..........................................................................................................................19

2.6 Generators and Control .................................................................................................21

2.7 Civil works.......................................................................................................................23

2.8 Other micro hydro schemes in Zambia ..........................................................................30

2.9 Local manufacture and labour .......................................................................................32

2.10 Cost Reduction .............................................................................................................33

2.11 Management/ownership .............................................................................................34

Section III - Feasibility Study ....................................................................................................353.1 Geographical situation ...................................................................................................35

3.2 Initial Planning and Technical Analysis...........................................................................38

3.2.1 Power Requirements ...............................................................................................38

3.2.2 Measurement of Head.............................................................................................41

3.2.3 River flow gauging ...................................................................................................42

3.2.4 Turbine.....................................................................................................................43

3.2.5 Design of intake and canal.......................................................................................45

3.2.6 Forebay Tank ...........................................................................................................49

3.2.7 Penstock...................................................................................................................51

3.2.8 Power Transmission.................................................................................................54


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3.3 The potential contribution to the local community.......................................................56

3.4 Financial viability ............................................................................................................59

3.5 Ownership ......................................................................................................................61

3.6 Meeting with ZEEC .........................................................................................................63

Section IV – Conclusions and Recommendations....................................................................644.1 Conclusions.....................................................................................................................64

4.2 Costing of Project ...........................................................................................................65

4.3 Recommendations .........................................................................................................66

Glossary of Definitions.............................................................................................................67References/Bibliography..........................................................................................................68Appendix A...............................................................................................................................70Appendix B ...............................................................................................................................71Appendix C ...............................................................................................................................72Appendix D...............................................................................................................................73Appendix E ...............................................................................................................................74Appendix F ...............................................................................................................................75Appendix G...............................................................................................................................76Appendix H...............................................................................................................................77Appendix I ................................................................................................................................81Appendix J ................................................................................................................................85Appendix K ...............................................................................................................................86Appendix L................................................................................................................................87


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List of Tables and Illustrations

Figure 1- Worldwide technical hydropower potential versus economically feasible and present

situation

Figure 2 – Run of the river micro-hydro scheme typical layout

Figure 3 – Turbine Classification Chart

Figure 4 – Turbine Selection Chart

Figure 5 - Francis Turbine

Figure 6 - Tube type propeller turbine

Figure 7 – Pelton Wheel

Figure 8 – Turgo Turbine

Figure 9 – Crossflow Turbine

Figure 10 – Diagram of incorporation of Electronic Load Controller into generating system

Figure 11 – Dam used to create water reserve for micro-hydro scheme

Figure 11 – Sioma Falls

Figure 12 – Intake and weir at Tungu-Kabri project

Figure 13 – Power conduit in Tungu-Kabri project

Figure 14 - Penstock at Bamerchara Lake, Bangladesh

Figure 15 – Calculating Load Factor

Figure 16 – Using a level to measure head

Figure 17 – L-1 turbine casing and propeller

Figure 18 – Variants of L-1 Turbine

Figure 19 – Approximate sketch of intake design

Figure 20 – Cross section of power conduit

Figure 21 – Forebay tank design

Figure 22 – Estimated height and length dimensions of penstock

Figure 23 – Optimum penstocks for low head micro-hydro schemes

Figure 24 – Thermal expansion forces in rigid piping

Figure 25 – Proposed structure of ownership and ext. Relations

Figure 26 – Costing of Project


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Section I - General

1.1 Introduction

Many rural communities in developing countries suffer the same symptoms; a never-ending

cycle of poverty and lack of basic necessities. For many decades large aid organisations have

focused on emergency relief without assessing the causes; simply fire fighting incessant

difficulties. It is the author’s belief that rural infrastructure development is a solution to

these underpinning problems, and that, with the development of roads, safe water supplies

and electricity, communities can overcome the barriers to living long, safe and healthy lives.

Sioma, in South Western Zambia, is such a community. Its population is approximately 1500

of which about 50% HIV positive. Despite a main power cable passing just a few kilometres

from the village, ZESCO, the national power company, does not view the prospect of

building a sub-station for Sioma as economically viable, abandoning any prospect of

economic development in the region. It is from this idea that this feasibility study has arisen

from.

The report and project’s main objective is to develop a foundation for the future

implementation of a micro-hydro scheme at the Sioma site. Initially a complete literature

review on the subject of micro-hydro will be completed in order to form a full perspective of

the subject area. The knowledge gained through this will then be applied in the feasibility

section, where a preliminary design is to be completed and calculated based on estimates

from personal knowledge and communication with individuals connected to the region.


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1.2 Final Project Specification

The project specifications at the point of starting in October 2008 included the following

objectives:

Research possibility and prove viability of hydroelectric scheme in Sioma, Zambia

Produce a proposal for such a scheme

Network with engineering charities for support

Put plan into action (outside academic boundaries)

These were realistic objectives that were achieved to different degrees. The project initially

started with a literature review, where a complete overview of the micro-hydro field was

gained. This literature review was then used to allow for the feasibility study and hence

proving the viability of the hydroelectric scheme. This information was then used to

produce this report, which is the second objective.

Networking with engineering charities was not followed through to any great extent, mainly

due to the lack of response from the local government and ZESCO. Without a letter of

approval/request for help it was seen as futile to start applying for support from charities.

Nonetheless, contact with ZEEC and the Sioma Medical Clinic has been consistent – and the

possibility of funding from these seems realistic.

The final objective appears to be taking form quicker than anticipated, as a technical visit in

June seems likely. If the site proves to be practical, construction will commence once

funding is available.


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Additional completed objectives are:

Apply for letter of support from local government

Complete initial technical analysis, calculations and design

1.3 Research Methodology

The following project has been approached primarily by literature research. Focusing firstly

on gaining a wide and comprehensive understanding of the chosen subject area, a literature

review was completed. The literature review included the reading of a range of textbooks

along with credible internet sources and journals. Relevant aspects of these sources were

then used to formulate notes, which were then used in their relevant section of the report.

The knowledge gained from the literature review was then applied to the particular

situation of the chosen site. The most suitable applications of different technology were

analysed before being selected and recommended in this report.

For unknown variables (e.g. population figures, head etc.) discussion with people connected

to the area was used to determine estimated figures. It is therefore important to remember

that, wherever stated, estimates are not accurate.


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Section II - Literature Review

The literature review is a comprehensive summary of the material covered through the

project research. It should give a good insight into the development of micro-hydro sites

in general and provide a sufficient foundation for the following analysis in the feasibility

study.

2.1 Hydropower Generation:

Close to a quarter of the energy of the sun that reaches the earth’s surface causes water to

evaporate and hence a proportion of this energy causes vapour to rise against the earth’s

gravitational pull. This vapour then condenses into rain and snow, which again falls back to

the earth’s surface. This is called the water cycle and is the fundamental reason why

hydropower is possible [1]

When rain and snow fall onto any ground above sea level some of the sun’s energy is

conserved in the form of potential energy. This energy is then dissipated in currents as

water runs down in streams. By catching this water in the controlled form of pipes, we can

exploit the kinetic energy that becomes available with the movement of water. These pipes

are then used to direct the stream of water, under pressure, onto a turbine blade. The

water then strikes the turbine blade to create mechanical energy. [1]

This mechanical energy is then transmitted to an electrical generator through a rotating

shaft.[2] This simple process is essentially how all hydropower is generated – a process tried

and tested over hundreds of years which currently supplies over 715,000 MW or 19% of the

world’s total electricity. [3]


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Figure 1- Worldwide technical hydropower potential versus economically feasible and present situation [4]

The potential for hydropower expansion is still enormous; the U.S Geological Survey

estimates that 2/3 of the world’s hydropower resources remain untapped. [5] The main

advantages of investing into further hydropower development are summarized below:

No fuel burnt causing minimal pollution

Low operation and maintenance costs

Reliable and historically proven technology

Water is free and completely renewable through continued rainfall


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2.2 Micro-Hydro and Rural Development

Access to electricity is one of the key recipes for rural development and a necessity for the

improvement of infrastructure. An estimated 1.5 billion people in developing countries do

not have access to electricity [6], severely limiting the possibilities of economic growth. An

increased focus on decentralized energy generation, where the state cannot viably connect

population centres to the main electricity grid, significantly improves the development

prospects of struggling communities. Micro-hydro provides a reliable, affordable,

economically viable, socially acceptable and environmentally sound energy alternative for

rural development.

Micro-hydro is the small scale harnessing of energy from falling water, generating typically

less than 100 KW [7] and powering small communities or factories. It is micro-hydro the

following literature review will focus on.


2.3 Technical aspects

A brief technical review of hydropower is provided below. Due to the maturity of the

technology numerous textbooks are available with more detailed technical analysis.

Micro-hydro schemes generally follow th

scheme where no water storage is required. Instead water is deflected from a flowing river

into a canal before being “dropped” from the forebay tank to the turbine.

Figure 2 – Run of the river micro

This drop, from the level of water at the forebay, h

is defined as the available head:

(i) The potential energy




hydro schemes generally follow the layout shown in Figure 2 –



Run of the river micro-hydro scheme typical layout [8]

level of water at the forebay, hfb, to the level of water at the turbine, h

is defined as the available head:

potential energy of water is hence:

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a run of the river



, to the level of water at the turbine, ht,


Where PE = potential energy (Joules),

(9.81m/s2) and Hav = available head (m).

(ii) The power available at a hydropower station will always be proportional to the

product of the available head and the volume flow rate of the site:

Where P = Power (W), η = efficiency of

due to gravity (9.81m/s2), Q = volumetric flow rate (m


= potential energy (Joules), m = mass of water (kg), g = acceleration due to gravity

= available head (m).

available at a hydropower station will always be proportional to the


= efficiency of system, ρ = density of water (kg/m

= volumetric flow rate (m3/s) and Hav = available head (m)

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= acceleration due to gravity

available at a hydropower station will always be proportional to the


= density of water (kg/m3), g = acceleration

= available head (m)


2.4 Turbines

Water under pressure contains energy which can be captured by a turbine in two

ways:

(i) Pressure can exert a force directly on the surface of the turbine blades which

transfers energy to the turbine and causes a corresponding pressure drop in the

water as it goes through the turbine. This type of turbine is called a reaction

turbine.[9]

(ii) The pressure can first be converted into kinetic energy in the for

speed jet of water

blades, transferring its momentum to the turbine blade surface before dropping

to the tail-water with little remaining pressure. These turbines are called impulse

turbines.[9]

The different types of turbines included within these two categories can be sorted according

to the appropriate head – as is illustrated in figure 3

The main reason for this head classification is that turbines are required to produce a shaft

speed of minimum 1500 rpm in order to generate electricity and to minimize the speed

difference between the turbine and the generator.

The chart below allows users to choose a turbine based on the volumetric flow rate and

available head.


Water under pressure contains energy which can be captured by a turbine in two

Pressure can exert a force directly on the surface of the turbine blades which



The pressure can first be converted into kinetic energy in the for

speed jet of water exiting through nozzle. The water jet strikes the turbine


water with little remaining pressure. These turbines are called impulse


as is illustrated in figure 3.

Figure 3 – Turbine Classification Chart



difference between the turbine and the generator.

ers to choose a turbine based on the volumetric flow rate and

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Water under pressure contains energy which can be captured by a turbine in two basic

Pressure can exert a force directly on the surface of the turbine blades which



The pressure can first be converted into kinetic energy in the form of a high-

jet strikes the turbine


water with little remaining pressure. These turbines are called impulse




ers to choose a turbine based on the volumetric flow rate and


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Figure 4 – Turbine Selection Chart [10]

Reaction Turbines

Reaction turbines run with a casing completely filled with water, exploiting the oncoming

flow of water. A draft tube is present to discharge the water below the runner. This slows

the discharged water and hence reduces the static pressure, effectively increasing the head.

The two main types of reaction turbines are the propeller and the Francis turbine: [9]

Figure 5 - Francis Turbine Figure 6 - Tube type propeller turbine

Image source: “Small hydro power: technology and current status”, Oliver Paish, Elsevier Science Ltd, 2002


The Francis turbine is, in effect, a more complicated version of the propeller turbine where

water is made to enter the turbine radially and discharge axially. In terms of manufacturing,

reaction turbines are more challenging to fabricate due to the use of more intricate bl

and case profiling. This makes them less attractive for micro

their superior performance at low

Impulse Turbines

Impulse turbines are the more traditional

jet strikes directly on the turbine blade or bucket surfaces. This pressurized jet then caused

rotational motion (and hence mechanical energy) which can be converted into electrical

energy.

The most common impulse turbine is the

series of buckets on its rim. The water stream is propelled tangentially at the wheel, which

propels the buckets forwards and results in the rotational movement of the wheel.

Image source: “Small hydro power: technology and current status”, Oliver Paish,


is, in effect, a more complicated version of the propeller turbine where


reaction turbines are more challenging to fabricate due to the use of more intricate bl

and case profiling. This makes them less attractive for micro-hydro use. However, due to

their superior performance at low-head sites, they are nonetheless increasingly popular.

Impulse turbines are the more traditional alternative of turbines, where a pressurized water



n impulse turbine is the Pelton wheel (figure 7), which is fitted with a



Figure 7 – Pelton Wheel

Small hydro power: technology and current status”, Oliver Paish, Elsevier Science Ltd,

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is, in effect, a more complicated version of the propeller turbine where


reaction turbines are more challenging to fabricate due to the use of more intricate blade

hydro use. However, due to

head sites, they are nonetheless increasingly popular. [9]

alternative of turbines, where a pressurized water



), which is fitted with a



Elsevier Science Ltd, 2002


The Turgo turbine (figure 8) is simply a more advanced version of the Pelton. The water jet

strikes the runner at an angle to aid discharge. This ensures that the rotation of the wheel is

not limited by discharge build up and interference. This also means that Turgo turbines can

have a smaller diameter turbine than a Pelton for the same power output.


The Crossflow turbine (figure 9

demonstrates high efficiency at a range of heads and power outputs. A jet of water enters

the turbine through a rectangular nozzle and strikes the blades, imparting most of its kinetic

energy. It then passes through the runner and strikes the blades again on exit, transferring

a smaller amount of energy before discharging out the tailrace.



) is simply a more advanced version of the Pelton. The water jet



ave a smaller diameter turbine than a Pelton for the same power output.

Figure 8 – Turgo Turbine


(figure 9) is similar to the Pelton and Turgo turbines but



ses through the runner and strikes the blades again on exit, transferring

a smaller amount of energy before discharging out the tailrace.

Figure 9 – Crossflow Turbine


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) is simply a more advanced version of the Pelton. The water jet



ave a smaller diameter turbine than a Pelton for the same power output.


) is similar to the Pelton and Turgo turbines but



ses through the runner and strikes the blades again on exit, transferring



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2.5 Coupling

Coupling between the turbine and the generator (or other machinery) is a vital part of any

micro-hydro system. In the optimal case the turbine and generator are selected to rotate at

the same speed. If this is achieved, then the need for gearing is eliminated and hence the

amount of parts that may need maintenance/replacing are minimised. This is the case with

all large scale hydropower schemes, where careful design of each turbine is necessary.

However, in many micro-hydro schemes cost may limit this optimisation. So there are two

main streams of coupling for micro-hydro schemes:

Direct Coupling

As stated earlier, this is achievable when the turbine and generator operate at the same

speed and the set up can be laid out so that their shafts are co-linear. [11] This means that

there are virtually no power losses. However, great care must be taken when aligning the

shafts – as otherwise equipment may fail prematurely.

In order to tolerate small misalignments and unforeseen changes in turbine or generator

speeds, flexible coupling is often used. This means that a flexible material is used (i.e.

rubber) and constructed so that the material transmits the shear forces, rather than the

shafts themselves.

Belt drives

Belt drives are often used for micro-hydro schemes, mainly due to the use of standardised

turbines and the availability as well as the inexpensive nature of such belts. [11] There are a

number of variants of these belts, including flat belts, V-belts and, to a lesser extent, timing

belts.


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Belts are more elastic than chain drives or gears and so one of their main advantages is that

they can absorb shock by sudden changes in loads or other factors well. In addition, if one

component should lock up, slippage of flat belts will prevent damage to the more expensive

equipment. [11]


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2.6 Generators and Control

Generators transform the mechanical energy produced by the water hitting the turbine into

electrical energy. Early hydroelectric systems made use of Direct Current generation to

match the requirements of early electrical equipment; however, modern schemes make

almost exclusive use of three phase alternating current generators. [10] There are two main

groups of generators:

Synchronous Generators:

Excitation with synchronous generators is not grid dependent and so can run in isolated

locations. The generator operates at a speed directly linked to frequency when not

connected to the grid, but speed variation is not possible when it is connected to a grid. In

the case of off-grid use, the voltage controller maintains a predefined constant voltage

independent of the load. [11]

Asynchronous Generators

An asynchronous induction generator requires some form of external excitation to operate

when used in a standalone scheme, disconnected from the grid. This excitation can be

achieved through the use of a series of capacitors if the grid network is not available. If

there is an excitation source, asynchronous generators are the safer option of the two

alternatives. [11]

Load Control

Clearly, the load on water turbines will affect their speed. This can seriously affect the

frequency and voltage output of a generator which in turn could damage the generator by


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overloading or over-speeding. Electronic Load Controllers (ELCs) have been developed over

the past two decades to provide reliable regulation of output power in a micro-hydro

system. They control the amount of load by automatically varying the amount of power

dissipated in a resistive load, often known as the dump load. This keeps the load on the

generator and turbine constant by constantly sensing and controlling the generated

frequency. [12]

ELCs contain no moving parts, and are therefore virtually maintenance free. They also

eliminate the need for expensive hydraulics governors.

Figure 10 – Diagram of incorporation of Electronic Load Controller into generating system [12]


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2.7 Civil works

The main civil works required for a complete micro-hydro scheme are demonstrated by

Figure 2, shown in the general hydropower discussion. In addition various other

components may be required, such as spillways, gates etc. However, a designer must be

very careful when planning a scheme not to include unnecessary components leading to

excessive and avoidable costs. It must, nonetheless, be ensured that all necessary

components are included in the design to avoid the malfunctioning of the scheme. Below is

an overview of the main components and their uses in micro-hydro schemes:

Dam

In most large scale hydropower developments dams are thought of as inherent aspects of

construction. A dam’s function is to either increase available head (for example when

terrain is relatively flat) or to create a reservoir to store water. [11] In the case of many

small scale projects, including ours, there is no need to fulfil either of these functions

because adequate head and flow will always be available. Of course, due to the low head

characteristics of our site, an increased head would be beneficial. However, the difficulties

in constructing a dam as well as the increased costs this would entail means that a dam

seems like a redundant proposition. In addition, water will never be used at a rate faster

than the flow of the river and so it is logical to make use of a “run-of-river” scheme. This

means that a portion of the stream will be deflected towards and through the powerhouse

before rejoining the original stream again, as is demonstrated in Figure 2.


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Figure 11 – Dam used to create water reserve for micro-hydro scheme [27]

Diverting Flow

In order to ensure adequate flow to the intake for power generation, a weir may be

necessary. [11] In some areas the surrounding area may have a natural layout diverting

stream flow at a sufficient rate for the intake without a weir. If not, simply placing a few

rocks strategically may complete the task. In some micro-schemes, logs have been used to

create a belt which can be extended to perform this task when necessary [11]. This is

particularly achievable if a narrower part of the stream is chosen, where the amount of logs

required is kept low.

If none of these alternatives is achievable a weir may be needed in order to protect the

streambed from erosion – and maintain its level at the intake. A weir may also prove

beneficial in wide stream flows which only fill a portion of themselves in dry seasons. When

this is the case, the weir should be designed to deflect low flows towards the intake yet

allow high flows and debris to proceed unhindered downstream, extending weir life.


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Intake

The intake is the link between the river and the conduit to the powerhouse. Its role is vital

in the overall functioning and reliability of the scheme. It is used to control both the quality

and the quantity of water and must be equipped to deal with extremes in terms of water

flow.

In order to prevent debris and sediment carried by the incoming water several objects can

be incorporated with the intake, such as trashracks, skimmers or a settling basin.

Water flow control under all conditions is also a necessity. Gates can be used to perform

this task, along with spillways as backups to release overflow back into the stream. If the

water flow is not controlled at the intake, the power conduit may overflow at unexpected

points causing severe erosion and damaging the scheme.

Figure 12 – Intake and weir at Tungu-Kabri project [28]

Locating the Intake:

In order to maximize the reliability of the scheme careful attention must be paid to the

location of the canal intake. If an ineffective sitting is chosen, chances are that continuous


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work will be required at the site. The location along the stream determines the amount of

sediment and trash accumulation an intake will see as well as the erosion it will suffer.

When locating the intake there are four key factors to be considered:

The streambed

Bends along the stream

Natural features of the stream

Ease of access

The susceptibility of the streambed to erosion is a key factor when determining the

elevation of the canal intake. Normally this is done at the time of construction, and hence,

it is important to bear the nature of the streambed in mind throughout this process. If the

streambed is particularly susceptible to erosion the intake may eventually reach a point

where it is significantly higher above the streambed – and hence water could be prevented

from entering.

To avoid this, intakes should be constructed where the stream flow is close to constant year

round – to avoid the increased abrasion caused by heavy rains and floods. In addition,

streambeds consisting of rock and at small gradients are ideal for intake construction.

If an intake is placed on the outside of a bend, or even upstream, flood waters are severe

threats for canal intakes. The increased forces of flood waters can cause quick erosion, from

water borne debris as well as the water itself. Hence it is important to place the intake at a

straight portion of the river wherever possible, and on the inside of a bend if bends cannot

be avoided.


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Natural features of the stream can be used to our advantage wherever possible. Features

such as large boulders have been used in the past to effectively restrict flood flows. Natural

features can also limit the need for construction, and so, when on site, it is advantageous to

analyze all potential sites for construction.

Ease of access is essential in all stages of the scheme. During construction, supplies need to

be transported easily along the site. During heavy flows it is particularly important to have

safe and easy access since this is when repairs are most likely to be needed. Trashracks and

debris must be clearable at all times.

Power Conduit

The power conduit’s purpose is to transport water from the intake to the penstock inlet

with minimum head loss at a minimum cost. In most cases this means that a canal will be

excavated in soil – and sometimes lined with concrete to prevent loss of water and to

increase its flow. In other cases, a pipe can be used as a low-pressure power conduit to the

penstock inlet. This eliminates components such as spillways and drainage. However, the

increased cost of piping must be taken into account.

The main disadvantage of an open canal is the fact that it is open – and hence exposed to

the elements. This means that it requires more maintenance, as falling trees or simply small

objects may obstruct flow. As mentioned earlier, spillways may also need to be

incorporated to prevent overflow and if a drop in height along the length of the canal is

required then water must be dissipated in a controlled manner.


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Figure 13 – Power conduit in Tungu-Kabri project [28]

Forebay

The Forebay tank is the connection between the power conduit and the penstock, serving

mainly to allow particles to settle down before the water enters the penstock. It can also be

used as storage for water in the case of increased power consumption at peak times of the

day, for example. A trashrack is normally installed at the penstock inlet to prevent floating

debris from entering into the turbine. A gate/valve should also be installed so that any

sediment that has entered can be easily removed or if draining is required for repairs.

Penstock

The penstock is the pipe which transports water under pressure from the Forebay tank

directly to the turbine. These can be installed either above or below the ground. In most

cases it will prove more costly to excavate an area for the pipe rather than design for the

added difficulties placing the penstock pipe over ground causes. These difficulties vary from

temperature variations (and hence expansions) to the secure fitting of the pipe. Gates or

valves can be incorporated into the penstock to either control the flow of water or to enable

the isolation of the turbine from the water flow. This is especially useful in the case of

maintenance.


29 | P a g e

Figure 14 - Penstock at Bamerchara Lake, Bangladesh [29]

Powerhouse

The powerhouse is meant to protect the turbine, generator and other electrical and

mechanical equipment. In the case of micro-hydro, it should be kept to a minimum size in

order to minimise costs. However, sufficient space must be kept to allow for repairs and

maintenance. Perhaps the most important aspect of building a powerhouse is its location,

rather than its design.

Tailrace

The tailrace is conventionally a short and open canal leading away from the powerhouse

and turbine. The water is discharged into the tailrace after it has been used for power

generation. The canal then leads the discharged water back to rejoin the original river. Less

effort has to be put into the tailrace design as it does not serve the same vital role as the

power conduit, and does not seriously affect the power generation capabilities of the

scheme.


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2.8 Other micro hydro schemes in Zambia

NWZDT - Zambezi Rapids Hydro-Electric Scheme [13]

The Zambezi Rapids Hydro-Electric Scheme was completed in July 2007 after three years of

work in the North Western Province of Zambia. This was achieved by NWZDT (North West

Zambian Development Trust), a charity set up by a group of people connected to the area

and the Kalene Mission Hospital. The charity’s philosophy is that while many individual

crises can be solved by food and medicine, real progress comes through the development of

infrastructure.

A sustainable electricity source was seen as a priority to trigger the other aspects of

infrastructure, and so the scheme was completed. It is a 700 KW run of the river set up,

with 99% of work done by local, unskilled labour. It powers a great number of local

resources, including farms, schools, a hospital, a flight service and over 1000 rural

inhabitants. It also aims to encourage small to medium businesses in the area and the

economic growth that this ensures. The project cost approximately USD 2,400,000 and was

opened with great media attention by the Zambia Minister of Energy on the 14th of July

2007.

Mutanda Mini Hydro, Zambia [14]

The Mutanda mini-hydro project is located in the North Western province of Zambia by the

Mutanda Evangelical Centre, a region with an annual rainfall average of more than 800mm.

The centre consists of 82 households, a health centre, a school and an irrigation system and

is approximately 35 km away from the closest diesel generated electricity. The project was

installed by the Technical Development and Advisory Unit (TDAU) of the University of


31 | P a g e

Zambia and served to demonstrate the viability of small hydro projects in small

communities. A 2.5 KW generator was installed, generating enough power for lighting the

community but not much else.

Currently there is demand to expand the scheme to give 200 KW of power, but there is a

lack of funding to achieve this. The project cost USD 30,000 in total which was raised by a

German church organisation (EZE), and a fee of USD 1.05 is charged monthly to all

households, covering repair and maintenance costs.


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2.9 Local manufacture and labour

In order to maximize the chances of success when implementing a micro-hydro scheme it is

extremely important to involve the local community from day one. If this is done the

community will take pride in their project and work to maintain it operational. This

community involvement means that local manufacture and labour will be used – giving the

workers an insight and understanding into the functioning of the scheme and hence they

will be able to maintain the plant without excessive external assistance.

In addition the use of local manufacture and labour will significantly decrease costs in many

areas. This does require flexible design of sensitive parts, such as the turbine, to allow for

inaccuracies during manufacture. Efficient designs can, nonetheless, be achieved – as we

can see in Las Juntas, Peru, where the L-1 turbine achieved up to 89% efficiency [15].

In order to fully involve the community a certain amount of training would be necessary.

This will range from the basics of micro-hydro, to involve and gain the approval of the entire

community to the more technical knowledge necessary in fabricating the turbine. A detailed

maintenance scheme will be necessary to ensure that the turbine life is maximized and

electrical knowledge will need to be passed on for installation.


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2.10 Cost Reduction

When planning a micro-hydro scheme it is important to ensure that the idea is financially

viable. If it is not, it will be difficult to maintain the scheme even after the initial costs are

covered. This is why income-generating uses of the power must be considered before

deciding whether the scheme is viable.

The majority of costs will, however, always be set up costs. The main costs will be the civil

works involved in site preparation and the cost of electrical and generating equipment.

However, there are certain innovations available for micro-hydro that can significantly

reduce these costs. The following list has been compiled from the Practical Action micro-

hydro website. [16]

Use of run-of-the-river schemes (eliminates need for water storing dam)

Local manufacture of parts and equipment as well as local materials for civil

works.

Use of plastic penstocks

Use of ELCs (Electronic Load Controllers) to avoid expensive mechanical and

hydraulic equipment to control loads.

Use of motors as generators


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2.11 Management/ownership

Ideally a “village electrification committee” would be put in place. This governing body

would be responsible for the continuous operation, maintenance and tariff calculation and

collection. External influence and control would be necessary, at least in the early stages of

the scheme, to ensure that all processes are followed correctly and that proper care is taken

in maintenance.

This external influence would, however, need to take great care to respect the

requirements, wishes and customs of the local community. The villagers will always know

best what they need and in what shape they need it and so it is important to work very

closely with village leaders and to maintain a good relationship with them. All decisions

must be made with the best interest of the community in mind.

If there is a lack of inclusion there will be a lack of commitment and understanding of the

project – and hence the project would be likely to fail.


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Section III - Feasibility Study

The objective of this section is to analyze the proposed site using and applying the tools

discussed in the literature review. This will give a complete illustration of how well Sioma

is suited to the implementation of a micro-hydro scheme and if its realization is viable.

3.1 Geographical situation

Zambia Country Profile [17]

Full name: Republic of Zambia

Population: 12.2 million (UN, 2008)

Capital: Lusaka

Area: 752,614 sq km (290,586 sq miles)

Major language: English (official), Bemba, Lozi, Nyanja, Tonga

Major religions: Christianity, indigenous beliefs, Hinduism, Islam

Life expectancy: 42 years (men), 42 years (women) (UN)

Monetary unit: 1 Kwacha = 100 ngwee

Main exports: Copper, minerals, tobacco

GNI per capita: US $800 (World Bank, 2007)

Zambia has seen an enormous fall from one of Africa’s richest countries at its independence

in 1964 to one of the poorest in the world today. In the late 1960s, Zambia was the third

largest copper mining country in the world before the collapse of copper prices in 1975 –


36 | P a g e

shattering the economy. Copper mining is still the country’s main source of income, despite

the World Bank’s urges to develop other sources of additional revenue.

AIDS is blamed for many of the country’s troubles, especially the loss of many of its prime

engineers and politicians. Malaria still causes large problems for Zambia’s population and a

large proportion of the population live below the World Bank poverty threshold of 1$ a day.

Sioma

Sioma, with an estimated surrounding population of 1500 people, is located in the

Barotseland region of South Western Zambia. It is situated approximately 315 km from

Livingstone, accessible by 4x4 through a journey taking 4 to 5 hours. The village is situated

next to the majestic Zambezi River and is approximately 6 km north of the Sioma Falls by

road. The planned community woodworking workshop is approximately 4 km south of the

falls.

The Sioma falls are the intended site of the power station. They provide a reliable water

flow, with a head varying between 10 and 15 metres, plenty to drive a low-head turbine.

There are a variety of possible sites for a run-off canal as can be seen in Figure 11.

Figure 11 – Sioma Falls

Sioma FallsSioma VillageWoodworking

Workshop6 km 4 km


37 | P a g e

A main power cable passes through the region relatively close to Sioma, but the Zambian

government has no plans to install a sub-station to make the power available to the

community. The community is too small and does not possess the ability to pay the

standard fees that would be demanded by the national electricity company. If the

community is to overcome the difficulties it faces, there is an urgent need for electricity,

one of the most basic elements of infrastructure and so alternative sources must be

considered. Due to the village’s proximity to the Zambezi River, micro-hydro provides the

ideal alternative.

This proximity does not come without difficulties, however. As I write this, Zambia is

experiencing the worst floods in 40 years [18], with the Zambezi water levels rising to record

levels. Not only does this cause severe humanitarian problems, with entire villages being

flooded, but it also makes the hydro site very difficult to design. If the intake is designed for

high water levels, it will not function properly at low water levels without very careful

design of water diversion. It is impossible to say whether this will be possible without a visit

to the site, but nonetheless it seems likely that a suitable location be present.

The issue of building permission is also a concern. The Falls were recently made a protected

area by the local government. However, a proposal has been sent to both the local

parliament as well as the Zambian electricity company (ZESCO) and rumour has it that the

response will be positive. A written confirmation of this is yet to be received, but I have

been assured that it will be sent shortly. It is expected that one of the requirements of the

permission will be to ensure that the scheme is not overly obtrusive to the natural beauty of

the surrounding area.


38 | P a g e

3.2 Initial Planning and Technical Analysis

3.2.1 Power Requirements

The power requirements must be estimated prior to any technical analysis, as it forms the

basis of what we are designing. The focus of this proposal is the end-user rather than the

technology; it is their needs we are trying to meet. The following requirements are given as

estimates rather than facts, as a visit to the community to map out the exact needs has not

yet been made. In addition, the potential demand does not equal the present consumption.

The energy demand will be continuously changing, and with economic development,

consumption will increase.

Woodworking Workshop:

- Band Saw - 5000 W

- Circular Saw - 5000 W

- Sander - 5000 W

- Planer - 5000 W

- Turning + Notching machines - 1000 W

Local Clinic:

- Centrifuge - 310 W

- RPR spinner - 310 W

- Auto Haematology Analyzer - 310 W

- Computer - 500 W

- Refrigeration - 500 W

- Lighting - 200 W


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Village

- Households (2 light bulbs each x 200 households) - 8000 W

- Shared refrigerator (between 10 houses?) - 10000 W

- Miscellaneous (TV/Radios/kettles/mobiles etc) - 4000 W

School

- Lighting - 200 W

- Communication (TV/Radios) - 500 W

- Total - 45.83 kW

Our proposed site does not have limitations on a micro-hydro scale with respect to the

theoretical power output, but is rather limited by economic factors. The population of the

village of Sioma is estimated to be approximately 1000 people. One household is assumed

to house 5 people, giving a total of 200 households.

Our demand estimates are based on villagers purchasing electrical equipment such as

televisions, radios and kettles along with two light bulbs per household. Clearly some

families may choose to purchase only one light bulb, whereas some may choose to purchase

larger appliances. This estimate allows for quite large variations and hence the demand

estimates should cover all likely scenarios. The basic equipment necessary is included for

the woodworking workshop along with the essentials mentioned by the head nurse for the

Sioma Medical Clinic, giving us a maximum demand of 45.83 kW.

Due to lighting only being used at dark there will be a large increase in power consumption

around 18:00. This can also be seen around 07:00 when people start their days. The

woodworking workshop will open at 08:00, and will use power at approximately 20 kW until


40 | P a g e

17:00. An increase in use of televisions and radios will be seen around 18:00-19:00, which is

when we see the peak energy use; 35 kW. We can calculate the load factor using the chart

below:

Figure 15 – Calculating Load Factor

ܮ ܨ =ݎݐݒܣ ݎ ݓ ݎ

ݓ ݎ

Average Power = 20.2083 kW

Peak Power = 35 kW

Load Factor = 56.92%

0.0%

10.0%

20.0%

30.0%

40.0%

50.0%

60.0%

70.0%

80.0%

90.0%

100.0%

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

%T

ota

lP

ow

er

Used

Time (hrs)

Calculating Load Factor


41 | P a g e

The load factor is a measure of how much the scheme is used, and in that sense, a measure

of efficiency. A factor of close to 57% is quite high relative to other similar schemes, and

demonstrates the viability of implementing such a scheme.

3.2.2 Measurement of Head

Often this task is assumed to require a surveyor; however, this may not be entirely

necessarily, and much quicker and more cost effective methods can be employed. Of these

methods, the level is preferred not only due to its simplicity but also due to its relatively low

cost. A carpenter’s level is the cheapest option but a Locke hand level can also be used.

Accuracy will generally be around 5%, but this is dependent on the steepness of the slope.

[11]

Using the level method, you begin at point X (in figure 16) which is the proposed location of

the power house. A carpenter’s level is then placed on a stick of known length, h, which

rests on this point. A straight line is then sighted from the top of this stick to the point X1.

The stick is then placed here and the same process is repeated to find point X2. This is

continued until point Y, where the intake of the penstock will be located. The last reading,

hf may be less than the full distance and so the gross head will be:

fg hhnH )*(


42 | P a g e

Figure 16 – Using a level to measure head [11]

This method provides a relatively accurate, quick and effective way of measuring the gross

head of a site. It must be taken into account, however, that the available power from a

turbine will be proportional to H3/2, and so the measurements will have a severe effect on

any inaccuracies.

3.2.3 River flow gauging

Although river flow gauging would be useful, it may not prove necessary due to the amount

of flow consistently available in the Zambezi. According to measurements taken at

Maramba, the river experiences its maximum flow in March whereas in October the

discharge diminishes to approximately 10% of the maximum. The annual average flow is

approximately 7000 m3/s. [19]

Clearly, the Zambezi provides more than sufficient flow for a micro-hydro scheme, it will

require less than the minimum stream flow. If anything, the challenge it provides is

designing against the flood-flows whilst still ensuring that sufficient flow is diverted to the

intake during the dry season.


43 | P a g e

The figures given above cannot be used accurately, however, to design intake barriers and

diversion belts as the exact site of the scheme is not yet known. The depth of water and the

width of the exact portion of the river are not known and so all dimensions derived from

this information must be taken as estimates.

3.2.4 Turbine

Importing existing turbines will often provide a fully functional and effective method of

power generation. However, it can be very expensive and will lead to difficulties when a

part needs replacing or when maintenance is required. This is why we will opt for local

manufacture, where flexibility of design is important. This design will need a relatively large

tolerance to deviations due to the method of fabrication, and so will need to function

effectively in a number of situations.

This design allows turbines to be made locally and at much lower budgets, due to the

reduced transport, material and labour costs. The use of local manufacture also leads to

easier maintenance, reducing down-time, and will often increase the villagers’ confidence in

the scheme, making them more willing to invest their resources.

For this scheme a turbine design similar to that of the L-1 turbine, designed by Dr. Li of the

University of Warwick for The Intermediate Technology Consultants, appears appropriate.

The L-1 turbine was designed for use at low-head sites for delivering high performance with

the following specification: [20]

• Low cost of fabrication to ensure it is a competitive option in the face of other

technologies and at a cost which makes it easily accessible to the rural population.


44 | P a g e

• Easy fabrication so it is possible to make in small, local workshops with basic tools.

• Use local materials. It was decided that the materials should be easily obtained

locally in the country of development.

• Easy operation and low maintenance through lengthy periods of operation.

Figure 17 – L-1 turbine casing and propeller [15]

The L-1 turbine can be seen in Figure 17, where the runner consists of four blades welded to

a central hub, which was cast from stainless steel. The casing was made by a number of flat

sheets of stainless steel which were curled into shape by hand operated rollers.

The L-1 can be scaled to a number of situations, using a system of “adjustable distribution”,

as can be seen in Figure 15.

H(m) N(r.p.m.) Q (m3/s) P(kW)

4 680 0.396 11.7

5 761 0.443 16.3

6 833 0.485 21.4

7 900 0.524 27.0

8 962 0.560 33.0

9 1021 0.594 39.4

10 1076 0.626 46.1

11 1128 0.657 53.2

12 1178 0.686 60.6

Figure 18 – Variants of L-1 Turbine [21]


Figure 18 demonstrates that the L

would generate 46.1 kW of power from a 10 metre head. This power generation

requirement will be used in the following proposed design.

3.2.5 Design of intake and can

Figure 19

As discussed in the literature review, the ideal location for the intake is parallel to the

stream flow, where it will not be exposed to excessive sediment deposition or debris. It will

not suffer at high water levels as the increased forces will not impa

In order to maintain flow at very low water levels, natural

belt of logs will be used to deflect flow to the intake. This is the simplest way to avoid the


demonstrates that the L-1 turbine is adaptable to our particular site, where it


requirement will be used in the following proposed design.

Design of intake and canal

Figure 19 – Approximate sketch of intake design



not suffer at high water levels as the increased forces will not impact the side intake.

at very low water levels, natural diversions consisting of rocks


0602641

45 | P a g e

1 turbine is adaptable to our particular site, where it




side intake.

diversions consisting of rocks or a



46 | P a g e

harsh forces in the wet season. In order to facilitate this deflection it is important to use a

narrow portion of the river.

In the event that flows larger than those required by the turbine enter the canal, we will

make use of two spillways. One will be situated soon after the intake, as demonstrated in

the sketch, and the other at the site of the forebay tank. The latter will be used during

times where less power is required of the turbine.

Determining the cross sectional dimensions of canal:

Power Required = 46 100 KW

smQreq

Q

gQHPreq

/587.0

10**81.9*1000*8.0461003

The required flow (Q) to produce 46.1 kW of power (P) from the assumed 10 m head (H) is

0.587 m3/s (587 litres/second) assuming a system efficiency of 80%.

Determining the required velocity of water flow is less quantitative. In order to prevent silt

in suspension from settling out and to prevent growth in the canal, which can both

adversely affect flow, a minimum average speed of 0.7 m/s should be ensured. Higher

speeds means that area for the canal can be kept low, however, corrosion will be severe if

these are too high. Due to the sandy water of the Zambezi River, the lining of the canal may

be damaged at velocities as low as 4 m/s. In order to avoid this erosion, we will set our

required velocity at 2m/s.

The required cross sectional area is found using the simple relationship between flow and

velocity:


47 | P a g e

22935.0

2

587.0

mA

A

V

QA

In order to maximize efficiency a trapezoidal cross section will be used for the power

conduit. However, if excavation proves to be difficult a rectangular cross section can also be

employed.

To determine the hydraulic radius, r we will use the following equation in order to achieve

the most efficient canal section.

mr

r

Ar

204.0

2935.0)70cos(2

)70sin(50.0

)cos(2

)sin(50.0

Depth (d) and width (w) are then determined:

mw

w

rw

md

d

rd

868.0

)70sin(

204.0*4

)sin(

4

408.0

204.0*2

2

Using Manning’s equation we can also find the canal slope required, S – the ratio of its

vertical drop to its length.


48 | P a g e

0133.0

)

204.0

2*02.0(

)(

2

3

2

2

3

2

S

S

r

nvS

This slope equates to a drop of 1.33 metres per 100 metres.

Figure 20 – Cross section of power conduit

Without exact figures on the river flow at the particular site it is difficult to propose a flood

barrier height. This will be calculated once the maximum water levels are known.

In order to minimize maintenance costs it seems reasonable to line the canal with concrete,

mainly due to the sandy nature of the soil at the site. This means that initial costs will be

higher, however, the scheme’s reliability will be increased and maintenance costs will

significantly decrease. Nonetheless, it will not be covered so the canal must be inspected

regularly to ensure that no debris is preventing the flow of water.

To allow for maintenance to the scheme a gate will need to be fitted to the intake. This can

be done using either timber or steel, depending on what materials are available. To

minimise costs it is most viable to use timber.

0.868 m

0.204

mΘ = 70°


49 | P a g e

In order to prevent water borne debris from entering the canal a trashrack will be used.

This will be removable to allow for maintenance and cleaning. The spacing of the bars will

be equal to that of a rake in order to facilitate the removal of debris.

Due to the proposed speed of the water in the canal sediment suspended in the incoming

water settling should not prove problematic to the flow of the canal. It is only at lower

velocities that this will settle and disrupt flow. However, a settling basin will be required at

the forebay to prevent destructive particles getting through to the turbine and causing

premature erosion.

As mentioned earlier, the scheme will incorporate two spillways. The overflow spillway will

be located close to the intake and will be constructed as “broad crested”. This does not

pass the largest flow per unit of length, but is the simplest to construct.

3.2.6 Forebay Tank

A simple yet effective design for the forebay tank will be employed. Due to the continuous

flow of water in the Zambezi, there would not normally be a need for storage and the

forebay’s purpose would be to serve as a settling basin. This will stop any water borne

debris which has passed through the canal and intake from passing on to the turbine.

The forebay could, however, easily be integrated with taps to act as a water supply for the

surrounding villages. This reduces the distances that the villagers have to transport the

water, and also decreases the risk of crocodiles associated with collecting water directly

from the river. In order to allow for this, the tank will have to be oversized, so that it can

deal with regular tapping of water yet maintain sufficient water levels to supply the turbine.


50 | P a g e

In the event of flow entering the forebay and exceeding that passing through the penstock,

an overflow spillway will be required. This water will then be diverted back to the river on a

dedicated path – preventing uncontrolled erosion. A trashrack will also be required, to

remove any floating debris which may have gotten through the intake or entered the canal

through other means. A drain will also be installed to empty the tank when maintenance is

required so that settled sediment can be removed. A width and depth of 1.5 m and a length

of 2 m is appropriate. Figure 21 illustrates a design that would work well at our site.

Instead of a perforated PVC pipe for filtration, however, a metal trashrack will be used.

Taps will also be fitted to the side as discussed earlier.

Figure 21 – Forebay tank design [11]


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3.2.7 Penstock

Typically the Penstock represents 1/3 of total scheme costs. [22] The various alternatives, in

terms of both size and material, must therefore be considered carefully. We are aiming to

maximize the power per unit length and determining a realistic slope.

At this point in the planning process, the specific site is not known so estimates about the

required pipe length and slope must be made. For this analysis we will use the height and

length estimates given in the diagram below.

Figure 22 – estimated height and length dimensions of penstock

Material:

In order to simplify installation and at the same time keep costs low the choice of material

will have to be made between uPVC (unplasticised polyvinyl chloride) and HDPE (high-

density polyethylene). Concrete and metal piping has been eliminated due to the high costs

associated in constructing and transporting these to rural destinations, as well as the

difficulty of installation.

Forebay

Turbine

50 m

51 m

10 m


52 | P a g e

Upon comparison of uPVC and HDPE, it quickly becomes clear that HDPE has numerous

advantages over uPVC [23]. It is flexible, whereas uPVC is rigid and so requires more joining

as well as a well as very comprehensive support. HDPE piping can simply be laid on the

ground, where it will flex to the changing slope adequately. uPVC pipes need trenches to

provide continual support, as well as covering to protect from UV corrosion. HDPE pipes do

not suffer from UV corrosion; they have high impact strength as well as high chemical

resistance. Compared to uPVC pipes they are very easy to install as well as join, and so,

bearing all the factors considered in mind, HDPE pipes clearly provide a superior alternative.

Optimal Diameter:

First it is necessary to determine the optimal diameter of the penstock pipe. This will be a

compromise between the % head loss and the cost of the pipe, which is generally defined by

the lower head loss (and hence larger diameter) equating to a higher price. The ideal

diameter of the penstock is usually found through a cost/benefit analysis, which will be

performed once Zambian suppliers have been sourced.

Selecting Wall Thickness:

The wall thickness of our penstock is a function of the tensile strength of HDPE, the

diameter of our pipe and the operating pressures the penstock will experience. This

pressure is not only caused by the head of water, but also by sudden surges in flow. These

sudden changes can occur from a number of things, such as the sudden opening of a gate,

or debris being trapped at the intake. The sudden change in water velocity is known as the

“water hammer effect” and has been known to cause bursting and collapsing of pipes.


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Although this is less significant in low head penstocks, it is still a factor, and so a pipe with

minimum wall thickness of 16.2 mm must be selected. [11] Calculations also show that the

critical shut off time is 0.59 seconds. The penstock will have a gate valve at the bottom

which must not be closed faster than this, if it is, the penstock will experience the maximum

pressure of the water. These calculations can be found in Appendix B.

Thermal Expansion of the Penstock:

Temperatures in Zambia can vary by as much as 29°C [24] and as a result the HDPE penstock

will suffer significant thermal expansion. This was calculated to be as much as 0.177 metres

for 51 metres of piping, as can be seen in Appendix C. The use of HDPE allows for the bends

in the piping to take up any expansion or contraction between the anchor points. If a more

rigid material was used, this stress would be transferred to the anchor blocks in the manner

shown in Figure 17, and expansion joints would have to be fitted.

Figure 24 – thermal expansion forces in rigid piping [11]

Supporting the Penstock:

As the planned material is HDPE it does not require the same amount of support that a

more traditional PVC pipe would. HDPE pipes are flexible enough to be supported by the

ground they are laid on, which is one of their main advantages, as was discussed in the


54 | P a g e

previous section. The piping will, however, have to be secured by anchor blocks to ensure

the stability of the penstock. The piping should be secured by 3 anchor blocks, each block

made up of 2m3 of concrete – 1 m3 per 300mm diameter of piping

Control Measures:

Controlling flow into the penstock is an important element to allow for maintenance of the

turbine, or the piping itself. Control can be achieved through a variety of means, by using

gate valves or even a simple construction such as that shown in Appendix D.

This construction is rubber faced, with a steel tube handle. Its face is placed onto the

penstock intake, where the water pressure maintains it, and blocks further water from

entering. To avoid fracture through vacuum, a vent pipe can be placed close to the intake

along the piping – as is also shown in Appendix D.

A gate valve will be incorporated at the bottom of the piping by the power house, to allow

for slow closing of the flow to the turbine, and hence preventing the “water hammer”

effect.

3.2.8 Power Transmission

Power transmission, or distribution, will be quite significant for the Sioma micro-hydro

project due to the distances between the power-house and the potential beneficiaries.

Power will need to be transmitted in two directions, 6 km in the direction of Sioma and 4 km

in the direction of the woodworking workshop.

A transmission distance of up to 10 km is not uncommon for micro-hydro schemes, although

the maximum distance clearly is dependent on the economics in each situation. A 3 phase


55 | P a g e

AC system will be employed, with a step-down transformer at the end users. In order to

avoid the use of a step up transformer at the turbine site a high voltage generator will be

used.


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3.3 The potential contribution to the local community

Local Clinic

The scheme would replace the diesel generator currently in place. The clinic does not

currently have sufficient funds to purchase diesel to run this and so is using temporary solar

panels – which are proving themselves to be problematic. A reliable and sustainable

electricity source such as the hydroelectric scheme would allow for easier operation of

medical equipment, treatment, refrigeration, computers, lighting and increased comfort.

The clinic also suffers from the lack of a permanent doctor. The availability of electricity

may give the clinic a substantially greater appeal to a doctor and encourage the clinics

expansion.

Currently the clinic is the most important hub of infrastructure in the region. Like much of

Sub-Saharan Africa, HIV and Malaria is widespread and difficult to combat. The availability

of a well equipped clinic ensures the area is in a far better position to combat disease

epidemics and can provide a reliable source of healthcare to the region. This is difficult

without a consistent source of electricity to supply vital clinical equipment (such as

centrifuge, RPR spinner etc.), as well as refrigeration and lighting for a more comfortable

environment.

Elementary and Secondary School

The provision of electricity will allow for night classes for the local community as well as a

better rounded education for the schoolchildren. This will allow the many children who

cannot attend school during the daytime due to unavoidable work commitments to receive


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an education nonetheless. This will provide opportunities that were unthinkable earlier,

and will be an important development in terms of community progression.

Woodworking Workshop

The community woodwork training workshop is a ZEEC initiative, started a few years ago.

The idea is to provide a centre of training for the local community in woodworking skills in

order to encourage local businesses and develop self-sufficiency. The centre has not yet

been built, but has a planned site and permission.

The problem with powering this is that it is situated south of the Sioma Falls, and so

separate wiring for this site would be required. The distance to it, however, is smaller –

approximately 4 km. If it proved viable to power this alongside the community it could be

made commercially viable as furniture produced could be sold at competitive prices, which

would be very beneficial for the community. This is a very promising prospect and every

effort should be made to ensure that it is powered. Although the initial price for

constructing a hydro scheme that can provide both the village and the workshop would be

high, a sustainable and renewable power source will provide great opportunities for the

development of the region.

Local Businesses and villagers

Due to the relatively large population of 9000, it would prove difficult to provide electricity

to the entire community. Therefore, a scheme where local businesses requiring electricity

will be connected to the grid seems sensible. This allows for the expansion of these

businesses and the consequential increase in employment, starting the economic cycle.


58 | P a g e

The availability of electricity would make Sioma an important hub of the surrounding area,

attracting much more activity.

Integration with irrigation and water supply projects

Due to the mechanical movement produced by the moving water, the scheme can be

integrated with both irrigation and water supply projects to supply the area around the site.

This is especially achievable due to the surrounding fields of the area. These are not

currently used for agriculture but have been in the past, as there are remnants of old

irrigation canals close to the proposed site.

The socio-economic benefits of the scheme are summarised below:

Promotes local industry and business opportunities

Raises the living standard

Raises the education level by allowing night classes

Improve the services of the local clinic

Political awareness as well as further integration with the rest of country through

media such as radios and televisions

Allows for economically viable production at woodworking workshop

Allows for improved irrigation and agriculture in the surrounding fields


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3.4 Financial viability

The power demand originates from two sources; the Sioma community and the

woodworking workshop. These can be regarded as different categories of customers, as

one is to domestic users whereas the other is economically competitive. This means that

two price plans will be required.

Domestic Users

The average citizen in the Sioma community has a minimal income and so it is most

probably not realistic to expect the ability to pay for individual house electrification. This

means that the electrification of the village will have to be funded by other means, such as

charity sponsorship or through the payment of the other beneficiaries. Houses will be fitted

with limited load supplies, meaning that the electricity supply is limited to a prescribed

value, which, if exceeded, disconnects [16]. If users require more electricity, the limiters can

be removed but users will be charged for use above the set amount.

Local Business

Currently there are very few businesses in the local area where electricity is needed for

other purposes than refrigeration. However, with the provision of electricity numerous

opportunities for businesses arise. Mobile phone charging centres and sewing workshops

are only examples of simple businesses that could be started relatively easily. These will be

charged using metres, at a tariff which can be determined once the exact number of

businesses is known.


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Woodworking Workshop

The woodworking workshop will be manufacturing furniture to be sold for profit. This

means that, if successful, there will be funds to pay for the electricity. This tariff will be set a

level lower than the cost of running a diesel generator but enough to pay for necessary

maintenance as well as spare parts for the turbine, and will be measured through a metre.

The income from this beneficiary will be the main source for return on investment.

In order to determine an appropriate charge, the competition’s price, diesel, must be

considered. Running a 30 kW generator at ½ power for 8 hours consumes approximately

54.4 litres per day [25]. At current UK diesel prices this equates to £63 per day [26], which is

a total of £16,380 in a working year (260 days). The actual price is expected to be higher

however, as fuel prices in Zambia are higher than in the UK. Clearly, this price does not

allow for a sustainable business, and so a more reasonable one must be set for the

proposed scheme. A contingency figure of £50 per kW for maintenance is used, giving a

total annual maintenance fee of £2,305. Based on this, we can use a set fee of £9 per day

for a maximum peak consumption of 30 kW, with a clause that power tools will not be used

between 18:00 and 01:00. This will ensure that the grid is not overloaded during domestic

peak demand hours. A tariff fee of £ 0.05 per kWh is an alternative option.

The financial viability of the scheme clearly relies on external investment. Return on

investment is not realistic due to the low income of the Sioma community and so charity

sponsorship will be relied on. However, as was demonstrated above, maintenance fees can

be repaid and so, once the scheme has been constructed


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3.5 Ownership

The ownership of the scheme is important to clarify if the scheme is to be implemented in

the future. A proposed model is shown in Figure 25.

Figure 25 – Proposed structure of ownership and ext. relations

This model proposes that a separate company is founded with the task of running and

maintaining the scheme. This will allow for maximum involvement of the community,

including management, and will hence ensure that minimal external aid is needed. The

preliminary employees will be recruited by ZEEC representatives to ensure the most

qualified staff available is chosen.

Once the initial costs of the scheme construction have been completed the Sioma Power

Company will be a sustainable company, maintaining and repairing through the income

ZEEC

Registered Charity in

Zambia

ZEEC has links to several

schools, universities and

organizations in Europe and

USA, who will raise financial

support for the initial costs of

project

ZEEC works with local and

national government, ZESCO,

NGOs etc.

ZEEC trustees are people from

both Zambia as well as Western

countries, connected to the area

and with common goals

Sioma Power Company

SPC will be registered in Zambia once the scheme has been completed. The business will

be self sustaining, with maintenance and employment costs paid by tariffs. ZEEC will be

the major shareholder and all profits will be used for further development of the region.

Proposed Structure of Ownership and External Relations for Micro-Hydro Scheme


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generated from electricity tariffs. Any profit after maintenance and salary costs will be

reinvested into new development projects for the region.

The majority of funding will presumably be raised by ZEEC and so a significant influence on

the Sioma Power Company’s future decisions is to be expected, possibly by electing ZEEC

trustees to its board of directors.


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3.6 Meeting with ZEEC

One meeting with a ZEEC representative, Joachim Meyer, was held in Brussels along with

numerous e-mail communications. The idea of the micro-hydro scheme was introduced to

Mr. Meyer via e-mail in mid October, which was received positively. It was agreed to meet

in March so that the project could be set in motion as quickly as possible.

Building permission was discussed, and although an application has been sent, nothing has

yet been heard. Mr. Meyer assured me that rumours are positive and that a positive

response is almost certain but that such requests take time. The current flooding was next

on the agenda – and the floods’ impact on design was stressed. Finally a list of questions

and observations was handed to Lesley Meyer who was planning a trip to Sioma in April, to

help with the writing of this report.

It was concluded that in order to get further on this project, a visit was necessary as soon as

possible and potential dates in June were discussed. This will allow for surveying of

potential sites, as well as clarifying the requirements of the population.


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Section IV – Conclusions and Recommendations

4.1 Conclusions

In order to break out of the poverty cycle, third world infrastructure development is crucial.

It is clear from the past analysis that micro-hydropower is one of the most important energy

sources for achieving this wherever pressurised water is available. It is a relatively

affordable, clean and completely renewable technology that has proven its effectiveness

over many decades.

This report has given an insight into the technology behind micro-hydro schemes and the

most efficient ways of implementing them. After a comprehensive literature review of the

subject, the theory was applied to the case of Sioma in Zambia. Based on estimates from

personal experience as well as persons connected to the area, a power requirement of

45.83 kW along with the optimal approach to achieving it was determined.

The implementation of such a scheme was illustrated to bring great benefits to the local

community, the medical clinic, schools and, of course, the woodworking workshop. With

the provision of electricity, the population is given the opportunity to develop economically

viable businesses, adequate learning facilities and an improved quality of life.

The initial costs of developing the Sioma Power Company were estimated to reach around

£45,000 (see Appendix F). This is a high barrier to entry, but when compared to the running

of diesel generators for more than a few years, it provides a much more sustainable as well

as viable solution.


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4.2 Costing of Project

Date Person(s)/item(s)Time(hours)

Cost (£) Comment

30/09/2008 Dr. S.C. Li 0.5 25 Staff (Supervisor)




18/02/2009 Nigel Sykes & Tom McCluskey 3 150 Staff (Nigel Sykes & Tom McCluskey)

25/03/2009 Joachim Meyer 2 100 Staff (ZEEC)


350

1/10/08-21/4/09

Hans Petter Bjornavold 300 4500 Student (30 CATs = 300 hours)

4900

09/01/2009 Micro-Hydro Sourcebook 24.94 Consumable (book)

Total 5274.94

Figure 26 – Costing of Project

The costing of this project is based on the tariffs and work-hours detailed above. This

includes all meetings with the project supervisor, Dr. Shengcai Li, as well as other meetings

included in project research.

The project’s costs are especially justifiable mainly due to its nature. The feasibility study

can be classified as a humanitarian project, with the aim of improving the lives of the Sioma

community. The application of engineering to the development of third world countries is

fundamental for progress within this field – and hence, the time and effort spent on this

project is vindicated.


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4.3 Recommendations

In the extent that this study goes, the Sioma micro-hydropower scheme has proved itself

viable. The project would bring vast benefits to the Sioma community and its surrounding

area, with a relatively reasonable cost.

In order to develop the project further, in a minimal amount of time, a trip to the area in

June 2009 is recommended. This will allow the author to perform key surveying of potential

sites, as well as to gain a clearer perspective of the true requirements of the community. In

addition the author will be able to map out the potential of local labour and the possible

suppliers of parts.

Following this trip, extensive planning using the detailed measurements made in June will

have to be performed. The turbine will be sourced, as will the HDPE piping. Arrangements

with the local government will have to be completed and full building permission will have

to be granted. Once this is done, construction of the scheme will be started and followed

through as quickly as possible.


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Glossary of Definitions

Coupling – connecting the rotating turbine to electrical generator/mechanical

equipment.

Forebay – water reservoir immediately upstream of penstock

Generator – an engine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy

HDPE – high density polyethylene

Kinetic Energy – energy due to motion

Micro-Hydropower – small scale harnessing of energy from falling water

Sioma – Village with population of approx. 1000-1500 in Barotseland, South Western

Zambia

Penstock – piping directing water from forebay to turbine

Potential Energy – stored energy

Power conduit – canal leading from water intake to forebay

Tail race – short open canal leading exploited water from powerhouse back to

original river

Trashrack – metal device placed at intake to prevent debris from entering canal

Turbine – rotary engine, powered by the conversion of kinetic energy of fluid into

rotating energy of a bladed rotor

uPVC - Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride

Water Cycle – the natural cycle of water evaporation from lakes/ocean and the

subsequent condensation and precipitation.

ZESCO – state owned power company, producing 80% of Zambia’s power

ZEEC – Zambezi Environmental Education Camp, registered Zambian charity


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References/Bibliography

[1] TAMBURRINI, M., 2004, A Feasibility Study for a Microhydro Installation for the StrangfordLough Wildfowlers & Conservation Association, Thesis (Msc), University of Strathclyde

[2] Hydropower Fundamentals, http://www.alternative-energy-resources.net/hydroelectricity.html, retrieved 20 March 2009

[3] REN21, Renewables – Global Status Report 2006 Update,http://www.ren21.net/globalstatusreport/download/RE_GSR_2006_Update.pdf, retrieved April19 2009

[4] International Energy Agency, Renewable Energy – Status and Prospects, 2003

[5] USGS, Hydroelectric Power Water Use, http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/wuhy.html, retrieved

February 10 2009

[6] UN Economic and Social Council, Access to Electricity,

http://webapps01.un.org/nvp/frontend!polCat.action?id=50, retrieved February 15 2009

[7] ANDERSON, DOIG, REES and KHENNAS, Rural Energy Services - a Handbook for Sustainable

Energy Development, ITP 1999

[8] Micro Power Plant Image, http://www.itdg.org/?id=micro_hydro_faq, retrieved 19 April

2009

[9] PAISH, O., Small Hydro Power: Technology and Current Status, Elsevier Science Ltd, 2002

[10] Layman’s Guidebook on How to Develop a Small Hydro Site, ESHA 1998

[11] INVERSIN, A. R., Micro-Hydropower Sourcebook, NRECA International Foundation, 1986

[12] Micro-Hydropower Systems – A Buyer’s Guide, Natural Resources Canada, 2004

[13] Zambezi Rapids Hydro-Electric Scheme: History and Overview, http://nwzdt.org/hydro-overview.html, 2007, retrieved 15 March 2009

[14] Muntanda Mini-Hydro Power Generation/Distribution,http://www.t4cd.org/Resources/ICT_Resources/Projects/Pages/ICTProject_264.aspx, retrieved19 April 2009

[15] LI, S. C., Giving the lowdown on small hydro, International Water Power and DamConstruction, November 2000


69 | P a g e

[16] Micro Hydropower Introduction,http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?cPath=21_63&products_id=41,retrieved 19 April 2009

[17] Country Profile: Zambia, 2009,http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1069294.stm, retrieved February2009

[18] NYAKAIRU, F., Zambia and Namibia face worst floods in 40 years,http://www.reuters.com/article/africaCrisis/idUSL0976837, retrieved 26 March 2009

[19] Zambezi River – Hydrology, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/655540/Zambezi-River/37114/Hydrology, retrieved March 26 2009

[20] Buckland, R., Micro Hydro at Las Juntas: Analysis of the scheme to date and the Socio-economic, Environmental and Political Effects, 3rd Year Project, University of Warwick

[21] McMULLEN, C., Low Head Micro Hydro in Developing Countries: The L-1 Turbine, April 2004,3rd Year Project, University of Warwick

[22] ALEXANDER, K. V., GIDDENS, E. P., Optimum penstocks for low head micro hydro schemes,2007

[23] HDPE Pipes, http://www.texmopipe.com/pdf/HDPEPIPES.pdf, retrieved 20 March 2009

[24] Zambia – Environment/Geography,http://www.zambiatourism.com/travel/hisgeopeop/geograph.htm, retrieved 30 March 2009

[25] Approximate Fuel Consumption Chart,http://www.dieselserviceandsupply.com/Diesel_Fuel_Consumption.aspx , retrieved 16 April2009

[26] http://www.petrolprices.com/, retrieved 16 April 2009

[27] Water Diversion for Micro-Hydro System,http://www.level.org.nz/fileadmin/downloads/Energy/LevelDiagram42.pdf, retrieved 20 April2009

[28] Tungu-Kabri project, http://www.practicalaction.org/?id=micro_hydro, retrieved 20 April2009

[29] Bamerchara Lake, Bangladesh, http://www.reein.org/microhydro/bamerchara-3.jpg,retrieved 20 April 2009


70 | P a g e

Appendix A

Head Loss for different diameter pipes:

Qnet Qnet Q2

Lpipe n d d2

d5,3 hwall

loss

v v2

khturb

loss

hfriction

loss

hgross

%

lossprice/m

l/s m3/s m m m m/s m m m $

510 0,51 0,26 51 0,01 0,32 0,10 0,00 5,56 6,35 40,26 0,5 1,03 6,59 10 65,90 N/A*

510 0,51 0,26 51 0,01 0,37 0,14 0,01 2,58 4,75 22,53 0,5 0,57 3,15 10 31,52 N/A

510 0,51 0,26 51 0,01 0,42 0,18 0,01 1,32 3,68 13,57 0,5 0,35 1,66 10 16,62 N/A

510 0,51 0,26 51 0,01 0,5 0,25 0,03 0,52 2,60 6,75 0,5 0,17 0,69 10 6,95 N/A

510 0,51 0,26 51 0,01 0,55 0,30 0,04 0,32 2,15 4,61 0,5 0,12 0,43 10 4,33 N/A

510 0,51 0,26 51 0,01 0,6 0,36 0,07 0,20 1,80 3,26 0,5 0,08 0,28 10 2,82 N/A

510 0,51 0,26 51 0,01 0,65 0,42 0,10 0,13 1,54 2,36 0,5 0,06 0,19 10 1,90 N/A

The percentage friction loss is given by: 100*%gross

friction

h

hloss

The head loss due to friction is calculated as the sum of the losses due to turbulence and the

losses due to the wall, whose equations are shown below:

g

vkhturbloss

2*

2

3.5

22 ***10

d

QnLhwallloss

The gross head (hgross) is the difference in height between the top and bottom of the

penstock.

*a cost benefit analysis will be performed once a Zambian supplier has been sourced.


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Appendix B

Wall thickness:

Minimum wall thickness according to ASME code is:

mmt

Dt

2.16

2.1*5.2

min

min

Water hammer pressures can occur when the critical shut off time is not observed. To find

this we first find the wave velocity:

sma

tE

DKa

/02.173

*

**10001

1420

Where K = fluid bulk modulus = 2.1*10^6 kPa

D = pipe diameter

E = Modulus of elasticity of pipe

T = wall thickness

Now we can find the critical shut off time:

sT

a

LT

c

c

59.0

2

Where L = penstock length (m)

a = wave velocity (m/s)


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Appendix C

Thermal Expansion:

If an unrestricted HDPE pipe, length “L = 0.51”, changes in temperature, there will be a

change in its length equal to:

mL

TaLL

177.0

**

Where T = change in temperature (°C) = 35-6 = 29

a = coefficient of linear expansion (°C-1) = 120*10^-6 °C-1


Appendix D

Penstock inlet control:

Source:


Source: Micro-Hydro Design Manual (Harvey)

0602641

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Appendix E

Demand Estimate:

Time Total Power Used Total Power Used Percentage of Comments

1 0.5 7 18.8%

2 0.5 6 16.3%

3 0.5 6 16.3%

4 0.5 6 16.3%

5 0.5 6 16.3%

6 0.5 8 21.3%

7 0.5 9 23.8% Increase in lighting in village

8 15 8 57.5% W.W working day begins

9 20 8 70.0%

10 20 8 70.0%

11 20 8 70.0%

12 20 8 70.0%

13 10 8 45.0%

14 20 8 70.0%

15 20 8 70.0%

16 20 8 70.0%

17 20 8 70.0%

18 0.5 15 38.8% Increase in lighting in village

19 0.5 30 76.3%

20 0.5 35 88.8% Communication equipment

21 0.5 30 76.3%

22 0.5 25 63.8%

23 0.5 20 51.3%

24 0.5 10 26.3%


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Appendix F

Item Cost (£) CommentPlanning 4000 200 hours at 20 pounds per hour

Management 800Overseeing the project during construction (local

expert)

Intake

Concrete 1000

Labour 20

Total 1020

Spillway

Total 200

Canal

Concrete 5000

Labour 70

Total 5070

Forebay tank

Concrete 500

Labour 50

Trashrack 200

Cover 5

Drain 15

Taps 40

Spillway 200

Sluice gate 100

Total 1110

Penstock

Joints 100

Piping 10000 Estimated 51 metres

Anchor blocks 1920 8 GBP per 50kg bag, 1 bag = 0.025 m^3, need 3x2 m^3

Gate valve 100

Labour 100

Total 12220

Turbine

Raw materials 2000

Labour 500

Total 2500

Generator

ELC 3000

Total 9000

Distribution 5000 transformers and cables

Contingency 3405 10% of overall costs

Total cost 44325Maintenance 2,305 £50 per kW per year


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Appendix G

Project Costs:

Date Person(s)/item(s)Time

(hours)Cost (£) Comment





18/02/2009 Nigel Sykes & Tom McCluskey 3 150 Staff (Nigel Sykes & Tom McCluskey)

25/03/2009 Joachim Meyer 2 100 Staff (ZEEC)


350

1/10/08-

21/4/09Hans Petter Bjornavold 300 4500 Student (30 CATs = 300 hours)

4900

09/01/2009 Micro-Hydro Sourcebook 24.94 Consumable (book)

Total 5274.94

Tariffs:

Academic and other staff (incl. postgraduate) = £50 per hour

Student = £15 per hour


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Appendix H

ZEEC correspondences:

18/10/2008 from me to Leslie and Joachim Meyer

Mr. and Mrs. Meyer,

Hope you're both well and that the new school year is going smoothly. Thanks for the update back in

September - exciting news about the truck!

I have some news I thought might interest you! I've been allocated a project based on small scale

hydro-electric power for isolated communities in developing countries. All similar projects in recent

years (from this supervisor) have been based on a village in Peru but, since I found continuing the

pattern a bit dull, I proposed doing my own thing and focusing my project on the implementation of

such a scheme in Sioma and coming up with a proposal. My supervisor was happy supporting this so

it is now officially my third year project, counting for 1/4 of this year. If I manage to come up with a

decent proposal and the idea proves itself beneficial as well as viable I do plan to pursue the project

past the academic "boundaries" which hopefully would result in concrete advancements for the

community of Sioma.

I find the potential outcomes of this project very exciting and I am hoping for both your and ZEEC's

support in realizing it. I look forward to hearing your thoughts - I will update you on more detailed

plans soon.

Regards,

Hans

2008/10/20 Joachim Meyer to me

Hello Hans-Petter,

This sounds like a great project and I would be happy to support and facilitate it in any way I can. I

am sure Joe would as well. what kind of scale would this project have. Could it benefit all of Sioma

or maybe just an institution like the Clinic. Could it power our community training workshop for

woodworking skills. This kind of power generation would make the workshop commercially viable

and we could pay a wage to the people running it because we could sell furniture at a competitive

price.

Anyway we should discuss this in more detail, through Joe apply to the local authorities and get

their backing.

Do you have a copy of the letter where the local community requests the establishment of he

training workshop?


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Best regards,

Joachim

22/10/2008 from me to Joachim Meyer

As I see it now, the scheme would produce enough electricity for all of Sioma as well as the

community training workshop. Of course this is very ambitious and would prove to be quite

expensive. Projects of similar scale have cost approximately $50,000 (US) but have proven very

effective in increasing not only quality of life but also attracting new businesses and revamping the

local economy.

An interesting project just being finished is the North West Zambia Development Trust

(www.nwzdt.org) - it gives an idea of what can be achieved. It is on a much bigger scale though, with

an output of approx 700KW whereas I am aiming for approx 30KW for Sioma.

I will be working on a more complete plan throughout the rest of the week, aiming to have it done

by the end of the weekend. I can then send it to you and, if you approve, we can pass it on to Joe

and the local authorities. If we get their backing, I imagine it will be easier to apply to various

charities for support. I do have a copy of the request for the establishment of the training workshop,

I assume it is the one I have attached?

Also, do you have an idea of the machinery that would be needed for the training workshop? It

would be useful in order to calculate the required power output for the turbine.

Sorry for the delayed reply,

Hans Petter

2008/10/22 from Joachim Meyer to me

Sounds promising.

Things to consider though.

Workshop is next to ZEEC sioma 10 miles away.

Sioma is above the sioma falls and Zeec 4kms below.

so I am am not sure how both can be helped other than running cables.

For the machine we have envisaged a 30kw Diesel generator driving.

A Band saw, a circular saw, a sander, a planer and some small turning and notching machines.

It is probably easier to give electricity to sioma and the clinic than the workshop.

I look forward to seeing your proposal.

Joachim Meyer


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Hi,

I have attached a brief letter/plan for the local government asking for a letter of support. Will we be

able to use this (or something like it)? If you have any suggestions please let me know.

Thanks,

Hans


Good morning hans,

I have had a long conversation with Joe this morning. He would be delighted to assist in any way.

The Western Province has recently suffered lengthy power cuts because development of economic

activity and power supply are not balanced.

I am sending your proposal to Joe who will in a week's time have a meeting with the minister of

energy for the Western Province and he is sure that you proposal will be supported and a letter send

to you.

This will work,

Joachim


That sounds fantastic, thanks a lot! I will continue with my research and make sure to let you know

when I have more news. Say hello to Joe for me!

Hans


Hi,

I was just wondering if there has been any news from Joe about the meeting?

Regards,

Hans


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Hello,

Not much feedback at this stage. But what we have sound promising.

Joe has met with the Director of Zesco responsible for the Western Province. You proposal outline is

therefore sitting on the desk of the top man running the Zambian Electricity Supply Company in the

area.

We await their reaction. I think it would be good to have their support particularly when it comes to

maintain the facility later.

Joachim


Hello Hans Petter,

Below a response from Joe the project looks like it will be signed off by the LOZI parliament KUTA.

All the best,

Joachim Meyer

22/1/2009 from Joe to Joachim Meyer

Dear Mr Meyer

All is fine, the peace parks has fenced the falls only the side of the road.

The small hydro project to the Litunga has been looked into and rumour has been that it is positive

for us to use the falls only that I’m waiting for the letter from the kuta.

Kindly can't you write me a letter to open the account to the Manager , ZANACO,Senanga .If i can

take to the manager before 14hrs.

Did you receive the cash?

My Regards

Joe


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Appendix I

Clinic Correspondences:

14/11/2008 from me to Vanessa Scott and Richard White

Dear Richard White and Vanessa Scott,

In 2005 I visited Sioma with Lesley Meyer as a part of a school trip to ZEEC and was greatlyimpressed by both the clinic as well as all the work being put into the surrounding area. As I am nowa third year manufacturing & mechanical engineering student at the University of Warwick in the UKI have decided to embark on a third year project directly related to Sioma. This project currentlyinvolves researching the viability of and writing a proposal for the implementation of a small scalehydroelectric scheme for the Sioma community. This scheme would hopefully provide sustainableenergy for the clinic, the surrounding schools, the woodworking workshop currently beingdeveloped by ZEEC as well as the villagers. Due to time restrictions I cannot complete the projectwithin the provided time, but as I see it now, I have all intentions of continuing theproject past its academic boundaries.

For now I am doing the preliminary research and brainstorming my ideas but I have a few questionsconcerning the clinic which I hope you can help me with. As far as I remember, the equipment usedwas powered by a diesel aggregate, do you have an idea of power output generated fromthis? Would you be able to provide any information on the maximum consumption as well as theaverage consumption of power when the equipment is in use? I would also be very greatful if youhad a list of the equipment requiring electricity as well as their consumption.

Thank you for any help, I greatly appreciate the work you put into the clinic in Sioma!

Kind regards,

Hans Bjornavold

14/11/2008 from Vanessa Scott to me

Dear Hans,

Your emails bring me great delight. About a month ago, Rich and I were talking about how our next

project was to raise money for a sustainable power source so that the clinic could have a working

refrigerator for medications and the lab, as well as a computer for patient histories. I am so happy

that you have decided to take on this project!

Unfortunately, I am not sure on the max or avg. consumption of power from the generator, but I'll

try and get in touch with someone down there and ask them. Any other information that you need?

When will you be going down to Sioma?

Cheers, Vanessa


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14/11/2008 from me to Vanessa Scott

Dear Vanessa,

Thanks for your very quick reply! I'm glad to hear you approve of the project, I am currently waiting

for a letter of support from Zesco (Zambian Electricity Supply Company) in the Western Province,

which should hopefully help in terms of funding applications and other practicalities.

As far as other information goes, I'm in close contact with Mr and Mrs Meyer so they've been able to

help a lot. If there is anything else though I will make sure to contact you.

Hopefully I'll be heading to Sioma during my easter break, but I can't confirm that yet due to certain

practical issues. If not, I'll be aiming for a trip in July or August. Of course, this all depends on the

outcome of my research and the acquisition of funding.

I'll keep you updated on any news,

Kind regards, Hans

1/1/2009 Vanessa Scott to me

> Dear Hans,

> Please see the email below from Sister Catherine. I hope this information

> helps?

> Please let me know if you need anything else and please keep us updated on

> your funding and timeline. We're very excited about the possibility of a

> hydroelectric power system and would like to help in any way possible.

> Best Regards,

> Vanessa and Richard

> On Tue, Dec 30, 2008 at 8:18 PM, CATHERINE PHIRI <[email protected]>

> wrote:

>

>> Hello from sr. Catherine. The lab is connected 2 the diesel generator but

>> the generator is not used because of lack of enough funds 2 buy diesel 2 run

>> in so as at now solar power is being used. Other equipment that need power

>> are: centrifuge, rpr spinner and auto haematology analyzer. All these need a

>> maximum of 310watts and 240volts. The generator has output of 440volts.


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6/1/09 me to Vanessa Scott and Richard White

Dear Vanessa and Richard,

Thank you very much for your help, I can only apologise for such a late reply. If you have some more

general statistics on the clinic, this would be very helpful (as in how many people are treated there a

year, the max. Amount of patients at one time, the amount of staff etc.), simply so I can provide a

more detailed picture of the requirements for my report.

As for updates, I have a progress report due for the project on Friday, so I will pass this on to you

over the weekend.

Kind regards,

Hans


Dear Hans,

I wanted to check in with you regarding your project for Sioma and also let you know that our

program will be sending two groups of students to Sioma this summer. One in May/June, and

another group in August.

Please let me know if you need me to have them collect any information or data on your behalf!

Thank you and hope you are well.

Sincerely,

Vanessa

23/3/2009 me to Vanessa Scott

Dear Vanessa,

Thanks for your e-mail. I am in the finishing stages of writing my final project report for university,

and so the planning is progressing relatively quickly. I am currently in Brussels and hope to meet

with Joachim Meyer of ZEEC within the next few days to discuss how we will proceed with the

project. I have had no news as to whether the project has been approved of by the Lozi parliament

but I hope this will come soon. Once I have that I can begin searching for funding. My project

supervisor has suggested that I could continue the development of the scheme as a part of a PhD or

M.sc project once I finish my current course, however, that obviously relies on a lot of other factors.

As for measurement/information collection, this could be very useful as concrete documentation of

the areas needs and requirements would help the feasibility study greatly. Anyways, I'll get back to

you on that after I have met with Mr. Meyer (hopefully within the next week).

Best regards,

Hans


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Dear Hans,

Please tell Joachim hello for me! He was in Sioma with me in August of 2007.

Let me know if you have any assignments for the students going down there in May/June or in

August, I'm happy to give them any sort of project!

Cheers,

Vanessa

27/3/2009 me to Vanessa Scott

Hello again!

I met with Joachim and Lesley yesterday afternoon and had a long chat with them regarding the

project and Sioma in general. They are both very motivated to work with me on the project, which is

great. Mrs. M is actually off to Sioma tomorrow evening with a group of 22 students from the

European School and so I gave her a list of questions and issues that I asked her to make notes on. If

there is anything else I need notes on I will make sure to let you know, but it is difficult to give

instructions on possible site locations etc over e-mail and not in person.

However, it looks like I might be able to go travel down there in early June with Joachim (as long as

my provisional exam timetable doesn't change), which would be fantastic and would really help the

project along. As I'm sure you can imagine, it's difficult to base everything on "guesstimates"! :-)

Hopefully that will be sorted out fairly rapidly, and once we've been down there to check the site out

we can look towards sponsorships etc..

Regards,

Hans


Sounds fantastic Hans- so happy you were able to meet Joachim and Lesley and that you may be

able to visit Sioma in June.

I'll have about 5 students in Sioma until June 9th- and while I wish i was going down with them, i'm

too busy at work and won't be able to make it down there until December or next summer.

Keep in touch and let me know how the project is progressing- i would love to help out in any way

possible as I know it will have huge benefits for the medical clinic.

Cheers,

Vanessa


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Appendix J

Sioma Falls from the air:

Image source: http://www.siomacamp.com/images/galler16.jpg, retrieved April 20 2009


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Appendix K

Satellite image of Sioma Falls area:

Image source: Google Maps, http://maps.google.com, retrieved 10 February 2009


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Appendix L

Gannt Chart of Project Work:

Week* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Christmas Break 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Easter Break 21 22

Literature Review

Initiate Contact with ZEEC

Produce Plan for ZEEC/Zambia

Initiate Contact with Zambia / Apllication for backing of local government

Initiate Contact with NWZDT

Research possible sponsors for trip/project as a whole

Meeting with ZEEC in Brussels / Discussion in further detail

Apply to Lord Rootes Memorial Fund + other potential sponsors

Organise notes - finalise structure

Writing of report

Finish draft report

Review suggestions/changes

Finalisation of report

Preparation of oral report

* Note: Academic weeks. Start date: 29.09.2008 End date: 01.05.2009

es327 project report[final] - dphu · es327 project report ... figure 7 – pelton wheel figure 8...

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