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Best Available Techniques (BAT)

Reference Document for Waste

Treatment Industrial Emissions

Directive 2010/75/EU

(Integrated Pollution

Prevention and Control)

JOINT RESEARCH CENTRE

Directorate Growth and Innovation Unit Circular Economy and Industrial

Leadership European IPPC Bureau Final Draft (October 2017)

This draft has not been adopted or endorsed by the European Commission. Any views expressed are the preliminary views of the Commission services and may not in any circumstances be regarded as stating an official position of the Commission. The information transmitted is intended only for the Member State or entity to which it is addressed for discussions and may contain confidential and/or privileged material.

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Acknowledgements This report was produced by the European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Bureau (EIPPCB) at the European Commission's Joint Research Centre Directorate B: Growth and Innovation under the supervision of Serge Roudier (Head of the EIPPCB) and Luis Delgado Sancho (Head of the Circular Economy and Industrial Leadership Unit). The authors of this BREF were Mr Michele Canova, Mr Antoine Pinasseau, Mr Benoit Zerger and Mr Joze Roth. This report was drawn up in the framework of the implementation of the Industrial Emissions Directive (2010/75/EU) and is the result of the exchange of information provided for in Article 13 of the Directive. Major contributors of information were:

among EU Member States: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom;

among industry: EBA (European Biogas Association), ECN (European Compost Network), EFR (The European Ferrous Recovery and Recycling Federation), EUCOPRO (European Association for Co-processing), EURITS (EU for Responsible Incineration and Treatment of Special Waste), FEAD (European Federation of Waste Management and Environmental Services), HWE (Hazardous Waste Europe), MWE (Municipal Waste Europe);

among environmental Non-Governmental Organisations: EEB (European Environmental Bureau).

Other contributors to the review process were Czech Republic, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Norway, CEFIC, CEMBUREAU, CEPI, CEWEP, EERA, ERFO, ESRG, ESWET, EURELECTRIC, EUROFER, EUROMETAUX, GEIR and ORGALIME. The whole EIPPCB team provided contributions and peer reviewing.

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This document is one from the series of foreseen documents listed below (at the time of writing, not all documents have been drafted):

Reference Document on Best Available Techniques (BREF) Code

Ceramic Manufacturing Industry CER

Common Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment/Management Systems in the Chemical

Sector CWW

Common Waste Gas Treatment in the Chemical Sector WGC

Emissions from Storage EFS

Energy Efficiency ENE

Ferrous Metals Processing Industry FMP

Food, Drink and Milk Industries FDM

Industrial Cooling Systems ICS

Intensive Rearing of Poultry and Pigs IRPP

Iron and Steel Production IS

Large Combustion Plants LCP

Large Volume Inorganic Chemicals Ammonia, Acids and Fertilisers Industries LVIC-

AAF

Large Volume Inorganic Chemicals Solids and Others Industry LVIC-S

Large Volume Organic Chemical Industry LVOC

Management of Tailings and Waste-rock in Mining Activities MTWR

Manufacture of Glass GLS

Manufacture of Organic Fine Chemicals OFC

Non-ferrous Metals Industries NFM

Production of Cement, Lime and Magnesium Oxide CLM

Production of Chlor-alkali CAK

Production of Polymers POL

Pulp and Paper Industry PP

Production of Speciality Inorganic Chemicals SIC

Refining of Mineral Oil and Gas REF

Slaughterhouses and Animals By-products Industries SA

Smitheries and Foundries Industry SF

Surface Treatment of Metals and Plastics STM

Surface Treatment Using Organic Solvents (including Wood and Wood Products

Preservation with Chemicals) STS

Tanning of Hides and Skins TAN

Textiles Industry TXT

Waste Incineration WI

Waste Treatment WT

Wood-based Panels Production WBP

Reference Document (REF)

Economics and Cross-media Effects ECM

Monitoring of Emissions to Air and Water from IED Installations ROM

Electronic versions of draft and finalised documents are publicly available and can be downloaded from http://eippcb.jrc.ec.europa.eu

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http://eippcb.jrc.ec.europa.eu/

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Preface

BZ/JR/EIPPCB/WT_Final Draft October 2017 i

PREFACE

1. Status of this document Unless otherwise stated, references to the Directive in this document refer to Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and the Council on industrial emissions (integrated pollution prevention and control) (Recast). This document is a working draft of the European IPPC Bureau (of the Commission's Joint Research Centre). It is not an official publication of the European Union and does not necessarily reflect the position of the European Commission. 2. Participants in the information exchange As required in Article 13(3) of the Directive, the Commission has established a forum to promote the exchange of information, which is composed of representatives from Member States, the industries concerned and non-governmental organisations promoting environmental protection (Commission Decision of 16 May 2011 establishing a forum for the exchange of information pursuant to Article 13 of the Directive 2010/75/EU on industrial emissions (2011/C 146/03), OJ C 146, 17.05.2011, p. 3). Forum members have nominated technical experts constituting the technical working group (TWG) that was the main source of information for drafting this document. The work of the TWG was led by the European IPPC Bureau (of the Commission's Joint Research Centre).

3. Structure and contents of this document General information Chapter 1 provides general information on the waste treatment sector. For the sake of clarity, the waste treatment sector has been divided into four chapters, each split into several sections as shown below.

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Structure and content of Chapters 2 to 5

Chapter

number Item

Section

number Item

Chapter 2 Processes and techniques commonly

used for waste treatment

This chapter deals with common process steps

such as reception, storage, handling, blending

and mixing, cleaning and washing. This chapter

also gives information about the data collection

used to review this document as well as an

overview of the emissions encountered across

the sector. Finally, it addresses the techniques to

consider in the determination of BAT for the

processes commonly found in the waste

treatment sector.

Chapter 3 Mechanical treatment of waste

Section 3.1 Mechanical treatment in

shredders of metal waste

Section 3.2 Treatment of WEEE containing

VFCs and/or VHCs

Section 3.3 Mechanical treatment of waste

with calorific value

Chapter 4 Biological treatment of waste

Section 4.1 Overview of the different

biological treatments of waste

Section 4.2 Aerobic treatment

(including composting)

Section 4.3 Anaerobic treatment

(or anaerobic digestion (AD))

Section 4.4 Mechanical biological

treatment (MBT)

Section 4.5

As the three processes

addressed in chapter 4 (aerobic

treatment, AD and MBT) have

many commonalities, this

section deals with all

techniques to consider in the

determination of BAT for the

biological treatments.

Chapter 5 Physico-chemical treatment (PCT)

of waste

Section 5.1 PCT of solid and/or pasty waste

Section 5.2 Re-refining of waste oil

Section 5.3 PCT of waste with calorific

value

Section 5.4 Regeneration of spent solvents

Section 5.5

Regeneration/recovery of

pollution abatement

components / residues

Section 5.6 Treatment of excavated

contaminated soil

Section 5.7 Treatment of water-based liquid

waste

Section 5.8 PCT of waste containing POPs

or mercury and of other waste

Applied processes and techniques General information on the industrial processes and techniques used within the sector are provided as shown below.

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Structure of general information on processes and techniques

Treatment type Section number

Processes and techniques commonly used for

waste treatment Section 2.1

Mechanical treatment of waste Sections 3.1.1, 3.2.1 and 3.3.2

Biological treatment of waste Sections 4.2.1, 4.3.1 and 4.4.1

Physico-chemical treatment (PCT) of waste

PCT of solid and/or pasty waste: Section 5.1.2

Re-refining of waste oil: Section 5.2.1

PCT of waste with calorific value: Section 5.3.2

Regeneration of spent solvents: Section 5.4.1

Regeneration/recovery of pollution abatement

components / FGT residues: Section 5.5.1

Treatment of excavated contaminated soil:

Section 5.6.1

Treatment of water-based liquid waste: Section 5.7.1

PCT of POP-containing waste: Section 5.8.1.1

PCT of mercury-containing waste: Section 5.8.2.1

Other PCT treatments: Sections 5.8.3, 5.8.4, 5.8.5

and 5.8.6

Current emission and consumption levels Data and information concerning the environmental performance of plants within the sector, and in operation at the time of writing, in terms of current emissions, consumption and nature of raw materials, water usage, and use of energy, are provided as shown below. Structure of data and information concerning current emission and consumption levels



waste treatment Section 2.2


Biological treatment of waste Sections 4.2.2, 4.3.2 and 4.4.1.1.2







components / FGT residues: Section 5.5.2


Section 5.6.2

Treatment of water-based liquid waste: Section 5.7.2



Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT Techniques to prevent or, where this is not practicable, to reduce the emissions from plants in this sector that were considered in determining the BAT are presented in more detail as shown below. This information includes, where relevant, the environmental performance levels (e.g. emission and consumption levels) that can be achieved by using the techniques, the associated monitoring and the costs and the cross-media issues associated with the techniques. W

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Structure of techniques to consider in the determination of BAT



waste treatments Section 2.3


Biological treatment of waste

All types of biological treatments: Section 4.5.1

Aerobic treatment of waste: Section 4.5.2

Anaerobic treatment of waste: Section 4.5.3

Mechanical biological treatment: Section 4.5.4







components / FGT residues: Sections 0 and 5.5.4


Section 5.6.3

Treatment of water-based liquid waste:

Section 5.7.3



Best available techniques (BAT) conclusions Chapter 6 presents the BAT conclusions as defined in Article 3(12) of Directive 2010/75/EU. Emerging techniques Chapter 7 presents information on 'emerging techniques' as defined in Article 3(14) of Directive 2010/75/EU. Concluding remarks Concluding remarks and recommendations for future work are presented in Chapter 8.

4. Information sources and the derivation of BAT This document is based on information collected from a number of sources, in particular through the TWG that was established specifically for the exchange of information under Article 13 of the Directive. The information has been collated and assessed by the European IPPC Bureau (of the Commission's Joint Research Centre) who led the work on determining BAT, guided by the principles of technical expertise, transparency and neutrality. The work of the TWG and all other contributors is gratefully acknowledged. The BAT conclusions have been established through an iterative process involving the following steps:

identification of the key environmental issues for the Waste Treatment sector; examination of the techniques most relevant to address these key issues; identification of the best environmental performance levels, on the basis of the available

data in the European Union and worldwide;

examination of the conditions under which these environmental performance levels were achieved, such as costs, cross-media effects, and the main driving forces involved in the implementation of the techniques;

selection of the best available techniques (BAT), their associated emission levels (and other environmental performance levels) and the associated monitoring for this sector according to Article 3(10) of, and Annex III to, the Directive.

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Expert judgement by the European IPPC Bureau and the TWG has played a key role in each of these steps and the way in which the information is presented here. Where available, economic data have been given together with the descriptions of the techniques presented in the sections mentioned above. These data give a rough indication of the magnitude of the costs and benefits. However, the actual costs and benefits of applying a technique may depend strongly on the specific situation of the plant concerned, which cannot be evaluated fully in this document. In the absence of data concerning costs, conclusions on the economic viability of techniques are drawn from observations on existing plants.

5. Review of BAT reference documents (BREFs) BAT is a dynamic concept and so the review of BREFs is a continuing process. For example, new measures and techniques may emerge, science and technologies are continuously developing and new or emerging processes are being successfully introduced into the industries. In order to reflect such changes and their consequences for BAT, this document will be periodically reviewed and, if necessary, updated accordingly.

6. Contact information All comments and suggestions should be made to the European IPPC Bureau at the Joint Research Centre at the following address: European Commission Joint Research Centre (JRC) Directorate B Growth and Innovation Circular Economy and Industrial Leadership Unit European IPPC Bureau Edificio Expo c/ Inca Garcilaso, 3 E-41092 Seville, Spain Telephone: +34 95 4488 284 Fax: +34 95 4488 426 E-mail: [email protected] Internet: http://eippcb.jrc.ec.europa.eu

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mailto:[email protected]://eippcb.jrc.ec.europa.eu/

vi October 2017 BZ/JR/EIPPCB/WT_Final Draft

Reference Document on Best Available Techniques for Waste Treatment

PREFACE.........................................................................................................................I

SCOPE ....................................................................................................................... XXV

1 GENERAL INFORMATION ................................................................................. 1

1.1 THE PURPOSE OF WASTE TREATMENT ..................................................................... 1

1.2 TYPES OF WASTE AND WASTE GENERATION IN THE EU ............................................ 3

1.2.1 End-of-life vehicles (EoLVs) ........................................................................ 6

1.2.2 Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) ........................................ 6

1.2.3 Municipal solid waste (MSW) ...................................................................... 7

1.2.4 Sludge and liquid waste................................................................................ 8

1.2.5 Waste acids and bases .................................................................................. 8

1.2.6 Waste adsorbents ......................................................................................... 9

1.2.7 Waste catalysts ............................................................................................ 9

1.2.8 Wastes from combustion processes ..............................................................10

1.2.9 Waste oil ....................................................................................................11

1.2.10 Waste solvents ............................................................................................12

1.2.11 Other recyclable wastes ...............................................................................12

1.2.11.1 Waste plastics ......................................................................................................................12 1.2.11.2 Waste wood ..........................................................................................................................14

1.2.12 Hazardous waste from the construction and demolition sector........................14

1.2.13 Waste contaminated with PCBs ...................................................................15

1.2.14 Waste contaminated with SF6 ......................................................................15

1.2.15 Waste soils .................................................................................................16

1.3 INSTALLATIONS FOR THE TREATMENT OF WASTE ...................................................17

1.3.1 Shredders ...................................................................................................18

1.3.2 Waste transfer installations ..........................................................................19

1.3.3 Installations for the biological treatment of waste ..........................................20

1.3.4 Installations for the physico-chemical treatment of waste waters ....................20

1.3.5 Installations for the treatment of combustion ashes and flue-gas treatment residues ......................................................................................................21

1.3.6 Installations for the treatment of waste containing POPs ................................21

1.3.7 Installations for the treatment of waste containing SF6 ...................................21

1.3.8 Installations for treatment of waste oil ..........................................................22

1.3.9 Installations for treatment of waste solvent ...................................................23

1.3.10 Installations for the treatment of waste catalysts, waste from pollution abatement and other inorganic waste ............................................................24

1.3.11 Installations for treatment of activated carbon and resins ...............................24

1.3.12 Installations for the treatment of waste acids and bases ..................................25

1.3.13 Installations for the preparation of waste with calorific value .........................25

1.4 ECONOMICS OF THE WASTE TREATMENT SECTOR ...................................................27

1.5 GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES RELATED TO INSTALLATIONS THAT TREAT WASTE ................................................................................................................30

2 PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES COMMONLY USED FOR WASTE

TREATMENT ........................................................................................................ 33

2.1 APPLIED PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES..................................................................34

2.1.1 Pre-acceptance and acceptance of waste .......................................................34

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2.1.1.1 Pre-acceptance .....................................................................................................................34 2.1.1.2 Acceptance ...........................................................................................................................34

2.1.2 Storage ...................................................................................................... 35

2.1.3 Handling ................................................................................................... 37

2.1.4 Blending and mixing .................................................................................. 39

2.1.5 Treatment of laboratory smalls .................................................................... 41

2.1.6 Cleaning and washing................................................................................. 42

2.1.7 Reduction of solid waste size ...................................................................... 43

2.1.8 Other than normal operating conditions ....................................................... 44

2.2 CURRENT EMISSION AND CONSUMPTION LEVELS ................................................... 46

2.2.1 General information on the data collection ................................................... 46

2.2.2 General information on the emission levels .................................................. 48

2.2.2.1 Dust emissions to air...........................................................................................................49 2.2.2.2 Organic compound emissions to air .................................................................................53 2.2.2.3 Ammonia emissions to air .................................................................................................61

2.3 TECHNIQUES TO CONSIDER IN THE DETERMINATION OF GENERAL BAT FOR THE WT SECTOR ........................................................................................................ 64

2.3.1 Organisational techniques to improve environmental performance ................ 67

2.3.1.1 Environmental management system (EMS) ...................................................................67 2.3.1.2 Stream inventory/register...................................................................................................70 2.3.1.3 Utilisation of qualified personnel in the plant ................................................................71

2.3.2 Operational techniques to improve environmental performance..................... 72

2.3.2.1 Waste pre-acceptance .........................................................................................................72 2.3.2.2 Waste composition characterisation.................................................................................75 2.3.2.3 Waste acceptance ................................................................................................................78 2.3.2.4 Waste sampling ...................................................................................................................81 2.3.2.5 Waste tracking system and waste inventory...................................................................84 2.3.2.6 Output quality management for the waste treatment ....................................................85 2.3.2.7 Waste segregation ...............................................................................................................87 2.3.2.8 Waste compatibility assessment .......................................................................................91 2.3.2.9 Waste sorting .......................................................................................................................93

2.3.3 Monitoring ...............................................................................................109

2.3.3.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................109 2.3.3.2 Monitoring of influent and effluent waste water .........................................................109 2.3.3.3 Monitoring of emissions to water...................................................................................110 2.3.3.4 Monitoring of channelled emissions to air....................................................................112 2.3.3.5 Odour monitoring ..............................................................................................................113

2.3.4 Techniques for the prevention and control of channelled emissions to air ......114

2.3.4.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................114 2.3.4.2 Cyclone ...............................................................................................................................114 2.3.4.3 Electrostatic precipitator (ESP) ......................................................................................115 2.3.4.4 Fabric filter .........................................................................................................................115 2.3.4.5 Absolute filter ....................................................................................................................116 2.3.4.6 Thermal oxidation .............................................................................................................117 2.3.4.7 Biofiltrat ion ........................................................................................................................118 2.3.4.8 Condensation and cryogenic condensation...................................................................119 2.3.4.9 Adsorption ..........................................................................................................................120 2.3.4.10 Scrubbing............................................................................................................................122 2.3.4.11 Sorbent injection ...............................................................................................................123

2.3.5 Techniques for the prevention and control of odour and diffuse/fugitive emissions to air .........................................................................................124

2.3.5.1 Odour management plan ..................................................................................................124 2.3.5.2 Prevention or reduction of odour emissions from waste treatment ..........................125 2.3.5.3 Reduction of diffuse emissions.......................................................................................127

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2.3.5.4 Leak detection and repair programme ...........................................................................131 2.3.5.5 Flaring .................................................................................................................................132

2.3.6 Techniques for the prevention and control of emissions to water .................. 136

2.3.6.1 Treatment of waste water from waste treatment plants ..............................................136 2.3.6.1.1 Environmental performance of all waste treatment plants except for those

treating water-based liquid waste ..........................................................................138 2.3.6.1.2 Environmental performance of plants treating water-based liquid waste.......159

2.3.6.2 Descriptions of individual waste water treatment techniques ...................................196 2.3.6.2.1 Equalisation ...............................................................................................................196 2.3.6.2.2 Neutralisation ............................................................................................................196 2.3.6.2.3 Mechanical separation of insoluble contaminants ..............................................197

2.3.6.2.3.1 Oil-water separation .......................................................................................197 2.3.6.2.3.2 Coagulation and flocculat ion........................................................................197 2.3.6.2.3.3 Electrocoagulation..........................................................................................198 2.3.6.2.3.4 Sedimentation..................................................................................................199 2.3.6.2.3.5 Flotation ...........................................................................................................199 2.3.6.2.3.6 Filtration ...........................................................................................................200 2.3.6.2.3.7 Membrane filtration .......................................................................................201

2.3.6.2.4 Physico-chemical treatment of soluble non-biodegradable or inhibitory contaminants..............................................................................................................202

2.3.6.2.4.1 Precip itation of metals ...................................................................................202 2.3.6.2.4.2 Chemical oxidat ion ........................................................................................203 2.3.6.2.4.3 Chemical reduction ........................................................................................204 2.3.6.2.4.4 Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis .............................................................205 2.3.6.2.4.5 Stripping ...........................................................................................................206 2.3.6.2.4.6 Ion exchange processes .................................................................................206 2.3.6.2.4.7 Evaporation......................................................................................................207 2.3.6.2.4.8 Adsorption .......................................................................................................208 2.3.6.2.4.9 Distillat ion/rectification.................................................................................209

2.3.6.2.5 Biological treatment of waste water ......................................................................209 2.3.6.2.5.1 Aerobic treatment ...........................................................................................209 2.3.6.2.5.2 Anaerobic treatment .......................................................................................212 2.3.6.2.5.3 Nitrogen removal by biological n itrification/denitrification ...................213

2.3.6.3 Sludge treatment techniques............................................................................................214

2.3.7 Techniques for the optimisation of water usage and reduction of waste water generation ................................................................................................ 215

2.3.8 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of consumption of raw materials and chemicals ........................................................................................... 217

2.3.9 Techniques for the efficient use of energy................................................... 219

2.3.9.1 Energy efficiency plan......................................................................................................219 2.3.9.2 Energy balance ..................................................................................................................221

2.3.10 Techniques for the prevention and control of noise and vibration emissions .. 223

2.3.10.1 Noise and vibration management plan ..........................................................................223 2.3.10.2 Noise and vibration reduction at source and noise abatement...................................224

2.3.11 Techniques for the prevention and reduction of soil and water contamination225

2.3.12 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of residues generation................ 227

2.3.13 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of the environmental consequences of accidents and incidents ..................................................... 229

2.3.13.1 General techniques for the prevention or limitation of the environmental consequences of accidents and incidents ......................................................................229

2.3.13.2 Techniques for the reduction of the environmental risk of storing waste ...............232 2.3.13.3 Techniques for the reduction of the environmental risk of handling and

transferring waste ..............................................................................................................235 2.3.14 Techniques for the decommissioning of the plant ........................................ 237

3 MECHANICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE................................................... 241

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3.1 MECHANICAL TREATMENT IN SHREDDERS OF METAL WASTE ................................241

3.1.1 Applied processes and techniques...............................................................241

3.1.2 Current emission and consumption levels ...................................................251

3.1.2.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................251 3.1.2.1.1 General overview......................................................................................................251 3.1.2.1.2 Dust and particle-bound metals..............................................................................253 3.1.2.1.3 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)....................................................................257 3.1.2.1.4 PCB and dioxins .......................................................................................................259 3.1.2.1.5 Mercury ......................................................................................................................262

3.1.2.2 Emissions to water and water usage ..............................................................................265 3.1.2.2.1 Emissions to water ...................................................................................................265 3.1.2.2.2 Water usage ...............................................................................................................270

3.1.2.3 Noise and vibration ...........................................................................................................270 3.1.2.4 Consumption of energy ....................................................................................................271

3.1.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT ...................................271

3.1.3.1 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of emissions to air ................................271 3.1.3.1.1 Abatement of waste gases using cyclone, Venturi scrubber and bag filter in

combination or alone................................................................................................271 3.1.3.1.2 Ultrafiltrat ion.............................................................................................................281 3.1.3.1.3 Prevention or reduction of diffuse emissions ......................................................283

3.1.3.1.3.1 Specific acceptance procedure .....................................................................283 3.1.3.1.3.2 Pressure relief dampers..................................................................................284 3.1.3.1.3.3 Deflagration management plan ....................................................................285 3.1.3.1.3.4 Pre-shredding ..................................................................................................287

3.1.3.2 Techniques for the prevention and control of noise and vibration emissions.........287 3.1.3.2.1 Vibrat ion management plan ....................................................................................287 3.1.3.2.2 Noise barriers ............................................................................................................289

3.1.3.3 Techniques to reduce energy consumption...................................................................291 3.1.3.3.1 Shredder feed control...............................................................................................291

3.1.3.4 Water management in mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste..............291

3.2 TREATMENT OF WEEE CONTAINING VFCS AND/OR VHCS ...................................293


3.2.1.1 Innovative processes .........................................................................................................298 3.2.1.1.1 Treatment of halogen-free cooling and freezing appliances .............................298


3.2.2.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................299 3.2.2.1.1 Dust .............................................................................................................................300 3.2.2.1.2 Volatile fluorocarbons (VFCs)...............................................................................300 3.2.2.1.3 VOCs, NMVOC and TOC ......................................................................................302

3.2.2.2 Emissions to water ............................................................................................................302 3.2.2.3 Energy consumption .........................................................................................................302


3.2.3.1 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of emissions to air ................................303 3.2.3.1.1 Removal o f refrigerants and oils ............................................................................303 3.2.3.1.2 Treatment of gas containing organic compounds such as VFCs/VHCs .........304 3.2.3.1.3 Reduction of dust emissions ...................................................................................308

3.2.3.2 Techniques to prevent explosion ....................................................................................309

3.3 MECHANICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE WITH CALORIFIC VALUE..............................311

3.3.1 Overview..................................................................................................311



3.3.3.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................318 3.3.3.2 Emissions to water ............................................................................................................322 3.3.3.3 Water usage ........................................................................................................................325 3.3.3.4 Energy consumption .........................................................................................................325

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3.3.4 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT ................................... 326

3.3.4.1 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of emissions to air ................................326 3.3.4.1.1 Reduction of dust emissions ...................................................................................326 3.3.4.1.2 Reduction of organic compounds emissions........................................................329

4 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE..................................................... 331

4.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW ......................................................................................... 331

4.2 AEROBIC TREATMENT (INCLUDING COMPOSTING) ................................................ 334

4.2.1 Applied processes and techniques .............................................................. 334

4.2.1.1 Innovative processes .........................................................................................................338 4.2.2 Current emission and consumption levels ................................................... 339

4.2.2.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................339 4.2.2.1.1 Outdoor aerobic treatment ......................................................................................339 4.2.2.1.2 Indoor aerobic treatment .........................................................................................341

4.2.2.2 Emissions to water ............................................................................................................348 4.2.2.2.1 Outdoor aerobic treatment ......................................................................................348 4.2.2.2.2 Indoor aerobic treatment .........................................................................................352

4.2.2.3 Water usage ........................................................................................................................356 4.2.2.4 Energy consumption .........................................................................................................356

4.3 ANAEROBIC TREATMENT (OR ANAEROBIC DIGESTION (AD)) ................................. 357


4.3.1.1 Innovative processes .........................................................................................................367 4.3.1.1.1 Conversion of organic waste to carboxylates, carboxylic acids or polymers

by fermentation with mixed cultures .....................................................................367 4.3.1.1.2 Bioethanol production .............................................................................................368 4.3.1.1.3 Separation and recircu lation of dry matter in AD plants ...................................368 4.3.1.1.4 Pretreatment of biomass substrates to enhance anaerobic digestion ...............369

4.3.2 Current emission and consumption levels ................................................... 369

4.3.2.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................369 4.3.2.2 Emissions to water and water usage ..............................................................................375

4.3.2.2.1 Emissions to water ...................................................................................................375 4.3.2.2.2 Water usage ...............................................................................................................380

4.3.2.3 Energy consumption .........................................................................................................380

4.4 MECHANICAL BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT (MBT) ................................................... 381


4.4.1.1 Innovative processes .........................................................................................................387 4.4.1.1.1 Pretreatment to separate food waste from packaging .........................................387 4.4.1.1.2 Separation of biodegradable material by enzyme treatment .............................387


4.4.2.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................388 4.4.2.2 Emissions to water and water usage ..............................................................................394

4.4.2.2.1 Emissions to water ...................................................................................................394 4.4.2.2.2 Water usage ...............................................................................................................396

4.4.2.3 Energy consumption .........................................................................................................396

4.5 TECHNIQUES TO CONSIDER IN THE DETERMINATION OF BAT ................................ 397

4.5.1 Techniques for all types of biological treatment .......................................... 397

4.5.1.1 Selection of the waste input.............................................................................................397 4.5.1.2 Storage management of putrescible waste input..........................................................400 4.5.1.3 Odour management plan ..................................................................................................402 4.5.1.4 Reduction of channelled emissions of dust, odour, organic compounds, H2S and

NH3 ......................................................................................................................................403 4.5.1.5 Reduction of waste water generation and water usage [ ............................................409

4.5.2 Techniques for aerobic treatment ............................................................... 413

4.5.2.1 Monitoring of aerobic process to improve the environmental performance ...........413 4.5.2.2 Techniques to limit diffuse dust, odour and bioaerosols emissions .........................418

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4.5.2.3 Semipermeable membrane covers with forced positive aeration..............................419 4.5.3 Techniques for anaerobic treatment ............................................................422

4.5.3.1 Anaerobic process and waste monitoring .....................................................................422 4.5.4 Techniques for MBT .................................................................................424

4.5.4.1 Measures to reduce emissions to air ..............................................................................424

5 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE ..................................... 431

5.1 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF SOLID AND/OR PASTY WASTE ........................431

5.1.1 Overview..................................................................................................431


5.1.2.1 Immobilisation of solid and/or pasty waste ..................................................................431 5.1.2.1.1 Stabilisation ...............................................................................................................435 5.1.2.1.2 Solidification .............................................................................................................438

5.1.2.2 Physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste before backfilling ...........439 5.1.3 Current emission and consumption levels ...................................................442

5.1.3.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................442 5.1.3.2 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................442 5.1.3.3 Emissions to water and water usage ..............................................................................449 5.1.3.4 Energy consumption .........................................................................................................450


5.1.4.1 Monitoring of the waste input .........................................................................................450 5.1.4.2 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of emissions to air ................................452

5.2 RE-REFINING OF WASTE OILS ..............................................................................455



5.2.2.1 Emissions from the re-refin ing of waste oils ................................................................473 5.2.2.1.1 Emissions to air.........................................................................................................476 5.2.2.1.2 Emissions to water ...................................................................................................480

5.2.2.2 Consumption in the re-refining of waste oils ...............................................................484 5.2.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT ...................................486

5.2.3.1 Selection of waste oils to be re-refined .........................................................................486 5.2.3.2 Reduction of water usage and emissions to water in waste oil re-refining plants .488 5.2.3.3 Reduction of waste generated by waste oil re-refining installat ions ........................489 5.2.3.4 Reduction of VOC emissions from waste oil re-refining plants ...............................490

5.3 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE WITH CALORIFIC VALUE ....................493

5.3.1 Overview..................................................................................................493


5.3.2.1 Preparation of solid output mainly from solid waste ..................................................496 5.3.2.1.1 Drying the solid waste .............................................................................................496 5.3.2.1.2 Pelletising and agglomeration ................................................................................497

5.3.2.2 Preparation of solid output mainly from solid and pasty waste by mechanical treatment and impregnation .............................................................................................497

5.3.2.3 Preparation of liquid output.............................................................................................499 5.3.2.3.1 Preparation of liquid waste fuels by homogenisation, phase separation and

blending/mixing of wastes ......................................................................................499 5.3.2.3.2 Preparation of liquid output by fluidification of wastes ....................................501 5.3.2.3.3 Preparation of emulsions from liquid/semi-liquid waste ...................................503

5.3.2.4 Treatments of waste oils other than re-refin ing ...........................................................505 5.3.2.4.1 Mild and severe reprocessing of waste oils..........................................................508 5.3.2.4.2 Thermal cracking ......................................................................................................510

5.3.2.5 Treatment of vegetable waste oils for the production of biodiesel...........................513 5.3.3 Current emission and consumption levels ...................................................513

5.3.3.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................517 5.3.3.2 Emissions to water and water usage ..............................................................................520 5.3.3.3 Energy consumption .........................................................................................................524

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5.3.4.1 Reduction of VOC emissions to air when preparing waste fuel from liquid and semi-liquid waste...............................................................................................................524

5.4 REGENERATION OF SPENT SOLVENTS .................................................................. 528




5.4.3.1 Recovery of raw material or energy from distillation residues .................................544 5.4.3.2 Monitoring of diffuse and fugitive VOC emissions to air .........................................545 5.4.3.3 Collection and abatement of VOC emissions to air ....................................................547 5.4.3.4 Reduction of waste water generation and of water usage from vacuum

generation ...........................................................................................................................549 5.4.3.4.1 Water-free vacuum generation ...............................................................................549 5.4.3.4.2 Liquid ring pumps with high boiling point liquids .............................................550 5.4.3.4.3 Closed cycle liquid ring vacuum pumps ...............................................................551

5.5 REGENERATION/RECOVERY OF POLLUTION ABATEMENT COMPONENTS / FGT RESIDUES .......................................................................................................... 553


5.5.1.1 Regeneration of spent activated carbon.........................................................................553 5.5.1.2 Regeneration of ion exchange resins .............................................................................555 5.5.1.3 Treatment of FGT residues..............................................................................................559

5.5.1.3.1 Recycling of Residual Sodium Chemicals from solid FGT residues ..............559 5.5.1.3.2 Recovery of salts from liquid FGT residues by solution/evaporat ion.............562 5.5.1.3.3 Washing of FGT residues and their use as a raw material for production of

construction products ...............................................................................................563 5.5.1.3.4 Acid extraction ..........................................................................................................564


5.5.2.1 Regeneration of activated carbon ...................................................................................565 5.5.2.2 Regeneration of waste catalysts......................................................................................567 5.5.2.3 Treatment of FGT residues..............................................................................................568

5.5.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT for the regeneration of activated carbon........................................................................................ 570

5.5.3.1 Heat recovery and waste gas treatment .........................................................................570 5.5.4 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT for the recovery of

components from catalysts......................................................................... 573

5.5.4.1 Heat recovery and waste gas treatment .........................................................................573

5.6 TREATMENT OF EXCAVATED CONTAMINATED SOIL .............................................. 575


5.6.1.1 Thermal desorption ...........................................................................................................575 5.6.1.2 Soil washing .......................................................................................................................578 5.6.1.3 Vapour extraction ..............................................................................................................582 5.6.1.4 Solvent extraction..............................................................................................................583 5.6.1.5 Biodegradation...................................................................................................................584


5.6.2.1 Emissions from thermal desorption ...............................................................................590 5.6.2.2 Emissions from vapour ext raction of solid waste........................................................592 5.6.2.3 Emissions and consumption of soil washing................................................................593 5.6.2.4 Emissions and consumption of biodegradation............................................................597


5.6.3.1 Thermal desorption ...........................................................................................................599 5.6.3.1.1 Reduction of dust and VOC emissions to air from thermal desorption of

contaminated soil ......................................................................................................599 5.6.3.2 Soil washing .......................................................................................................................600

5.6.3.2.1 Treatment and reuse of generated waste water for water washing of contaminated soil ......................................................................................................600

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5.6.3.2.2 Control of emissions to air from soil washing.....................................................601

5.7 TREATMENT OF WATER-BASED LIQUID WASTE .....................................................602



5.7.2.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................611 5.7.2.2 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................612 5.7.2.3 Emissions to water ............................................................................................................626

5.7.2.3.1 Overview....................................................................................................................626 5.7.2.3.2 Direct discharge ........................................................................................................626 5.7.2.3.3 Indirect discharge .....................................................................................................643 5.7.2.3.4 Direct and indirect d ischarge (THC, HOI, CN, AOX and metals) ..................654

5.7.2.4 Energy consumption .........................................................................................................678 5.7.2.5 Raw material consumption ..............................................................................................678


5.7.3.1 Monitoring of the waste input .........................................................................................681 5.7.3.2 Techniques for the prevention or reduction of emissions to air from the

treatment of water-based liquid waste ...........................................................................682

5.8 TREATMENT OF WASTE CONTAINING POPS OR MERCURY AND TREATMENT OF OTHER WASTE ....................................................................................................688

5.8.1 POP-containing waste ...............................................................................688

5.8.1.1 Applied processes and techniques ..................................................................................688 5.8.1.1.1 Decontamination of waste or equipment polluted with persistent organic

pollutants (POPs) ......................................................................................................688 5.8.1.1.2 Decontamination of PCB-containing waste .........................................................689

5.8.1.1.2.1 Equipment clean ing........................................................................................689 5.8.1.1.3 Destruction of POPs .................................................................................................690 5.8.1.1.4 Innovative processes ................................................................................................694

5.8.1.2 Current emission and consumption levels ....................................................................694 5.8.1.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT .................................................696

5.8.1.3.1 Optimisation of the environmental performance of PCB decontamination ...696 5.8.1.3.2 Capture and control of VOC emissions from solvent washing ........................697

5.8.2 Treatment of mercury-containing waste ......................................................699

5.8.2.1 Applied processes and techniques ..................................................................................699 5.8.2.2 Current emission and consumption levels ....................................................................701 5.8.2.3 Techniques to consider in the determination of BAT .................................................704

5.8.2.3.1 Reduction of mercury and dust emissions to air .................................................704 5.8.3 Treatment of SF6-containing waste .............................................................707

5.8.4 Treatment of waste asbestos.......................................................................709

5.8.5 Treatment of healthcare waste ....................................................................710

5.8.6 Regeneration of spent acids .......................................................................711

5.8.6.1 Regeneration of spent sulphuric acid .............................................................................711 5.8.6.2 Regeneration of spent hydrochloric acid .......................................................................712

6 BEST AVAILABLE TECHNIQUES (BAT) CONCLUSIONS FOR WASTE TREATMENT ...................................................................................................... 713

SCOPE 713

DEFINITIONS .................................................................................................................715

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ...........................................................................................718

6.1 GENERAL BAT CONCLUSIONS.............................................................................720

6.1.1 Overall environmental performance............................................................720

6.1.2 Monitoring ...............................................................................................724

6.1.3 Emissions to air ........................................................................................730

6.1.4 Noise and vibrations ..................................................................................734

6.1.5 Emissions to water ....................................................................................736

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6.1.6 Emissions from accidents and incidents ...................................................... 742

6.1.7 Material efficiency .................................................................................... 742

6.1.8 Energy efficiency...................................................................................... 743

6.1.9 Reuse of packaging ................................................................................... 743

6.2 BAT CONCLUSIONS FOR THE MECHANICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE ....................... 744

6.2.1 General BAT conclusions for the mechanical treatment of waste.................. 744

6.2.1.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................744 6.2.2 BAT conclusions for the mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste .. 745

6.2.2.1 Overall environmental performance ..............................................................................745 6.2.2.2 Deflagrations......................................................................................................................745 6.2.2.3 Energy efficiency ..............................................................................................................746

6.2.3 BAT conclusions for the treatment of WEEE containing VFCs and/or VHCs 746

6.2.3.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................746 6.2.3.2 Explosions ..........................................................................................................................747

6.2.4 BAT conclusions for the mechanical treatment of waste with calorific value . 747

6.2.4.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................747 6.2.5 BAT conclusions for the mechanical treatment of WEEE containing mercury748

6.2.5.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................748

6.3 BAT CONCLUSIONS FOR THE BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE......................... 749

6.3.1 General BAT conclusions for the biological treatment of waste.................... 749

6.3.1.1 Overall environmental performance ..............................................................................749 6.3.1.2 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................749 6.3.1.3 Emissions to water and water usage ..............................................................................750

6.3.2 BAT conclusions for the aerobic treatment of waste .................................... 750

6.3.2.1 Overall environmental performance ..............................................................................750 6.3.2.2 Odour and diffuse emissions to air.................................................................................751

6.3.3 BAT conclusions for the anaerobic treatment of waste................................. 751

6.3.3.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................751 6.3.4 BAT conclusions for the mechanical biological treatment (MBT) of waste ... 752

6.3.4.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................752

6.4 BAT CONCLUSIONS FOR THE PHYSICO-CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE ............. 753

6.4.1 BAT conclusions for the physico-chemical treatment of solid and/or pasty waste........................................................................................................ 753

6.4.1.1 Overall environmental performance ..............................................................................753 6.4.1.2 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................753

6.4.2 BAT conclusions for the re-refining of waste oil ......................................... 754


6.4.3 BAT conclusions for the physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific value ........................................................................................................ 754

6.4.3.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................754 6.4.4 BAT conclusions for the regeneration of spent solvents ............................... 755


6.4.5 BAT-AEL for emissions of organic compounds to air from the re-refining of waste oil, the physico-chemical treatment of waste with calorific value and the regeneration of spent solvents............................................................... 756

6.4.6 BAT conclusions for the thermal treatment of spent activated carbon, waste catalysts and excavated contaminated soil................................................... 756


6.4.7 BAT conclusions for the water washing of excavated contaminated soil ....... 757

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6.4.7.1 Emissions to air .................................................................................................................757 6.4.8 BAT conclusions for the decontamination of equipment containing PCBs.....758

6.4.8.1 Overall environmental performance ..............................................................................758

6.5 BAT CONCLUSIONS FOR THE TREATMENT OF WATER-BASED LIQUID WASTE ..........759

6.5.1 Overall environmental performance............................................................759

6.5.2 Emissions to air ........................................................................................759

6.6 DESCRIPTION OF TECHNIQUES.............................................................................760

6.6.1 Channelled emissions to air .......................................................................760

6.6.2 Diffuse emissions of organic compounds to air ...........................................762

6.6.3 Emissions to water ....................................................................................763

6.6.4 Sorting techniques.....................................................................................766

6.6.5 Management techniques ............................................................................767

7 EMERGING TECHNIQUES.............................................................................. 769

7.1 GENERAL TECHNIQUES .......................................................................................769

7.1.1 Online XRF analysis .................................................................................769

7.2 MECHANICAL TREATMENTS................................................................................771

7.2.1 Mechanical treatment in shredders of metal waste .......................................771

7.2.1.1 Dissolution of VOCs ........................................................................................................771 7.2.1.2 Abatement of VOCs in exhaust air from shredders by ionisation in combination

with activated carbon adsorption ....................................................................................772

7.3 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS .................................................................................775

7.3.1 Composting ..............................................................................................775

7.3.1.1 Monitoring of emissions to air - Inverse dispersion technique using Lagrangian modelling ............................................................................................................................775

7.3.1.2 Container composting.......................................................................................................776 7.3.2 Anaerobic treatment ..................................................................................778

7.3.2.1 Dry anaerobic d igestion of organic household waste .................................................778

8 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK ................................................................................................................... 781

9 ANNEXES ............................................................................................................. 785

9.1 LIST OF PLANTS THAT PARTICIPATED IN THE DATA COLLECTION ...........................785

GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................. 795

I. ISO COUNTRY CODES .........................................................................................796

II. MONETARY UNITS..............................................................................................797

III. UNIT PREFIXES, NUMBER SEPARATORS AND NOTATIONS .......................................798

IV. UNITS AND MEASURES........................................................................................799

V. CHEMICAL ELEMENTS ........................................................................................800

VI. CHEMICAL FORMULAE COMMONLY USED IN THIS DOCUMENT ...............................801

VII. ACRONYMS .......................................................................................................802

VIII. DEFINITIONS......................................................................................................806

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 811

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List of Tables Table 1.1: List of waste (LoW) as per amended Commission Decision 2000/53/EC .................................4 Table 1.2: Waste generated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2012 ......................................................................4 Table 1.3: Waste generation by economic activ ity and households 2012 (1000 tonnes) ........................5 Table 1.4: End-of-life vehicles generated and treated in the EU-27 and Norway in 2012.........................6 Table 1.5: WEEE co llected and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2012 .................................................7 Table 1.6: Municipal waste generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2012...............................8 Table 1.7: Industrial effluent sludge, and sludge and liquid wastes from waste treatment generated

in the EU-28 and Norway in 2012 ....................................................................................................8 Table 1.8: Acid, alkaline or saline waste generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2012........9 Table 1.9: Examples of industrial sector where catalysts are used.................................................................9 Table 1.10: Overview of the types of catalysts used for industrial purposes ................................................10 Table 1.11: Combustion waste generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2012 .........................11 Table 1.12: Main components of the FGT residues ..........................................................................................11 Table 1.13: Used oils generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2012..........................................12 Table 1.14: Spent solvents generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2012 ................................12 Table 1.15: Waste plastics .....................................................................................................................................13 Table 1.16: Presence of metals in plastics ...........................................................................................................13 Table 1.17: Waste plastics generated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2012 .....................................................13 Table 1.18: Waste wood generated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2012 .........................................................14 Table 1.19: Amount of hazardous mineral construction and demolition wastes generated in 2012 in

the EU-28.............................................................................................................................................15 Table 1.20: Waste containing PCB generated and treated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2012..................15 Table 1.21: Soils generated in the EU-28 and Norway in 2012 ......................................................................16 Table 1.22: Amount waste treatment activit ies from d ifferent databases......................................................18 Table 1.23: Main air pollutants emitted by waste treatments and their main sources .................................30 Table 1.24: Main water pollutants (parameters) emitted by waste treatments and their main sources ....31 Table 2.1: Information contained in the description of each technique/process included in Chapter

2.............................................................................................................................................................33 Table 2.2: Cleaning and washing steps .............................................................................................................42 Table 2.3: Overview of the plants which part icipated in the data collect ion ..............................................46 Table 2.4: Information fo r each technique........................................................................................................65 Table 2.5: Economics of laboratory and monitoring equipment in a waste oil treatment facility ..........83 Table 2.6: Plants from the reference list operating an output quality management system .....................87 Table 2.7: Example of a compatib ility chart for the storage of hazardous waste ......................................89 Table 2.8: Examples of sorting techniques .......................................................................................................94 Table 2.9: Examples of sorting techniques used in waste treatment plants from the reference list ......106 Table 2.10: Plants equipped with cyclonic separation ....................................................................................115 Table 2.11: Plants equipped with an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) ..........................................................115 Table 2.12: Plants equipped with a fabric filter ...............................................................................................116 Table 2.13: Plants equipped with absolute filtration .......................................................................................116 Table 2.14: Plants equipped with a thermal oxidation system.......................................................................117 Table 2.15: Plants equipped with a biofilter .....................................................................................................119 Table 2.16: Plants equipped with a condensation system...............................................................................120 Table 2.17: Plants equipped with activated carbon adsorption .....................................................................121 Table 2.18: Plants equipped with a wet scrubbing system .............................................................................123 Table 2.19: Plants equipped with a sorbent injection system ........................................................................124 Table 2.20: Plants where an odour management plan is implemented ........................................................125 Table 2.21: Overview of end-of-pipe odour treatment techniques ...............................................................126 Table 2.22: Abatement efficiencies and emission levels associated with flaring.......................................133 Table 2.23: Application limits and restrictions associated with flaring .......................................................135 Table 2.24: Economics associated with flaring ................................................................................................135 Table 2.25: Examples of p lants using flaring ...................................................................................................135 Table 2.26: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly discharging to water

(TSS) ..................................................................................................................................................139 Table 2.27: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly discharging to water

(TOC and COD) ...............................................................................................................................140 Table 2.28: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly discharging to water

(nitrogen) ...........................................................................................................................................141 Table 2.29: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly discharging to water

(phosphorus)......................................................................................................................................142

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Table 2.30: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly discharging to water (phenols) ............................................................................................................................................142

Table 2.31: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly discharging to water (THC)............................................................................................................143

Table 2.32: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly discharging to water (HOI).............................................................................................................144

Table 2.33: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly discharging to water (arsenic) ........................................................................................................145

Table 2.34: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly discharging to water (cadmium) ....................................................................................................146

Table 2.35: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly discharging to water (chromium) ..................................................................................................147

Table 2.36: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly discharging to water (copper).........................................................................................................149

Table 2.37: Environmental performance of waste treatment plants directly and indirectly discharging to water (lead) ..........................

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