equatorial carbonates: an earth systems approachsearg.rhul.ac.uk/pubs/wilson_2012 equatorial...

Equatorial carbonates: an earth systems approach

MOYRA E.J. WILSONDepartment of Applied Geology, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, Western Australia 6845,Australia (E-mail: [email protected])

Associate Editor – Tracy Frank

ABSTRACT

The hypothesis here is that an earth systems ‘processes to products’ approach

can be used to better develop predictive models for the recognition and

assessment of under-evaluated equatorial carbonate systems. Warm

temperatures, together with common clastic, fresh water and nutrient

influx, as well as basinal settings in the equatorial tropics, all have a major

impact on carbonate deposition and diagenesis. Specific features of equatorial

carbonate systems resulting from the combination of processes acting in the

region include: common occurrence of photoautotrophs and heterotrophs,

aragonitic and/or calcitic dominant mineralogies, lack of coated grains or

aggregates, common associations with clastics, lack of associations with

evaporites, and diversity of platform types, including oligophotic ones.

Additional diagenetic characteristics include: common micritization and

bioerosion, paucity of marine cements, extensive vadose dissolution and

concomitant phreatic cementation. There is also significant replacement of

aragonite by calcite in regions of meteoric groundwater flow, common burial

compaction and leaching, as well as localized massive dolomitization via sea

water or continental derived groundwater flow. Although equatorial

carbonates fall into the warm-water Photozoan Association, many of the

features described above are at odds with models derived from their warm-

water, arid-zone counterparts. Instead, a range of the equatorial carbonate

features show some similarities with those formed in cool waters, and there

have been difficulties separating carbonates from these two very different

climatic regimes. Recommendations for the recognition of Phanerozoic

regional equatorial carbonate development are: (i) a diversity of calcitic

and/or aragonitic photoautotrophs; plus (ii) common elements of the

Heterozoan Association; plus (iii) independent (for example, isotopic)

evidence for warm temperatures (>22�C). Additional indicators towards a

humid equatorial setting are: (iv) situation in appropriate palaeolatitudes; (v)

lack of association with sedimentary evaporites, coated grain or aggregates;

and (vi) geochemical evidence for reduced marine salinity and/or nutrient

upwelling. The aim is that this work will lead to greater awareness and

understanding of equatorial carbonate systems, and contribute to the

development of globally predictive models to better understand past and

likely future environmental change.

Keywords Carbonate reef, Cenozoic, clastics, diagenesis, humid equatorialclimate, nutrients, SE Asia, tectonics.

Sedimentology (2012) 59, 1–31 doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3091.2011.01293.x

� 2011 The Author. Journal compilation � 2011 International Association of Sedimentologists 1

INTRODUCTION

It is widely known that there are significantdifferences between warm-water (tropical) andcool-water (temperate) carbonates (Lees & Buller,1972; Nelson, 1988; Jones & Desrochers, 1992;James, 1997; James & Lukasik, 2010). However,variations within warm-water carbonate systems,particularly those for the humid equatorial realm,are less well-known (Fig. 1; Lees & Buller, 1972;Lees, 1975; Wilson, 2002, 2008a). The equatorialtropics are characterized by inputs of clasticsediment, fresh water and nutrients that are com-monly under-appreciated and may at first appearincompatible with the high diversity of carbonatebiota and systems found in the region (Figs 1 and2; Fulthorpe & Schlanger, 1989; Tomascik et al.,1997; Wilson, 2002, 2008a, 2011; Park et al., 2010).

Mention tropical carbonates, and the amazingdiversity and monumental edifices built by ‘blue-water’, nutrient-poor, tropical reef communitieswill spring to mind (the chlorozoan or photozoancommunities; Lees & Buller, 1972; James, 1997).Ooids can also be pictured precipitating andsaltating in warm, wave or current agitated shal-low seas (Lees & Buller, 1972; Jones & Desrochers,1992). In comparison, for the cool-water systems,current-scoured small foraminifera and mollusc-rich shelves are more the norm (Lees & Buller,1972; Lees, 1975); these may be joined by vastcrinoid and/or bryozoan meadows in regions ofnutrient upwelling (the foramol or heterozoanassemblages; Lees & Buller, 1972; James, 1997;Hayton et al., 1995; James & Lukasik, 2010). Theparadox of the shallow equatorial tropics is thatthe hotspot of global reefal diversity (the ‘coraltriangle’ of the IndoWest Pacific) is a region ofmoderate to high nutrient influx (Tomascik et al.,1997; Wilson & Vecsei, 2005; Wilson, 2008a). Infact, in many equatorial reefs, there is an apparentmerging of the two very different photozoan andheterozoan systems (Tomascik et al., 1997;Wilson, 2002, 2008a; Wilson & Vecsei, 2005).Nutrient-reliant organisms often outweigh light-dependent photoautotrophs (such as scleractiniancorals) on many south-east (SE) Asian reefs(Tomascik et al., 1997). Associated with upwell-ing and/or terrestrial runoff, low light penetrationand cooler than expected sea surface temperaturesare common and do not fit the traditional view of‘blue-water’ systems (Potts, 1983; Tomascik et al.,1997; Wilson & Vecsei, 2005; Wilson, 2008a,2011). These differences lead to the question: isthere something different about carbonate systemsand their deposits from the equatorial tropics?

An earth systems approach of evaluating envi-ronmental and basin evolution processes to betterunderstand the sedimentary and geological prod-ucts of equatorial carbonate systems is usedherein. This approach at first appears equivalentto the ‘source to sink’ approach rapidly gainingmomentum in clastic sedimentology (Allen,2008). In clastics, erosional (source) and deposi-tional (sink) landscapes are linked via sediment-routing systems and controlled by environmentalconditions (Allen, 2008). However, with carbon-ate systems, the ‘source’ and ‘sink’ commonly areco-located. There is the common adage that‘carbonates are born, not made’ and thatcarbonates form self-sustaining systems (James &Kendall, 1992). Carbonate systems are highlyresponsive to an intricate range of environmentalinfluences, with biological and chemical pro-cesses often being as important as physical ones.Additionally, carbonate deposits are commonlyvery strongly impacted (often more so thanclastics) by post-depositional changes that canreflect surface environmental conditions or dee-per basin-related processes (James & Choquette,1984, 1988). In short, in a ‘processes to products’study of carbonates, there is the need to link theseascapes, where most carbonates are born, toadjacent landscape evolution, oceanography,atmospheric, biosphere and geosphere changes.

This study evaluates to what extent carbonatesedimentation and subsequent alteration reflectsthe local environmental conditions of the equa-torial tropics. Most of the examples presentedhere are gleaned from the author’s experiencesof research on the world’s most biologically andgeologically diverse equatorial Cenozoic carbon-ate systems of SE Asia (Wilson, 2002, 2008a,2011). There is global applicability to thisresearch as carbonate systems in equatorialregions outside SE Asia show many similarfeatures to those summarized here (Testa &Bosence, 1998; Gischler & Lomando, 1999).Where possible, comparisons are made with otherequatorial regions, other climatic belts and earliertime periods. This manuscript complements asister publication detailing the environmental influ-ence at a variety of annual to millennial scaleson the carbonate systems of SE Asia (Wilson,2011).

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

Girdling the Earth, the equatorial belt lies gener-ally within 10� to 15� of the equator in the region

2 M. E. J. Wilson

� 2011 The Author. Journal compilation � 2011 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 59, 1–31

Equatorial carbonates: an earth systems approach 3


of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ;Lockwood, 1974). Although there is no consensuson climatic terminology, many lowland areaswithin 5� of the equator are characterized by heat(>18�C, and generally >20�C with seasonal tem-perature variability usually <2�C), high relativehumidity (commonly 70 to 95%) and on landheavy rainfall in all seasons [>1500 mm perannum (pa); Fig. 3: equatorial climate of Lock-wood, 1974; Sale, 2002]. Rainfall minima existover the oceans, whereas over equatorial conti-nental areas and SE Asia, heavy precipitation ismostly associated with thunderstorms (Fig. 3;Lockwood, 1974). Regions of more seasonalequatorial climate are due to the movement oflow pressure belts (ITCZ), variations in the tradewinds or the reversing of monsoon winds, andmostly lie between 5� and 15� of the equator(Lockwood, 1974; Sale, 2002). These seasonalareas experience annual fluctuations in tempera-ture and precipitation, generally with a markedwet season (500 to >1500 mm pa) during the hot(>20�C) summer months (Fig. 3; Lockwood, 1974;Sale, 2002). Within the equatorial belt, these‘everwet’ and ‘seasonal’ climates and their asso-ciated wind patterns strongly influence surface

temperatures, currents, clastic, nutrient and freshwater influx in the surrounding seas (Fig. 4). Inthe semi-enclosed seaways of SE Asia, theseconditions in the marine environment are not‘diluted’ by global ocean signatures as much asopen oceanic areas. In fact, with the semi-enclosed setting, there may be ‘amplification’ offactors, such as current flow (Fig. 5; Tomasciket al., 1997; Park et al., 2010). The temperaturesof the equatorial region promote warm-watercarbonate production. However, it is the otherclimate-related factors influencing salinity, tur-bidity, nutrients and chemical saturation of themarine equatorial realm that also control thecharacteristics of equatorial carbonates (Tomasciket al., 1997; Wilson, 2002, 2011).

South-east Asia has been the site of a myriad ofmarine environments associated with continentalshelves, a mosaic of small-scale and large-scaleislands and bathymetric highs separated by tor-tuous seaways throughout the Cenozoic (Toma-scik et al., 1997). This extent and diversity ofhabitats for potential carbonate development isunparalleled in other equatorial settings, render-ing SE Asia the ideal natural laboratory toinvestigate processes and deposit variability

Fig. 1. Factors influencing the global distribution of modern carbonates. (A) Idealized model showing a range ofimportant influencing factors on shallow–marine carbonate sedimentation (modified after Ziegler et al., 1984; Nel-son, 1988). Warm-water carbonates in both shelf and island occurrences are shown in a brick pattern. Equatorialcarbonates (shown in the inverted brick motif) have been added to the original diagram and these are commonlyinfluenced by terrestrial runoff, upwelling and warm temperatures. Heterozoan carbonates (not illustrated) com-monly develop in cool to cold temperatures, or at depth below photozoan (warm-water) systems. (B) Global distri-bution of modern carbonate associations (modified after Nelson, 1988; James, 1997). In the equatorial tropics, note thesignificant occurrence of photozoan (warm-water) carbonates in SE Asia: a region of reduced marine salinity, sig-nificant terrestrial runoff and upwelling. (C) A global view of the Earth’s biosphere via satellite image compilation byNASA (in Andrews et al., 1996) concentrating on the light spectrum dominated by green chlorophyll (scale is inpigment concentrations – mg m)3). Chlorophyll content provides an estimate of plant standing, and is a proxy forproductivity, which in the oceans reflects upwelling and nutrient runoff.

4 M. E. J. Wilson


(Fulthorpe & Schlanger, 1989; Wilson, 2002,2008a). In comparison, Central America, Africaand India (as it drifted north during the Cenozoic)are typified by continental shelves and far lessextensive offshore banks or islands (James &Ginsburg, 1979; Testa & Bosence, 1998; Gischler& Lomando, 1999). The Pacific, although perhapsmost strongly associated with the traditional viewof equatorial carbonate systems, is limited mainlyto ‘blue-water’ carbonates associated with volca-nic islands and seamounts (Potts, 1983; Camoin &Davies, 1998; Montaggioni, 2005). The diversity ofsettings in SE Asia is controlled by the extremelycomplex, active tectonism in which a multitudeof microcontinental blocks, basins and volcanic

arcs are juxtaposed in the collision zone betweenthe Eurasian and Australian continents (Fig. 5;Hall, 1996, 2002a; Wilson & Hall, 2010).

This complex tectonic setting, together withhigh rainfall and lush tropical vegetation, resultsin the common influx of volcaniclastics, silicic-lastics, fresh water and nutrients into the coastalwaters of the region (Figs 1, 2, 4 and 5; Tomasciket al., 1997; Wilson & Lokier, 2002). A locallymonsoonal climate causes strongly seasonal ter-restrial runoff together with shifts in wind andcurrent patterns (Umbgrove, 1947; Park et al.,2010). The region lies outside the cyclone beltand strong cyclonic winds and waves are rare(Umbgrove, 1947; Tomascik et al., 1997). Tec-

A

C D

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Fig. 2. Images of modern carbonate systems from SE Asia. (A) Modern carbonates forming on the mixed carbonateclastic shelf to the north of the Mangkalihat Peninsula and East of the Berau Delta in NE Borneo (Landsat 7 imageRGB 321 display with Quasi-natural colour, Path 116, Row 59. from: Millennium Coral Reef Mapping Project,University of South Florida and Institute de Recherche pour le Development with funding from NASA, Acquisitiondate: 27-02-2001). (B) The author peering into a giant barrel sponge in <10 m water depth, Tukang Besi Archipelago,Sulawesi. Horizontal field of view is 2 m (photograph credit: Wilson & Deeks). (C) Modern reefal deposit from aturbid, sediment-influenced area in 1 to 2 m water depth, east coast of Borneo (Wilson, 2011). Horizontal field ofview is 50 cm. (D) Modern reef margin in the Tukang Besi Archipelago dominated by soft corals. Horizontal field ofview is 5 m (photograph credit: Wilson & Deeks).



tonic faulting, subsidence and uplift combinedwith glacio-eustasy control localized relative sea-level changes that influence carbonate deposition,coral reef growth, their subaerial exposure andflooding (Fulthorpe & Schlanger, 1989; Wilson,2002, 2008a; Park et al., 2010; Wilson & Hall,2010). Within the region, volcanism, seismicactivity and associated tsunamis cause majorenvironmental change to both landscapes andseascapes. In the short-term, these wreak devas-tation on communities, but in the longer termthey may bring ecological opportunities (Wilson& Lokier, 2002; Satyana, 2005; Pandolfi et al.,2006; Stoddart, 2007). South-east Asia is now thelast remaining equatorial ‘oceanic gateway’ allow-ing the interchange of oceanic waters between thePacific and Indian Oceans via the major Indone-sian Throughflow Current (Fig. 5; Gordon, 2005).The climate and current systems of this region areinfluenced by, and/or interact with, global oceanand atmospheric phenomena, including the ElNino Southern Oscillation, Indian Ocean Dipole(IOD), fluctuations in the monsoons and the ITCZ(Tudhope et al., 2001; Kuhnt et al., 2004; Wanget al., 2005; Abram et al., 2009). These factors areinfluential on varying time scales in changing seasurface temperatures to both locally warmer andcooler than ambient (Gagan et al., 1998; Penafloret al., 2009). Nutrient influx and areas of upwell-ing are also affected and, in turn, cause changes inwater clarity associated with plankton blooms(Fig. 2; Gagan et al., 1998; Wilson & Vecsei,2005). Long-term oceanographic (temperature,acidity and compositional changes) and atmo-spheric (CO2) changes over the scale of theCenozoic (Zachos et al., 2001; Jia et al., 2003;Pagani et al., 2005) during the switch fromgreenhouse to icehouse climatic states are alsomajor influences on the marine biota and systemsof the region (Wilson, 2008a). Both the long-term

A

B

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Fig. 3. Climatic setting of SE Asia and the equatorialtropics. (A) Annual mean rainfall across the globe withdata derived from a Special Sensor Microwave Imager(SSM/I). Satellite data collection began in 1987. NOAAdata from Sidi et al. (2003). (B) The equatorial zonebetween 10�N and 10�S. Annual percentage of dayswith thunder by 5� longitude intervals (solid line).Mass of water vapour in g cm)2 above 500 mb for 10�longitude intervals (from Lockwood, 1974). (C) Mapshowing the distribution of everwet rain forests andmore seasonal woodlands in SE Asia (from Rumney,1968; Morley, 1999), and locations of weather stationsfigured below. Temperatures and rainfall from equato-rial everwet (Tarakan) and seasonal (Makassar) loca-tions (all from Rumney, 1968).

6 M. E. J. Wilson


and short-term changes, as well as influencingmarine systems, are now known to be majordrivers in global climate change (Gordon et al.,2003; Visser et al., 2004).

The combination of major tectonism, frequentrelative sea-level changes, low marine salinities,clastic and nutrient influx, changing oceano-graphic and temperature conditions all stronglyinfluence regional and local carbonate develop-ment. These conditions differ from the perceivedideal conditions for coral reefs and tropical car-bonate production principally developed fromstudies in warm, more arid, subtropical regions(Wilson, 2002). Although no individual factor ismutually exclusive to SE Asia, it is the uniquecombination of factors that results in the distinc-tiveness of equatorial carbonates. This studyassesses to what extent carbonate sedimentationand subsequent alteration reflects the local envi-ronmental conditions of the equatorial tropics(Fig. 4).

IMPACT OF PROCESSES IN THEEQUATORIAL TROPICS ON CARBONATEDEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS

The complex tectonic setting and resultant chang-ing mosaic of shallow-water areas through theCenozoic has a major impact on the distributionand characteristics of carbonate development(Fulthorpe & Schlanger, 1989; Wilson & Rosen,1998; Wilson, 2002, 2008a; Wilson & Hall, 2010).Regional tectonic processes via plate movements,volcanism, extensional basin formation and upliftcontrolled the movement, emergence and disap-pearance of shallow marine areas into the tropics(Wilson, 2008a; Wilson & Hall, 2010). More thantwo-thirds of the Cenozoic shallow-water carbon-ate formations in SE Asia (n = 250) were initiatedas land-attached features or on clastic shelves,rather than as isolated platforms (Wilson & Hall,2010). Most living Indo-Pacific reefs (53% andmuch of the 20% from the Indian Ocean) areconcentrated on the shallow continental shelvesof SE Asia, Australia and the Indian Oceanexperiencing effects from the adjacent land-masses (Potts, 1983; Tomascik et al., 1997). Ingeneral, the marine systems of western SE Asiaare strongly runoff influenced whereas those ofthe eastern archipelago have a major upwellingsignature (Tomascik et al., 1997). The resultantfresh water, siliciclastic, volcaniclastic and/ornutrient-influenced carbonate systems are a keyfeature of the equatorial tropics (Potts, 1983;

Tomascik et al., 1997; Wilson & Hall, 2010;Wilson, 2011).

High rainfall and onshore organic productivityresult in some of the most globally significantannual and/or seasonal influxes of fresh water,clastics and nutrients to the coastal areas andclastic shelves of the region (Fig. 3). For example,annual fluvial and sediment discharges to specificdeltas in Borneo (Mahakam and Rajang) are ca 500to 5000 m3 s)1 and 8 · 106 to 8 · 107 m3 year)1,respectively (Staub & Esterle, 1993; Allen &Chambers, 1998; Woodruffe, 2000). Sediment dis-charge from each of the four largest SE Asianislands varies from ca 300 to 1650 million tons peryear (Fig. 5; Milliman et al., 1999). Basins aroundBorneo conservatively contain up to 9 km ofsediment derived from the island (Hamilton,1979), and the sediment supplied during theNeogene is similar to that per unit area of theHimalayas (Hall & Nichols, 2002). This high runoffdoes hinder carbonate development on someshelves, particularly in western SE Asia and NewGuinea (Tomascik et al., 1997). That more than80% of land-attached carbonate systems formedaround small-scale islands (volcanic and non-volcanic) is likely to be a reflection of more limitedor periodic influx compared with large-scaleislands (Wilson & Hall, 2010). Notwithstandingthis, there are many modern and Cenozoic exam-ples of carbonates co-occurring with, and adaptedto, significant clastic influx (Fig. 6; Tomasciket al., 1997; Wilson & Lokier, 2002; Wilson, 2002,2005). The type of carbonate producers andsystems they produce will ultimately depend onthe rate and frequency of clastic and nutrientinflux, together with the grain sizes involved andother local environmental conditions (Wilson &Lokier, 2002; Lokier et al., 2009).

Where runoff is insufficient to prohibit carbonatedevelopment, a range of admixed carbonate-clasticshelves, or localized carbonates, including patchreefs, shoals or pinnacle reefs, develop (Fig. 6; forexample, delta-front of East Borneo; Roberts &Sydow, 1996; Wilson, 2005; or seaward of theforeland fold and thrust belt in New Guinea;Pigram et al., 1990). More extensive carbonateformation includes fringing or barrier reefs out-board from predominantly clastic shelves (forexample, modern Berau system, NE Borneo orBorabi Barrier Reef, Papua New Guinea; Leamon &Parsons, 1986). Extensive carbonate shelves aremost common offshore land areas of upliftedcarbonate terrain (for example, modern PaternosterPlatform and Berai Limestone of South Borneo;Burollet et al., 1986; Saller et al., 1993). The



initiation and development of shelf carbonates ismost common on bathymetric highs includingfault-bounded antecedent topography (Wilson &Hall, 2010) or stratigraphic features, such asdelta-front mouth bars (Fig. 6; Wilson, 2005).Oceanographic currents, autogenic depocentreswitching (for example, delta lobe abandonment),periods of transgression and volcanic or tectonicquiescence also promote carbonate developmentthrough their role in limiting clastic influx (Roberts& Sydow, 1996; Wilson & Lokier, 2002; Wilson,2005).

Larger benthic foraminifera and coralline algaeappear more tolerant to sediment influx at arange of grain sizes than corals, although platy

coral-rich deposits can include significant clay-grade clastics (Wilson & Lokier, 2002; Lokieret al., 2009). Variations are inferred to reflectorganism: (1) mobility; (2) ability to self-clean;(3) morphology; and (4) feeding mechanismsrelative to: (i) sediment settling; (ii) substrate;(iii) turbidity; (iv) abrasion; (v) energy; (vi) waterdepth; (vii) light levels; and (viii) nutrients(Wilson & Lokier, 2002; Lokier et al., 2009).Modern coastal corals in SE Asia show variabledensity of skeletal growth and fluorescence band-ing associated with wet season deluges, freshwater and organic influx, some linked to El Ninoevents (Scoffin et al., 1989; Tudhope et al., 1995;Aycliffe et al., 2004). Corals growing in volcanic

Fig. 4. Diagram summarizing the main factors influencing the formation of carbonate sediments (upper left), platformand stratal development (upper right) and their diagenesis (base) in the equatorial tropics of SE Asia. The genericdiagram of Jones & Desrochers (1992) has been modified to include a wider range of influencing factors, and theirimpacts on, SE Asian carbonate development. Features specific to the equatorial tropics are highlighted in bold text.

8 M. E. J. Wilson


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Fig. 6. Examples of clastic influence on coastal carbonates in SE Asia. (A) Carbonate development and river input onthe mixed carbonate-clastic Spermonde Shelf, offshore Ujung Pandang, Sulawesi (from Wilson & Ascaria, 1996).Horizontal field of view is ca 10 km. (B) Photomicrograph of Eocene mixed carbonate-clastic deposits from theMangkalihat Peninsula (Wilson & Evans, 2002). (C) Depositional model, highlighting key features, of Miocene patchreefs developed on the seaward margin of the Mahakam Delta, Borneo (from Wilson, 2005). (D) Platy coral sheetstone(flattened horizontal corals with a width to height ratio of >30 : 1; Insalaco, 1998) from the base of a delta-front patchreef [illustrated in (C)] containing ca 60% insoluble fine-grained siliciclastics (Airputih AA section, from Wilson,2005). Pen for scale is 15 cm long.

10 M. E. J. Wilson


areas show hydrothermal isotopic signatures,iron-rich laminae, tuffaceous material and deathsurfaces that correlate with eruption events (Hei-koop et al., 1996; Pichler et al., 2000). Locally,biotic diversity may be restricted by sediment andnutrient affected systems. However, a range ofstudies of turbid water carbonates have shownsimilar, to around two-thirds of the, diversity ofclear water systems (Larcombe et al., 2001; Sand-ers & Baron-Szabo, 2005; Wilson, 2005). Inregions of frequent or heavy runoff, communitiesare dominated by deposit feeders and a shifttowards heterotropic feeding and photoauto-trophs concentrated in just the upper few metresof the water column (Titlyanov & Latypov, 1991;Tomascik et al., 1997; Wilson & Lokier, 2002).These changes in community structure occur inboth coral-dominated Neogene systems (Fig. 6;Wilson, 2005) and in larger foraminifera and algaldominated Eocene (greenhouse period) coastalequatorial carbonates from SE Asia. As a conse-quence of a vertically contracted biotic depthzonation, many runoff-influenced systems devel-op with low relief (Wilson & Lokier, 2002;Wilson, 2005). Upright or toppled skeletons ofreefal organisms typically are surrounded byclastic matrix and the paucity of reefal frame-works results in gently sloping margins (Wilson &Lokier, 2002). Higher relief buildups, with steepmargins, only tend to develop where carbonateproduction rates are significantly higher thanclastic accumulation rates, where productionrates keep pace with relative sea-level rise and ifrigid frameworks develop (Wilson & Lokier,2002). Volcaniclastics have similar influences oncarbonate development as siliciclastic runoff,although corals may be damaged by angularvolcanic shards (James & Kendall, 1992). Fringingreef development is common around volcanicedifices during periods of volcanic quiescence orin areas shielded from high levels of volcaniclas-tic input (Fulthorpe & Schlanger, 1989). However,the punctuated influx of volcaniclastic debrisfrom airfall deposits and pyroclastic flows mayinfluence detached carbonate platforms isolatedfrom land-derived siliciclastics (Wilson & Lokier,2002).

Nutrient influx into the seas of SE Asia not onlyaffects coastal carbonate development, but also:(i) regional carbonate zonation; (ii) platformstructure in current and/or upwelling influencedareas (Fig. 7); and (iii) may influence changes incarbonate development over the Cenozoic.Globally, there is a strong correlation betweendecreased depth of abundant coral development

with increased nutrients and reduced water clar-ity (Wilson, 2008a). The abundant depth of coraldevelopment down to ca 20 m in SE Asia isamong the shallowest in the world (Schlager,1992; Wilson, 2008a); this is associated with lowlight penetration in an oligo-mesotrophic regionof nutrient input from runoff and upwelling andassociated plankton blooms (Wilson, 2008a).Geochemical signatures in modern corals showevidence for: (1) upwelling (Gagan et al., 1998);(2) plankton blooms (Abram et al., 2003); and(3) changes to more heterotrophic feeding (Risket al., 2003). These geochemical variations havebeen associated with upwelling linked to: (i) IODchanges (Abram et al., 2003); (ii) wildfires asso-ciated with El Nino events (Risk et al., 2003); and(iii) strengthening of the monsoons related to theextent of the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool and move-ment of the ITCZ (Abram et al., 2009).

Regionally, the result of elevated nutrients andreduced water clarity promotes a range of large-scale isolated and land-attached oligophotic plat-forms of modern and Cenozoic age in SE Asia(Fig. 7; for example, Paternoster, Kalukalukung,Berai, Melinau, Spermonde & Tonasa Platforms;Wilson & Vecsei, 2005; based on Burollet et al.,1986; Roberts et al., 1988; Renema et al., 2001).Oligophotic platforms are dominated throughoutmuch of their history by a platform top ‘carbonatefactory’ that formed in moderate to deep depthswithin the photic zone [i.e. the oligophotic or‘low light’ level zone of Pomar (2001)]. In SE Asia,the oligophotic areas of the platforms are domi-nated by bioclastic facies rich in low light levelattenuated perforate larger benthic foraminiferawith flattened morphologies, coralline algae andsometimes Halimeda (Fig. 7; Wilson & Vecsei,2005). Such ‘foramol’ facies might be groupedinto cool-water assemblages by other workers(Schlager, 2003). However, with a dominance ofdiverse larger benthic foraminifera and Halimeda,they are a warm-water (>22 �C), photozoan(James, 1997), although oligophotic, assemblagecommon in the equatorial tropics (Wilson &Vecsei, 2005). The resultant platforms have min-imal areas of shallow-water deposits, limited orno framework reef development (which mayoccur at margins or as localized buildups), oftenhave steep margins and are commonly dominatedby non-framework building oligophotic biota(Wilson & Vecsei, 2005). Nutrient upwelling,runoff and strong currents, all common featuresof the equatorial SE Asian seas, promote turbidityand plankton blooms, and hinder reef-buildingorganisms reliant on high light levels to depths of



more than 10 to 20 m (Wilson & Vecsei, 2005).Oligophotic platforms are also promoted in SEAsia during periods of transgression to high-stands and during periods, such as the Paleogene,when framework building corals were less impor-tant (Wilson & Vecsei, 2005; Wilson, 2008a).

There probably are multiple reasons why in SEAsia the change from larger benthic foraminifera-dominated to coral-rich facies occurs aroundthe Oligo–Miocene boundary and appears to lagbehind other warm-water regions, such as theCaribbean or Mediterranean (Wilson, 2008a).

These reasons include: (i) slow recovery of coralsafter the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction; and (ii)biogeographic isolation from other coral-richregions associated with plate tectonics (Wilson& Rosen, 1998; Renema et al., 2008). However,other factors tied to the humid equatorial settingof SE Asia probably are instrumental and include:(iii) lowered aragonite saturation in the equatorialregion of significant fresh water runoff duringthe greenhouse period of elevated atmosphericCO2 (Wilson, 2008a; based on Kleypas et al.,1999; Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007); (vi) tectonic

Fig. 7. Examples of nutrient and upwelling influenced systems in SE Asia. (A) Schematic diagram summarizingfactors influencing the promoted development of platforms with dominant oligophotic facies in equatorial regions(from Wilson & Vecsei, 2005). Key influences including nutrients, water clarity, upwelling and terrestrial runoff areshown boxed. (B) Sea surface chlorophyll-a associated with monsoon-related upwelling (1999 to 2000) from Seawifsimages, Java (from Basith et al., accessed 2011: http://www.google.com.au/imgres?imgurl=http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/nrm/coastal/wetland/images/ma05_238a.jpg). (C) Thin-section photomicrograph showingdiverse, flattened larger benthic foraminifera and coralline algal packstone from the Wonosari Formation, South Java(from Wilson & Lokier, 2002). Scale bar is 1 mm.

12 M. E. J. Wilson


truncation of nutrient-rich deep water currents ofthe Indonesian Throughflow Current around theOligo–Miocene boundary (Kuhnt et al., 2004);and (v) a shift from more seasonal (with higherpunctuated organic and sediment runoff) to morehumid everwet conditions occurring around theOligo–Miocene boundary in SE Asia (Wilson,2008a).

A range of small-scale (kilometres), and large-scale (ten to hundreds of kilometres across)predominantly shallow-water isolated platformsformed extensively throughout SE Asia duringthe Cenozoic (Fulthorpe & Schlanger, 1989;Wilson, 2002, 2008a). As with most carbonatesystems, these developed predominantly on ante-cedent highs, many associated with structural,fault-bounded features (Wilson, 2002; Wilson &Hall, 2010). Major clastic input generally by-passed these highs. Carbonate producers, onceestablished within the photic zone, if able to‘keep-up’ with relative sea-level rise, formedthick accumulations accentuating depth varia-tions between platform tops and surroundingbasins. A marked asymmetry is a common featureon many of the platforms due to: (i) differentialsubsidence on syntectonically active rotatingfault blocks; (ii) windward/leeward or currenteffects; or (iii) variations in production rates fordifferent depositional environments (Grotsch &Mercadier, 1999; Wilson et al., 2000; Wilson,2002). Tectonics, oceanography, relative sea-levelchange and type of carbonate producers stronglyaffected isolated platform development and mor-phology (Fulthorpe & Schlanger, 1989; Wilson,2002). As well as controlling their initiation,tectonics influenced individual carbonate plat-forms through: (i) fault-margin collapse andreworking; (ii) fault segmentation; (iii) tilting ofstrata, subsidence, uplift and differential genera-tion of accommodation space; and (iv) modifica-tion of internal sequence character and faciesdistribution (Wilson & Hall, 2010; based onWilson & Bosence, 1996; Wilson, 1999, 2000;Bachtel et al., 2004; Wannier, 2009; Wilson et al.,2000). Monsoonal, or oceanographic currents, orprevailing wind directions result in platformelongation, progradation of sediment and/orfacies variations around platform margins (Tyrrelet al., 1986; Carter & Hutabarat, 1994; Grotsch &Mercadier, 1999; Park et al., 2010).

The low marine salinities in SE Asia (ca 32& orless compared with the norm of >35&) result in alack of coated grain development and almost allshallow carbonate deposits are entirely bioclasticin nature (Fig. 4; Wilson, 2002); this, together with

the lack of any association with evaporites, is akey feature of equatorial carbonates (Lees & Buller,1972; Wilson, 2002). Although peloids form theyare rarely preserved (see Impact of processes inthe equatorial tropics on carbonate diagenesissection below). Extensive tidal flats with stromat-olitic development generally are not formed,probably due to the lack of hypersalinity usuallyassociated with these features (Wilson, 2002).However, seagrass beds, mangrove deposits andtheir associated sediments may all be common.Depending on the local environmental conditions,a varied range of low to high energy, shallow-water deposits may be present on individualplatforms (Epting, 1980; Grotsch & Mercadier,1999; Wilson et al., 2000). In current-influencedor meso-macrotidal areas, higher energy faciespredominate on isolated platforms, includingtheir interiors, regardless of their size (Wilson,2008b). Low energy more muddy facies tend to bemore common during trangressive phases, or inprotected settings (including seagrass beds) in-board from reef-rimmed margins during highstanddeposition (Epting, 1980; Grotsch & Mercadier,1999; Fournier et al., 2004; Vahrenkamp et al.,2004). Eustasy, as well as tectonics, had a majorimpact on changing accommodation space influ-encing sequence development, facies distributionand platform geometries (Epting, 1980; Rudolph &Lehmann, 1989; Vahrenkamp et al., 2004; Pater-son et al., 2006). High-frequency, metre-scaleplatform top cycles, as well as larger-scale car-bonate stratal aggradation, progradation and back-stepping, have now been related to fourth/fifthand third-order eustatic fluctuations (Fournieret al., 2004; Tcherepanov et al., 2008a,b). Thecommon coral-rich deposits of the Neogene (atime of significant eustatic fluctuations) weremore able to keep pace or catch up with relativesea-level rises than their foraminifera-dominatedPaleogene counterparts (Wilson, 2008a). The netresult is that higher relief buildups and thickerplatform successions, and/or buildups or pinna-cles developing from more extensive platforms,are a significant feature of the Neogene, but not theearlier Paleogene (Gibson-Robinson & Soedirdja,1986; Wilson, 2008a).

IMPACT OF PROCESSES IN THEEQUATORIAL TROPICS ON CARBONATEDIAGENESIS

The products of: (i) marine; (ii) meteoric (freshwater); and (iii) burial diagenesis have distinct



characteristics in the equatorial tropics. In themarine realm, there is a general paucity ofisopachous, botryoidal or radiaxial cements (Gis-chler & Lomando, 1999; Wilson, 2002) that are sowell-documented from the arid tropics. Wherethese cement types are recorded in SE Asia, theygenerally comprise a minor component (Lokier,2000) or are most common in high-energy mar-gins (Park et al., 1992; Grotsch & Mercadier, 1999;Wilson & Evans, 2002; Wilson, 2008b). Marine-cemented platform margins occur on windwardsides facing extensive ocean basins (Fig. 8), inareas of strong monsoonal or tidal-driven currentflow, and/or regions of seasonal rather thaneverwet equatorial climates. The paucity ofmarine cements or coated grains (Milliman,1974; Lees, 1975) is likely to reflect the regionaldiluting effects of high equatorial runoff andresulting low marine salinities (Tomascik et al.,1997; Jordan, 1998; Wilson, 2002), together withlow CaCO3 saturation (Kleypas et al., 1999;Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007). Ooids and carbon-ate-cemented aggregate grains are now known inmodern sediments from the Cook Islands andFrench Polynesia. However, these lie outside theequatorial belt (17 to 20�S) in a region of raisedoceanic alkalinity (Lee et al., 2006; Rankey &Reeder, 2009; Gischler, 2011).

Micrite formation through physical and biolog-ical, but probably not chemical, processes isa common feature of SE Asian carbonate deposits(Lees, 1975; Wilson, 2002). Similarly, grain micr-itization, as well as bioerosion, is prevalent inmodern and Cenozoic deposits (Fig. 8; Wilson,2002). The processes of micritization, from boringby micro-organisms and constructive biofilm for-mation, are most prevalent in low to moderateenergy shallow waters with or without seagrassbeds (Perry, 1999; Reid & MacIntyre, 2000).Increased nutrient availability may stimulate thegrowth of microbes, algae and/or infaunal sus-pension feeders (Hallock & Schlager, 1986; Perrinet al., 1995). Reefs associated with terrestrialrunoff (or upwelling) in SE Asia often showabundant evidence for encrustation, bioerosionand micritization (Tomascik et al., 1997; Wilson& Lokier, 2002; Madden & Wilson, in press).Peloid formation, whether through total grainmicritization or as faecal pellets (for example, fishor crabs), is common in many modern intertidal,to shallow subtidal settings (Wilson, 2002). How-ever, it appears from the geological record in SEAsia that the preservation potential of peloids islimited, probably due to the paucity of earlymarine cementation and common burial effects

(Wilson, 2002). Where present, peloids are mostcommonly preserved within bioclasts or in areasof shelter porosity (Fig. 8; Wilson, 2002). Giventhe general paucity of marine cements in equatorialregions, what is the role of sea floor dissolutionthat is now well-documented from cool-water andother warm-water carbonate settings (Walter &Burton, 1990; Sanders, 2003; Perry & Taylor,2006)? The early aragonite dissolution and chalk-ification (partial dissolution) that commonlyaffects Neogene carbonates in SE Asia is attrib-uted to karstification, and sea floor dissolutionremains undocumented (Wilson, 2002). However,where early dissolution is associated with marinediagenesis (Park et al., 1995), it may be that sea

A

B

Fig. 8. Photomicrographs showing marine diageneticeffects in SE Asian carbonates. (A) Plane-polarizedlight (PPL) photomicrograph showing micrite envelopedevelopment around a neomorphosed coral (centre).Geopetal indicators and peloids are seen in shelterporosity within the coral (centre). (B) PPL photomi-crograph of coral boundstone, including thick acicularto bladed non-ferroan sparry calcite cement occludingpore space between in situ recrystallized branchingcorals (Sample MGA18). The sample is from very highenergy, ocean-facing, reef-rimmed, platform margindeposits on the Mangkalihat Peninsula, Borneo (fromWilson & Evans, 2002).

14 M. E. J. Wilson


floor dissolution played a role (Wilson, 2002).In coastal settings with terrigenous influx, theinput of iron oxides minimizes early diageneticdissolution of carbonate grains through perturba-tion of shallow sediment pore water chemistry(Perry & Taylor, 2006). The generally excellentsurface preservation of fossils in mixed carbon-ate-clastic deposits from SE Asia may reflect alack of early marine dissolution, or rapid clasticcovering, in regions of terrestrial and/or volcani-clastic influx.

If the impacts of marine diagenesis appear to berelatively limited in the equatorial tropics, con-versely, meteoric diagenesis has a major impact(Sun & Esteban, 1994; Wilson, 2002). High rainfalland high terrestrial organic/microbial productiv-ity, together with tectonic uplift and emergenceof land areas in the region, all result in significantmeteoric effects, as these influence the through-put, vigour and acidity of groundwaters (Fig. 4;cf. Jennings, 1985; Choquette & James, 1988). Forexample, in five areas of New Britain, Papua NewGuinea, calculated carbonate solutional denuda-tion rates are 270 to 760 mm ka)1 where therainfall range is 5700 to 12 000 mm pa (Maire,1981; Ford & Williams, 2007). In the tower karstregion of Maros, South Sulawesi, rainfall of3360 mm pa resulted in solution of 80 m3 km)2

and mechanical erosion of 200 m3 km)2 (Fig. 9);this compares with a combined solutional andmechanical loss of 20 m3 km)2 in the temperatekarst regions of Hungary (650 mm pa; Balazs,1973). However, there is considerable debate overthe relative rates of carbonate dissolution intemperate and humid tropical latitudes. Waterthroughput and composition, rather than climateper se, are seen as the dominant control oncarbonate denudation (Ford & Williams, 2007 andreferences therein). It is clear, however, that thehumid equatorial region of SE Asia is a region ofsignificant carbonate denudation, with theworld’s largest cave chamber and passages, aswell as some of the longest cave systems (Fig. 10;Waltham, 1997). Karst and cave system develop-ment not only depends on extrinsic factors, butalso intrinsic ones, such as lithology (includingcomposition, texture and permeability), structureand stratigraphy (Choquette & James, 1988).Upstanding geomorphic features typify the equa-torial tropics (Fig. 9; Esteban & Klappa, 1983;Jennings, 1985; Purdy & Waltham, 1999). Towerkarst and pinnacle development forms in regionsof impermeable carbonates through dissolutionfocused along conduits or via surface runoff(Fig. 9). Conical or cockpit karst tends to develop

in regions of more permeable strata (Fig. 9;Williams, 1974; Choquette & James, 1988; Purdy& Waltham, 1999). Cave passages typically formalong fractures, bedding surfaces and at the watertable as linear or dendritic branchworks (Fig. 10;Choquette & James, 1988; Waltham, 1997). Disso-lution and cave collapse is controlled by the rateof flow, duration, aggressiveness of the waters,base-level change and overburden, as well as rockproperties (Choquette & James, 1988; Waltham,1997; Loucks, 1999). Dissolution at a grain scalein the vadose zone particularly affects unstablearagonite grains in more permeable carbonatedeposits (Fig. 10). In addition to the terrestrial orcontinental karst and cavern systems describedabove, oceanic karst and cave development iscommon along subaerially exposed carbonatecoastal regions (Mylroie & Carew, 1990; Moore,2001). In the carbonate ‘island flank marginmodel’ anastomosing, commonly unstable cavenetworks form in the zone of marine and freshwater mixing (Mylroie & Carew, 1990). Thesecave systems are developed commonly aroundthe margins of carbonate islands in SE Asia, oftenare reflooded to form blue holes (Fig. 10) andprobably are an overlooked cave type in thegeological record.

Given the common dissolution of carbonatedeposits in the equatorial realm, as the dissolvingfluids begin to de-gas, evaporate and/or stagnate,there is concomitant extensive cementation(Fig. 10; James & Choquette, 1984). Glitteringcaverns of speleothems attest to common vadoseprecipitation, as do surface travertines anddripstones in SE Asia. On a grain scale, bothvadose (for example, pendant and meniscate) andphreatic (for example, drusy and blocky) cementsare common (Fig. 10). Many of the carbonatereservoir units in SE Asia consist of layeredalternating leached and cemented horizons associ-ated with repeated exposure-related leaching (orpossibly mixing zone dissolution), soil formationprocesses and phreatic cementation (Grotsch &Mercadier, 1999; Heubeck et al., 2004; Warrlichet al., 2010). This diagenetic layering has onlybeen reported regionally from isolated platformsof Neogene age that built to sea-level, containedsignificant aragonitic components prone to leach-ing and were affected by eustatic fluctuations(Wilson, 2002). In more seasonally influencedregions of SE Asia, meteoric caliche development(for example, clotted fabrics, alveolar texture andglaebules; Esteban & Klappa, 1983; James &Choquette, 1984) predominates over karst forma-tion, although they may co-exist (Choquette &



James, 1988; Wilson, 2008b). Caliche horizons inthe South China Sea platforms formed during dryperiods and have been related to major Pleisto-cene lowstands (Gong et al., 2005). A link hasbeen suggested to the reduced extent of theWestern Pacific Warm Pool, a southerly shift ofthe ITCZ and the reduced strength of the EastAsian Monsoon during glacial periods (Gonget al., 2005). Oxygen isotope data from speleo-thems in Borneo have been used to infer lowerrainfall and weakening western Pacific convec-tion related to a southward shift of the ITCZduring deglaciation 18 to 20 kyr ago (Partin et al.,2007).

A growing body of research indicates thatcontinental-derived meteoric groundwater flow

from islands is strongly impacting the diagenesisof coastal, shelf and even some isolated carbonateplatforms in SE Asia. Coral patch reefs developedin front of the Mahakam Delta in Borneo showpervasive early neomorphic replacement of ara-gonite by calcite and associated calcite cementa-tion (Fig. 10; Madden & Wilson, in press). Patchreefs contain 5 to 80% admixed siliciclasticcomponent, formed coevally with near-continu-ous terrestrial influx and show no evidence ofsubaerial exposure or meteoric leaching (Wilson& Lokier, 2002; Wilson, 2005; Madden & Wilson,in press). The neomorphism and calcitization isan early diagenetic alteration formed duringshallow burial. Flushing of meteoric groundwaterflow (confined aquifer of James & Choquette,

A

B

C

D

Emia - Tower karst

Darai - Cone karst

Fig. 9. Examples of surface karst development in the humid equatorial tropics of SE Asia. Photographs showequivalent karst types to sketches. (A) Sketches of three styles of karst development in New Guinea (from Williams,1974). (B) Pinnacle karst development in the Gunung Mulu National Park, Borneo (photograph credit: Wilson &Khan). Pinnacles are up to 10 m. (C) Tower karst formation (up to 300 m) in the Tonasa Limestone Formation, SouthSulawesi (from Wilson, 1995, 2000). (D) Conical karst development in the Wonosari Formation, Java (from Lokier,2000). Height of conical karst is ca 100 m.

16 M. E. J. Wilson


1984), perhaps with an upland source derivation,plus/minus a minor sea water component is theinferred altering fluid (Madden & Wilson, inpress). Evidence for this interpretation is: (i)neomorphism retaining some structure of theoriginal aragonite components that pre-datescompaction; (ii) paucity of meteoric soil zoneindicators (few negative d13C values); (iii) d18Ovalues consistent with derivation from meteoricwaters including an upland source, or partiallyconsistent with SE Asian sea water; and (vi)temperatures of up to ca 55�C consistent withshallow burial depths and the regional geotherm.It is inferred that meteoric groundwater associ-ated with the ‘everwet’ climate of Borneo wasfocused via aquifers through the adjacent deltaicscausing extensive early alteration and cementa-tion of the patch reefs (Madden & Wilson, inpress). Similar diagenetic features in a range ofcoastal carbonates indicate that meteoric ground-water flow is likely to have a more importantinfluence in the equatorial tropics than previ-ously recognized (Netherwood & Wight, 1992;Hendry et al., 1999; Moore, 2001; Wilson & Hall,2010). Recent research has shown that isolatedcarbonate platforms now caught up in foldand thrust belt development in North Borneoand Papua New Guinea are also strongly influ-enced by continental derived groundwaters(Warrlich et al., 2010). Diagenesis relating thecontinental groundwaters in these originallyisolated systems post-dates early diagenetic fea-tures (for example, subaerial exposure-relatedleaching) and may result in: (i) extensive orpartial dolomitization; and (ii) burial leaching(Warrlich et al., 2010).

In SE Asia, the generally poorly lithified marinecarbonate sediments, unless cemented by someother process, are prone to mechanical and chem-ical compaction (Fig. 11). Depending on the depthof burial, the compaction effects typically result insignificant reductions of any primary porosity andpermeability. As many of the carbonates formed insubsiding basins, and may be covered by signifi-cant thicknesses of rapidly accumulating carbon-ates, siliciclastics or volcaniclastics, particularlythose formed during the Paleogene (with uncom-mon meteoric influence), they are prone to theeffects of burial diagenesis (Wilson & Hall, 2010).Although burial digenesis commonly reduces res-ervoir quality, porosity and permeability may beenhanced through burial dissolution and fractur-ing. Fracturing of SE Asian carbonates is com-monly, although not exclusively, of tectonic origin(Kemp, 1992; Grotsch & Mercadier, 1999; Wilson &

Hall, 2010). If not filled by later cements or faultseals, fractures can act as pathways for lateraltering (for example, dolomitizing) or dissolvingfluids (Fig. 11; Kemp, 1992; Wilson et al., 2007;Wilson & Hall, 2010; Warrlich et al., 2010). Frac-tures where open, although typically enhancingporosity by 2 to 3%, may substantially increasepermeability by hundreds of millidarcies (Long-man, 1985; Wilson & Hall, 2010) and may allowconnectivity between different reservoir units(Warrlich et al., 2010). A number of recent studieshave emphasized the importance of burial leach-ing, particularly from platform flank, margin andfractured carbonates in SE Asia (Saller & Vijaya,2002; Zampetti et al., 2003; Sattler et al., 2004;Pireno et al., 2009). The origins of this previouslyoverlooked aspect of burial diagenesis in the regionstill remain controversial. A strong probable causeis the generation of acids during the onset ofhydrocarbon generation from adjacent organic-rich basinal deposits (Moore, 2001; Esteban &Taberner, 2003); this may be particularly impor-tant in SE Asia given the high heat flows and/orNeogene sedimentation rates in some basins (Hall,2002b; Hall & Nichols, 2002; Wilson & Hall, 2010).However, other possible regional origins of aggres-sive burial fluids include: (i) flushing of platformsby cold undersaturated marine waters; (ii) biodeg-radation of hydrocarbons (Heubeck et al., 2004); or(iii) resident pore fluids mixing with warmerhydrothermal fluids rising from depth (Zampettiet al., 2003).

Dolomite content and distribution is highlyvaried on a formation scale throughout SE Asia,but is reported from a wide range of carbonatedeposits (Carnell & Wilson, 2004). There aremajor shortfalls in the availability of geochemicalsignatures from dolomites in SE Asia to helpelucidate their origins (Carnell & Wilson, 2003,2004). However, partial dolomitization is mostcommonly associated with: (i) argillaceous car-bonates as a replacive phase; (ii) particular sur-faces or horizons, such as those with previousporosity associated with subaerial exposure; or(iii) tectonic fractures and/or compaction featuressuch as stylolites (Carnell & Wilson, 2004).In studies of partially dolomitized units withassociated geochemical analyses, dolomitizingfluids are: (i) related to dewatering of shalesduring compaction (Ali, 1995); (ii) sea water and/or mixing-zone related (Mayall & Cox, 1988; Parket al., 1995); or (iii) from methane-derived fluids(Ali, 1995). Recent studies show that massivepervasive dolomitization occurred in shallow tomoderate burial depths with dolomitizing fluids



A

C

E

G H

F

D

B

18 M. E. J. Wilson


related to: (i) sea water dolomitization with flowalong fractures (Wilson et al., 2007); or (ii) con-tinental aquifer-derived driven by tectonic short-ening (Fig. 11; Warrlich et al., 2010). Thesedolomitizing mechanisms for SE Asia differ fromother regions in having a paucity of strongevidence for either evaporative or reflux signa-tures (Sun & Esteban, 1994; Carnell & Wilson,2004), as is consistent with the humid equatorialsetting of the region.

DISCUSSION

An earth systems approach: equatorial versuscarbonates from other regions

The combined effects of high temperature, highrainfall, oceanography, and to a certain extentbasin settings, strongly influence the depositionand subsequent diagenesis of carbonate systemsin the equatorial tropics (Figs 4 and 12). In otherwords, the ‘processes’ acting in the equatorialtropics result in characteristic carbonate ‘prod-ucts’ that are distinctive from their arid to semi-arid tropical and temperate counterparts (Table 1;modified after Lees & Buller, 1972; Lees, 1975;Nelson, 1988; James, 1997; Wilson, 2002, 2011;Kindler & Wilson, 2010). For example, the sea-scapes and ‘life’ of carbonate systems in theequatorial tropics are impacted strongly by clasticand nutrient runoff/upwelling linked to land-scape evolution, oceanography and plate tectonicor geosphere changes. Additional impacts oncarbonate producing biota are caused by atmo-spheric changes (for example, CO2 levels) and theresulting mineralogies affect diagenetic suscepti-bility. The diagenetic changes of dissolution and/

A

B

Fig. 11. Examples of burial diagenetic features fromcarbonates in SE Asia. (A) Mechanical and chemicalcompaction features (grain breakage and suturing) inEocene larger benthic foraminifera and coralline algalpackstone/rudstone from NE Kalimantan (from Wilson,1996). (B) Scanning electron microscopy image of per-vasively dolomitized sample from >1000 m subsurfacein New Guinea. Dolomite rhombs partially infill earlierleached porosity and are affected by a late phase ofleaching. (image credit: Thaariq & Wilson).

Fig. 10. Examples of the effects of meteoric diagenesis in SE Asia. (A) Small-scale vadose dissolution of aragoniticbivalves, Mangkalihat Peninsula, Borneo (blue shows porosity: Sample MTR29; Wilson & Evans, 2002). (B) and(C) Karstic cavities and their infill: (C) shows a close-up of the central portion of image (B) revealed in a slabbingquarry in the Rajamandala Formation, West Java (photographs credit: Wilson & Lokier). Horizontal field of view for(B) is 7 m. (D) Deer Cave, Borneo, showing the immense scale of some of the cave systems in Gunung Mulu NationalPark (image accessed 10 February 2011: http://homepage.ntlworld.com/harry.wickens/borneo/borneo-022.jpg).Horizontal field of view is ca 100 m. (E) Neomorphic replacement of branching corals and calcitization into porespaces in clastic-influenced coral patch reefs from the subsurface of the Mahakam Delta, Borneo (Hook & Wilson,2003). Sample also shows compaction via dissolution seams between the altered corals. (F) Photomicrograph (ca-thodoluminescent – CL image) of blocky pore-filling cement. The drusy cement shows complex zoning of bright, dulland non-luminescence phases, indicative of precipitation from water of varying chemistry (Sample MTM10; fromWilson & Evans, 2002). (G) Columnar stalactites and stalagmites, Wind Cave, Gunung Mulu National Park, Borneo(image accessed 10 February 2011: http://farm5.static.flickr.com/4028/4677581017_9f36253cf2). Horizontal field ofview is ca 12 m. (H) Aerial photograph towards the north-west through Karang Kaledupa, Tukang Besi Archipelago,Sulawesi, showing blue-hole development along the north easterly facing margin of the atoll (image credit: OperationWallacea). Horizontal field of view is ca 10 km.



Table 1. ‘Processes’ and ‘products’ of equatorial carbonate systems compared with their arid to semi-arid tropicaland temperate counterparts (modified after Lees & Buller, 1972; Lees, 1975; Nelson, 1988; James, 1997; Wilson, 2002,2011; Pascal & Wilson, 2010).

Equatorial – humid (Sub)tropical – arid Temperate

Environmental conditionsLatitude Between 15/20�N and

15/20�SBetween 15/20� and 30�Nor S

Beyond 30�N or S, but notinto sub-polar areas

Tectonics Unstable (to stable) Stable to unstable Stable to unstable

Near-surface seawater temperature

Warm – generally >22�C Warm, may be 18�C to22�C

Cool ca 5�C to 10�C

Rainfall/precipitation

Heavy to very heavy,commonly >1500 mm pa,may be everwet orseasonal

Low, commonly<250 mm pa

Moderate to heavy rainfallcommon in all seasons

Salinity Normal to reduced Normal to hypersaline Normal (to reduced)

Clastic influx High perennial (for shelves) –isolated platforms may below

Low (+/) punctuatedduring flash-floods)

Low to high

Nutrients Oligotrophic to eutrophic,in areas of carbonateproduction mesotrophy tolow oligotrophy common

Usually Oligotrophic (mayhave high nutrients wherethere is coastal upwelling)

Commonly mesotrophic toeutrophic

Carbonate production

Skeletal grains Photozoan or heterozoan+association – dependenton factors such asbiogeography, bioticevolution, oceanographyand nutrients. Algallaminites/stromatolitesrare. Oligophotic (low light)photozoans common

Photozoan association orheterozoan+, influenced bysalinity, nutrients andbiogeography. Algallaminites/stromatolitesmay be common

Heterozoan association

Non-skeletalgrains

Coated grains and aggregatesabsent. Peloids produced,but low preservationpotential

Coated grains andaggregates common.Peloids commonand preserved

Coated grains and aggregatesabsent. Peloids produced,but low preservationpotential

Micrite Common – due to physicaland biological processes

Common – due to physical,biological and chemical?processes

Not common (outer shelvesmay be common due tophysical processes)

Mineralogy Aragonitic or calcitic –depending on dominantorganisms

Aragonitic or calcitic –depending on dominantorganisms and precipitates

Predominantly calcitic

Accumulationrates

Moderate to high – dependson biota, typically 0Æ2 to1 m ky)1

Moderate to high – dependson biota and precipitationrates, typically 0Æ2 to1 m ky)1

Moderate – ca 0Æ2 m ky)1

Platform development and lithological associationsAssociations withother rock types

Associations with mixedcarbonate-clastic deposits,siliciclastics and volcaniclasticscommon. Associations withmangrove and seagrassdeposits also common

Associations withevaporites common

Associations with clasticscommon but, due tomoderate accumulationrates, may be smotheredmore quickly thanequatorial carbonates

20 M. E. J. Wilson


Table 1. (Continued)

Equatorial – humid (Sub)tropical – arid Temperate

Platform structure Framework constructingphotozoan associations –thick rimmed platformsbuildups, fringing reef,barrier reef common.Clastic-rich if land-attached.Non-framework constructingphotozoan associations –unrimmed platforms, shoalsand mixed carbonate-clasticshelves common. Oligophoticplatforms (± shallow rim)common.

Thin unrimmed shelves(particularly if raisedsalinity), rimmed shelvesand narrow fringing reefscommon. Isolated rimmedor unrimmed platforms.Extensive accretionary tidalflats may develop

Unrimmed shelves/rampsand shoals common.Isolated unrimmedplatforms/banks

Platform drowning Drowning possible, related toclastic input,eutrophication, tectonicsubsidence or eustasy

Drowning possible – relatedto tectonic subsidence,eustasy and environmentalstress such as salinityincrease

Stranded or starvedfacies – if below the photiczone (not light-dependent)

Alteration and diagenesisMicritization andbioerosion

Very common Common Bioerosion common, lessmicritization?

Marine cementation Not common, except in somehigh-energy margins(? Seasonal areas)

Common Not common

Grain-scaledissolution

Role of sea floor dissolution?Meteoric leaching ofaragonitic componentscommon

Dissolution less pronouncedthan equatorial regions

Role of sea floor dissolution?

Karst and cavedevelopment

Both well-developed andcommonly extensive –includes terrestrial andoceanic karst. Terrestrialkarst mostly formsupstanding features

Uncommon – wheredeveloped generally smallscale

May be well-developed andextensive. Terrestrial karstlandscapes dominated byrecessive features (dolines,sinkholes)

Meteoriccementation

Very common both in thevadose zone and particularlyin the phreatic zone

Present, but less pervasivethan equatorial regions

May be common

Aquifer-relateddiagenesis

Very common in coastalcarbonates adjacent tolandmasses – extensiveearly stabilization ofaragonite to calcite

Uncommon in coastalcarbonates, althoughaquifers may develop wherethere is a gravity drive fromupland source areas

May be common in carbonatesadjacent to landmasses –calcite cementation may occur,but usually less aragonite tostabilize

Burial diagenesis Fracturing (tectonic anddifferential compaction-related) common. Lateburial leaching may beimportant along platformmargins. Compactioneffects (and burialcementation) common, iflittle, early cementation

Burial diagenesis similar toequatorial tropics but maybe less pervasive due tosome common earlycementation

Burial diagenesis similar toother regions. Compactioncommon due to paucity ofearly cements

Dolomitization Extensive dolomitizationmostly associated with seawater and/or burial fluids(some continentallyderived)

Extensive dolomitizationcommonly associated withevaporites and refluxmechanisms, though rangeof origins

Extensive dolomitizationmay be less common thanother regions

Italics are used to highlight the features of the equatorial carbonate systems; question marks (?) are used to denote thatthe role of the process is still under question.



or cementation in the marine, meteoric and burialrealm are all further affected by the high rainfalland organic productivity. These examples arediscussed in more detail below, but it is clear thata ‘processes to products’ approach has applica-bility for evaluating carbonate development andalteration in the equatorial realm. Equatorialcarbonate systems are distinct from those of otherclimatic regions due to the processes involved,but a ‘processes to products’ approach couldequally be applied to regions outside the equato-rial tropics. Cenozoic carbonate development inSE Asia has been focused on here, as their recordis more extensive, diverse and temporally com-plete than in other equatorial regions, and encom-passes much of the variability seen in theequatorial realm (James & Ginsburg, 1979; Ful-thorpe & Schlanger, 1989; Testa & Bosence, 1998;Gischler & Lomando, 1999; Wilson, 2002, 2008a;Montaggioni, 2005).

The high temperatures and equitable incidentlight conditions of the equatorial tropics promotelight-dependent, warm-water carbonate produc-tion (the photozoan assemblage of James, 1997).Excessive high temperatures can hinder carbon-ate producers (for example, coral bleaching;Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999; Hughes et al., 2003).However, these conditions do not commonlydevelop in SE Asia due to the insolation effectsof cloud cover and cooling of currents (Wilson,2008a). Where SE Asian sea waters really differfrom those in the arid tropics is through having aperennial influx of fresh water, clastics andnutrients. The lowered equatorial sea water salin-ity results in a lack of coated grains, aggregates orhypersaline tolerant biota, a paucity of earlymarine cementation, little preservation of peloidsand the potential for promotion of calcitic organ-isms when aragonite saturation is low (Lees &Buller, 1972; Lees, 1975; Wilson, 2002, 2008a).Knock-on effects of this are that platforms tend todevelop without extensive accretionary, biologi-cal-related tidal flat development. Also, accumu-lation rates may be lower than in the arid tropics,

and unrimmed platforms do not develop inassociation with hypersalinity, but instead mayrelate more to the type of stenohaline biotaproduction (Wilson, 2002). If rapidly buried,many equatorial carbonates experience signifi-cant compaction, associated with a paucity ofearly marine cementation. These features of plat-form development and diagenesis are commonlyat odds with the arid tropics, but show somesimilarities with temperate regions. Of course,where photozoan reefs grow to sea-level, formingrimmed platforms in the equatorial tropics, theydiffer markedly from those of temperate regions.

There are major differences in coastal carbonatedevelopment (and subaerially exposed lime-stones) in the equatorial tropics compared withthe arid tropics, due to the variations in rainfall,onshore organic productivity and runoff. Peren-nial clastic runoff from landmasses in the equa-torial tropics, where insufficient to hindercarbonate production, results in mixed carbon-ate-clastic shelves or near-shore low-relief, non-framework built patch reefs, restricted to veryshallow water and promoted during transgres-sions (Fig. 12; Wilson & Lokier, 2002; Wilson,2005). In contrast in the arid tropics, shoreline-attached carbonates are generally ‘pure’ rimmedor unrimmed systems, commonly associated withevaporites that may be smothered by, and/orinterdigitate with, punctuated clastic influx asso-ciated with flash-flood events (Wilson & Lokier,2002). In temperate regions, coastal carbonatedevelopment tends to be admixed with clastics,as in the equatorial tropics. Very shallow-watertemperate carbonate production tends to be verylimited due to a paucity of light-dependent biota,and smothering by clastics may be more of anissue than in the equatorial tropics due to lowproduction rates.

Significant throughputs of highly aggressivemeteoric waters are a feature of the equatorialtropics resulting in common leaching, cave andupstanding karst formation (Jennings, 1985; Ford& Williams, 2007). Associated with this dissolu-

Fig. 12. Schematic diagram showing depositional and diagenetic features (marine, meteoric and burial) of equatorialcarbonate systems. Key features of these equatorial systems include the influence of clastics on coastal areas. Lowmarine salinities and a reduced photic zone result in a lack of coated grains and promotion of oligophotic platforms.In the meteoric realm, development of upstanding karst is common together with extensive vadose leaching andconcomitant phreatic cementation. Neomorphism and calcitization of coastal carbonates due to meteoric ground-water flow are common during shallow burial. Burial leaching, pervasive compaction, cementation, local massivedolomite formation and fracturing are other common features of the burial diagenetic environment. Passing from topto bottom of the diagram, the effects of deposition and marine diagenesis (top), meteoric diagenesis (middle) andburial diagenesis (base) can be seen sequentially overprinting each other for individual deposit types. The exceptionto this is on the left-hand side of the diagram where more features of meteoric diagenesis of uplifted carbonate rocksare illustrated.

22 M. E. J. Wilson


tion, there is concomitant extensive precipitationin the phreatic zone, and localized precipitationin the vadose zone (Fig. 12). In contrast, the lowerrainfall and less aggressive waters of arid regionsresult in lesser amounts of dissolution and asso-ciated precipitation, and a paucity of pronouncedcave or karst formation. Meteoric effects via large-scale aquifer development commonly result inpervasive early stabilization of aragonite intocalcite in coastal equatorial carbonate deposits;a feature more uncommon in arid areas (Madden& Wilson, in press). Long-distance groundwaterflow, some tectonically driven, or sea waterpumping, appear to be major causes of extensivedolomitization in the equatorial tropics, whereasevaporative and/or reflux mechanisms are keyfactors in arid regions (Sun & Esteban, 1994;Carnell & Wilson, 2004; Wilson et al., 2007;Warrlich et al., 2010). The high rainfall of tem-perate regions can again result in significant caveand (‘recessive’) karst formation (Jennings, 1985;Ford & Williams, 2007), although variable cemen-tation in aquifer-affected deposits may reflectvarying proportions of primary aragonitic bio-clasts and/or primary textures (Nelson et al.,2003).

Nutrient influx, whether from terrestrial runoff,or upwelling, is a feature of equatorial SE Asiaand the seas range from low oligotrophic toeutropic with most carbonate production in areasof mesotrophy to low oligotrophy (>0Æ1 to 1 mg ofchlorophyll per cubic metre of sea water; Mutti &Hallock, 2003). Globally, the regional elevation ofnutrients results in significant shallowing ofphotoautotrophs reliant on high light levels (forexample, corals) compared with clear water aridregions (Wilson, 2008a). In the more nutrient-richregions, carbonate producers include a range ofmixotrophs, heterotrophs and photoautrotrophsable to switch to heterotrophy. These assemblagesare nutrient adapted and differ from the highlyoligotrophic photozoan communities commonin many arid tropical areas. Associated withelevated nutrient levels and the abundance ofplankton blooms in the equatorial tropics, oli-gophotic (low light) platform development iscommon, with deeper (>10 to 20 m) commonlycalcitic dominated interiors (Fig. 12). In terms oftheir dynamics and accumulation rates, thesepredominantly non-framework-dominated oligo-photic platforms show some similarities withthose of temperate areas, although being formedby warm-water biota (Wilson & Vecsei, 2005).Deposition of terrestrial, (lacustrine) and marine-derived organic matter in rapidly accumulating

clastic units adjacent to platform areas, or inbasins with carbonate development, is commonin the equatorial tropics. Subsequent early stagesof maturation of these source rocks to hydrocar-bons may be a reason why late burial leaching isbeing more extensively recognized in equatorialplatforms, particularly their margin and flankdeposits (Fig. 12). It is unclear to what extent thisburial diagenetic feature may be affecting aridtropical or temperate carbonates. However, whereburial leaching is recognized in arid systems,there may be other causes, such as aggressivefluids associated with evaporites (Beavington-Penney et al., 2008).

Applicability to the geological record

Although each specific carbonate platform will beunique, regionally there are trends in carbonatesystem development that relate to climate, ocean-ography and basin setting (Lees & Buller, 1972;Lees, 1975; James, 1997). For the equatorialtropics, the regional ‘processes’ and distinctivecarbonate ‘products’ discussed above are forCenozoic systems, principally those of Neogeneor recent age (Fig. 12). To what extent can thecharacteristics of equatorial systems be applied toearlier geological periods when carbonate-pro-ducing organisms, global climate, oceanographyand plate tectonic configurations differed consid-erably?

When studying global carbonate grain associa-tions, James (1997) defined the ‘Photozoan Asso-ciation’ as distinctive of the warm tropics. Thisassociation is thought to be applicable for muchof the Phanerozoic where carbonate producersare inferred to have harboured photosymbionts(for example, larger benthic foraminifera, sclerac-tinian corals, rudists, fusilinid foraminifera andstromatoporoids; James, 1997). The PhotozoanAssociation is in replacement of the biota-specific‘Chlorozoan Association’ of Lees & Buller (1972)and includes a range of facies (for example,Coralgal, Chloroalgal and Oopeloidal). James(1997) defined the Photozoan Association as:‘‘an association of benthic carbonate particlesincluding: 1) skeletons of light dependent organ-isms, and/or 2) non-skeletal particles (ooids,peloids etc.), plus or minus 3) skeletons fromthe Heterozoan Association’’. However, as shownfrom the discussion above, the Cenozoic depositsof the equatorial tropics do not fully meetthese criteria. Instead, equatorial carbonates arecharacterized by an association of benthiccarbonate particles including: (i) skeletons of

24 M. E. J. Wilson


light-dependent organisms; plus (ii) skeletonsfrom the Heterozoan Association. The presenceof shallow rimmed shelves, reefs, aragonite andMg-calcite mineralogies common in the Neogeneequatorial tropics are characteristic features ofPhotozoan Associations (cf. James, 1997). How-ever, the minor marine cementation, extensivebioerosion and, particularly during certain timeperiods (Paleogene) or on oligophotic platforms,the predominance of calcitic mineralogies andformation of open shelves and ramps might beinterpreted as showing a Heterozoan, or cool-water, aspect. This ‘dual personality’ of equatorialcarbonates remains mostly overlooked (Wilson,2002), although there is recognition that sometropical systems may be difficult to distinguishfrom temperate assemblages (Lees, 1975; Carann-ante et al., 1988; Pascal & Wilson, 2010).

Lees (1975) inferred that carbonates of cool-water aspect that extend into warm waters of lowlatitude replace tropical carbonates as a result ofdilution of normal-salinity sea water by freshwater (Nelson, 1988). Carannante et al. (1988)were among the first to show how nutrients mayresult in apparent cool-water carbonates in warm-water settings. The impact of nutrients andreduced light penetration were shown to promotethe development of oligophotic, commonly cal-citic dominated platforms (Wilson & Vecsei,2005). In other words, there is the potential tomisinterpret ancient equatorial carbonates astemperate assemblages. For example, in the Med-iterranean, deposits that had been interpreted ascool-water ones are now being reinterpreted ashumid tropical deposits on the basis of carefulpalaeoecological studies together with indepen-dent temperature data (Pomar et al., 2004).Although equatorial carbonates show similaritiesto carbonates at the transition between tropicaland temperate waters (ca 16 to 22�C; Heterozoan+of James, 1997; Betzler et al., 1997; or Transi-tional Heterozoan of James & Lukasik, 2010), theydiffer in containing a greater diversity of pho-toautrophs and definitive warm-water elements(Wilson & Vecsei, 2005).

Recommendations for the recognition of regio-nal equatorial carbonate development, over peri-ods extending beyond the Cenozoic would be: (i)a diversity of calcitic and/or aragonitic photo-autotrophs; plus (ii) common elements of theHeterozoan Association; plus (iii) independent(for example, isotopic) evidence for warm tem-peratures (>22�C). Additional pointers towards ahumid equatorial setting would be: (iv) situationin appropriate palaeolatitudes; (v) lack of associ-

ation with sedimentary evaporites, coated grainor aggregates; and (vi) geochemical evidence forreduced marine salinity and/or nutrient upwell-ing. However, as with most carbonates, there areat present no infallible criteria for the recognitionof climatic-controlled assemblages (James, 1997),and it is only through the assessment of theaccumulated weight of different attributes thathumid equatorial carbonates can be inferred.

Regions (oligophotic platforms), or time periodswithin the Cenozoic (Paleogene), of calciticdominated warm-water equatorial carbonatedevelopment may yield clues to environmentalconditions of similar past deposits (Nelson, 1988;Wilson, 2008a). In the Neogene, many calciticdominated assemblages relate to regions ofslightly elevated nutrients, reduced light pene-tration, plus/minus currents and oligophotyof the photoautrotrophs. In addition, periods ofelevated atmospheric CO2, together with reducedmarine salinities in humid regions, promote thedevelopment of calcitic components due to low-ering of aragonite saturation (Kleypas et al., 1999;Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007; Wilson, 2008a).Widespread distribution of warm-water calciticassemblages may relate to greenhouse periods (forexample, the Paleogene) of elevated CO2 andincreased ocean acidification (Wilson, 2008a).Alternatively, periods of increased ocean ventila-tion, nutrient upwelling or runoff (perhaps asso-ciated with climate change and/or mountainbuilding) may promote calcitic photoautrophs, ifin the past some had an oligophotic mode of life.The evolution and extinction of different arago-nitic and calcitic carbonate producers over thePhanerozoic must also be considered in anyassessment, such as the extinction of the rudistsand many corals at the Cretaceous–Tertiaryboundary.

CONCLUSION

• A ‘processes to products’ approach is appro-priate for the study of carbonate systems relatedto major climatic belts. However, additional re-gional or global factors, such as biotic evolution,oceanography, global climate change and tectonicconfiguration, must also be taken into consider-ation.

• In the equatorial tropics, the effects of warmwaters, together with clastic, fresh water andnutrient influx combined with the regional tec-tonics, are major controls on carbonate systemdevelopment. These factors influence the



carbonate producers, resultant deposits, thegeometry of the platforms they build and theirsubsequent diagenesis, as illustrated by a range ofexamples predominantly from SE Asia. Theresulting carbonate products of the humid equa-torial realm are often at odds with the models ofwarm-water carbonates derived from their betterstudied arid tropical counterparts.

• Equatorial carbonates are dominated by bio-clasts, including both light-dependent and/ornutrient-reliant forms. Coated grains and aggre-gates are almost never produced, and peloids arepreserved rarely, due to the paucity of earlymarine cements in a region of reduced salinity.Coeval clastic influx is common in coastal car-bonates, which typically only develop low-relieffeatures in very shallow waters. Associationswith evaporites are not seen. Carbonate develop-ment includes admixed carbonate-clastic shelves,isolated platforms, rimmed shelves and reefs.However, unrimmed shelves and/or platformsdominated by deeper water oligophotic depositsare common in regions of nutrient influx, orduring time periods when calcitic componentsdominate. High rainfall and aggressive watersresult in significant dissolution, karstificationand concomitant carbonate precipitation on sub-aerial exposure. Meteoric groundwaters causeextensive stabilization of aragonite to calcite incoastal and shelf carbonates. Burial compactionand leaching both appear common, and massivedolomitization has mostly been linked to conti-nental derived groundwaters and/or sea water.

• Cenozoic equatorial carbonates are membersof the warm-water photozoan association(including diverse corals, larger benthic forami-nifera and Halimeda). However, they may also bedifficult to distinguish from carbonates with acool-water aspect (for example, nutrient-reliantbiota, paucity of marine cements, may be calciticdominated, some similarities in platform struc-tures and diagenesis).

• Recommendations for the recognition of re-gional Phanerozoic equatorial carbonate develop-ment are: (i) a diversity of calcitic and/oraragonitic photoautotrophs; plus (ii) commonelements of the Heterozoan Association; plus (iii)independent (for example isotopic) evidence forwarm temperatures (>22�C). Additional pointerstowards a humid equatorial setting are: (iv) situa-tion in appropriate palaeolatitudes; (v) lack ofassociation with sedimentary evaporites, coatedgrain or aggregates; and (vi) geochemical evidencefor reduced marine salinity and/or nutrientupwelling.

• As Nelson (1988) wrote, quoting Wilkinson(1982), concerning the whole basis for carbonatesedimentology: ‘‘Just possibly we have been tooconcerned with modern systems developed inareas where the sky is blue, the water clear andwarm’’. There is still considerable need to betterunderstand the warm, but commonly murky,world of equatorial carbonates that develop underthunderous skies. It is hoped that work such asthis will contribute to greater awareness anddevelopment of globally predictive models tobetter understand past and likely future environ-mental change.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Moyra acknowledges the support of a CurtinUniversity Research and Teaching Fellowship tocomplete this research. This research would nothave been possible without the continuedcollaboration and support from many students,colleagues, organizations (including the SEAsia Research Group, London University,Geological Research and Development Centre,Bandung and LIPI, Jakarta) and companies. NigelDeeks and Robert Madden are thanked forcommenting on draft versions of the manuscript.One anonymous reviewer together with com-ments from Donald McNeill, Tracy Frank andPeter Swart helped improve this manuscript. Thisis for Megan – may she come to appreciate thenatural world.

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Manuscript received 4 March 2011; revisionaccepted 30 August 2011



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