Epistemology:Epistemology: Search for the TreasureSearch for the Treasure

withwith

William Wallace & Kenneth Gallagher William Wallace & Kenneth Gallagher

A big picture approach to epistemological studyA big picture approach to epistemological studywith an application from the work ofwith an application from the work of

St. Teresa Benedicta of the CrossSt. Teresa Benedicta of the Cross

“ “Things are manifested when they areThings are manifested when they are

distinguished from things that are like distinguished from things that are like

them.”them.” Msgr. Robert Sokolowski Msgr. Robert Sokolowski Professor of Philosophy Professor of Philosophy Catholic University of Catholic University of

AmericaAmerica

““What is EPISTEMOLOGY?”What is EPISTEMOLOGY?”Then, “Where do we start from?” Then, “Where do we start from?”

and “Where may it lead us?”and “Where may it lead us?”

To a beginning philosophy student, To a beginning philosophy student, these are very good these are very good

questions.questions.

“ “What is What is EPISTEMOLOGY? ...”EPISTEMOLOGY? ...”

As I pondered these questions, assisted by class As I pondered these questions, assisted by class readings & notes, I realized:readings & notes, I realized:

• What I needed was a clear context for What I needed was a clear context for epistemology within philosophy, both as a field epistemology within philosophy, both as a field of study and how it relates to the whole.of study and how it relates to the whole.

• What I needed was a pre-thought plan to apply What I needed was a pre-thought plan to apply to subsequent reading and reflection about to subsequent reading and reflection about knowledge. As our course in epistemology knowledge. As our course in epistemology

progressed, the following plan emerged.progressed, the following plan emerged.

Plan for epistemological studyPlan for epistemological study

Method: Method: I. Look at philosophy as a whole and the role Epistemology plays in it, I. Look at philosophy as a whole and the role Epistemology plays in it,

both as aboth as aA.A. Category/Category/BranchBranch of philosophy itself, and of philosophy itself, andB.B. RoleRole it plays throughout all branches of philosophy, taking into it plays throughout all branches of philosophy, taking into

account i. timeaccount i. time

ii. spaceii. spaceiii. cultureiii. cultureiv. languageiv. language

II. Be consciously aware that study of philosophy both asII. Be consciously aware that study of philosophy both asA.A. System andSystem andB.B. HistoryHistory

are necessary to understand any problem or mystery with depth, are necessary to understand any problem or mystery with depth, accuracy, and most possible fullness.accuracy, and most possible fullness.

Application:Application:III. Consciously search out those manifestations of thought that may III. Consciously search out those manifestations of thought that may

contribute to a contribute to a philosophia perennisphilosophia perennis, furthering the foundational , furthering the foundational knowledge of man in his search for truth.knowledge of man in his search for truth.

These basic understandings came together by juxtaposing the These basic understandings came together by juxtaposing the summarized summarized work of William Wallace, OP, a traditionalist expert in work of William Wallace, OP, a traditionalist expert in philosophy…philosophy…

……with the work of Kenneth Gallagher, a master guide in the with the work of Kenneth Gallagher, a master guide in the field of Epistemology: field of Epistemology: The Philosophy of KnowledgeThe Philosophy of Knowledge..

William Wallace, OP

1918-2015

Editor of the New Catholic Encyclopedia & its summary, The Elements of Philosophy

Kenneth T. Gallagher

Prof. Emeritus of Philosophy

Fordham University

With the use of this “gleaning with a purpose” approach to my With the use of this “gleaning with a purpose” approach to my student reading, I was able to attempt an application that student reading, I was able to attempt an application that stems from the point of juxtaposition of the study of stems from the point of juxtaposition of the study of knowledge with the study of being, examined particularly knowledge with the study of being, examined particularly through the lens of Edith Stein’s dissertation on empathy. through the lens of Edith Stein’s dissertation on empathy. Fruits of this labor, which she applied to Edmund Husserl’s Fruits of this labor, which she applied to Edmund Husserl’s Logic IILogic II as his assistant, had widespread impact and may have as his assistant, had widespread impact and may have led to the theology contained in Pope John Paul II’s led to the theology contained in Pope John Paul II’s Theology Theology of the Body of the Body (per John Wilhelmsson, (per John Wilhelmsson, The Transposition of Edith SteinThe Transposition of Edith Stein)). .

First, we will follow our plan for study and take a quick look at First, we will follow our plan for study and take a quick look at the broad spectrum of philosophy in order to gain a context the broad spectrum of philosophy in order to gain a context for the application we are about to attempt.for the application we are about to attempt.

Edith Stein

St. Teresa Benedicta of the

Cross, OCD

1891 - 1942

Karol Wojtyla

Pope St. John Paul II

1920 - 2005

I. Traditional Classification Map of Natural I. Traditional Classification Map of Natural Knowledge Knowledge

Into the Branches of PhilosophyInto the Branches of PhilosophySpeculativeSpeculative

Knowledge for its own sakeKnowledge for its own sake

1.1. MetaphysicsMetaphysics ((most most abstractabstract))

• EpistemologyEpistemology* * *Role: Defend knowledge claims *Role: Defend knowledge claims in all disciplines. in all disciplines.

• Natural TheologyNatural Theology2.2. MathematicsMathematics ((intermediate intermediate

abstractnessabstractness) Now treated as a ) Now treated as a “special discipline” – the philosophy “special discipline” – the philosophy of mathof math

3.3. Natural PhilosophyNatural Philosophy ((objects here have sensible matter objects here have sensible matter by definitionby definition))

• Phil. Phil. Anthropology Anthropology /Psychology/Psychology

PracticalPracticalKnowledge for the sake of operation Knowledge for the sake of operation

or conductor conduct

1.1. Arts of MakingArts of Making2.2. Arts of Directing Arts of Directing

Human Activity Human Activity • EthicsEthics• PoliticsPolitics

The foundation for the study of all branches of philosophy, not The foundation for the study of all branches of philosophy, not properlyproperly

considered a branch in itself:considered a branch in itself: Logic Logic (Wallace, Elem of Phil., pp (Wallace, Elem of Phil., pp 4-5)4-5)

Special DisciplinesSpecial Disciplines““The Philosophy of xThe Philosophy of x,”,” where x can stand forwhere x can stand for

LanguageLanguage, , ArtArt, , ReligionReligion, , MathMath,, and so on.and so on.

A big picture mapping serves as a constant reference. A big picture mapping serves as a constant reference. Here it pinpoints something we need to know about Here it pinpoints something we need to know about epistemology for our application: that our reflection on epistemology for our application: that our reflection on knowledgeknowledge (epistemology) properly flows from our (epistemology) properly flows from our reflection on reflection on beingbeing (metaphysics). (metaphysics).

KNOWLEDGEKNOWLEDGE

Dig here!Dig here!

~PHILOSOPHIA PERENNIS PARADISIO~~PHILOSOPHIA PERENNIS PARADISIO~

M E T A P H Y S I C AM E T A P H Y S I C A

• BeingBeingDown UnderDown Under

II. We also need to consider both Systematic and Historical II. We also need to consider both Systematic and Historical PhilosophyPhilosophy in our search for knowledge in our search for knowledge (Wallace, p 9).(Wallace, p 9).

The History of PhilosophyThe History of Philosophy““aims to survey the vast aims to survey the vast diversity of philosophical diversity of philosophical systems in their systems in their chronological development chronological development so as to fill out, and so as to fill out, and complement, the synthetic complement, the synthetic account.” (Wallace, p 9)account.” (Wallace, p 9)

Example of applicationExample of application: How : How to best answer the to best answer the question, “Do we need an question, “Do we need an escape route from escape route from subjectivism?” subjectivism?” (P. Yates, Epistemology Class Assignment (P. Yates, Epistemology Class Assignment Week 10)Week 10)

Systematic PhilosophySystematic PhilosophySystematic Philosophy is Systematic Philosophy is “an attempt to give a “an attempt to give a consistent exposition of the consistent exposition of the main conclusions of main conclusions of philosophy that provide the philosophy that provide the most adequate explanation most adequate explanation of reality now available.”of reality now available.” (Wallace, p 9) (Wallace, p 9)

Example of applicationExample of application: How to : How to best answer the question, best answer the question, “What are the implications “What are the implications of being on knowledge?” of being on knowledge?” (K. Gallagher, Philosophy of Knowledge, Ch. (K. Gallagher, Philosophy of Knowledge, Ch. 10)10)

Now let us see what a reflection on knowledge that stems Now let us see what a reflection on knowledge that stems from a very particular idea of being unfolds for us.from a very particular idea of being unfolds for us.

III. We will begin with the idea that the “being” of metaphysics III. We will begin with the idea that the “being” of metaphysics we refer to in this case is “self” as knower. The knowledge I am we refer to in this case is “self” as knower. The knowledge I am examining here is knowledge that stems from my being as a examining here is knowledge that stems from my being as a human person capable of knowing.human person capable of knowing.

““Being” as MysteryBeing” as Mystery

Gabriel Marcel makes the distinction for us: “A Gabriel Marcel makes the distinction for us: “A problemproblem is an is an inquiry which is initiated in respect to an ‘object,’ something inquiry which is initiated in respect to an ‘object,’ something which I encounter as external to me. In an objective situation, I which I encounter as external to me. In an objective situation, I am here and the object is there, complete and open for am here and the object is there, complete and open for inspection. For the reason that I meet the object as juxtaposed inspection. For the reason that I meet the object as juxtaposed to myself and as not involving myself, I can envelop it in a clear to myself and as not involving myself, I can envelop it in a clear and distinct idea which delineates its limits. … A problem, then, and distinct idea which delineates its limits. … A problem, then, is an inquiry which the self apprehends in an exterior way. … is an inquiry which the self apprehends in an exterior way. … Science embodies the ultimate achievement of problematic Science embodies the ultimate achievement of problematic knowledge….knowledge….

“A “A mysterymystery, on the other hand, is a question in which what is , on the other hand, is a question in which what is given cannot be regarded as detached from the self. … If I ask given cannot be regarded as detached from the self. … If I ask ‘What is being?’ can I regard being as an object which is thrown ‘What is being?’ can I regard being as an object which is thrown across my path? No, for being includes me” across my path? No, for being includes me” (Gallagher, pp 236-238)(Gallagher, pp 236-238). .

““Body” in Two RealmsBody” in Two Realms

Gallagher shows us that Marcel takes us further, on to the idea of Gallagher shows us that Marcel takes us further, on to the idea of the human the human bodybody. “My body in so far as it is . “My body in so far as it is mine mine cannot be cannot be adequately rendered in problematic categories; the body which adequately rendered in problematic categories; the body which the physiologist studies is an objective structure available for an the physiologist studies is an objective structure available for an observer, but the body as observer, but the body as minemine simply is not accessible in this simply is not accessible in this manner” manner” (Gallagher, p. 240).(Gallagher, p. 240).

Here we stop to consider. Referring back to the big picture map, Here we stop to consider. Referring back to the big picture map, we see we are suddenly dealing with two fields of Speculative we see we are suddenly dealing with two fields of Speculative Knowledge: Knowledge: 1) the body the “physiologist studies” is within the realm of the 1) the body the “physiologist studies” is within the realm of the Philosophy of NaturePhilosophy of Nature according to its sensible properties; but according to its sensible properties; but 2) the body as 2) the body as minemine remains within the realm of remains within the realm of MetaphysicsMetaphysics..

How very interesting. How very interesting.

Gallagher goes on: “The knower of mystery is not a spectator but Gallagher goes on: “The knower of mystery is not a spectator but a participator: some evidence is only available to the participant a participator: some evidence is only available to the participant and not to the neutral observer” and not to the neutral observer” (Gallagher, p. 240)(Gallagher, p. 240)..

[Note: We see the role of epistemology to “defend knowledge claims in all fields” [Note: We see the role of epistemology to “defend knowledge claims in all fields” (Wallace)(Wallace) at work here. Body is viewed as problem according to the subject/object at work here. Body is viewed as problem according to the subject/object relation in the Philosophy of Nature. Body is viewed as mystery in the Metaphysical relation in the Philosophy of Nature. Body is viewed as mystery in the Metaphysical realm, realm, minemine and that which comes to knowledge through participation, open to and that which comes to knowledge through participation, open to transcendence.]transcendence.]

Edith Stein’s use of body in her doctoral dissertation on empathyEdith Stein’s use of body in her doctoral dissertation on empathy

We see this same type of thought regarding the body taken up We see this same type of thought regarding the body taken up in the work of Edith Stein. What Marcel refers to as “body as in the work of Edith Stein. What Marcel refers to as “body as minemine,” Stein explores as the “,” Stein explores as the “living living body.”body.”

How is my body [How is my body [LeibLeib] constituted within consciousness? I have ] constituted within consciousness? I have my physical body [my physical body [KorperKorper] given once in acts of outer perception. ] given once in acts of outer perception. But if we suppose it to be given to us in this manner alone, we But if we suppose it to be given to us in this manner alone, we have the strangest object… and we find ourselves bound to it have the strangest object… and we find ourselves bound to it perpetually. perpetually.

Precisely this affiliation, this belonging to me, could never be Precisely this affiliation, this belonging to me, could never be constituted in outer perception. A living body [constituted in outer perception. A living body [LeibLeib] only ] only perceived outwardly would always be only a particularly disposed, perceived outwardly would always be only a particularly disposed, actually unique, physical body, but never “my living body”…actually unique, physical body, but never “my living body”…

The distance of the parts of my living body from me is completely The distance of the parts of my living body from me is completely incomparable with the distance of foreign physical bodies from incomparable with the distance of foreign physical bodies from me. The living body as a whole is at zero point of orientation with me. The living body as a whole is at zero point of orientation with all physical bodies outside of it. “Body space” [all physical bodies outside of it. “Body space” [LiebraumLiebraum] and ] and “outer space” are completely different from each other. Merely “outer space” are completely different from each other. Merely perceiving outward, I would not arrive at the living body, nor perceiving outward, I would not arrive at the living body, nor merely “perceiving bodily” [merely “perceiving bodily” [leibwhrnehmendleibwhrnehmend], at the outer world. ], at the outer world. (Edith Stein, (Edith Stein, On Human EmpathyOn Human Empathy))

[Note: We see the importance of “space” listed on the student outline, here [Note: We see the importance of “space” listed on the student outline, here getting at in another way knowledge that unfolds from the Metaphysical idea getting at in another way knowledge that unfolds from the Metaphysical idea of “body.”] of “body.”]

Knowledge gained by the “Living body”Knowledge gained by the “Living body”

By “living body,” Stein refers not to the physical body, but the By “living body,” Stein refers not to the physical body, but the experiencing “body within” devoid of external physicality, experiencing “body within” devoid of external physicality, capable of being informed by sensation, not the same as but capable of being informed by sensation, not the same as but contributing to the abstract “I” of the singular, human person. contributing to the abstract “I” of the singular, human person. She writes of the “living body” in conjunction with sensation She writes of the “living body” in conjunction with sensation and the faculties of the emotions, the will, and the soul itself and the faculties of the emotions, the will, and the soul itself (see Edith Stein, (see Edith Stein, On Human EmpathyOn Human Empathy).).

IntersubjectivityIntersubjectivity

John Wilhelmsson in John Wilhelmsson in The Transposition of Edith Stein,The Transposition of Edith Stein, the spin- the spin-off of his 2007 dissertation, cited Stein’s view of off of his 2007 dissertation, cited Stein’s view of intersubjectivity: “we understand ourselves through the intersubjectivity: “we understand ourselves through the pairing of our living body with our physical body and we pairing of our living body with our physical body and we understand the other through the pairing of our living body understand the other through the pairing of our living body with the foreign physical body of the other” with the foreign physical body of the other” (Wilhelmsson, p. 137).(Wilhelmsson, p. 137).

By this, Stein means that we know the other through empathy By this, Stein means that we know the other through empathy – that ability to consider our experience of our own “living – that ability to consider our experience of our own “living body” and extend it in an abstract way upon the physical body” and extend it in an abstract way upon the physical being of another.being of another.

Knowledge through “being-by-participation”: empathyKnowledge through “being-by-participation”: empathy

Gallagher: “In the region of mystery what my thought does is to Gallagher: “In the region of mystery what my thought does is to try to recover and express a participation which is there prior try to recover and express a participation which is there prior to thought. The thought which attempts this expression must to thought. The thought which attempts this expression must do so by returning to the participation itself” do so by returning to the participation itself” (Gallagher, p 242).(Gallagher, p 242).

We come back to this idea expressed by Gallagher regarding We come back to this idea expressed by Gallagher regarding knowledge through the mystery of being, and find it expressed knowledge through the mystery of being, and find it expressed now again in Stein’s idea of empathy between persons.now again in Stein’s idea of empathy between persons.

In a sense, we can say that we “return to the participation In a sense, we can say that we “return to the participation itself” when we reflect on our own “living body” – the abstract itself” when we reflect on our own “living body” – the abstract experience of our own embodiment. We remember from the experience of our own embodiment. We remember from the previous slide that Stein said: “we understand ourselves previous slide that Stein said: “we understand ourselves through the pairing of our living body with our physical body through the pairing of our living body with our physical body and we understand the other through the pairing of our living and we understand the other through the pairing of our living body with the foreign physical body of the other.”body with the foreign physical body of the other.”

So there are two manifestations of knowledge here: that of So there are two manifestations of knowledge here: that of self, and that of the other, both through “being-by-self, and that of the other, both through “being-by-participation,” so to speak.participation,” so to speak.

I transpose my “living body” onto the foreign physical body of the otherI transpose my “living body” onto the foreign physical body of the other

We understand that when Stein says we “understand ourselves We understand that when Stein says we “understand ourselves through the pairing of our living body with our physical body” she is through the pairing of our living body with our physical body” she is talking about our human nature. When she says “we understand the talking about our human nature. When she says “we understand the other through the pairing of our living body with the foreign physical other through the pairing of our living body with the foreign physical body of the other” she is talking about empathy – our coming to body of the other” she is talking about empathy – our coming to knowledge of the other person through “transposing” our “living knowledge of the other person through “transposing” our “living body” onto the foreign physical body of the other. By this body” onto the foreign physical body of the other. By this experiential “participation” in the other through the organism of our experiential “participation” in the other through the organism of our own lived experience, our own embodiment, we come to knowledge own lived experience, our own embodiment, we come to knowledge of the other. We empathize through our shared experience of of the other. We empathize through our shared experience of embodiment.embodiment.

““I”I” ““Thou”Thou”

My “living My “living body”body”

Transposition of my Transposition of my abstract, “living body” abstract, “living body” onto your foreign physical onto your foreign physical body to achieve empathy body to achieve empathy – I recognize the other by – I recognize the other by transposing my own lived transposing my own lived experience of experience of embodiment upon the embodiment upon the body of the other to gain body of the other to gain knowledge of the other.knowledge of the other.

transposititranspositionon

my perception of my perception of the otherthe other

EMPATHYEMPATHY

The impact of Edith Stein’s concept of body on philosophyThe impact of Edith Stein’s concept of body on philosophy

The understanding of the “living body” concept of self and the The understanding of the “living body” concept of self and the empathetic perception of the body of the other did much to add empathetic perception of the body of the other did much to add to the phenomenological thought of the time. In a letter Edith to the phenomenological thought of the time. In a letter Edith Stein wrote to her friend, Roman Ingarden, while working as Stein wrote to her friend, Roman Ingarden, while working as Edmund Husserl’s assist editing his Edmund Husserl’s assist editing his Ideas IIIdeas II manuscript, she manuscript, she writes, writes,

““For the past two days, just to see if I can actually still do For the past two days, just to see if I can actually still do something on my own, I have begun to examine more closely something on my own, I have begun to examine more closely one of the points on which the Master [Husserl] and I differ (the one of the points on which the Master [Husserl] and I differ (the necessity of a body for empathy).” necessity of a body for empathy).” [parentheses Stein’s] (Wilhelmsson, p [parentheses Stein’s] (Wilhelmsson, p 107)107)

Wilhelmsson goes on to show through evidence that it was Edith Wilhelmsson goes on to show through evidence that it was Edith Stein’s idea of the necessity of the body which she used to Stein’s idea of the necessity of the body which she used to revise Husserl’s revise Husserl’s Ideas II Ideas II manuscript that changed his content manuscript that changed his content from a “disembodied idealist standpoint” to one in which “the from a “disembodied idealist standpoint” to one in which “the transcendental ego becomes embodied in a living body.” transcendental ego becomes embodied in a living body.” Husserl also speaks there of the body being the “zero point” of Husserl also speaks there of the body being the “zero point” of orientation in space for a given person as well as the orientation in space for a given person as well as the implications of space on the phenomenological view – also Edith implications of space on the phenomenological view – also Edith Stein’s ideas stemming from her view of the body and present in Stein’s ideas stemming from her view of the body and present in her dissertation (and quoted on previous slides), written prior to her dissertation (and quoted on previous slides), written prior to her revision of Husserl’s her revision of Husserl’s Ideas IIIdeas II. . (Wilhelmsson, p. 109)(Wilhelmsson, p. 109)

The impact of Edith Stein’s concept of the body on theologyThe impact of Edith Stein’s concept of the body on theology

Stein also applied her idea of embodiment to studies involving Stein also applied her idea of embodiment to studies involving gender contained in her work gender contained in her work Essays On Woman. Essays On Woman. “I am “I am convinced that the species humanity embraces the double convinced that the species humanity embraces the double species man and woman, that the essence of a complete species man and woman, that the essence of a complete human being is characterized by this duality; and that the human being is characterized by this duality; and that the entire structure of the essence demonstrates the specific entire structure of the essence demonstrates the specific character.” character.”

Wilhelmsson suggests relationship with Roman Ingarden as a Wilhelmsson suggests relationship with Roman Ingarden as a common denominator between Edith Stein and Karol Wojtyla. common denominator between Edith Stein and Karol Wojtyla. Many letters of philosophical depth were exchanged between Many letters of philosophical depth were exchanged between Stein and Ingarden, and in later years Ingarden was both Stein and Ingarden, and in later years Ingarden was both teacher and friend to Karol Wojtyla. Wilhelmsson suggests that teacher and friend to Karol Wojtyla. Wilhelmsson suggests that as phenomenologists, Ingarden and Wojtyla discussed topics as phenomenologists, Ingarden and Wojtyla discussed topics such as Stein’s view of embodiment, which shaped the such as Stein’s view of embodiment, which shaped the subsequent theological thought of Pope St. John Paul II.subsequent theological thought of Pope St. John Paul II.

““There are two ways of ‘being a body’ and at the same time a There are two ways of ‘being a body’ and at the same time a man, which complete each other. They are two complementary man, which complete each other. They are two complementary dimensions of self-consciousness and self-determination and, dimensions of self-consciousness and self-determination and, at the same time, two complementary ways of being conscious at the same time, two complementary ways of being conscious of the meaning of the body.” of the meaning of the body.” (Karol Wojtyla, (Karol Wojtyla, The Theology of the BodyThe Theology of the Body))

Where distinctions regarding knowledge may lead usWhere distinctions regarding knowledge may lead us

The importance of philosophical pursuit is made clear in Pope John The importance of philosophical pursuit is made clear in Pope John Paul II’s encyclical Paul II’s encyclical Fides et Ratio. Fides et Ratio. The work of Edith Stein The work of Edith Stein epitomizes this.epitomizes this.

St. Edith Stein makes an appearance in St. Edith Stein makes an appearance in Fides et RatioFides et Ratio as a paradigm of  as a paradigm of faithful philosophical enquiry. Edith Stein offers a challenge to women and faithful philosophical enquiry. Edith Stein offers a challenge to women and men to pass beyond the constraints imposed on our created and sin-men to pass beyond the constraints imposed on our created and sin-affected human reason, and to welcome the full truth of the Gospel. In his affected human reason, and to welcome the full truth of the Gospel. In his diocesan paper, Cardinal Bernard Law expressed this view: “Edith Stein diocesan paper, Cardinal Bernard Law expressed this view: “Edith Stein appears in the encyclical as an example of one whose work in philosophy appears in the encyclical as an example of one whose work in philosophy led her to the Truth and, in a mystery of divine providence that must strike led her to the Truth and, in a mystery of divine providence that must strike us all with awe, ultimately led her to a unique share in the Holy Cross of us all with awe, ultimately led her to a unique share in the Holy Cross of Christ.” Her martyrdom confirms the possibility of achieving even the most Christ.” Her martyrdom confirms the possibility of achieving even the most difficult reconciliations.difficult reconciliations.

The witness of Edith Stein also alerts us to the sense of urgency that we The witness of Edith Stein also alerts us to the sense of urgency that we find in find in Fides et RatioFides et Ratio. In the month following the publication of the . In the month following the publication of the encyclical, the pope made this plea explicit in an address at the Pontifical encyclical, the pope made this plea explicit in an address at the Pontifical Urban University. There he announced “not only the necessity but the Urban University. There he announced “not only the necessity but the urgency” of bringing faith and reason together. Philosophy should not be a urgency” of bringing faith and reason together. Philosophy should not be a study only for specialists, he explained, but should play a role in the study only for specialists, he explained, but should play a role in the formation of conscience for all Christians. After all, “only in Christ is it formation of conscience for all Christians. After all, “only in Christ is it possible to know the fullness of the truth which saves” (98). As the Great possible to know the fullness of the truth which saves” (98). As the Great Jubilee of the Year 2000 approaches, the pope continues to urge Jubilee of the Year 2000 approaches, the pope continues to urge reconciliation so that everyone will be ready for the special graces the reconciliation so that everyone will be ready for the special graces the celebration promises. But what is the source of his confidence? St. Paul celebration promises. But what is the source of his confidence? St. Paul put it simply when he reminded the Corinthians, “God was in Christ put it simply when he reminded the Corinthians, “God was in Christ reconciling the world to himself.” reconciling the world to himself.” (Rev. Romanus Cessario, O.P., (Rev. Romanus Cessario, O.P., Crisis MagazineCrisis Magazine, Jan. , Jan. 1999)1999)

Applications now and for the futureApplications now and for the future

In recent years the philosophy of the day has been applied In recent years the philosophy of the day has been applied to some of the greatest aspects of the faith such as the to some of the greatest aspects of the faith such as the sacramental life, the praying of the liturgy, the Eucharist, sacramental life, the praying of the liturgy, the Eucharist, our experiential knowledge of the mystical life, and methods our experiential knowledge of the mystical life, and methods of evangelization, all to further benefit our understanding of evangelization, all to further benefit our understanding and experience of our relationship with God and his Church. and experience of our relationship with God and his Church. (Please see the accompanying annotated bibliography.)(Please see the accompanying annotated bibliography.)

Cast of experts, Cast of experts, in order of appearance:in order of appearance:

Msgr. Robert Sokolowski

1934-

Rev. William Wallace, OP

1918-2015

Kenneth T. Gallagher (photo not available)

Edith SteinSt. Teresa Benedicta of the

Cross1891-1941

Karol WojtylaPope St. John Paul II

1920-2005

Gabriel Marcel

1889-1973

Rev. Romanus Cessario, OP

1944-