environmental toxicology - assets.cambridge.org

ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY

Environmental Toxicology is a comprehensive introductory textbook designed forundergraduate and graduate students of this subject.

The text is arranged in four tiers and covers most aspects of environmental toxicology,from the molecular to the ecosystem level. Early chapters deal with basic and advancedconcepts, methods, and approaches for environmental toxicology. The next tier of chapters discusses the environmental toxicology of individual substances or groups ofsubstances. The third tier of chapters addresses complex issues that incorporate and integrate many of the concepts, approaches, and substances covered in the first two tiers.The fourth part includes chapters on risk assessment, rehabilitation, and regulatory toxicology. A final chapter dicusses areas of study for current and future emphasis.

Throughout the book concise case studies from Europe, the United Kingdom, andNorth America illustrate the issues. Each chapter has a comprehensive list of refer-ences and further reading, as well as student exercises that are designed to reinforcethe subject matter.

There is an extensive glossary and a list of abbreviations and acronyms.Environmental Toxicology is primarily a textbook for undergraduate and graduate stu-dents in environmental toxicology, environmental chemistry, ecotoxicology, appliedecology, environmental management, and risk assessment. It will also be valuable forspecialists in ecology, environmental science, and chemistry, for example, practition-ers in the metals and energy industries and in agriculture.

David A. Wright is a professor at the Center for Environmental Science at theUniversity of Maryland and Director of the Chesapeake Bay Ambient ToxicityProgram for the state of Maryland. Professor Wright has published more than 100journal articles primarily on the physiology of ionic regulation and the uptake, toxi-cology, and physiology of trace metals in aquatic organisms. In recent years he hasdeveloped an interest in the dispersion and control of non-indigenous species. He hasserved on numerous review panels at the state and federal level and has testified inmany court cases and hearings concerned with environmental pollution. He holds aDSc degree from the University of Newcastle upon Tyne.

Pamela Welbourn is a professor at Queen’s University, previously a professor at TrentUniversity, and former director of the Institute for Environmental Studies and a pro-fessor at the University of Toronto. Professor Welbourn has published more than 150articles in scientific journals including Nature, Environmental Science and Technology,the Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, and EnvironmentalToxicology and Chemistry and has contributed to ten scholarly books on aspects of theenvironmental toxicology of inorganic substances. She has served on numerous panelsand boards in Canada and the United States, as well as on various public advisorycommittees. She has also had experience testifying as an expert witness in casesinvolving environmental contamination.

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C A M B R I D G E E N V I R O N M E N TA L C H E M I S T RY S E R I E S

Series editors:P. G. C. Campbell, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université duQuébec, CanadaR. M. Harrison, School of Chemistry, University of Birmingham, EnglandS. J. de Mora, International Atomic Energy Agency – Marine EnvironmentLaboratory, Monaco

Other books in the series:A. C. Chamberlain Radioactive AerosolsM. Cresser and A. Edwards Acidification of FreshwatersM. Cresser, K. Killham, and A. Edwards Soil Chemistry and Its ApplicationsR. M. Harrison and S. J. de Mora Introductory Chemistry for the EnvironmentalSciences Second EditionS. J. de Mora Tributyltin: Case Study of an Environmental ContaminantT. D. Jickells and J. E. Rae Biogeochemistry of Intertidal SedimentsS. J. de Mora, S. Demers, and M. Vernet The Effects of UV Radiation in theMarine Environment






Environmental toxicology

DAVID A. WRIGHT, PhD, DScUniversity of Maryland

PAMELA WELBOURN, PhDQueen’s University






PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, VIC 3166, AustraliaRuiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, SpainDock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa


© Cambridge University Press 2002

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exceptionand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,no reproduction of any part may take place withoutthe written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2002

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

Typefaces Times New Roman 10.75/13.5 pt. and Univers System QuarkXPress [BTS]

A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataWright, David A., 1948–Environmental toxicology / David A. Wright, Pamela Welbourn.p. cm. – (Cambridge environmental chemistry series; 11)Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0-521-58151-6 – ISBN 0-521-58860-X (pb.)1. Environmental toxicology. I. Welbourn, Pamela, 1935– II. Title. III. Series.RA1226 .W75 2001615.9¢02 – dc21 2001018486

ISBN 0 521 58151 6 hardbackISBN 0 521 58860 X paperback






This book is dedicated to Rex Welbourn and Lee Ann Wright

for all their support and understanding.






When you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it innumbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it,when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager andunsatisfactory kind: it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you havescarcely, in your thoughts, advanced to the stage of science.

Thompson, William (Lord Kelvin). Popular Lectures and Addresses(1841–4).

Nowadays, people know the price of everything and the value of nothing.

Oscar Wilde, Definition of a Cynic. Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892).






Foreword xviiPreface xixAbbreviations xxiAcknowledgements xxv

1 The emergence of environmental toxicology as science 1

1.1 The context 11.2 The historical background: Classical toxicology, ecotoxicology,

and environmental toxicology 21.3 Social aspects: The environmental movement 51.4 Social aspects: Regulation 91.5 Education in environmental toxicology 161.6 The role of technology 161.7 Questions 181.8 References 191.9 Further reading 20

2 The science of environmental toxicology: Concepts

and definitions 21

2.1 The development of environmental toxicology 212.1.1 An historical perspective on the science of environmental

toxicology 212.1.2 An evolutionary perspective on environmental toxicology 21

2.2 Assessment of toxicity 242.2.1 The dose-response 252.2.2 The acute toxicity bioassay 312.2.3 Subacute (chronic) toxicity assays 312.2.4 The relationship between acute and chronic toxicity 332.2.5 Statistical considerations 382.2.6 Comparative bioassays 432.2.7 Sediment toxicity assays 49

2.3 Toxicity at the molecular level 502.3.1 Carcinogenesis 522.3.2 Genotoxicity assays 582.3.3 Chromosome studies 59

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2.3.4 The concept of threshold toxicity 592.3.5 Hormesis 612.3.6 Receptors 61

2.4 Questions 652.5 References 66

3 Routes and kinetics of toxicant uptake 70

3.1 General considerations 703.2 Route of toxicant uptake 71

3.2.1 Skin 723.2.2 Lungs 733.2.3 Gills 743.2.4 Digestive system 763.2.5 Toxicant uptake by plants 77

3.3 Uptake at the tissue and cellular level 783.3.1 Toxicokinetics 803.3.2 Single-compartment model 813.3.3 Two-compartment model 833.3.4 Volume of distribution 863.3.5 Transporter-mediated transport 873.3.6 Lethal body burden (critical body residue) 90

3.4 Questions 943.5 References 953.6 Further reading 96

4 Methodological approaches 97

4.1 Introduction 974.2 The general concepts and principles for biological indicators 1004.3 Tolerance and resistance to potentially toxic substances 106

4.3.1 Some conundrums related to tolerance in the context of environmental assessment 106

4.3.2 Selection for tolerance, mechanisms of tolerance, and potential practical applications of the phenomenon 109

4.4 Biological scale 1164.4.1 Principles and properties of biochemical markers/biochemical

indicators 1174.4.2 Some of the more commonly used groups of biochemical

markers 1194.4.3 Individual species as indicators or monitors 1274.4.4 Surrogates for ecosystem indicators 142

4.5 Community and higher level indicators: The ecological approach to toxicology 143

4.5.1 Interspecies effects of toxic substances 1434.5.2 Interaction between and among trophic levels as affected

by toxic substances 1464.5.3 Population and community end-points 1474.5.4 Ecosystem equilibrium. Fact or fiction? 158

4.6 Modelling 1604.6.1 The concepts of modelling 1604.6.2 Mass balance models 164

x Contents






4.6.3 Some other models for use in environmental toxicology 1724.6.4 Advantages, limitations, and pitfalls in the modelling for

environmental toxicology 1734.7 Examples of methods and approaches for community or higher level

responses 1744.7.1 Enclosures: Microcosms and mesocosms 1754.7.2 Whole system manipulations 178

4.8 The role of technical advances in methods for environmental toxicology 1834.9 Choice of approaches 1864.10 Case studies 190

Case study 4.1 Benthic invertebrate communities in metal-contaminated sites exceeding criteria for acceptable sediment quality 190

Case study 4.2 Biomarkers of organic chemical contamination in fish from Puget Sound 193

Case study 4.3 The effect of coal-ash pollution on bullfrogs: An energy budget approach 196

Case study 4.4 Phytotoxicology assessment for Nanticoke Generating Station: Biological indicators and monitors of air pollution 197

Case study 4.5 Chesapeake Bay – A study of eutrophication and complex trophic interactions 201

Case study 4.6 The use of lentic mesocosms in toxicity testing 202Case study 4.7 The cadmium spike experiment, Experimental Lakes

Area 2034.11 Questions 2074.12 References 2094.13 Further reading 217

5 Factors affecting toxicity 218

5.1 Introduction 2185.2 Biotic factors affecting toxicity 219

5.2.1 Taxonomic group 2195.2.2 Age/body size 221

5.3 Abiotic factors affecting toxicity 2215.3.1 Temperature 2215.3.2 pH and alkalinity 2245.3.3 Salinity 2275.3.4 Hardness 2295.3.5 Chemical mixtures 2305.3.6 Dissolved organic carbon 234

5.4 Role of particulates 2365.4.1 The importance of food 239

5.5 Quantitative structure-activity relationships 2425.6 Implications for future environmental regulation 2425.7 Questions 2445.8 References 2455.9 Further reading 248

6 Metals and other inorganic chemicals 249

6.1 Introduction 2496.2 The properties and environmental behaviour of metals and metalloids 253

Contents xi






6.2.1 General properties of metals and metalloids 2536.2.2 The mobilisation, binding, and chemical forms of metals

in the environment 2546.2.3 The biological availability of metals in the environment 2566.2.4 Approaches for determining the chemical species and availability

of metals 2626.2.5 The persistence of metals in the environment 2676.2.6 Bioconcentration, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification of metals

in the environment 2676.3 Analytical methods, temporal and spatial distribution of metals and metalloids

in the environment 2696.3.1 Analytical chemistry 2696.3.2 Historical records 2706.3.3 Spatial records and source signatures 271

6.4 Mercury 2746.4.1 The background to environmental concerns for mercury 2746.4.2 The properties, occurrence, and environmental behaviour

of mercury 2756.4.3 The toxicity of mercury and populations at risk 2826.4.4 The reservoir problem 287

6.5 Lead 2876.5.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of lead 2876.5.2 The environmental transport and behaviour of lead 2906.5.3 Environmental exposure and toxicity of lead 291

6.6 Cadmium 2986.6.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of cadmium 2986.6.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of cadmium 2996.6.3 The toxicity of cadmium 300

6.7 Copper 3016.7.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of copper 3016.7.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of copper 3026.7.3 The toxicity of copper 302

6.8 Nickel 3046.8.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of nickel 3046.8.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of nickel 3056.8.3 The toxicity of nickel 305

6.9 Selenium 3066.9.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of selenium 3066.9.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of selenium 3076.9.3 The toxicity of selenium 307

6.10 Phosphorus 3086.10.1 The occurrence, sources, and behaviour of phosphorus 3086.10.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of phosphorus 308

6.11 Fluorine 3136.11.1 The occurrence, sources, and behaviour of fluorine 3136.11.2 The toxicity of fluoride 313

6.12 Questions 3156.13 References 3166.14 Further reading 319Appendix: Properties of selected metals and metalloids 319

xii Contents






7 Organic compounds 349

7.1 The nature of organic compounds 3497.1.1 Behaviour and transport 353

7.2 Pesticides 3557.2.1 Chlorinated organics 3567.2.2 Organophosphate pesticides 3617.2.3 Carbamate pesticides 3627.2.4 Phenoxyacid herbicides 3637.2.5 Bipyridilium herbicides 3657.2.6 Triazine herbicides 365

7.3 Polychlorinated biphenyls 3667.3.1 Chemistry and effects 3667.3.2 Evidence of decline in environmental PCBs 369

7.4 Debenzodioxins and dibenzofurans 3707.5 Organic chemicals as environmental estrogens (endocrine disrupters) 372

7.5.1 Rationale 3727.5.2 Proposed mechanism for the action of estrogenic compounds 3727.5.3 Effect of organic chemicals on male reproductive health 3757.5.4 Environmental influences on breast cancer 3767.5.5 Peroxisome proliferases 3777.5.6 Pharmaceuticals in the environment 378

7.6 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons 3797.7 Petroleum hydrocarbons 3817.8 Organotins 3847.9 Metabolism of organics 385

7.9.1 Introduction 3857.9.2 Phase I reactions 3867.9.3 Important mixed function oxidase reactions 3897.9.4 Reductions 3947.9.5 Phase II reactions 395

7.10 Environmental mobility of organic compounds 3967.11 Case studies 399

Case study 7.1 Pathology of beluga whales in the St. Lawrence estuary,Quebec, Canada 399

Case study 7.2 Recovery of double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocoraxauritus) in the Great Lakes 400

Case study 7.3 Feminisation of fish in English rivers 4017.12 Questions 4037.13 References 405

8 Ionising radiation 408

8.1 Introduction 4088.2 Definitions 409

8.2.1 What is ionising radiation? 4098.2.2 Units of measurement 412

8.3 Effects of radiation at the molecular and cellular level 4138.3.1 Molecular interactions 4138.3.2 Effects of radiation on the immune system 415

8.4 Assessment of risk from radiation 4168.5 Sources of radiation 421

Contents xiii






8.5.1 Background radiation 4218.5.2 Electricity production from nuclear power 4228.5.3 Radioisotopes of biological importance 427

8.6 Ecological effects of radiation 4308.7 Case study 431

Case study 8.1 The Chernobyl accident 4318.8 Questions 4338.9 References 433

9 Complex issues 435

9.1 Introduction and rationale 4359.2 The mining and smelting of metals 436

9.2.1 The issue 4369.2.2 Processes involved in the extraction and purification of metals 4379.2.3 Substances of concern that are mobilised or formed and released

during mining, smelting, and other purification processes 4399.2.4 The environmental toxicology of metal mining and smelting 440

9.3 Environmental impacts of pulp and paper mills 4469.3.1 The issue 4469.3.2 Substances of concern I: Nutrient enrichment from pulp mills 4479.3.3 Substances of concern II: Chlorinated products of paper pulp 4489.3.4 The environmental toxicology of mill effluent 4499.3.5 Mitigation: Means for minimising the impacts of pulp mills 450

9.4 Electrical power generation 4519.4.1 The issue of producing electricity from fossil fuel 4519.4.2 The issue of producing electricity from nuclear energy 4529.4.3 The issue of hydroelectric power 4589.4.4 Socioeconomic considerations 459

9.5 Global warming 4629.5.1 The issue 4629.5.2 The greenhouse effect 4629.5.3 Substances of concern: Greenhouse gases and their sources 4639.5.4 Global climate models 464

9.6 Atmospheric pollution 4659.6.1 The issue 4659.6.2 Substances of concern: Photochemical oxidants 4669.6.3 The environmental toxicology of photochemical oxidants 4709.6.4 Substances of concern: Acidic precipitation 4719.6.5 The environmental toxicology of acid precipitation 472

9.7 Agriculture 4749.7.1 The issue 4749.7.2 Substances of concern: Fertilisers 4779.7.3 The environmental toxicology of fertilisers 4789.7.4 Substances of concern: Pesticides 4839.7.5 The environmental toxicology of pesticides 486

9.8 Oil extraction, transportation, and processing 4879.8.1 The issue 4879.8.2 The environmental toxicology of oil 4899.8.3 Oil spill legislation and control 4939.8.4 Use of oil dispersants 493

xiv Contents






9.9 Case study 494Case study 9.1 The Florida Everglades: A case study of eutrophication related

to agriculture and restoration 4949.10 References 4959.11 Further reading 499

10 Risk assessment 500

10.1 The context and rationale for ecological risk assessment 50010.2 The methodology of ecological risk assessment and risk management 502

10.2.1 Risk assessment 50210.2.2 Risk management 508

10.3 Site-specific risk assessment 50810.4 Dealing with uncertainty 51010.5 Factors triggering risk assessment 51110.6 Case studies 512

Case study 10.1 Risk assessment of the Clark River Superfund site 512Case study 10.2 The Belle Park Island landfill site, Cataraqui Park, Kingston,

Ontario: Site-specific risk assessment 514Case study 10.3 An environmental risk assessment for ditallow dimethyl

ammonium chloride in the Netherlands 51610.7 References 51810.8 Further reading 519

11 Recovery, rehabilitation, and reclamation 520

11.1 The context for site contamination and recovery 52011.2 Exposure and hazard 52111.3 Site use 52211.4 Technical approaches 523

11.4.1 Removal of the source of contamination 52311.4.2 Restriction of site use 52511.4.3 Reconstruction of the site 52611.4.4 Removal of the contaminated material 52611.4.5 On-site containment 52711.4.6 In situ treatment 527

11.5 Remedial action plans 52811.6 Responsibilities 52911.7 Routes for recovery 53011.8 Recent regulatory approaches to contaminated sites 53211.9 Case studies 535

Case study 11.1 The Thames Estuary: Compound pollution and recovery 535

Case study 11.2 Lake Erie recovery 538Case study 11.3 Deacidification trends in Clearwater Lake near Sudbury,

Ontario, 1973–1992 540Case study 11.4 The Inco Mine Tailings reclamation, Sudbury, Canada:

Ecosystem reconstruction 542Case study 11.5 Clean-up of lead-contaminated sites: The Ontario urban

clean-up experience 54511.10 References 547

Contents xv






12 Regulatory toxicology 550

12.1 Introduction 55012.2 Possible legal approaches to the regulation of toxic substances 55112.3 Procedures and policies, including voluntary abatement 553

12.3.1 Types of approach 55312.3.2 Objectives, standards, and related concepts 55612.3.3 Risk assessment in a regulatory context 56112.3.4 Voluntary systems of regulation 56212.3.5 International considerations: Treaties and informal agreements 565

12.4 Definitions 56912.4.1 Types of law 56912.4.2 The common law 57012.4.3 Some general legal terms 57112.4.4 Terms used in assessment and regulation of toxic substances 571

12.5 Federal statutes 58712.5.1 The United Kingdom and Europe 58712.5.2 Canada 58712.5.3 The United States of America 587

12.6 Case studies 588Case study 12.1 European convention on long-range transboundary air

pollution 588Case study 12.2 Implementation of the Basel Convention: Turning back waste

from Hungary 58812.7 Questions 58912.8 References 58912.9 Further reading 590

13 An overall perspective, or where to from here? 591

13.1 Introduction 59113.2 Updating risk assessment 592

13.2.1 Expressing toxic action 59213.2.2 Bioavailability and uptake pathways as management tools 59613.2.3 Pathways/vectors of chemical exposure 597

13.3 Future paradigm of hazard assessment 60013.4 The question of biological scale 60013.5 Genotoxicity 60213.6 Society and the environment 60313.7 References 605

Glossary 608Index 621

xvi Contents






Environmental Toxicology is a welcome addition to the Cambridge University PressEnvironmental Chemistry Series. The inclusion of a textbook on toxicology in aseries devoted to environmental chemistry might, at first glance, appear surpris-ing. However, as will become evident to the reader, the authors have approachedtheir topic in a truly interdisciplinary manner, with environmental chemistryplaying a prominent role in their analysis.

Environmental toxicology is a young and dynamic science, as pointed out bythe authors in their welcome historical perspective of its development over the past30+ years. One of the inevitable consequences of the rapid evolution of this areaof science has been the scarcity of useful textbooks. Several multiauthored bookshave appeared in recent years, usually consisting of specialised chapters written by researchers familiar with a specific area of environmental toxicology. The indi-vidual chapters in such volumes are often very useful as state-of-the-art reviews,but links between and among chapters are difficult to establish. EnvironmentalToxicology breaks with this trend and offers a broad and coherent vision of thefield, as developed by two senior researchers who have been active in this area ofresearch since its inception in the 1970s.

In keeping with the aims of the Environmental Chemistry Series, this book is designed for use in courses offered to senior undergraduates and to graduate students. As university professors, the authors have used much of the material intheir own courses, and thus, in a certain sense, the overall approach has alreadybeen tested and refined in the classroom. In choosing illustrative examples toinclude in their treatise, Wright and Welbourn have taken pains to maintain aninternational perspective – their frequent use of examples from the UnitedKingdom, Europe, the United States, Canada, and elsewhere should prove invalu-able to readers seeking to learn from the scientific and regulatory experience oftheir global neighbours.

Professor Peter G. C. CampbellUniversité du Quebec INRSINRS-Eau CP 7500Rue EinsteinSte. Foy, QuebecCanada

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Foreword






This book is intended for use as a general text for courses given to intermediateundergraduate students with some basic background in chemistry, biology, andecology. Graduate students with backgrounds in such traditional disciplines aschemistry, geography, or engineering, who are beginning studies that require anunderstanding of environmental toxicology, will also find the text useful.Additional readings, beyond those cited in the text, have been provided for thosestudents who wish to take the subject matter further.

In common with many university and school texts, the original idea for this bookgrew from a course that the authors designed and presented. This began in 1989.Since that time, we have modified the material for use in different courses, in boththe United States and Canada. Also since that time in environmental toxicology,existing approaches have evolved and new ones have been introduced.Technological advances, particularly in computers and in analytical chemistry andits applications, have facilitated progress. Beginning in the 1970s, but notably overthe past decade, a number of excellent essay collections, as well as various textsaddressing environmental toxicology, aquatic toxicology, ecotoxicology, and relatedtopics, have been published. We have attempted to incorporate information on mostof the significant items of progress, while providing the core and accepted compo-nents of the science, and to convey the enthusiasm that we have experienced, andcontinue to experience, over the subject area.

Whether there has been progress in the fundamental understanding and theoryof the multidisciplinary subject known as ecotoxicology or environmental toxicol-ogy is less easy to determine. A lot depends on progress in other disciplines, someof them still young, notably ecology.

Paraphrasing Schuurmann and Markert (1998), ecotoxicology aims to characterise, understand, and predict deleterious effects of chemicals on biologi-cal systems. Various definitions have been provided for the term ecotoxicology, but in essence the subject involves the study of sources, pathways, transformations,and effects of potentially harmful chemicals in the environment, including not onlytheir effects on individuals and populations of organisms but also their effects at the ecosystem level. The decision was made for the present text to use the

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Preface






more general term environmental toxicology in the title, while attempting in themain text, wherever it was deemed appropriate, to distinguish between this and the more specifically defined ecotoxicology, in Truhaut’s (1975) sense.

In 1980, during the Aquatic Toxicology and Hazard Assessment Symposium,organized by the American Society for Testing and Materials, Macek stated, “Thereare unquestionably much more aquatic toxicity data on many more chemicals.However, there has been no real ‘qualitative growth’ in the science. No new andbetter questions are being asked; there are few new theories and precious little inthe way of new scientific truths which have led to a better understanding of uni-fying concepts in the science” (Boudou and Ribeyre, 1989).

This somewhat gloomy statement concerning aquatic toxicology may well stillbe true in 2001. In our opinion, however, there is sufficient information that is gen-uinely new and original to stimulate the writing of a basic text that includes someof the still incomplete and controversial components of the science.

This book has been organised in an hierarchical manner, generally progressingfrom the simple to the complex. Following some discussion of the social contextfrom which the science developed, early chapters look at the “tools of the trade”,with definitions, methods, and approaches. The sources, behaviour, fate, and effectsof individual contaminants are then treated, as inorganic, organic, and radioactivesubstances. Some relatively simple case studies have been provided where appro-priate to illustrate these earlier chapters.

It will be noted that, for the most part, categories such as air pollution and waterpollution have not been used as main headings for chapters or sections. This reflectsour attitude that even though these compartments of the environment have valuefor regulatory purposes and possibly for policy formulation, they are often quiteartificial in terms of an ecological approach to the science.

A number of complex issues were selected for the later chapters, with two majorobjectives in mind. One was to provide vehicles to integrate a number of the prin-ciples of methodology and approaches, and the characteristics of contaminants,which had already been described. The other was to illustrate the nature of real-worldissues, in which contaminants do not exist in isolation from other contaminants, pre-existing conditions, or the natural complexity and variability of the ecosystem.

Chapters on risk assessment and rehabilitation draw on some earlier and by now familiar examples, and regulatory toxicology is addressed by incorporatinghazard and risk assessment with reviews of some of the state-of-the-art regulatory approaches. The objective here is to consider some of the philosophyand approaches underlying the regulation of toxic substances and not to providecomprehensive coverage of statutory environmental regulation.

David A. Wright. University of Maryland, Center for Environmental Science, Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, Solomons, Maryland

Pamela Welbourn. Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada, and Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada

xx Preface






AAF 2-acetylaminofluoreneAr aryl hydrocarbon (receptor)AHH aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylaseALA aminolaevulinic acidALAD aminolaevulinic acid dehydrataseARNT Ah receptor nuclear translocatorASP amnesic shellfish poisoningASTM American Society for Testing and MaterialsATP adenosine triphosphateAVLS atomic vapour laser separationAVS acid volatile sulphide (see glossary)BSCF biota-sediment concentration factorCCME Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (formerly

CREM)CFP ciguatera fish poisoningCTV critical toxicity valueCYP1A1 and CYP1A2 subfamilies of the CYP1 gene family of P450

enzymes responsible for transformation of xenobiotics and endogenoussubstrates (see glossary, cytochrome P 450)

CWS Canadian Wildlife ServiceDDD 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis( p-chlorophenyl) ethaneDDE 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis( p-chlorophenyl) ethyleneDDT 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis( p-chlorophenyl) ethaneDMRP Dredged Material Research ProgrammeDMSO dimethyl sulphoxideDSP diarrhetic shellfish poisoning2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acidEDTA ethylenediaminotetraacetic acidEEV estimated exposure valueEF enrichment factor

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Abbreviations






ELA Experimental Lakes AreaENEV estimated no effects valueER endoplasmic reticulumEROD ethoxyresorufin-o-deethylaseETS electron transport systemFISH fluorescence in situ hybridisationGC-MS gas chromatography-mass spectrometryGSSG glutathione disulphideGUS Groundwater ubiquity score (United Kingdom); defined as

(1g soil t1/2) · (4 - (1g Koc))HAB harmful algal bloomHPLC high-pressure liquid chromatographypH (negative logarithm of) hydrogen ion concentrationIARC International Agency for Research on CancerICP-MS inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometryICRP International Commission on Radiological ProtectionIQ intelligence quotientISE ion selective electrodeKa dissociation constant for weak acid (see glossary)kDa kilodaltonsKow octanol: water partition coefficient (see glossary)LAS linear alkylbenzene sulphonateLLIR low-level ionising radiationLTE linear transfer energy (see glossary)LULU locally unwanted land useNAD(H) nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (reduced form)NADP(H) nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (reduced form)NIMBY not in my backyardNIMTO not in my term of officeNTA nitrilotriacetic acidNOAA National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration

(United States)NSP neurotoxic shellfish poisoningOPEC Organisation of Petroleum Exporting CountriesOSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration (United States)PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonPAN peroxyacetyl nitratePCB polychlorinated biphenylPMR premanufacturing registrationPPAR peroxisome proliferase-activated receptorPSP paralytic shellfish poisoningRAIN Reversing Acidification in NorwayRAR retinoid receptor

xxii Abbreviations






RXR retinoic acid receptorSEM simultaneously extracted metals (used in association with acid

volatile sulfides, AVS)SERF Shoreline Environmental Research FacilitySETAC Society for Environmental Toxicology and ChemistrySOD superoxide dismutaseSTP sewage treatment plantTBT tributyltin3,4,5-T 3,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid2,3,7,8,TCDD 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxinTOC total organic carbonUDG glucoronosyl transferaseUNSCEAR United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of

Atomic RadiationU.S. EPA United States Environmental Protection AgencyWHAM Windermere Humic Acid Model

Abbreviations xxiii






The authors are grateful to the following colleagues and students who contributedto this volume in various ways: Tom Adams, Carol Andews, Joel Baker, GordBalch, Allyson Bissing, Canadian Environmental Law Association (KathleenCooper, Lisa McShane, and Paul Muldoon), Thomas Clarkson, Peter Dillon, SusanDreier, Catherine Eimers, Hayla Evans, Mary Haasch, Landis Hare, HolgerHintelmann, Thomas Hutchinson, Maggie Julian, Allan Kuja, David Lasenby,David McLaughlin, Kenneth Nicholls, David Richardson, Eric Sager, Rajesh Seth,Douglas Spry, David Vanderweele, Chip Weseloh.

Particular thanks are due to the following for their special contributions, suchas painstaking review of certain sections: Dianne Corcoran, R. Douglas Evans,Robert Loney, Donald Mackay, Sheila Macfie, Ann MacNeille, Lisa McShane,Diane Malley, Christopher Metcalfe, Macy Nelson, Robert Prairie, DavidSchindler, Elizabeth Sinclair, Judith Wilson. Robert Loney is thanked for his draft-ing of some of the figures, and Guri Roesijadi is thanked for the juxtaposition ofthe two quotes in Chapter 13.

Above all, this book is a testament to the patience of three people; PeterCampbell, who edited the whole text and made many helpful suggestions; LindaRogers, who produced the typescript and collated the references; and Fran Younger,who drafted most of the figures.

This project benefitted in part from financial support from Trent University.

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Acknowledgements






environmental toxicology - assets.cambridge.org

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