8th grade READING LANGUAGE ARTS’ COMMON CORE STANDARDS

Reading Standards for Literature

Supporting SentencesSupporting sentences contain specific statements that support the main idea of the paragraph. Supporting sentences will contain relevant and thoughtful details that add to the subject and do not get "off track."

(1) Mexico offers visitors a world of contrasts. (2) Its pyramids and ancient ruins are part of ancient history, while its modern cities provide us with the best of today's technology. (3) Its mountains offer cool weather and rocky peaks, while only a few miles away, its beaches tempt us with brilliant sun and white sand. (4)Its fancy restaurants serve the most sophisticated continental cuisine, and sidewalk vendors sell the simplest of native foods.

o Sentence 1 states the main idea of the paragraph.

The main idea is that Mexico has many examples of contrasts (differences).

o Sentences 2 through 4 are supporting sentences.

The old pyramids and the new cities are an example of contrast. The cool mountains are in contrast to the warm beaches. The fancy restaurants are very different from the simple street food vendors.

Enriching IdeasAuthors of all kinds use language to enrich or support the ideas they are trying to express. Two of the most common ways they do this are with descriptive details and factual details.

Descriptive DetailsWhen an author describes a landscape as having purple wildflowers and yellow daisies, or if she tells you a character has piercing blue eyes and a hooked nose like an eagle, the author is using descriptive details. Sometimes the details do not necessarily help the author make a point, but they add to the atmosphere or feeling you get about the overall story. Without descriptive details, the stories we read would be pretty boring! The details help us picture the story in our heads.

Factual DetailsNonfiction books and articles mostly use factual details to support ideas. A history book, for example, might give you names and dates having to do with a famous event in history. Or an article about dolphins might tell you where you are most likely to find them, and how long they usually live. Factual details help support the main idea an author is expressing. They help convince us that the author knows what he or she is talking about and is not just expressing an opinion. We are more likely to believe an author if there are factual details to back up what he or she is saying.

Inferences are evidence-based guesses. They are the conclusions a reader draws about the unsaid based on what is actually said. Inferences drawn while reading are much like inferences drawn in everyday life. Making an inference is the same thing as drawing a conclusion or making a generalization.

Tips for Drawing Inferences

1. Make sure your inferences rely mainly on the author's words rather than your own feelings or experience. Your goal is to read the author's mind, not invent your own message.

2. Check to see if your inference is contradicted (proven wrong) by any statements in the paragraph. If it is, it is not an appropriate or useful inference.

3. If the passage is a difficult one, check to see if you can actually identify the statements that led you to your conclusion. This kind of close reading is a good comprehension check. It will also help you remember the material.

examples: If your mom tells you to put your rain coat on before leaving the house, you caninfer (or make

an educated guess) that it is raining outside.

Read this sentence: He is known as the president with the beard and the black top hat who led us through the Civil War.

You can infer that the president being spoken of in the sentence is Abraham Lincoln.

The theme, or moral, is a message that the reader gets from a story. It could be a short lesson about life. It tells how the author feels about life or human nature. Because the theme is a message, it must be expressed in a complete sentence.Sometimes the author doesn't tell you what the theme is. You may have to figure it out from the text.

Some Common Themes Found in Literature: Man is man's worst enemy.

Good is stronger than evil.

A person grows by facing obstacles.

Treat others the way you want to be treated.

Notice that the themes aren't describing particular events or characters. They are broad ideas that can apply to all people.example:

The Fox and the Grapes

by Aesop

     One afternoon, a fox was walking through the forest. The fox saw a bunch of grapes hanging from over a branch.     Just the thing I need when I'm thirsty, the fox thought.      Taking a few steps back, the fox jumped and just missed the hanging grapes.Again, the fox took a few steps back and tried to reach the grapes but still failed.      Finally, giving up, the fox said, "They're probably sour, anyway." Then, the fox walked away.

Question: Which of the following best describes a theme of the passage?A. It is easy to dislike what you cannot have.

B. It is easy to find food for tall animals.

C. Many animals like to eat fruits.

D. A fox always knows when grapes are sour.

Explanation: In the above story, the fox is trying to eat the grapes, but he or she cannot reach them. When the fox fails after trying, he or she says the grapes must be sour. One theme, or message, of this passage is, "It is easy to dislike what you cannot have."

Tips for Identifying Theme: Look closely at the title. Sometimes you will find a clue about the theme. Look for ideas that are repeated more than once.

Look for lessons that the character learns.

Think about what happens in the story and how it can apply to life. For example, if the main character must survive an approaching tornado, the theme may be, "Nature is at war with mankind."

A summary is a shorter way to tell the events or details of a passage. Only the most important details are conveyed in a summary. A summary allows the reader to see what the passage is about. Look at the passage and its summary below for an example.

Hurricanes

          A hurricane is a very powerful storm. It is a cyclonic storm, which means that it has a circular pattern within the hurricane. The name hurricane refers to storms that start over the Atlantic Ocean or eastern Pacific Ocean. Hurricanes are called different names in other oceans of the world. For example, they are called typhoons in the northwest Pacific. They are called cyclones in most of the rest of the world. They all have wind speeds that are mostly more than 75 miles per hour. The winds move in a circular pattern. The central point around which the storm moves is called the eye of the storm.         These storms usually develop in warm, tropical oceans. They take their energy from the seawater that evaporates. Hurricanes weaken as they move over land because they depend on the warm seas to continue to supply energy as the storm moves. Land also has a much rougher surface than the ocean. Land has much greater changes in elevation and surface. Hurricanes lose power when the winds meet the land's surface and cause friction.

Summary of Passage

         Hurricanes are powerful storms that usually start in the Atlantic Ocean or Pacific Ocean. These storms rely on the ocean for their power and energy, and they slow down as they make landfall.

The plot is the sequence of events that happen in a story. It shows how characters meet and resolve a conflict—a problem or struggle. Every plot is made up of a series of causes and effects.

A plot is like a long line of dominoes. When a finger tips the first domino, the first domino causes the second domino to fall, the second domino causes the third domino to fall, and so forth. The finger has caused a sequence of events.Similarly, every event that happens in a story causes another event to happen.

Sample Story

     A woman’s voice came over the loudspeaker. "Flight 546 to Dallas, TX, has arrived. We will begin boarding in 15 minutes."     "It’s about time," I muttered. My dad and I had been waiting for over three hours for our plane. Apparently, some storm in Florida had delayed our flight.     To pass the time, I had been playing video games and listening to music. I don’t know what I would do without portable electronics.     As I entered the final stage in Link’s Corner, my father said, "Hey, Jeremy, I’m going to run to the restroom. Will you stop playing that game for a minute and watch our things?"     "Okay, Dad," I said. "Hold on. Let me just finish this level." I glanced up and saw that he was already gone. Shrugging my shoulders, I reasoned that our stuff would be fine. I could still see our things from the corner of my eye. I couldn’t stop playing. I was too close to defeating Graken. I just had to capture the blue stone.     "Jeremy! Where’s my camera?! I told you to stop playing that game!" My dad’s voice broke my concentration.     Oh no, I thought. I paused my game and looked up. My father stood frantically searching

through our things. I remembered seeing his camera on the seat beside me, but sure enough, it was no longer there.     "I’m sorry, Dad! I was watching our things from the corner of my eye!"     "Well, obviously, you weren’t! My camera is gone!"     My father began questioning some people nearby, but no one had noticed anyone suspicious. Someone had been awfully sneaky. I couldn’t believe that someone had stolen the camera right under my nose. I felt like an idiot.     "We will start the boarding process with group A. Group A, you may now board," the woman announced.     My father shook his head as we gathered our things and moved to the end of the line. He wouldn’t even look at me. I felt awful. That digital camera had cost my dad $500. It also had all of our vacation pictures on it.     "I’m REALLY sorry, Dad," I said. "I promise I’ll make it up to you."     My dad snorted, "You bet you are."     That summer, I worked like I’d never worked before. I mowed lawns, pulled weeds, cleaned garages, and painted fences. By the end of August, my dad had a brand-new camera, and I had hands full of blisters.

Sample Questions

1. What is the plot of the story?

While waiting to board an airplane, Jeremy gets distracted playing his video game and loses his father’s camera. He works hard over the summer to buy his dad a new one.

2. What is the narrator’s main conflict?

Jeremy loses his father’s camera.

3. How does the narrator solve his main conflict?

Jeremy works over the summer to buy his father a new camera.

4. What causes Jeremy and his dad to gather their things and stand in line?

The woman tells group A to board.

5. What happens when Jeremy’s dad goes to the restroom?

A thief steals his camera.

Setting is the time, place, and circumstances in which a story takes place. It tells the reader where and when the story occurs.

The main components of setting include the following:

place (geographical location)

weather

social conditions

mood (atmosphere)

The setting is essential to the development of the characters and the plot of a story. Sometimes, the setting provides details about the mood of the story.Examples:

A story set in a haunted house would probably be filled with suspense and horror.

Other times, the setting may actually be part of the conflict in the story. This is common in adventure stories in which characters become trapped or lost in forests, avalanches, etc. The setting may also provide the way in which the conflict is resolved. In such instances, a character uses a feature of the setting to his or her advantage.

The setting of the story can also determine who the antagonists (characters that oppose the main character) of the story will be.

If the story is set during a war, the antagonists would probably be the enemy soldiers.

ometimes, the setting provides details about the mood and tone of the story. For example, a story set in a haunted house would probably be filled with suspense and horror. A story could also be set in a historical time period. How might a story set in the 1800s have a different plot than one set in the 2000s?

     Other times, the setting may actually be part of the conflict in the story. This is common in adventure stories in which characters become trapped or lost in forests, avalanches, and so forth. The setting may also provide the way in which the conflict is resolved. In such instances, a character uses a feature of the setting to his/her advantage.

     The setting of the story can also determine who the antagonists (characters that oppose the main character) of the story will be. For example, if the story is set during a war, the antagonists would probably be the enemy soldiers.

ou can understand stories better when you understand characters. This is called character analysis. When you analyze characters, think about the following items.

Trait:

a special quality or something special about someone's personality.

examples: hair color, eye color, height, weight, age, beliefs, likes, dislikes, opinions, behavior

"Andy was a nice boy of medium height with brown hair and eyes. He liked rock music, baseball, and pizza. He was a loyal friend and a great athlete. He always told the truth and gave the right answer in class."

Motivation:

what causes someone to act in a certain way. It can be an emotion, desire, need, etc. A motivation is the reason we do something.examples: "Sara was motivated to win the game because she plays hard and had lost the last game to the

other team." "Tim went to the grocery store because his kitchen was empty and he was very hungry." "Kim acted rude to Carrie because Carrie did not invite her to a birthday party."

Conflict:

when characters have different interests or goals.

examples: "My mom and I had a fight because I put a dent in the car and didn't tell her. Now I feel bad

when I come home from school."

"Jim and Steve are fighting because they like the same girl." "There is a conflict between people who think school should be year-round and those who

don't."

Point of View:

the side from which a story is told. It can affect how facts are shown and how we look at the characters.examples: "Because Tina told the teacher her version of the story first, I got punished even though it

wasn't my fault." "Because a story is told from the side of a little brother, the big sister character may look bad

even though she is a nice girl."

Relationships:

the connection of people in friendship, family, work, school, or other activities.

examples: mother, sister, friend, teacher, neighbor, father, boss, etc.

"Tickets for the Super Bowl sold out two weeks ago, but I was able to attend the game since my father is head coach for one of the teams."

Think about how all these character traits affect the story. A character's traits or relationships might affect his or her point of view. Motivation affects action and changes. When we understand all of these things, a character becomes easy to understand. When writing your own characters, think about all these things. You'll be on your way to making an interesting and deep character.

A simile is when two things are directly compared because they share a common feature. The word AS or LIKE is used to compare the two words.

example: The dog shot out of the chute LIKE a rocket as it chased the rabbit.

The dog isn't a rocket, but the speed with which it runs is compared to that of a rocket.

The candle wax melted and soaked the church floor AS thick AS tears that dampen a handkerchief.

Tears aren't melted candle wax, but the way they drip and collect is similar.Metaphor

A metaphor also compares two things, but it does so more directly WITHOUT using "as" or "like."

example:

The family was an old tree with deep roots and rings to show how much it had weathered.

The family isn't a tree, but like a tree, it has roots that represent how a family has different members and similar ancestors.

To ne is the reflection of an author's attitude toward his or her subject.

Have you ever been in a conversation with someone, and you were able to tell if that person was angry, sad, or happy? Usually, the person talking to you will give hints about how he or she is feeling with gestures like a frown, a smile, or a nervous twitch.

Authors give the same hints when they write. An author's tone gives the reader an idea about how the author feels about a certain subject. They aren't hints that can be seen like the hints in a conversation; however, things like word choice and attitude can be recognized in writing. For example, pay close attention to the author's tone in the passage below.     I love to swim, and I miss the community swimming pool very much. Last week, when I heard that the city closed the pool, I felt depressed. There are not that many safe activities that we kids can do during the summer. Swimming at the pool was something fun that my friends and I could all do and feel safe. Now all our fun times are only memories. Please reopen the community swimming pool as soon as possible so that we can stop moping around. Let me and my friends know what we can do to help raise money that the city needs for the pool.

In this passage, the author does not like that the city closed the community swimming pool. Think about how the author uses language to show how sad he or she is about the pool being closed: In the first sentence, the author says that he or she misses the pool and that he or she "felt

depressed." These are ways of expressing that the author feels sad. When the author states that his or her "fun times" at the pool are "only memories," this

shows that the author is sentimental and sad.

In the next sentence, the author says that the pool should be reopened so that his or her friends "can stop moping around." This adds to the author's sad tone by painting a gloomy picture.

Irony is used to express the exact opposite of its literal meaning. It is the difference between what appears to be and what actually is. There are three main types of irony: situational irony, dramatic irony, and verbal irony.

Situational irony occurs when a reader or character expects one thing to happen, but something entirely different happens. In other words, it is when something unexpected (or inappropriate) happens. Writers use situational irony to make their stories interesting or

humorous and sometimes to force their readers to think about their own thoughts and values.Example: 

Situational irony would occur if a cunning and lawful police officer fails to catch a reckless and lawless thief.This is unexpected because in most works of film and literature, good is supposed to conquer evil. The police officer should be able to catch the thief because he is smart and good whereas the thief is foolish and rotten.Dramatic irony is the contrast between what a character thinks to be true and what we (the readers) know to be true. It occurs when the meaning intended by a character's words or actions is opposite of the true situation. The character cannot see or understand the contrast, but the audience or reader can.Example: 

In Shakespeare’s play Othello, Othello mistakenly believes that Iago is telling him the truth when he says that Othello’s wife has been unfaithful. Othello calls him, “honest Iago.” This is an occurrence of dramatic irony because Shakespeare reveals to the reader Iago’s dishonesty beforehand. The reader knows that the statement “honest Iago” is false, but Othello, the character, believes it to be true.Verbal irony is when someone says one thing but means something different. This type of irony is very similar to sarcasm.Example:

     “Are you doing anything fun tomorrow, Carol?” Janet asked.     “Nothing except getting my wisdom teeth pulled out!” Carol replied with a fake smile.

Carol’s remark is an example of verbal irony. She doesn’t really think getting her wisdom teeth pulled out is fun. Her intended meaning is the exact opposite of what she is saying.

Dramatic irony is used to show that the audience knows more than the character on stage. A character does or says something of greater importance than he or she knows. The audience, however, understands the meaning and importance of the act or speech. Dramatic irony is often used to produce suspense or humor.

Suspense

The difference in the knowledge of characters and the audience can produce suspense.Generally, dramatic irony is used to create suspense in tragedies or mystery.

Example:In Sophocles' play Oedipus the King, Oedipus does not know that he is the murderer that he is seeking. The characters of Creon and Jocasta do not know the reality about Oedipus either. However, the audience knows all along that Oedipus was destined to commit the murder and ends up doing it. The plot of the play and the actions of Oedipus create and build suspense.

Humor

The difference in the knowledge of characters and the audience can produce humor as well. Dramatic irony is mostly used to create humor in comedies.

Example:

In Shakespeare's play Much Ado About Nothing, the characters of Don Pedro and Leonato pretend that Beatrice is in love with Benedick. They do so by talking loudly and letting Benedick overhear the conversation. The audience knows that Leonato and Don Pedro are pretending but Benedick does not. This creates humor in this Shakespearean comedy. Later in the play, Benedick and Beatrice are tricked into confessing their love for each other.

Reading Standards for Informational Text

he main idea of a passage is the idea that most of the passage covers. It is the basic point that the author wants to convey to the reader. The sentences that explain, describe, or support the main idea are called supporting details.

Think about the last book or article you read. When you are looking for the main idea of a passage, ask yourself these questions:

Why did the author write this passage? What is the point he or she is trying to make? What is the passage mostly about? What idea is conveyed in the passage?Once you think you have the main idea, check it against the passage. Look at the supporting details. If they all support, describe, or explain your possible main idea, then you are right. If not, look again. See what idea the details do support or explain.One important thing to remember is that a main idea and a topic are not the same thing. The main idea is a specific point the author is making, while the topic is the general idea of the passage. For example, a passage might be about violence in movies. That is the topic. It is very general and gives the reader only a basic idea of what the passage will include. The main idea of the same passage might be that violence in movies has steadily increased in the last ten years. That is a specific idea that lets the reader know the point the author will try to convey. The sentences in the passage will provide supporting details that explain this point or support it.Example

     On Monday, Mike Lummus withdrew from this city's race for mayor. Lummus is a retired police officer. He made this decision after he found out that opponent Gary Nelon shares his goals. Lummus planned to heal the city's political wounds.He also wanted to encourage citizens to be more active in government. Nelon is chairman of First Texas Bancorp. He gained another opponent on Monday when Christine Smart entered the race. Smart is the Precinct 381 chairwoman for the Williamson County Republican Party.

What is the main idea of this passage?

Mike Lummus withdrew from the mayoral election after he found out that his opponent shared his goals for the city.

This passage is mostly about Mike Lummus withdrawing from the race for mayor.The point that the author is making is that Lummus decided to withdraw when he found out that his opponent shared his goals for the city. Mike Lummus withdrawing from the mayoral race because of shared goals with his opponent is the main idea of this passage. The rest of the passage details what those goals were and who his opponent was.

Jargon is language specifically used in a particular field, profession, or group. When you work in a particular field, you will have advanced knowledge about the subject.You will know the definitions of words commonly used in that field. People who are not familiar with the field may have a hard time understanding the jargon. They will have to use context clues to determine the meanings of unfamiliar words.

Jargon is used in virtually every field, profession, or group. Some classifications of jargon include:

computers/technical medical legal sports meteorology business naval/army

You already know the definitions to some jargon just from reading, watching TV and movies, and noticing things in the real world. For example, if you like to watch a medical drama television show, you probably have heard words like “stat,” “hypoxic,” “coronary,” and “saline.” You are hearing medical jargon and learning what each word means by context clues.

You should know some jargon from different fields just by using your knowledge of the real world. Below are some examples of jargon and technical words that you should know. Think about the definition of each word. Where have you heard these words used before? If you are not sure about the definition, you can always look it up in the dictionary.

Computers Wi-Fi, URL, virus, desktop

Meteorology cirrus, cumulus, stratus, dew point

Business CEO, cubicle, benefits, deductible

Naval/Army port, starboard, reveille, battalion

Cause/Effect

The text shows that one event causes another thing to happen. Look for words like "because," "then," "since," and "as a result."example: It rained for the first few days of the camping trip. As a result, most of the campers were

restless and wanted to go home.

Comparison/Contrast

The text shows how ideas or things are alike or different. Look for words like "best," "more," "better," "less," "worse," "easier," and "than."example: The best time to visit the Rocky Mountains is early fall. The weather is cooler in the fall than in

the summer. You will see fewer people and more animals. The fall colors are more beautiful.

Sequence

The writer places events in the order in which they happen. Sequence is also known as chronological order. Look for words like "first," "then," "next," "finally," "a few minutes later," "before," "afterward," "meanwhile," and "last year."example: First, Rhett was late getting to school. Then, he lost his homework. A few minutes later, the

teacher asked him to clean out his desk. Now, Rhett thinks it will be a bad day.

Classification

This type of structure can be very helpful when writing research reports. All of the information is organized by like groups.example: You are writing a paper about the food pyramid. One paragraph is devoted to the benefits of

fruits and vegetables. One paragraph is devoted to the benefits of breads and carbohydrates, and so forth.

Concept/Definition

The text defines a difficult term or idea. The definition is stated and expanded with examples and restatements. Look for bold or italic words to emphasize new vocabulary.example: The pharaoh was the ruler of ancient Egypt. The pharaoh was believed to have been the

human form taken by the gods. One of the best known pharaohs is Tutankhamun, who ruled during the 18th dynasty.

When reading, it is always important to figure out the author's purpose and attitude. Since the author may not come right out and say his or her purpose, the reader must look for hidden meanings. A good reader must evaluate underlying assumptions and recognize bias, emotional language, or propaganda that the author uses to make his or her point. When possible, it is also helpful to think about the author's life and what events might have made him or her feel a certain way.

Questions to ask yourself about the author's attitude:1. What is the author's purpose in writing? (to entertain, inform, persuade, direct)2. Has the author presented all sides of an argument or issue?

3. If so, is the article balanced toward all points of view or biased toward one point of view?

4. Are there enough facts to support each side?

5. Can you trust what the author says?

6. Is the author being fair?

7. Does the author use words that seem angry or overly excited?

8. Author's Point of ViewWhen reading a text, it is important to keep the writer's point of view in mind.Everyone has certain biases, opinions, or prejudices. These things affect the meaning and language of their communication.

9.

Bias:Bias is a preference that prevents objectivity. A person can only be objective when he or she is uninfluenced by emotions, personal prejudices, or bias. This includes the relationships he or she might have with other people.

10. Example:Think about how a family member might describe you. Now think about how your

teacher, a friend, or a stranger might describe you. They will all have different things to say based on their perspective.

11.We must also think about beliefs, ages, and roles.

12. Example:A mother might not like a film because it was too violent, but her son might love it. If each were to describe the film to you, the son would probably use words like "exciting" and "awesome." The mother might say it was "disturbing" or "inappropriate." Think about their ages and perspectives and how it might affect their opinions.

13.People constantly offer their opinions even when we as readers might not be aware they are doing so. Just by describing a scene or an event a certain way, they color reality. Can you think of times you might have done this by exaggerating?

14. Examples: The test was so unfair. I studied forever and still only got a C. 

My son is the smartest kid in his class and the best in sports. 

Dad, do I have to go to the dentist? It is so scary there! The machines are big enough to fill our house, and the doctor is mean. And I think the toothpaste they use tastes like sand.

When you persuade someone, you convince them to agree with your side of an issue. As you prepare a persuasive argument, keep the following things in mind.

1. Know your audience. Identify exactly who your audience will be, what they already know about the topic, and what you want their response to your argument to be.

2. Know how to reach them. Can your audience best be reached through a written or audiovisual presentation? Will you have better results through supplying facts and figures or through an emotional appeal? Should your tone be formal or personal?

3. Know your stuff. Do your homework. Have all the information you need, organize it in the most convincing fashion you can, provide plenty of support, and polish it before you present it.

4. Know your opposition. There really are two sides, or more, to every story, so acknowledge counterarguments. This helps build trust between you and your audience and allows you to weaken your opponents' positions by anticipating them.

5. Be respectful. It's important to be respectful even when disagreeing with an opponent. You should never use words like "stupid," "crazy," "dumb," or "ridiculous." Using disrespectful words weakens your credibility and adds nothing to your argument. You end up looking like the "stupid" one.

6. Don't state the obvious. Never conclude an argument with something like "This is my opinion on _______." Of course that's your opinion; otherwise you wouldn't write it! As with all types of essays (not just persuasive), every sentence should add something important to your paper. Such empty sentences are unnecessary and weak. What do such sentences contribute?

example:Dear Editor:

In addition to addressing teacher shortages through new policies, communities must increase opportunities for students to explore teaching careers. One avenue is through programs such as

Breakthrough, a national education effort.

Breakthrough's six-year commitment to students, beginning in sixth grade, provides a path to college for high-potential, low-income youth and promotes teaching careers. Breakthrough offers mentoring and academic enrichment for younger students and gives hands-on teaching experience to high school and college students. Since 1978, this exposure to teaching has inspired 73% of Breakthrough's older students to pursue careers in education.

To meet rising enrollments and replace an aging teacher population, we must engage youths in creating solutions. With their help, we can help in providing options for exploring future careers, engaging aspiring teachers early on, and strengthening tomorrow's workforce.

Yours truly,Jessica D'arcyHow did the author support her argument in the second paragraph? She used cause and effect. She points out that the efforts of Breakthrough have resulted in 73% of Breakthrough's older students pursuing a career in education.

A proposition is a plan to change something. In most cases, the plan has to be voted on before the change is accepted. All good propositions must be supported with facts and relevant ideas.

You and your friends want to have a longer lunch period at school, so you decide to make a proposition to your principal. Your proposition should include the following:Why the change needs to be made: After waiting in the long lunch line, many students don't have time to eat their lunch. All

students should have enough time to finish their lunch so that they will not be hungry the rest of the day.

The consequences of NOT making the change: If students are hungry, they are distracted and unable to learn.

Your opponents' argument: Some people think a longer lunch period is a bad idea because it wastes time that the students

could be learning.

Why you disagree with your opponents' argument: When they are finished eating, students will have time to do their homework or study for their

next class.

Facts or statistics supporting your proposition: Studies show that rushing through a meal makes digestion more difficult. Poor digestion can

lead to headaches, fatigue, and stomach problems. All of these problems prevent students from learning to their highest potential.

When hearing or reading a proposition, it is important to read all of the facts and arguments carefully. Always ask yourself why the author says things the way he or she does, or what motives he or she has in offering a certain fact or opinion.Think logically and clearly. Do not let other people's or your own emotions get in the way. Do not be afraid to form your own

opinion. Most people will always listen to and respect a logical argument!

Here are few words that can help you locate an argument in a passage or proposition: should

must

ought

necessary

necessarily

Here are few words that can help you locate supporting statements in a passage or proposition: since

because

for the reason that

as

forWriting Standards

Introductory and Concluding SentencesA good piece of writing has a beginning, a middle, and an end.

Most people spend the majority of their time on the body of their writing (the middle part), but it is just as important to spend as much time on the introduction (the beginning) and theconclusion (the end).

IntroductionThe introduction sets the tone for the rest of your story, paper, or report. The audience is able to tell from the introduction if the rest of the paper will be formal or informal.A good introduction can also get the audience interested in what you have to say.That being the case, a bad introduction can make the audience uninterested in what you have to say.One way to ease your audience into the introduction is to use transitional words. Transitional words can be dependent clauses placed at the beginning of an independent clause or the introductory statement. It's like building a house.When you build a house, you put brick on top of brick, but you also use mortar to cement the bricks together and cushion them. Using the example, transitional phrases and words like first, in the beginning, at present time, right now,currently, and to start with are the mortar that cements and cushions the sentences to one another.

Introductory statements can pose questions, state opinions (without evidence), present arguments, offer definitions, outline a problem, tell a story, or provide background information.

examples: To begin with, the idea that teens need a curfew is ridiculous.

At present time, there is no cure for cancer.

Currently, the definition for abuse is the physical or emotional mistreatment of others.

In the beginning, the crime rate for the city was too high to ignore.

ConclusionConversely, the conclusion brings everything in your writing to a natural end. A conclusion doesn't offer any new evidence or information. It ties everything from the introduction and body together, and it encourages the audience to think about what has been said.Concluding statements function similarly to introductory statements in that they can use transitional words and phrases to ease the reader into the sentence, but they use different transitional words and phrases such as in conclusion, finally,lastly, to sum up, to summarize, in short, therefore, and as I have demonstrated.

Concluding statements can restate the thesis (the main point or argument of your paper), summarize your main points, recommend actions or solutions, predict the future, or use a quotation.

examples: In conclusion, I believe the only way to achieve peace is through dialogue.

Finally, for us to continue to support the seatbelt law can only be beneficial.

To sum up, cooperation is the key because as Ben Franklin said, "There is no I in team." In short, the test is ridiculous because it's not current and it doesn't offer any real benefits.

A topic sentence is a general statement that expresses the main idea of a paragraph. A paragraph is a group of sentences that develop one main idea. The main idea is the general statement that the other sentences support or explain. The general statement of the main idea is also called the topic sentence.

A topic sentence has two main parts:

Subject Focus

what the paragraph is about what the paragraph says about the subject

Each of the following examples shows the subject in purple and the focus in blue.          Most adults find learning a foreign language difficult.

         Telephones intrude into the privacy of our daily lives.

         Parents of teenagers often feel unappreciated. Read the following passage, and answer the sample question below.

My Summer Vacation

     During the summer, I did many different things with my family. In June, we spent a lot of time outside fixing our garden. In July, I read three books from The Chronicles of Narnia to my younger sister. My favorite part of my vacation was when my family and I traveled to New Jersey to visit my grandmother. We were there at the beginning of August, and we watched movies. After we came back home, I helped my dad clean out our garage.

Sample Question What is the topic sentence of the paragraph? A. In June, we spent a lot of time outside fixing our garden.

B. We were there at the beginning of August, and we watched movies.C. After we came back home, I helped my dad clean out our garage.D. During the summer, I did many different things with my family.

Explanation: The correct answer is D: During the summer, I did many different things with my family. This sentence gives the main idea of the paragraph. The whole paragraph talks about what the writer did with his or her family during summer vacation. All of the other sentences fit underneath the "umbrella." The subject is "this summer" with the writer's family. The focus is the family activities that the writer participated in during that particular summer.

A good piece of writing has a beginning, a middle, and an end.

Most people spend the majority of their time on the body of their writing (the middle part), but it is just as important to spend as much time on the introduction (the beginning) and theconclusion (the end).

IntroductionThe introduction sets the tone for the rest of your story, paper, or report. The audience is able to tell from the introduction if the rest of the paper will be formal or informal.A good introduction can also get the audience interested in what you have to say.That being the case, a bad introduction can make the audience uninterested in what you have to say.One way to ease your audience into the introduction is to use transitional words. Transitional words can be dependent clauses placed at the beginning of an independent clause or the introductory statement. It's like building a house.When you build a house, you put brick on top of brick, but you also use mortar to cement the bricks together and cushion them. Using the example, transitional phrases and words like first, in the beginning, at present time, right now,currently, and to start with are the mortar that cements and cushions the sentences to one another.Introductory statements can pose questions, state opinions (without evidence), present arguments, offer definitions, outline a problem, tell a story, or provide background information.

examples: To begin with, the idea that teens need a curfew is ridiculous.

At present time, there is no cure for cancer.

Currently, the definition for abuse is the physical or emotional mistreatment of others.

In the beginning, the crime rate for the city was too high to ignore.

ConclusionConversely, the conclusion brings everything in your writing to a natural end. A conclusion doesn't offer any new evidence or information. It ties everything from the introduction and body together, and it encourages the audience to think about what has been said.Concluding statements function similarly to introductory statements in that they can use transitional words and phrases to ease the reader into the sentence, but they use different transitional words and phrases such as in conclusion, finally,lastly, to sum up, to summarize, in short, therefore, and as I have demonstrated.

Concluding statements can restate the thesis (the main point or argument of your paper), summarize your main points, recommend actions or solutions, predict the future, or use a quotation.

examples: In conclusion, I believe the only way to achieve peace is through dialogue.

Finally, for us to continue to support the seatbelt law can only be beneficial.

To sum up, cooperation is the key because as Ben Franklin said, "There is no I in team." In short, the test is ridiculous because it's not current and it doesn't offer any real benefits.

Transitions are words or phrases that show relationships between ideas. Transitions, sometimes called signal words, give the reader a clue about what comes next in a passage. Using transitions in your own writing will make your ideas flow from one to another.

Learn about the many different types of transitions.

Signal Time or Sequence

Words such as: first, second, finally, last, next, afterward, after, earlier, during, while, before, then, previously, now, until, etc. Example: Previously, I studied Spanish, but now I'm taking French.

Signal Additional Information

Words and phrases such as: in addition, furthermore, moreover, and, also, another, etc. Example: My teacher Mrs. Jenkins is doing an excellent job. Furthermore, she deserves to get a

raise.

Signal Examples or Illustrations

Words such as: for example, for instance, to illustrate, such as, including, etc. Example: There are many kinds of snacks to eat that are healthy for you. For example, an

orange would be a healthy snack because it has vitamins and fiber.

Signal Comparison

Words and phrases such as: likewise, similarly, in the same manner, just as, as well, etc. Example: Jerry plays the electric guitar in his friend's band. Similarly, his sister Gina plays the

keyboard in her friend's band.

Signal Contrast

Words and phrases such as: however, although, but, yet, nevertheless, whereas, in contrast, on the contrary, on the other hand, instead, etc. Example: Our town had severe weather this week, including thunderstorms and tornado

watches.However, we have clear sunny skies in our forecast for next week.

Signal Cause and Effect

Words and phrases such as: as a result, consequently, thus, therefore, because, accordingly, since, so, etc. Example: Mrs. Kelly was bitten by a dog when she was a little girl. Therefore, as an adult, she's

afraid of dogs.

Signal Endings or Closings

Words and phrases such as: in conclusion, all in all, in brief, in summary, as indicated above, etc. Example: In conclusion, every student in our school could greatly benefit from our new arts

program.

Sample Questions1. What would be the best transition word or phrase to connect the ideas in this sentence?

I have an English paper that is due next week; _______ , I need to do some research at the library.

A. whereas

B. therefore

C. for example

D. previously

Explanation: The best answer choice is "therefore" because it is a transition word that signals cause and effect. In this example, the speaker needs to go to the library to research (effect) because he or she has an English paper due soon (cause).

2. In the following sentence, what does the transition phrase "in the same manner" signal?

Katrina studied hard in college and later became a lawyer; in the same manner, her cousin Martin made excellent grades in school and became a doctor.

A. closing

B. illustration

C. comparison

D. time

Explanation: In this example, the phrase "in the same manner" signals comparison. The speaker is comparing Martin's college experiences and career with Katrina's.

Go with the Flow

Knowing when to use a transition and which one to use is important. If using a transition makes your paper sound too choppy, you're probably using the wrong one. Try different transitions until the sentences flow together smoothly.

hysical MapsPhysical maps show the Earth's landforms and bodies of water. The maps use lines, shading, tints, spot elevations, and different colors to show elevation. This helps show the difference between mountains and lowlands.

Political MapsPolitical maps show boundaries that divide cities, states, and countries. Some maps show the boundaries by printing the areas in different colors. For example, continent maps usually show each country in a different color.

Topographic MapsTopographic maps use lines to show the shape and elevation of the land.

Road MapsRoad maps help travelers go from one place to another. Some road maps show only interstate highways, while others show roads, streets, and important places.

GRAPHS

Bar GraphsBar graphs use bars to show information. The bars can reach from left to right or from bottom to top. The heights or lengths of the bars show an amount or number of something. See example below.

Line GraphsLine graphs use lines to show what happens over a certain length of time (e.g., growth of a plant).

Pie ChartsPie charts show how the sizes of the parts compare to each other and to the whole.

When you turn in your homework, you are often asked to put aheading on your paper. The heading tells your name and the date when you finished your work. It may also tell which subject you are studying and the type of homework it is. In other words, the heading gives your teacher

the information he or she needs to grade the assignment. Writers use headings in a very similar way.

Helpful hints about headings: Headings give the reader clues about what he or she will find in the text below it.

If the reader is trying to locate a specific fact, he or she can look at the headings to figure out where to find the information. That way, he or she does not have to read the entire article to find the information he or she needs!

If a writer is covering a lot of information, headings can be helpful in organizing that information.

Think of headings as "titles" and subheadings as "mini-titles."

Phrases and ClausesA phrase is a group of words that acts as a single part of speech.

A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb.

PhrasesThere are several types of phrases.

example: Sally, an excellent singer, will be singing the main part in the musical.

In this sentence, one phrase is will be singing. This is a verb phrase that functions as a verb.The example sentence also has two other phrases in it. It has an appositive phrase. An appositive is a word that gives added information about a noun. An appositive phrase is an appositive plus modifiers. Can you see that the appositive phrase in the example sentence is an excellent singer?*Punctuation note:If an appositive or appositive phrase gives information necessary to understanding the sentence, no commas are needed. If an appositive or appositive phrase gives extra, unnecessary information, set it apart with commas.Finally, the example sentence has a prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition. A prepositional phrase can act as an adjective or adverb. In the example sentence, the prepositional phrase in the musical acts as an adjective modifying the noun part. It answers the question which part?

ClausesThere are two kinds of clauses.

Independent Clause — This clause can also be a sentence.examples: John runs. John, a boy in sixth grade, runs very fast around the track.* Punctuation note: Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or,nor, for, so, yet) that joins two independent clauses.

Dependent Clause — This clause has a subject and a verb, but it cannot stand alone as a sentence. A dependent clause will begin with a subordinating conjunction, such as if, when, that, unless. They make the clause they are added to less important than an independent clause. The dependent clause depends on an independent clause for its meaning.example: I will go outside if the rain ever stops falling. After the teacher graded the tests, she reported the results to the class.* Punctuation note: If a dependent clause comes at the beginning of the sentence, use a comma after the clause (like in the second sentence above). Do not use a comma if the dependent clause comes at the end of a sentence (like in the first sentence above).

Example:

(1) I always take along a swimming suit. (2) When I go to my Aunt Carolyn's house. (3) She has a swimming pool in her own backyard.

Which one of these is a dependent clause and, therefore, not a complete sentence?Sentence (2) is a dependent clause that begins with a subordinating conjunction.

Simple Sentence

A simple sentence contains one independent clause.

Example:

The dog barks.

Compound Sentence

A compound sentence contains more than one independent clause.

Example:

The dog barks, and then it goes to sleep.

Complex Sentence

A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

Example:

After the dog barks, it goes to sleep.

Compound-Complex Sentence

A compound-complex sentence contains more than one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

Example:

After the dog barks, it goes to sleep, and then it wakes up.

To be a good writer, express your thoughts with clear and complete sentences. Sometimes writers break a thought into too many parts. This causes incomplete sentences, or fragments.Other times, writers will string too many clauses together within a sentence. This can make writing difficult for the reader to understand.

Run-On SentenceA run-on sentence (also called a fused sentence) is when two sentences are joined together without a word to connect them or punctuation to separate them.

Run-On:

On Saturday, Bill went to the baseball game unfortunately rain delayed the game for three hours.

Correction:On Saturday, Bill went to the ball game. Unfortunately, rain delayed the game for three hours.

Comma SpliceA comma splice occurs when you include the comma between two independent clauses without a conjunction. There are different ways to correct this. You could include a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) when joining two main clauses with a comma. If you'd rather not use a conjunction, eliminate the comma and use a semicolon. You could also make the independent clauses separate sentences.

Comma Splice:

Luz and Domino walked to school, they were still early.

Correction:

Luz and Domino walked to school, and they were still early.

Correction:

Luz and Domino walked to school; they were still early.

Correction:Luz and Domino walked to school. They were still early.

Sentence FragmentA fragment is an incomplete sentence. It is often created when a writer incorrectly breaks a sentence in two. Using end punctuation and capitalization carefully will help you avoid sentence fragments.

Fragment:Please keep trying. Until you succeed.

Correction:

Please keep trying until you succeed.

Fragment:Dad tried to return the pink-elephant suitcase that my little sister got him. Even though he had no receipt.

Correction:

Dad tried to return the pink-elephant suitcase that my little sister got him even though he had no receipt.

Sensory LanguageDescriptive words or adjectives are words that make your writing more exciting and more lively. Descriptive words help the reader to picture exactly what is going on in a story. Descriptive words are also known as sensory language because they describe how things look, sound, taste, smell, and feel.

Writing Tip:

When writing an essay, ask yourself questions over each of the five senses.

What did the place look like? (pretty, sunny, bright)What did the food taste like? (salty, sweet)What did things feel like? (good, soft, rough, cold)How did it smell? (smoky, like cookies baking)How did things sound? (loud, quiet)

Writing Tip:

Make sure not to confuse descriptive words with abstract words, clichés, or vague words. These may seem like descriptive words, but they really are not.

Abstract/Vague Words

example:

He looked at her with love.

Abstract and vague words aren't specific enough. The vague word in the example is "love." This is vague because the word "love" means different things to different people. To make the phrase more specific, you could add a simile or adjectives so it reads . . . He looked at her like she was the queen of the Earth.

OR

He looked at her with big, puppy dog eyes.

Clichés

Another trap in writing descriptive words is confusing description with clichés.Clichés are sayings that have been around for so long that they have lost their original meaning.example:The moment was bittersweet.

The cliché is "bittersweet," but the problem is that it is not specific enough. When something is bitter and sweet, it helps if there is something to connect it to since bitter and sweet mean different things to different people. To make the phrase more specific, turn it into a simile:The moment was as painful as a trip to the dentist.

By changing it this way, you get a better sense of how the moment felt since a trip to the dentist can be painful and sweet—painful because there's a chance the dentist might have to physically poke and prod your teeth, but sweet because most people get a treat when the visit is over.

Which sentence below is more descriptive?My aunt and I had a picnic on a bright and sunny Saturday. My aunt and I had a picnic on a Saturday.The first sentence is more descriptive because it uses the adjectives "bright" and "sunny." From the description, you know that the Sun was shining on their Saturday picnic. From the second sentence, you cannot tell whether the day was cloudy or sunny.

Precise Language and Sensory Details

Mood is the feeling that the text creates in the reader. Have you ever cried, laughed, or gotten angry because of something you read? If you have, then you've experienced mood. The atmosphere of a setting and the feelings of the characters will help you determine the mood of a text.

For Example:The gym is unrecognizable. Blue and white streamers hang from every corner, and silver stars dangle from the ceiling. The room is dark except for the rotating lights of a disco ball and the strings of lights adorning the walls. Through the pounding music, I can hear laughter and chatter all around. Everyone looks like they're having a great time. The dance floor is jammed with my hyperactive classmates, and as my favorite song starts blaring, I rush over with my friends to join them.

What is the mood of the above passage?

The passage has a festive mood. The story takes place at a dance, and the narrator notes that everyone is having a great time. The fun and exciting atmosphere should make the reader feel festive.

Words Used to Describe Mood

adventurous       dark       heart-breaking       morbid       realistic

angry       depressing       holy       mournful       romanticbold       eerie       hopeful       nasty       sadcalm       festive       horrific       ominous       soothingcautious       fictional       idealistic       optimistic       sorrowfulcheerful       foreboding       intense       pessimistic       spookychilling       gloomy       joyful       playful       terrifyingcomical       grim       light       powerful       timiddaring       happy       melancholic       powerless       tranquil

Informal LanguageSlang is words and phrases that are considered very informal and are generally used only by one age group or other specific group of people.examples: tight

cool

sweet

y'all

you guys

chill

bomb

dog

ain't

Appropriate LanguageHere are examples of how sentences might be changed to make them appropriate for an article in your school paper.

INAPPROPRIATE APPROPRIATE

The football team was totally clutch.

The football team performed well.

Our debate team is wicked smart. Our debate team is very smart.

The new parking lot is sweet. The new parking lot is very nice.

To conclude, Holes rocked. To conclude, Holes was a great movie.

JargonJargon is words or expressions used within one group, profession, or business.Jargon is often used as a "shortcut" to convey information quickly, with just a few words.example: Gabriella Sabatini aced her opponent with her powerful first serve.

(An "ace" in tennis means a serve that's so fast or well-placed that the other player can't even touch it with his or her racket.)

It is important for you to be able to write for many differentpurposes, or reasons. Some different purposes for writing are listed below.

Describe: Some writing describes something or how to do something. For example, the directions that come with a new toy have the purpose of describing how to put the toy together.

Inform: Some writing has the purpose of informing. Most news articles in the newspaper are written to inform. A biography (a book written about the life of a person) usually has the purpose of informing the reader about the person's life.

Persuade: Some writing is written for the purpose of persuasion. A good example of persuasive writing is the writing found in advertisements. Advertisements are designed to persuade you to buy a certain product. Speeches by politicians are also examples of persuasive writing.

Narrate: Narration has the purpose of telling a story. The narrator relates a series of events. Entertain: Some writing has the purpose of entertaining. The comic strips in the newspaper

are there to entertain the readers with humor. A mystery novel and a fairy tale are also good examples of writing that have the purpose of entertaining.

BrainstormBrainstorming is a prewriting technique designed to help you bring ideas from your mind onto paper. It's a good technique to use when you know a general subject you're interested in writing about but don't exactly know what aspect of the subject you want to pursue. When brainstorming, you write down every idea you have, no matter how bad an idea you think it is. You want to get as many ideas down on paper as you can. You can sort through the ideas later.example:o Subject: soup

chicken

eat it when you're sick

soup recipes

dinner

water quality and its effect on flavor of soup

Web site for soup

cultures

Mediterranean soup with beans

vegetable soups

soup spots on clothing

soup etiquette

side or point of spoon in mouth

stone soup children's story

new diet craze

OutlineMany writers use an outline to help them think through the various stages of the writing process. An outline is a kind of graphic scheme of the organization of your paper. It indicates the main ideas of your paper as well as the subtopics under each main idea. Outlines range from an informal use of indenting and graphics (such as --, *, +) to a formal use of Roman numerals and letters. Regardless of the degree of formality, however, the function of an outline is to help you consider the most effective way to say what you want to say.example:o My dog Sparky

Physical characteristics

Black fur

Long ears

Black nose

Short tail

Skills

Runs fast

Swims well

Rolls over

Personality

Very friendly

Likes kids

Wags tail

Semantic MapA semantic map is a web-shaped diagram that is a good way to help you assemble ideas for your writing. In the center of the web, you place your most general topic. The arms of the web contain more specific information about your main topic. In the example below, the eye disease trachoma is the main topic.The words on the arms of the web describe characteristics of trachoma that you could write about.example:

Concept MapA concept map is a special form of a web diagram for exploring knowledge and gathering and sharing information. A concept map consists of nodes or cells that contain a concept, item or

question and links. The links are labeled and show direction with an arrow symbol. The labeled links explain the relationship between the nodes. The arrow describes the direction of the relationship and reads like a sentence.example:

Clustering/WebbingClustering is a nonlinear activity that generates ideas, images, and feelings around a stimulus word. As you cluster, your thoughts tumble out, enlarging your word bank for writing and often enabling you to see patterns in your ideas.example:

Sequence of Events Chain/Story MapA sequence of events chain is used to describe the stages of something (the life cycle of a primate); the steps in a linear procedure (how to neutralize an acid); a sequence of events (how feudalism led to the formation of nation states); or the goals, actions, and outcomes of a historical figure or character in a novel (the rise and fall of Napoleon).example:

Venn DiagramA Venn diagram is made up of overlapping circles. Each circle is labeled on the outside with a topic. Inside each circle, facts are listed for the topics. Facts are true statements about a topic. When a fact is listed in the overlapping parts of the circles, this means the fact is true for both topics.

Review your organization

Read the paper aloudIf we read the paper aloud slowly, we have two senses—seeing AND hearing—working for us. Thus, what one sense misses, the other may pick up.

Check the thesis statementWrite down your thesis on a piece of paper if it is not directly stated in your essay.Does it accurately state your main idea? Is it in fact supported by the paper? Does it need to be changed in any way? On that piece of paper, list the main idea of each paragraph under the thesis statement. Is each paragraph relevant to the thesis? Are the paragraphs in a logical sequence or order?

Check the paper's developmentAre there sufficient details? Is the logic valid?

Check the paper's coherence and unityAre the major points connected? Are the relationships between them expressed clearly? Do they all relate to the thesis?

Consider your audience

Remember that you are writing for othersNo matter how familiar others may be with the material, they cannot "get inside" your head and understand your approach to it unless you express yourself clearly.Therefore, it is useful to read the paper through once as you keep in mind whether or not the student or teacher or

friend who will be reading it will understand what you are saying. That is, have you said exactly what you wanted to say?

Check your dictionRemember that others are reading your paper and that even the choice of one word can affect their response to it. Try to anticipate their response, and choose your words accordingly.

Original: The media's exploitation of the Watergate scandal showed how biased it was already.

Revision: The media's coverage of the Watergate scandal suggests that perhaps those in the media had already determined Nixon's guilt.

In addition to being more specific, the revision does not force the reader to defend the media. In the first example, though, the statement is so exaggerated that even the reader who is neutral on the issue may feel it necessary to defend the media.Thus, the writer of the original has made his job of persuading the reader that much harder.

Review your writing

Check for abstract subjectsPay close attention to the abstract subjects that are combined with passive verbs.Try substituting concrete or personal subjects with active verbs.

Original: More attractiveness is sometimes given an act when it is made illegal. Revision: When an act becomes illegal, some people find it more attractive.

Cut out wordiness wherever possible Original: They are desirous of . . . Revision: They want . . .

Use active verbsSince verbs tend to carry the meaning of your sentences, use the most precise and active ones possible. Thus, avoid constructions using the various forms of the verb "to be."

Original: Inflation is a threat to our economy. Revision: Inflation threatens our economy.

Avoid using stretcher phrasesDon't use phrases like "It is" and "There are," unless they are needed for emphasis. Remember the need for strong verbs.

Original: There were several reasons for the United States' entrance into the war. Revision: The United States entered the war for several reasons.

Replace colloquialisms with fresh and more precise statementsBecause colloquialisms tend to be used so often, they also are not very precise in meaning. A hassle, for example, can be an annoyance, an argument, or a physical fight.

Original: Her behavior flipped me out. Revision: Her behavior stunned me at first.

Review your rhythmBe sure that no parts of the paper are "short and choppy"; be sure that the rhythm of your paper is not interrupted, except for a good reason, like emphasis. A good way of smoothing out such a problem is to try combining sentences, and in so doing showing the relationship between them.

Original: The best show in terms of creating a tense atmosphere is Jeopardy.This is probably the most famous of all games shows. It is my favorite show.

Revision: The best show in terms of creating a tense atmosphere isJeopardy, which is also probably the most famous of all game shows and happens to be my favorite.

Proofreading/EditingProofreading or editing is the process of looking for and correcting surface mistakes. It is the important last step in finishing a piece of writing. By carefully proofreading, the author shows that he or she takes pride in the work and cares what readers think of it. Careless proofreading or no proofreading at all shows the opposite. Careless mistakes make the author less believable as well. If this lesson were full of mistakes, who would trust what the author had to say about proofreading?!

Here are some effective ways to proofread: Slowly read your paper aloud. This should result in reading the mistakes instead of reading what

you intended to write. Read the last sentence of your paper first, and make your way to the top. This will cause you to

read it for mistakes without getting wrapped up in your ideas. Have someone else check your paper. A fresh set of eyes will surely help. Read a printed copy. Catching errors on the computer screen is harder than catching errors on

paper.

Keep track of errors from past assignments. If you know what errors you are prone to making, you will know what to be on the lookout for.

When proofreading, look for the following:Spelling misspelled words

wrong words (i.e., principal/principle)

Capitalization sentence beginnings

proper nouns

Grammar and Usage verb tense

subject verb agreement

parallelism

pronoun reference

fragments, comma splices, run-ons

Punctuation end punctuation

commas

quotes

apostrophes

Format font

margins

spacing

page numbering

Other double words

missing words

typos (mistakes made when accidentally hitting the wrong key[s])

Students can find information from all kinds of sources, which all have their advantages and disadvantages. For this reason, it is important to reference multiple sources when you are researching a topic. For example, a book over penguins will give you a different type of information than a magazine article over penguins. When you are learning about a specific topic, it is important to compare and contrast the important details you find, and then draw your own conclusions. Below is a list of some common informational sources.

Almanac: This annual publication in calendar form gives weather forecasts, astronomical data, tide tables, and other information.

Atlas: This reference source is a book of maps.

Books: Books are good sources because they go into great depth about one subject. Like with all resources, it's important to double-check the information you find in books because the information could be outdated—especially if the book was printed several years ago.

Brochure: This is a small booklet or pamphlet. It often tells information about a certain event, service, or product. Brochures often use pictures and catchy headlines.

Dictionary: This reference book contains an alphabetical list of words with their meanings and pronunciations.

Encyclopedia: These books usually come in a series containing brief articles on a wide range of subjects and people. An encyclopedia is a good place to get a quick overview of a subject before pursuing more in-depth research. Take care that the information is not out-of-date, however.

Library Catalog Database: The card catalog is a searchable resource at the library found on computer. A catalog helps in finding a book, magazine, video, or other media by title, author, or subject and is often accessible online.

Online Resources: Like newspapers, online resources most often provide up-to-date information. Today's technology affords students a wealth of information at their fingertips! Good online resources include:

News Web sites (www.timeforkids.com)

Organization homepages (www.nfl.com, www.redcross.org)

Personal homepages by kids like you

Anyone can make a Web site these days, so it is especially important to double-check online resources. Just because someone posts something on a Web site does not make it true. They could be making it up! That's why it's important to stick with popular, trustworthy Web sites or with Web sites that have well-documented information.

Periodicals: Newspapers and magazines are called periodicals. Newspapers give some of the most up-to-date information available, and a majority of the information you find can be trusted as fact. Because they cover a lot of information and topics, newspapers can't go into as much detail as other print sources like magazines or books. Magazines can be a good resource because they often offer interesting slants or perspectives on an event.

Thesaurus: This book contains synonyms. When you look up a word in the thesaurus, you will find a list of words that mean the same thing.

So, how do you put all of these sources to use?

Let's say you want to learn about a tornado that hit a neighboring town. From your science book, you can learn the scientific reason for why tornadoes occur.From your newspaper, you can get specific details about the tornado, like when it hit the town or how much damage it did. In a magazine, you can read about a specific family that was affected by the tornado. You can learn about their feelings and how they are coping with the disaster. On the Internet, you can gather pictures, find news updates, or join a chat room dedicated to the topic of the tornado. You might even visit that town's Web site and learn about the clean-up effort. From all of the information you can gather, you will know all sides of the story!

CitationsWhen your teacher asks you to write a report, you will look for information in many different places. The places where you find information are called sources. It is very important to name (orcite) the sources

you use when you write a report so that the reader does not think you made up the information yourself.There are several ways to do this.

A Works Cited (also called a Bibliography) page lists all the books, newspaper articles, magazine articles, encyclopedias, Internet sites, and other sources you used when you wrote your report. It should be put at the end of your report.

It should be in alphabetical order by the author's last name.

Try to include the author, title, type of source, and date.

Citing a BookLast Name, First Name. Title. City Published: Publisher, Year Published.examples:Harper, Sally. Dogs. New York: Random House, 2000.Harper, Sally. Dogs. New York: Random House, 2000.Note: A book title may be italicized or underlined.

Citing a Magazine or Newspaper ArticleAuthor. "Article Title." Newspaper Name Date published: Page number.example:Wakin, Daniel J. "Headed for Korea, Orchestra Gets Tips." New York Times 25 February 2008: E1.Note: This is also the same way to cite an article from a book of articles (or essays, short stories, and

more).

Citing a Web SiteAuthor (Last Name, First Name). "Article Title." Web Site Title. Date Published.Date Read By Student. <Web Site Address>.example:Oransky, Ivan. "Bear Bones." The Wall Street Journal Online. 9 January 2008.25 February 2008. <http://online.wsj.com/article/Lab_Journal.html>.Note: Sometimes all the information needed to correctly cite a Web site cannot be found. If you

cannot locate some information, leave that information out and include the rest.

Citing a CD-ROMAuthor(s). Title. Type of Software (CD-ROM, DVD, etc.). Place Published:Publishing Company, Date.example:Sirs Researcher. CD-ROM. Boca Raton, FL: Sirs, Inc. 1997.Note: Like Web sites, sometimes all the information needed to correctly cite a CD-ROM cannot be

found. If you cannot locate some information, leave that information out and include the rest.

Citing Two or More Works by the Same AuthorTo cite two or more works by the same author, use the author's name in the first entry only. In the next entry, use three hyphens in place of the name. The three hyphens show that the same author wrote both works.example:Rushdie, Salman. East, West. New York: Pantheon Books, 1994.---. Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism 1981-1991. New York:Penguin Books, 1992.

FootnotesSometimes you will see footnotes at the bottom of a page. Footnotes list sources or additional information in the order the writer used them in the report. A small raised number in the report should match up with the note at the bottom of the

page. Like this (3). The number should go next to the part of the report that goes with the note. A footnote should have some of the same information as the works cited page: the author,

title, type of source, and date.

Crediting PicturesIn order to credit pictures in a report, put a note right under the picture. It should say who took the picture or created the graphic. It should also say where you got it (that is, what source you found it in). You can put this information right in the report if you want to, but you should also include it under the picture so anyone looking at it will know where it was found.

PlagiarismPlagiarism is when you copy someone else's work or use their ideas without giving them credit. You must give credit in a footnote, or a listing on your works cited page, and you must use quotation marks if you used someone else's exact words. It is not a good idea to copy someone's words without giving them credit, and in many cases it is illegal.

Plagiarism is taking someone else's words or thoughts and using them as your own, whether on accident or on purpose.

Examples of Plagiarism

Directly quoting a poem, passage, or other work without giving credit to the author

Only changing a few words or phrases when paraphrasing a work

Copying charts, graphs, or other art without including their source

Borrow from a Source Without Plagiarizing

Paraphrase by rewriting things in your own words.

Summarize by putting the main ideas in your own words.

Avoid Plagiarism

Write your summary or paraphrase using only your notes and your memory. Don't look at the original text.

Use phrases like "According to..." in the paraphrase to show that the information did not come directly from you.

Remember to give authors credit by citing sources. Use quotation marks when quoting directly.

Plagiarism is the stealing of somebody else's words, ideas, or information. It happens when you use someone's words, ideas, or information and make them look like your own. Plagiarism is not allowed. If you plagiarize, you could fail the assignment and even get suspended! To avoid plagiarism, always show where you found the ideas or information you use.

Quoting and Paraphrasing InformationYou can present information from a source by quoting or paraphrasing.

To quote means to copy someone else's exact words. To show the reader that the words are copied, place them in quotation marks.

example: According to Joan Mitchell, "The Temple of Kukulkan, also known as El Castillo, was built with

the Mayan calendar in mind" (7).To paraphrase means to use your own words to state someone else's ideas or information. 

example: According to Joan Mitchell, the Maya used their calendar to build El Castillo (8).The lack of quotation marks shows the reader that the writer is using his or her own words. The citation shows that the information is from a source the writer used. When you quote or paraphrase information, giving credit to your source(s) is necessary.

Citing InformationThere are many different ways you can give credit to a source. When writing a report, use the style that your teacher likes best. This lesson will teach you how to use footnotes and in-text citations.

Footnotes are notes found at the bottom of a page. They give more information about something in the text. Each note has a number that matches with a number in the text. For your first footnote citation, place a small raised "1" after the first sentence that has borrowed information. Then, at the bottom of the page, next to another "1," give information about the source, like the author's name and the title of the source. Your second footnote citation should use the number 2, your third one should use the number 3, and so on.

example: The Maya built El Castillo sometime during the first millennium.1

1. Larrimore, Kenneth. The Mysterious Maya (New York: Gilbert and Sons, 2009), 27.An in-text citation gives credit to a source in the text that has borrowed information. It is used along with a bibliography, or works-cited list. To credit a book source in the sentence that has the borrowed information, simply include the author's last name and the page number where the information can be found.If the reader wants to, he or she can look up the author's name in your bibliography to find out more information about the source. 

example:

The Maya built El Castillo sometime during the first millennium (Larrimore 27).

Crediting ImagesTo credit an image in a report, you can put a note right under it. The note should say who created the image. It should also name the source where you found the image.

example:

Fig. 1. Don Nelson, El Castillo, 2007, Mayan Civilization, by Eric Warhoftig (Boston: Freeman Press, 2011) 94.

BibliographiesA bibliography, also known as a works-cited list, is a list of sources. When you use in-text citations in your report, you should have a bibliography at the end of your report. The bibliography should list all of the sources that you used. Use each author's last name to put the sources in alphabetical order. For each source, try to include the author, the title, the type of source (magazine, newspaper, Web site, book, etc.), and the date of publication.

example:

Works Cited

Berkley, Virginia. The Yucatán Peninsula. Mayan Historical Society, 14 Aug. 2008.Web. 20 Nov. 2010.

<http://www.yucatanrocks.org>.

Warhoftig, Eric. Mayan Civilization. Boston: Freeman Press, 2011. Print.

Larrimore, Kenneth. The Mysterious Maya. New York: Gilbert and Sons, 2009.Print.

Adjectives are words that describe nouns and pronouns.Adverbs are words that describe adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs.

Adjectives

Kelly is smart.(The adjective smart describes the noun Kelly.)Adjectives follow being verbs, like feel, taste, smell, sound, look, appear, andseem.The band sounds bad. (not badly)Liver and onions taste awful. (not awfully)The flowers smell sweet. (not sweetly)The patient felt weak. (not weakly)Brice looks tired today. (not tiredly)The house seems large. (not largely)

Adverbs

Glen jumps skillfully from his skateboard.(The adverb skillfully modifies the verb jumps.)

Glen felt really proud.(The adjective proud modifies noun Glen. The adverbreally modifies adjective proud.)

Glen learns tricks unusually fast.(The adverb fast modifies the verb learns. The adverbunusually modifies the adverb fast.)

To show differences, we use comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs.

ComparativesThe comparative form compares two things.

Most adjectives with one syllable use –er endings to form the comparative. Double the final consonant if it follows a vowel.

Fast becomes faster.The superhero is faster than a speeding car. Most adjectives with two or more syllables use more placed before the adjective to form the

comparative.

Determined becomes more determined.Brody was more determined to win the game than Jermone. For most adjectives with two syllables ending in –y, drop the –y from the ending and add –

ier to form the comparative.

Lucky becomes luckier.A clover is luckier than a rabbit's foot:

SuperlativesThe superlative form compares three or more things.

Adjectives with one syllable use –est endings to form the superlative. Double the final consonant if it follows a vowel.

Thin becomes thinnest:Moe's has the thinnest pizza crust in town. Adjectives with two or more syllables use most before the adjective to form the superlative.

Skilled becomes most skilled:Carla was the most skilled player on the team. For adjectives with two syllables ending in –y, drop the –y from the ending and add –iest to

form the superlative.

Hairy becomes hairiest:My dad is the hairiest man in the family.

ExceptionsThere are many adjectives that do not follow the rules above. Here are a few:Adjective

fun

stupid

yellow

Comparative

more fun

stupider

yellower

Superlative

most fun

stupidest

yellowest

Two of the most important exceptions are good and bad.Adjective

good

bad

Comparative

better

worse

Superlative

best

worst

Mom's meat loaf tastes good.Her lasagna is even better.Grilled chicken is her best dish.The scrape on my arm looks bad.The scrape on my head looks worse.

The scrape on my knee is the worst.

NegativesTo create negatives, use less before the adjective to form the comparative andleast placed before the adjective to form the superlative.Adjective

fortunate

familiar

Comparative

less fortunate

less familiar

Superlative

least fortunate

least familiar

Singular verbs end in -s.Unlike nouns, the plural form of a verb is not made by adding an -s (or -es) to the ending. It's actually the opposite. For present-tense verbs, adding the -s to the end makes it singular. If the verb is plural, there is no -s ending used.

Singular Verbs

The pilot flies the airplane.

The cloud drifts through the air.Plural Verbs

The pilots fly the airplane.

The clouds drift through the air.

Compound subjects with and take a plural verb.A subject that is made up of two or more nouns is a compound subject. When the parts are connected by and, the subject is plural, so it takes a plural verb.

The boy and his companion walk along the pier.

The athlete, the agent, and the owner agree to the terms.

Subjects with singular nouns joined by or ornor take a singular verb.

Either the dog or the cat goes to the vet today.

Neither the hiker nor the mountaineer needs a map.

Subjects with a singular noun and a plural noun joined by or or nor take the verb that agrees with the closer noun.

Ted or his parents walk the dog daily.

Neither the sailors nor their captain enjoys a harsh storm.

Subjects are not in modifying phrases.When the subject and the verb are separated by other words or phrases, make sure the verb agrees with the subject, not with a noun within the phrase.

One of the packets contains a surprise.

The people along the boardwalk watch the tourists.

The man with all the dogs walks about dizzily.

Don't let those phrases fool you.Phrases using with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, oras well do not change whether a subject is singular or plural. If the subject is singular, the verb should be as well.

The young cadet, accompanied by his leader, runs to the rescue. 

The sea captain, as well as his sailors, is hungry for adventure.

Nouns with a plural form but with a singular meaning take singular verbs.Nouns such as United States, civics, mathematics, measles, and news take singular verbs.

The United States contains many people.

The news is good.

Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers,jeans, and shears take plural verbs.These nouns may appear to have a singular meaning, but each of these things is made up of two parts.

Trousers make the man.

Tweezers are nifty tools.

Collective nouns usually take singular verbs.A collective noun has a singular form even though it refers to a group of individuals or things. Examples include army, audience, crowd, group, team,committee, class, and family. These nouns take a singular verb when the group acts as one unit.

The team runs around the track after practice.

The committee elects new members.

The family goes to the park.

However, a plural verb is used when people or things within a group act separately.

The retired group have gone their separate ways.

The class disagree on which method is best.

If the subject follows the verb, the subject and verb should still agree.When the normal subject-verb order is inverted in a sentence, the verb still agrees with the subject. For example, in sentences beginning with there or here,the subject follows the verb. Since neither there nor here is ever the subject of a sentence, the verb agrees with the noun that follows the verb.

There are clues to be found.

Here is your snack.

With words that indicate portions, look to the object of the preposition.With words that indicate portions—percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none, remainder, and so forth—look at the object of the preposition (the noun following the of

phrase) to determine whether to use a singular or plural verb. If the object of the preposition is singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the preposition is plural, use a plural verb.

Three-fourths of the pizza has been eaten.

One-half of the pizzas were topped with pepperoni.

ndefinite pronouns are words that replace nouns without specifying which noun they replace. It is important to know which indefinite pronouns are singular, plural, or both. This will help you know which verb to use.

Singular Indefinite Pronouns

Here are some examples:

another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something.

Singular indefinite pronouns take singular verbs.

examples: Each of these tests gets easier and easier.

Everybody knows who will win tonight.

Either is okay with me.Plural Indefinite Pronouns

Here are some examples:

both, few, many, others, several

Plural indefinite pronouns take plural verbs.

examples: Both know what to expect.

Few ever fall the second time.

Many imagine only the best.Singular or Plural Indefinite Pronouns

Here are some examples:

all, any, more, most, none, some

The pronouns all, any, more, most, none, and some take a singular or a plural verb depending on whether what they refer to is singular or plural.

examples:Singular Plural

All of the newspaper is wet.All of the members do as they please.

Most of the sky is clear of clouds.

Most of the shirts are ruined.

1. Pronouns should agree in number.

If the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun.

     If a student parks a car on campus, he has to buy a parking sticker.     (Not: If a student parks a car on campus, they have to buy a parking sticker.)

Remember: The words EVERYBODY, ANYBODY, ANYONE, EACH, NEITHER, NOBODY, SOMEONE, A PERSON, etc., are singular and take singular pronouns.

     Everybody ought to do his best.     (Not: their best)

     Neither of the girls brought her umbrella.     (Not: their umbrellas)

2. Pronouns should agree in voice or person.

If you are writing in the first person (I), don't confuse your reader by switching to the second person (you) or third person (he, she, they, it, etc.).

Similarly, if you are using the second person, don't switch to first or third person.

     When a person comes to class, he should have his homework ready.     (Not: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.)

3. Pronouns should refer clearly to a specific noun.

Don't be vague or ambiguous. The sentences below are examples of vague and ambiguous pronoun references.

     Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not damaged.     (Is "it" the motorcycle or the tree?)

     I don't think they should show violence on TV.     (Who are "they"?)

     Vacation is coming soon, which is nice.     (What is nice, the vacation or the fact that it is coming soon?)

     George worked in a national forest last summer. This may be his life's work.     (What word does "this" refer to?)

     If you put this sheet in your notebook, you can refer to it.     (What does "it" refer to, the sheet or your notebook?)

The Forms and Functions of Personal Pronouns

  1st Person

2nd Person

3rd Person

Masculine

3rd Person

Feminine

3rd PersonNeuter

Subjective Case Singular(doer of action)

I you he she it

Subjective Case Plural(doer of action)

we you they they they

The Forms and Functions of Personal PronounsObjective Case Singular(receiver of action)

me you him her it

Objective Case Plural(receiver of action)

us you them them them

Possessive Case Singular(without noun)

mine yours his hers its

Possessive Case Plural(without noun)

ours yours theirs theirs theirs

Possessive Case Singular(with noun)

my your his her its

Possessive Case Plural(with noun)

our your their their their

Compound Personal Singular(reflexive and intensive)

myself yourself himself herself itself

Compound Personal Plural(reflexive and intensive)

ourselves yourselves themselves themselves themselves

A phrase is a group of words that acts as a single part of speech.

A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb.

PhrasesThere are several types of phrases.

example: Sally, an excellent singer, will be singing the main part in the musical.In this sentence, one phrase is will be singing. This is a verb phrase that functions as a verb.The example sentence also has two other phrases in it. It has an appositive phrase. An appositive is a word that gives added information about a noun. An appositive phrase is an appositive plus modifiers. Can you see that the appositive phrase in the example sentence is an excellent singer?*Punctuation note:If an appositive or appositive phrase gives information necessary to understanding the sentence, no commas are needed. If an appositive or appositive phrase gives extra, unnecessary information, set it apart with commas.Finally, the example sentence has a prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition. A prepositional phrase can act as an adjective or adverb. In the example sentence, the prepositional phrase in the musical acts as an adjective modifying the noun part. It answers the question which part?

ClausesThere are two kinds of clauses.

Independent Clause — This clause can also be a sentence.examples: John runs. John, a boy in sixth grade, runs very fast around the track.* Punctuation note: Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or,nor, for, so, yet) that joins two independent clauses.

Dependent Clause — This clause has a subject and a verb, but it cannot stand alone as a sentence. A dependent clause will begin with a subordinating conjunction, such as if, when, that, unless. They make the clause they are added to less important than an independent clause. The dependent clause depends on an independent clause for its meaning.example: I will go outside if the rain ever stops falling. After the teacher graded the tests, she reported the results to the class.

* Punctuation note: If a dependent clause comes at the beginning of the sentence, use a comma after the clause (like in the second sentence above). Do not use a comma if the dependent clause comes at the end of a sentence (like in the first sentence above).

Example:

(1) I always take along a swimming suit. (2) When I go to my Aunt Carolyn's house. (3) She has a swimming pool in her own backyard.

Which one of these is a dependent clause and, therefore, not a complete sentence?Sentence (2) is a dependent clause that begins with a subordinating conjunction.

A modifier describes, clarifies, gives more detail, and adds to or sets limits on a certain word or word group. It is important to place modifiers in their proper place within sentences in order to avoid confusion about who or what is being modified.

Misplaced Modifier

A misplaced modifier doesn't modify the word it is trying to modify, and this can confuse the reader.

example: When I was at the market yesterday, I only browsed the movies.Because of the word only, this sentence can be read three different ways:1. Did you only look at the movies and not buy any?

2. Did you only look at the movies and nothing else?

3. Were you the only one who looked at the movies?

The way to clear this up is to move the placement of the word only so that it looks like this: When I was at the market yesterday, I browsed only the movies.

Now, the sentence means you looked at the movies and nothing else, and it is clearer to you and your readers.

Dangling Modifier

Another example of a problem with modifiers is the dangling modifier. When you start a sentence with a dangling modifier that doesn't state the person, thing, or idea being modified, your readers will think that the modifier is meant for the subject of the clause that follows the modifying phrase.

example: Rushing to get home before the rain started, her car almost ran over a dog.The sentence seems correct, but the car can't actually hit anything without the driver who drives it. A better way to state the sentence would be like this: Rushing to get home before the rain started, she almost ran over a dog with her car.

Verb-based words and phrases are helpful to include in your writing. Learning to use gerunds and participial phrases is an important aspect of becoming a good writer and editor.

GerundsA gerund ends in -ing and can be used as a noun. A gerund is based on a verb.It shows action or a state of being. However, since a gerund works as a noun, it does the same thing in a sentence that a noun does. Jogging is good exercise. My favorite thing is sleeping.

Participial PhrasesA participle is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. A participle is based on a verb. It shows an action or a state of being. However, since a participle works as an adjective, it can also modify nouns or pronouns.There are two types of participles: present participles and past participles.Present participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n, as in the words asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen. The crying baby had a wet diaper. The burning log fell off the fire.

VerbalsVerbals are verb parts that act like nouns, adjectives, or adverbs, but they cannot stand

alone as actual verbs.

An infinitive consists of the word to plus a verb and acts as a noun, adjective, or adverb.

An infinitive is based on a verb and shows action or a state of being. The difference is that the infinitive may act as an adjective, adverb, subject, direct object, or the complement of a subject in a sentence.

An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb and functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb.

An infinitive is easy to locate because of the to + verb form, but deciding what it does in a sentence can be confusing sometimes.

EXAMPLES:

To sit seemed wrong since the boy needed help. ("To sit" is the subject)

We all wanted to see. ("to see" is the direct object)

Her dream is to play. ("to play" complements the subject)

They didn't have the strength to stop. (adjective)

I must practice to win. (adverb)

When you write infinitives, don't confuse them with prepositional phrases. Infinitives begin with the word to and a verb. Prepositional phrases can begin with the word to, but they are followed by a noun or pronoun and any modifiers.

EXAMPLES:Infinitives: to walk, to crawl, to be, to draw, to fight, to see, to know

Prepositional Phrases--NOT INFINITIVES: to her, to the council, to my mother, to the ocean, to you, to this place

If the infinitive is used as an adverb and is the beginning phrase in a sentence, you should use a comma to set it off. Beyond that, no punctuation is needed for an infinitive phrase.

EXAMPLES:

To buy a basketball, Phil had to save all his money.

To improve your playing, you should practice everyday.

You can use the active voice or passive voice when writing sentences. Active voice is almost always preferable to passive voice. This is because using passive voice too much can confuse readers or cause

them to lose interest. Sentences in active voice are generally clearer and more direct than those written in passive voice.

Active Voice

In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts. Paulina grew many of the plants.

Reggie will choose the next school play.

Archaeologists have unearthed ancient caves that provide valuable information.

In each example above, the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb.

Passive Voice

In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the subject is acted upon. The agent performing the action may appear in a "by the . . . " phrase or may be omitted. Many of the plants were grown by Paulina.

The next school play will be chosen by Reggie.

Ancient caves that provide valuable information have been unearthed.

Note: In scientific writing, passive voice is more acceptable because it allows a person to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particular researchers as the subjects of sentences (see the third example above). This practice allows the piece of writing to appear objective and fact-based because writers can present research and conclusions without giving credit to certain agents. Instead, the writing appears to contain information that is not limited or biased by individual perspectives or personal interests.

Using Verbs in MoodsVerb moods indicate a state of being or reality. They show the manner in which the

action/condition is intended.

Indicative - states an apparent fact. This is the way verbs are normally used in English.

Examples:

I try to listen to what my teachers have to say in every class.

Joe forgets to pick up after his pet.

It is easier to forget than to forgive someone.

Interrogative - indicates a state of questioning. In the interrogative, the subject-verb order is inverted.

Examples:Will you forgive and forget? (Interrogative of: You will forgive and forget.)

Why haven't you cleaned up your room? (Interrogative of: You have not cleaned up your room.)

Can you start thinking about college now? (Interrogative of: You can start thinking about college now.)

Imperative - states is a command or request. Frequently, the subject does not appear in the sentence, but it is implied.

Examples:(You) Listen to what your teachers have to say.

Please go away.

Stop!

Subjunctive - expresses a doubt, desire, imaginary situation, or condition contrary to fact.The subjunctive typically takes these verbs:

ask  demand  insist  move  order  pray  determine  prefer  recommend  regret  request require  suggest  wish 

Examples:If I were you, I would run. 

I prefer Jamie take care of the children instead of young Natasha. 

The teacher recommends Jen Esposito represent our school at the contest. 

(NOTE: The subjunctive mood of the verb "to be" is "be" in the present tense and "were" in the past tense regardless of the subject.)

Conditional - indicates a conditional state that will cause something else to happen. It is marked by the words might, could, and would. 

Examples:If you forgive and forget, you would feel better about the situation.If the person forgives and forgets (conditional state), he or she might feel better ("feeling better" will happen).

The Pope might visit our town if we get selected.If the town gets selected (conditional state), the Pope might visit ("visiting" will happen).

Shyam could pass the SATs if his tutor helped him out more.If his tutor helped him out more (conditional state), Shyam could pass the SATs("passing" will happen). 

An inappropriate shift or inconsistency in the verb of a sentence confuses the reader. Shifts in a verb mood can make reading difficult and obscure the sentence's meaning. To correct the shift, both clauses in the sentence should be in the same mood.

Inappropriate Shift Correction

Trust your instinct, and your heart should be followed.       (imperative)              (indicative)

Trust your instinct and follow your heart.       (imperative)               (imperative)

Inappropriate Shift Correction

You should trust your instinct, but why wouldn't you follow your heart?       (indicative)                     (interrogative)

You should trust your instinct, but you wouldn't follow your heart.       (indicative)                     (indicative)

Inappropriate Shift Correction

If you were to trust your instinct, you will follow your heart.(subjunctive: hint "if/were")              (indicative)

If you were to trust your instinct, you would follow your heart.(subjunctive past form "were")          (subjunctive past form "would")

CapitalizationThere are several uses for capital letters listed here. If you have a question about a particular example you're still not sure about, try checking a dictionary to see if the word is capitalized there.Use capital letters in the following ways:

The first word of a sentence     example: Yesterday, my cat completely ignored me.The pronoun "I"     example: My teacher told me that I should take an advanced class next year.Proper nouns

     (the names of specific people, places, groups, and sometimes things)

     examples: Campfire USA

Brackets Incorporated

Benjamin Franklin

Death Valley National Park

Mississippi River

Joes' Diner

Family relationships

     (when used as proper names)

     examples: For Christmas, Aunt Velma will sew a new robe for Mother.George is my favorite uncle.The names of God, specific deities, or religious figures, and holy books

     (but not the non-specific use of the word "god")

     examples: God the Father

Moses

the Virgin Mary

Shiva

the Bible

Buddha

Titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names

     examples: We are remodeling the office of Mayor Wilhelm. There is a news article about Susan Krause, mayor of Johnsonville, on the front page of today's paper.Directions that are names

     (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass directions)

     example: My new neighbors are from the Pacific Northwest. One of them teaches at the elementary school that is located one mile east of Decatur.The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays

     (but not the seasons used generally)

     examples: April

Wednesday

summer

Memorial Day

Thanksgiving

June

The names of countries, nationalities, and specific languages     examples: Austria

Brazil

Croatian

Italian

The first word in a sentence that is a direct quote     example: Sarah told me, "I'm very tired of eating pizza."The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs

     (but not short prepositions or the articles "the," "a," or "an," if they are not the first word of the title)

     example: I remember reading The Wind in the Willows one summer.Members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups     examples: San Antonio Spurs

Green Party of the United States

Libertarians

Big Brothers Big Sisters

National Kennel Club

Atlanta Braves

Periods and events

     (but not century numbers)

     examples: The Roaring Twenties

The Renaissance

The Crimean War

eighteenth century

Trademarks     examples: Marble Slab Creamery

Firefox

Burger King

Wikipedia

Words for and abbreviations of specific names

     (not things that came from proper nouns)

     examples: CNN

SOS

HTML

VCR

Commas

1.  Separate two independent clauses joined by a conjunction.example: The runners turned the corner, and they approached the final stretch.

2.  Set off introductory subordinate clauses and long phrases.example:

When the runners turned the corner, they approached the final stretch.

3.  Set off nonessential clauses and phrases following a specific noun (a proper name of particular person, place, or thing).example: Whitney Wise, who is a marathon runner, entered into the final stretch.

4.  Separate consecutive words and items in a series of three or more.example: Sleepless, pale, and frightened, he headed home.

5.  Separate two adjectives that modify a single noun (not each other). (If you could place "and" between them, they need a comma.)example: The sleek, glass building enhanced the neighborhood.

6.  Separate parts of dates and addresses.example: The game was on January 21, 2001, in Miami, Florida.

7.  Mark interrupters and enclose parenthetical expressions.example: Phil decided, however, not to enter the race.

8.  Mark the omission of words.example: In football we found victory, in basketball, defeat.

9.  Set off "yes" and "no," tag questions, words of direct address, and mild interjections.

examples: Yes, the Mavs won.

He is a good boy, isn't he?

Sir, I can answer the question.

Well, be careful!

Quotation Marks

1.  Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks, even inside single quotes.examples: The sign changed from "Walk," to "Don’t Walk," to "Walk" again within 30 seconds.

She said, "Hurry up." She said, "He said, 'Hurry up.'"

2.  The placement of question marks with quotes follows logic. If a question is in quotation marks, the question mark should be placed inside the quote.examples: She asked, "Will you still be my friend?" Do you agree with the saying, "All's fair in love and war"?

Here the question is outside the quote.

NOTE: Only one ending punctuation mark is used with quotation marks. Also, the stronger punctuation mark wins. Therefore, no period after war is used.

3.  When you have a question outside AND inside a quote, use only one question mark and place it inside the quotation mark.example: Did she say, "May I go?"

4.  Use single quotation marks for quotes within quotes. Note that the period goes inside all quote marks.example: He said, "Mary said, 'Do not treat me that way.'"

5.  Use quotation marks to set off a direct quotation only.example: "When will you be here?" he asked. He asked when you will be there.

EllipsesWhen you read, you probably have seen an ellipsis. An ellipsis consists of three dots in a row ( . . . ). Ellipses, the plural form of ellipsis, are used for different purposes.

1. They can indicate a pause in speech.

     example: "I'm so nervous, but I must tell you that . . . I love you!"

2. They can indicate an unfinished thought. 

     example: "The person who stole the gold was . . ." Sherry was interrupted by the sound of breaking glass.

3. They can show that someone is trailing off into silence.

     example: "I'm so tired I can barely keep my eyes open . . ."

4. They can indicate the passage of time.

     example: "Seventeen years later . . ."When writing or reading fiction, ellipses are usually meant to show an unfinished thought. It makes the the reader use his or her imagination to figure out what comes next. In nonfiction, ellipses usually signify that words have been left out of a sentence.

ApostropheThe apostrophe has three uses: (1) to make the possessive form of nouns, (2) to make contractions, and (3) to indicate plurals of letters, numbers, and symbols.

1. To show possession

To see if you have a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an "of the" phrase:

o the dog's collar = the collar of the dog

o the boys' journey = the journey of the boys

To place the apostrophe correctly to show possession:

o add 's to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s)

my mom's job

Chris's car

o add 's to the plural forms that do not end in -s

the children's toys

the mice's wheel

o add ' to the end of plural nouns that end in -s

cars' tires (more than one car)

the boys' bedroom (more than one boy)

o add 's to the end of compound words

my mother-in-law's house

o add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object

Tom and Jerry's TV show

2. To make contractions

In contractions one or more letters (or numbers) have been omitted, and the apostrophe shows this omission. Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing.

o it's = it is

o don't = do not

o I'm = I am

o he'll = he will

o who's = who is

o '90 = 1990

3. To form plurals of letters, numbers, and symbols

o two B's = two letters that happen to both be B

Jamal got B's on all of his tests.

o three 7's = three numbers that are each 7

There are three 7's in my phone number.Tips:

o DO NOT use apostrophes for possessive pronouns (his, her, its, their, and your).

Correct: Its ink was running out. Wrong: Its’ ink was running out.

o DO NOT use apostrophes for noun plurals.

Correct: My friends all have dogs. Wrong: My friends' all have dogs.

Punctuation: Hyphens, Dashes, Brackets, and Semicolons

In addition to common forms of punctuation like the period, the comma, and the apostrophe, there are others that aren't used as often but that are no less important. These include hyphens, dashes, brackets, and semicolons.

Hyphens

Hyphens are used for compound words (a single word made up of two or more words). Some compound words include numbers, fractions, prefixes, and suffixes.examples: When you spell out the number 42, it should be written "forty-two."

Similarly, when you spell out the fraction 5/8, it should be written as "five-eighths."

You should hyphenate a prefix attached to a capitalized word or number.

examples: "Mid-October" and "pre-1989" are both hyphenated.

You hyphenate a suffix the same way.

examples: "Twenty-odd" and "president-elect" show suffixes being hyphenated.

You should also hyphenate two or more words that work as a single modifier placed before a noun.example: "Twentieth-century novels" needs a hyphen, but "novels from the twentieth century" doesn't

need one.

Also, you should be sure of what the meaning of the word is that you're trying to hyphenate. If you don't this can lead to confusion. For example, there is a big difference between the man-eating rabbit and the man eating rabbit. In the first phrase shows that the rabbit eats humans, but in the second phrase, the man is eating a rabbit.Dashes

Dashes are used in a similar way as parentheses, to set off material in a sentence. The difference is that dashes call attention to the material.example: "He walked to work—past all the protestors—and never stopped to smile."

The emphasis is on the protestors that the man walks past.Dashes look similar to hyphens, but they are usually two hyphen marks put together and look a little longer than a hyphen (- hyphen, — dash). Be sure not to overuse dashes because they're made for emphasis. The more dashes that are used, the weaker the emphasis can get.Brackets

Brackets are generally used in quotations to help clarify a word or statement for readers or to provide important background information. To show that these are your words and not those of the person you're quoting, you should use brackets.example: Mike Hammond said, "After the ship comes back to shore, Captain Donald [the boat's owner]

will have a lot of explaining to do."

You can also use brackets inside of parentheses, but you should limit their use in this situation because they can make your writing harder to read than it needs to be, and if they aren't used correctly, they can confuse your reader.

Semicolons

Semicolons can help to connect words, sentences, and groups of words differently. One way a semicolon works is by connecting two main/independent clauses that can stand on their own. It shows they are linked and makes the reader pause.example: I went to the store; I bought bread.

You can also use semicolons with transitional words such as however,moreover, therefore and transitional expressions such as in addition, for example, and since then.example: Last week, Mike returned from Germany; however, he forgot his luggage.

Finally, semicolons can also be used to split up a long, complex series of items.Without the semicolons, all the information would run together and get confusing.example: I went to the beach with Michael, my cousin; Jerry, my best friend; and Fred, my uncle.

Homophones are words that are pronounced alike but have multiple meanings or spellings. When writing, it is very important to choose the correct word. Below are a few examples of homophones.

Their, There, They're Their = possessive pronoun: They got their books. There = that place: My house is over there. They're = contraction for they are: They're making dinner.Its, It's Its = possessive pronoun: The crab had an unusual growth on its shell. It's = contraction for it is or it has (in a verb phrase): It's still raining; it's been raining for three

days.We're, Where, Were We're = contraction for we are: We're glad to help. Where = location: Where are you going? Were = a past tense form of the verb to be: They were walking side by side.Your, You're Your = possessive pronoun: Your shoes are untied. You're = contraction for you are: You're walking around with your shoes untied.To, Too, Two To = preposition, or first part of the infinitive form of a verb: They went to the lake to swim. Too = very, also: I was too tired to continue. I was hungry, too. Two = the number 2: Two students scored below passing on the exam.Than, Then Than

used in comparison statements: He is richer than I. used in statements of preference: I would rather dance than eat. used to suggest quantities beyond a specified amount: Read more than the first paragraph.

Then a time other than now: He was younger then. She will start her new job then. next in time, space, or order: First we must study; then we can play. suggesting a logical conclusion: If you've studied hard, then the exam should be no problem.

Accept, Except Accept = verb meaning to receive or to agree: He accepted their praise graciously. Except = preposition meaning all but, other than: Everyone went to the gameexcept Alyson.Affect, Effect Affect = verb meaning to influence: Will lack of sleep affect your game? Effect = noun meaning result or consequence: Will lack of sleep have an effecton your game? Effect = verb meaning to bring about, to accomplish: Our efforts have effected a major change

in university policy.Advise, Advice Advise = verb that means to recommend, suggest, or counsel: I advise you to be cautious. Advice = noun that means an opinion or recommendation about what could or should be

done: I'd like to ask for your advice on this matter.Conscious, Conscience Conscious = adjective meaning awake, perceiving: Despite a head injury, the patient

remained conscious. Conscience = noun meaning the sense of obligation to be good: Chris wouldn't cheat because

his conscience wouldn't let him.Lead, Led Lead = noun referring to a dense metallic element: The X-ray technician wore a vest lined

with lead. Led = past-tense and past-participle form of verb meaning to guide or direct: The

evidence led the jury to reach a unanimous decision.

A Few Other Helpful Hints

Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one:

you're = you are

they're = they are

we're = we are

it's = it is or it has (in a verb phrase)

Where, there, here:

These are all place words, and all contain the word here.

Two, to, too:

Two, twelve, and between are all words related to the number 2, and all contain the letters two.

To is a preposition; I went to the ballgame. Too can mean also or can be an intensifier, and you might say that it contains an extra o (one

too many).

One Word or Two?

All ready: used as an adjective to express complete preparedness Already: an adverb expressing time

At last I was all ready to go, but everyone had already left. All right: used as an adjective or adverb; older and more formal spelling, more common in

scientific and academic writing. Alright: alternate spelling of all right; less frequent but used often in journalistic and business

publications, and especially common in fictional dialogue. Will you be all right on your own? (adjective) He does alright in school. (adverb)

All together: an adverb meaning considered as a whole, summed up Altogether: an intensifying adverb meaning wholly, completely, entirelyo All together, there were thirty-two students at the museum.o His comment raises an altogether different problem.

Awhile: an adverb meaning for a short time; usually needs no preposition A while: a paired article and noun meaning a period of time; usually used with for

Won't you stay awhile? We talked for a while, and then we said good night.

Words with Similar Forms

Anyone: a pronoun meaning any person at all Any one: a paired adjective and noun meaning a specific item in a group; usually used with of

Anyone who can solve this problem deserves an award. Any one of those papers could serve as an example.

Note: There are similar distinctions in meaning for everyone and every one. Anyway: an adverb meaning in any case or nonetheless Any way: a paired adjective and noun meaning any particular course, direction, or manner

He objected, but she went anyway. Any way we chose would lead to danger.

Maybe: an adverb meaning perhaps May be: a form of the verb to be

Maybe we should wait until the rain stops. This may be our only chance to win the championship.

Context CluesOne key to being a good reader is being able to understand the words you read. Sometimes, you might not be able to understand some vocabulary words the author uses. When this happens, it helps if you can at least understand the other words in the paragraph you are reading. The information in the paragraph can be a clue to help you understand the words you don't know. This is called a context clue. Context clues are the words around the unknown word. It is also the information that makes up the rest of the paragraph.

These are some things to look for when using context clues:

Punctuation marks such as a comma or dash may show you something about the unknown words. They can also give a clue to the new word's definition. 

example:

The vitriol in his voice—all the anger and hate—made the character much scarier in the movie than in the book.

Key words, such as "or" and "that is," may give you a hint to a definition.

example:

The beach's tranquility, that is its peaceful feeling, made it the perfect vacation spot.

Make sure to read the entire passage. An unknown word may make more sense after you read the entire paragraph or passage.

Multiple-Meaning WordsSometimes words are spelled alike but have different meanings. Knowing about different types of words and their definitions is very important to reading and writing.

Multiple-meaning words can be tricky. Use context clues and think carefully about the sentence's message to figure out which meaning is being used. Below are some examples of words with multiple meanings:

o Concrete can mean "real" or "a hard and strong building material."o Staple can mean "a metal loop to fasten together material" or "a resource that is in high

demand."o Foil can mean "to prevent the success of someone or something" or "a very thin sheet of

metal."

Sample Questions

The water created a groove on the hill as it traveled downward.

What is the meaning of the bold word in the sentence above?

A. a long narrow channel

B. a fixed routine

C. a track on a music record

D. an enjoyable experience

Explanation: The word "groove" has many meanings. All of the answer choices are definitions of the word. However, in this sentence, "groove" means "a long narrow channel." The correct answer is A. The reader can tell that this definition is being used because a "groove" is created on a hill by the water. Looking at context clues helps the reader figure out the meaning being used.

After high school, Jason wants to pursue a career in medicine so that he can support his family.

In this sentence, the word pursue means

A. to follow in order to defeat.

B. to haunt.

C. to strive to accomplish.

D. to court.

Explanation: The word "pursue" has many meanings. All of the answer choices are definitions of the word. However, in this sentence, "pursue" means "to strive to accomplish." The correct answer is C. The reader can tell that this definition is being used because Jason wants to have a career in medicine to help his family.Looking at context clues helps the reader figure out the meaning being used.

PronunciationDictionaries have pronunciation keys to help you pronounce words. Here is a pronunciation key:\ə\ as a in amend\a\ as a in lantern\ā\ as a in bravery\ä\ as o in posture\aů\ as ou in couch\ch\ as ch in hachet\e\ as e in blemish\ē\ as ea in teacher\g\ as g in slogan\i\ as i in tariff\ī\ as i in triumphant\j\ as j in injury\[ng]\ as ng in exceedingly\ō\ as o in donate\ô\ as aw in dawdle\oi\ as oi in toilet\th\ as th in math\th\ as th in thus\ü\ as oo in loot\ů\ as oo in falsehood\y\ as y in yacht\zh\ as s in leisureWhich word has the same vowel pronunciation as shrub?

A. prune \'prün\B. boost \'büst\C. crusade \krů-'sād\D. frugal \'frů-gəl\

The key shows that \ə\ makes the same vowel sound in amend and frugal. This sound is also present in shrub \'shrəb\.

Word OriginsAn origin of a word is the language the word comes from. Some words come from French. Some come from Spanish. Others are original English words. 

brouhaha \brü-,hä-hä\ [French] n. hubbub, uproar

The word brouhaha originated from French. The origin is usually in brackets before the definition.

Guide WordsDictionaries have guide words to help you find the word you need. Guide words are at the top corner of the page and show which words are first and last on the page. Words that come between these words in alphabetical order are on this page. A dictionary page that included the guide words newsman and nightwould also include nickelodeon, niece, and nifty.

DefinitionsA definition is the meaning of a word. Some words have more than one meaning.Dictionaries number the definitions when there is more than one.

balk \'bôk\ n. [Middle English] 1: a ridge of land left unplowed as a dividing line or through carelessness 2: beam, rafter 3: hindrance, check 4 a: the space behind the balkline on a pool table b: any of the outside divisions made by the balklines 5: failure of a player to complete a motion; especially an illegal motion of the pitcher in baseball while in position 

Which sentence best fits definition 3 of balk?

A. Raccoons live in the balk between the two farms.B. Shelia's armpit odor proved to be a balk on her date.C. Jason hit the cue ball from the balk of the pool table.D. The pitcher committed a balk during the game.

Definition 3 means "hindrance, check," so B makes the most sense.

Parts of SpeechA dictionary gives the part of speech of each entry. The part of speech tells how the word is used in a sentence. Below are abbreviations for parts of speech:

v. = verbn. = nounadj. = adjectiveadv. = adverb

Look at the dictionary entry below.

fuddy-duddy \'fə-dē,də-dē\ [origin unknown] n. : one that is old-fashioned, unimaginative, or conservative

The part of speech is abbreviated by n. This means "noun."

A thesaurus is a reference book similar to a dictionary. Instead of having definitions like a dictionary, a thesaurus has synonyms. Synonyms are words that have the same or almostthe same meaning as another word.

You can use a thesaurus to revise your writing. If you are writing a story and keep using the word "big," you can look in a thesaurus for other words that mean the same thing as "big" and use those instead. By using a variety of words, your writing becomes more colorful and more exciting.

Often, thesaurus entries provide contrasting words andantonyms (words having the opposite or nearly the opposite meaning). The antonyms will be labeled in some way to tell them apart from the synonyms.

Word ConceptsWord concepts are very short definitions, usually one word long. Concepts give general ideas of words. For example, the concept for the word dog is "animal." The concept in a thesaurus entry is in parentheses and capital letters. Look at the thesaurus entry below:elude, v. ditch, flee, circumvent, dodge, shun (AVOID)

The concept gives a short meaning that covers the general idea of the word.Avoid is a general idea for elude.

Parts of SpeechA thesaurus gives the part of speech for each entry. The part of speech tells how the word is used in the sentence. Below are abbreviations for parts of speech.

v. = verbn. = nounadj. = adjectiveadv. = adverb

In the thesaurus entry below, the part of speech for blandish is a verb:blandish, v. cajole, brown-nose, charm, wheedle, beguile (FLATTER)

SynonymsThe main purpose for using a thesaurus is to choose synonyms. Writers use a thesaurus when they revise their work. They can replace dull words with interesting ones. The words listed between the part of speech and the concept word are synonyms. Study the following thesaurus entries and sample question below:compound, n. alloy, composite, synthesis, union, amalgamation (MIXTURE)compound, v. concoct, fuse, meld, unite (COMBINE)compound, v. aggravate, magnify, exacerbate, complicate (WORSEN)

Which word would best replace compound in the following sentence?

To make an environmentally friendly glass cleaner, compound 2 teaspoons of vinegar to 1 quart of warm water.

A. unionB. compositeC. meldD. aggravate

Replace compound in the sentence with each answer choice. Meld makes the most sense:To make an environmentally friendly glass cleaner, meld 2 teaspoons of vinegar to 1 quart of warm water.

AntonymsSometimes the thesaurus will show antonyms of a word. Antonyms are words that have an opposite meaning. The thesaurus will use ant to show that the words listed are antonyms instead of synonyms. Here is an example:Discombobulate, v.

baffle, confound, perplex, puzzle (CONFUSE)ant clarify, enlighten, explain

GlossariesTerms specific to a subject and unfamiliar to an average reader are usually defined in a glossary. A glossary is an alphabetical list of special words and their definitions. It is usually found at the back of a textbook or other nonfiction book. Think about the different ways a glossary has helped you understand what you were reading better.

Look at the example of a glossary below.

Tea Glossary

A

aromathe fragrance of brewed teas

 

B

black teathe most common type of tea; made from fermented green tea leaves

blenda combination of different kinds of tea

C

caffeinea type of stimulant found in tea

chai

Tea Glossary

a tea made from strong black tea, milk, sugar, and spices

Test your knowledge of glossaries on the example question below.

Weather Glossary

C

Celsiusa scale of temperature in which the freezing point is marked 0 degrees and the boiling point is marked 100 degrees

condensationthe process by which water in gas form becomes liquid

 

D

droughtan abnormally long time without rain that causes a shortage of water

 

E

evaporationthe process where liquid water turns into gas

 

F

Fahrenheita scale of temperature in which the freezing point is marked 32 degrees and the boiling point is marked 212 degrees

According to the glossary above, if the temperature is 24 degrees Fahrenheit it is

A. below freezing.

B. boiling.

C. 0 degrees Celsius.

D. a drought.

The correct answer is choice A, below freezing. The definition for the term "Fahrenheit" explains that 32 degrees Fahrenheit is the freezing point, so anything below that number would be below freezing.

Roots and AffixesWhen you are trying to figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word, it helps to try to break the word down into parts. Prefixes and suffixes often provide valuable clues as to the meaning of words.

Prefix

A prefix is a part of a word that is placed at the beginning of a word to change its meaning.

Prefix Meaning Example

ab– not, away from abnormal (not normal)

ambi– both ambivalent (feeling both ways about an issue)

amphi–round, both sides

amphitheater (a round theater)

anti– against antiwar (against war)

arch– main archrival (main rival)

auto– self automobile (self-driven vehicle)

bene– good beneficial (something good)

Prefix Meaning Example

bi– two bicycle (two wheels)

bio– life biology (the study of life)

de– remove deodorant (removes odor)

dis– not dishonest (not honest)

dict– to speak dictate (to speak aloud)

ex– former, away ex-girlfriend (former girlfriend)

extra– beyond extraordinary (beyond what is ordinary)

fore–before, in front of

foreground (the part of a scene that is nearest to and in front of the viewer)

im–, in–

not, in inaction (no action, lack of action)

inter– between international (between nations)

iso– same isometric (having the same measurement)

manu– hand manual (done or worked on with the hands)

micro– small microscope (device used to look at small objects)

mis– bad, wrong mislead (lead in wrong direction)

mono– one monopoly (when one company has power)

multi– many multicolor (many colors)

mut– change mutant (someone or something that changes)

Prefix Meaning Example

non– no nonsense (no sense)

over– too much overcooked (cooked too much)

ped– foot pedicure (care of feet, toes, and nails)

post– after postwar (after the war)

pre– before preheat (heat before)

re– again review (look at again)

sub– under, below subzero (below zero)

terra– earth terrain (a piece of land)

topo– place toponym (the name of a place)

trans– across transport (move across)

tri– three tricycle (three wheels)

troglo– cave troglocole (to live in a cave)

ultra– beyond ultramodern (beyond modern)

un– not uncooked (not cooked)

uni– one unicorn (mythical animal that has one horn)

xen– foreign, guest xenophobia (fear of strangers or foreigners)

Suffix

A suffix is a part of a word that is placed at the end of a word to change its meaning.

Suffix Meaning Example

–able capable of fixable (capable of being fixed)

–ation the process of creation (the process of creating)

–est most largest (most large)

–ful full of beautiful (full of beauty)

–ish like childish (like a child)

–less without hopeless (without hope)

–logy the study of mineralogy (the study of minerals)

–ly in a way, in a manner happily (in a happy manner)

–ous having qualities of joyous (having the qualities of joy)

–pod foot tripod (three-legged or footed)

Root

A root is the basic element of a word, and it forms the meaning of a word. Some roots are full words on their own. Most roots need to have prefixes and suffixes attached to them to form a base word. A base word is whole word which has meaning but may be combined to make new words. Some of the prefixes and suffixes list above can also be root words.

Root Meaning Example

vit life revitalize (to give a new life)

Greek/Latin Roots and Affixes

Many English words and word parts can be traced back to Latin and Greek. By learning what parts of words mean, you can figure out the meanings of bigger words that you might not know at first glance.

Latin & Greek

Word PartMeaning

Latin & Greek

Word PartMeaning

a without ob toward, over

ab apart, or away from pac peace

ad toward, near pater father

anthro humans, people path feeling

ary relating to, quality, place where phil love

bio life phon sound

cata down, with poly many

contra against pseudo false

dict to say retro backwards

graph picture scope to see

hemi half script to write

hydro water somna sleep

logue talk or a speech spect to look, to see

micro small spir to breathe

mis to hate strophe turning

mono one; alone tele from a distance

neo new terras earth

ness state of verse toward a turn or change

viv alive, live volve roll, turn around

Roots and AffixesWhen you are trying to figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word, it helps to try to break the word down into parts. Prefixesand suffixes often provide valuable clues as to the meaning of words.

Prefix

A prefix is a part of a word that is placed at the beginning of a word to change its meaning.

Prefix Meaning Example

ab– apart, away from absence (being away or missing)

ad– to, toward adverse (to turn, to change)

amphi–round, both sides

amphitheater (a round theater)

anti– against antiwar (against war)

aud– to hear audible (able to be heard)

auto– self automobile (self-driven vehicle)

bi– two bicycle (two wheels)

circum– around circumnavigate (to navigate around)

de– remove deodorant (removes odor)

dis– not dishonest (not honest)

hydro– water hydrate (to fill with water)

in– not invisible (not visible)

ir– not irregular (not regular)

iso– same isometric (having the same measurement)

mal– bad malicious (the act of something bad)

Prefix Meaning Example

mini– small mini-mart (a small market)

mis– bad, wrong misinform (inform badly)

multi– many multicolor (many colors)

mut– change mutant (someone or something that changes)

non– not, without nonstop (without stopping)

ob– toward observe (to look toward)

pater– father patriarch (the father in a family)

post– after postwar (after the war)

pre– before preheat (heat before)

re– again review (view again)

retro– backwards retrospect (looking back)

sub– under, below submarine (underwater)

terra– earth terrain (a piece of land)

topo– place toponym (the name of a place)

trans– across transport (move across)

tri– three tricycle (three wheels)

troglo– cave troglocole (to live in a cave)

un– not uncooked (not cooked)

under– beneath, below underground (below the ground)

Prefix Meaning Example

uni– one unicycle (one wheel)

xen– foreign, guest xenophobia (fear of strangers or foreigners)

Suffix

A suffix is a part of a word that is placed at the end of a word to change its meaning.

Suffix Meaning Example

–able, –ible capable of fixable (capable of being fixed)

–ary relating to dictionary (relating to diction or speaking)

–ator, –or someone who does illustrator (someone who illustrates)

–ful full of beautiful (full of beauty)

–ive a condition of reflective (being able to reflect)

–less without hopeless (without hope)

–ly in a way, in a manner happily (in a happy manner)

–ment act of doing movement (the act of moving)

–ness state of exactness (state of being exact)

–ous having qualities of joyous (having the qualities of joy)

–pod foot tripod (three-legged or footed)

Root Word

A root word is the base word which prefixes and suffixes are attached to. Some of the prefixes and suffixes listed above can also be root words.

Root Word

Meaning Example

vit life revitalize (to give new life)

Interpreting Figures of SpeechIrony: Irony is used to express the exact opposite of its literal meaning. Because of this, it depends on the perceived and real attitude of the speaker. 

Heavy-handed irony, where a speaker or character strongly states the opposite of the truth—is called sarcasm. People sometimes use sarcasm to ridicule or mock someone or something.

One example of irony would be if a character was really scared and another character called him or her brave. This would be ironic.

An example of sarcasm might be a response such as "Well done" or "Great job," said in an angry tone to a worker who has done something wrong. The speaker doesn't mean that the person did a good job. In fact, the person did a lousy job. By being sarcastic, the speaker is mocking the worker. Sarcasm is used mostly in speech.

Interpreting Figures of SpeechWords can do many amazing things! They can make you feel a certain way. They can even make you laugh. You can use words to be fun and playful. Puns are a way that writers use and play with words.

Some words have multiple meanings. Some words sound the same but have different meanings. A pun is when you play with those different meanings to be funny or clever.An example of a pun is this sentence:When a clock is hungry it goes back four seconds. 

Many jokes use puns to amuse the audience. Look at this the puns in the jokes below:

Q: What happened when the lion ate the comedian?A: He felt funny!

If people feel sick, they may say that they "feel funny." In this sense, "funny" means "different." A comedian tells jokes that are "funny" because they make people laugh.This joke makes a pun using the different meanings of the word "funny."

Can you see the puns in these sentences? 

I used to be a carpenter, but then I got bored.Old doctors never die, they just lose their patience.I tried looking for gold, but it didn't pan out.A bicycle cannot stand on its own because it is two-tired.

Analogies

An analogy is a comparison between two pairs of words. It shows a relationship between the words that are being compared.Analogies can use different types of relationships to compare words. Review the following examples.

Part/WholeDallas is to Texas as Chicago is to Illinois.Peel is to banana as shell is to almond.

Item/PurposeiPod is to play music as shovel is to dig holes.Arms is to hold as legs is to walk.

AntonymLiquid is to solid as lumpy is to smooth.Appetizing is to tasteless as courageous is to cowardly.

SynonymReveal is to expose as conceal is to cover.Help is to assist as deceive is to mislead.

CharacteristicHard is to diamond as silky is to petal.Sandy is to beach as furry is to cat.

AssociationAirplane is to sky as ship is to sea.Gasoline is to automobile as chlorophyll is to plant.

Object/LocationTree is to forest as dog is to kennel.Student is to school as picnic table is to park.

Cause/EffectNecessity is to invention as virus is to illness.War is to treaty as overeating is to weight gain.A common way to write analogies uses colons. For example, "donkey is to brayas snake is to hiss" can be written as:

donkey : bray :: snake : hiss

Tip: The order in which the items in a relationship appear is important to the meaning of the analogy. For example, the following analogy is WRONG:

caterpillar : butterfly :: frog : tadpole

In other words, a caterpillar is a young butterfly but a frog is NOT a young tadpole. Here is the CORRECT way to write the analogy:

caterpillar : butterfly :: tadpole : frog

Sample QuestionsQuestion 1: Read the analogy and choose the item that correctly completes it.

milk : cereal :: butter :A. refrigerator

B. fat

C. bread

D. knife

Explanation: The correct answer is choice C. Milk is something that is commonly poured on cereal, and butter is something that is commonly spread on bread. The items relate to each other by the way they are commonly eaten. The relationship between the pairs of words is "association."

Question 2: Read the passage below, and answer the question that follows.     In the case of an emergency like a natural disaster, people should have supplies ready. An emergency kit should include fresh water, food, a source of light, a source of heat, first aid supplies, a radio, and cleaning supplies. The most important item to have in an emergency kit is fresh drinking water. Emergencies like tornadoes, floods, and earthquakes often damage and pollute local water sources. The kit should have enough water for each person in the group to have one gallon per day for up to two weeks.

Which best completes the analogy?

Water is to emergency kit asA. words is to book.

B. hurricane is to flood.C. violence is to peace.D. darkness is to cave.Explanation: The correct answer is choice A. Water is important in an emergency kit, and words are important in a book. The relationship between the items in each pair could be described as "part/whole" or "association."

Connotation and DenotationDenotation is the literal dictionary meaning of a word.Connotation, however, is the emotional suggestion of a word.

Words express more than just their dictionary definitions, also known asdenotation. Words can bring up pictures or stir feelings in the reader. Authors use connotation to influence their readers and support their point of view. For example, look at these two words below that have the denotation "different from the ordinary."

strange

extraordinaryWhich word has a positive connotation? Which one has a negative connotation?If you wanted to give a classmate a compliment on a painting she created, would you say, "Your painting is strange," or would you say, "Your painting isextraordinary"?

Although the two words mean the same thing, strange has a negative connotation. Therefore, your classmate may not take strange as a compliment. Below are more examples of positive and negative connotation:Negative: Kate was an immature woman who giggled a lot.

Positive: Kate was a youthful woman who giggled a lot.

Negative: Mr. Lambert tells everyone that his son is the mayor of Avalon. He is a haughty father.

Positive: Mr. Lambert tells everyone that his son is the mayor of Avalon. He is a proud father.