engr 190 f2010 text
TRANSCRIPT
Energy and Nuclear Power
ENGR 190
Idaho State University
College of Engineering
Fall 2010
Supplemental Text and Notes Prepared by Jay F. Kunze, PhD, PE, CHP
Editor: Michael Haddox
September, 2010
ENGR 190 Page ii
ENGR 190 Page iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Useful References on the Internet ................................................................................................................ iv Unit Conversions .......................................................................................................................................... v Basic Numbers for Nuclear Engineers ........................................................................................................ vii Electricity and Natural Gas Rates ................................................................................................................. 1 Capacity Factor ............................................................................................................................................. 2 Energy Data for the USA – 2009 Energy Review ........................................................................................ 4 History of Scientific Studies Leading to Nuclear Power ............................................................................ 23 Nuclear Energy vs. Chemical Energy ......................................................................................................... 24 Initial Development – Building a Bomb ..................................................................................................... 24 The Effects of Nuclear Explosions ............................................................................................................. 25 Concepts for Power Plants Following World War II .................................................................................. 27 Pressurized and Boiler Water Reactors ....................................................................................................... 28 World List of Nuclear Power Plants ........................................................................................................... 33 Neutron Cross Sections ............................................................................................................................... 62 Neutron Flux ............................................................................................................................................... 66 Making a Reactor Critical ........................................................................................................................... 67 Reactivity and Time Behavior of a Reactor ................................................................................................ 70 Shutdown Decay Heat ................................................................................................................................. 73 The Xenon-135 Fission Product Poison Problem ....................................................................................... 75 Heat Removal From the Reactor ................................................................................................................. 76 Maximum Power from a Reactor Without Affecting Safety ...................................................................... 79 Health, Safety and Radiation ...................................................................................................................... 82 Protection from Radiation ........................................................................................................................... 84 Low Level Radiation Effects on Humans ................................................................................................... 86
The Linear, No-Threshold (LNT) Hypothesis/The Collective Dose Hypothesis .......................... 87 The Case of Radon in Homes ........................................................................................................ 90 Plutonium ....................................................................................................................................... 92 The Taiwan Co-60 Incident ........................................................................................................... 92
Nuclear and Reactor Safety And Regulations ............................................................................................. 94 Economics of Nuclear Electricity ............................................................................................................... 95 Summary of Serious Nuclear Criticality Accidents .................................................................................... 96 Lessons Learned........................................................................................................................................ 101 From Mine to Fuel Assembly ................................................................................................................... 101 US Department of Energy Laboratories .................................................................................................... 106
ENGR 190 Page iv
References
• Data on Energy Sources, Energy Production and Consumption, is from the Energy Information Agency, U.S. Department of Energy
• The Listing o Nuclear Power Plants Throughout the World is Reproduced, with permission, from the March 2009 issue of Nuclear News, American Nuclear Society, 555 N. Kensington Ave., LaGrange Park, Illinois, 60526
• Some other material is copied from Nuclear Reactor Engineering, by Samuel Glasstone and Alexander Sesonske, D. Van Nostrand Co. (1963), copyright assigned to the General Manager of the United States Atomic Energy Commission
USEFUL REFERENCES ON THE INTERNET
1. Energy Information Agency of the US Department of Energy - www.eai.doe.gov
2. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - www.ipcc.ch/
Established by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations
Environment Programme
3. InterContinental Energy Exchange - www.theice.com/
Headquartered in London, it serves primarily the USA and United Kingdom.
In the electrical market, COB = California Oregon Border, or John Day (JD) (dam on the
Columbia River) and would be the primary references for electrical costs in Idaho.
4. For current prices of oil and other commodities - www.wtrg.com/daily/crudeoilprice.html
5. U. S. Statistical Abstract for 2009 - www.census.gov/compendia/statab/
6. Bloomberg Energy Prices - www.bloomberg.com/markets/commodities/energy-prices/
ENGR 190 Page v
UNIT CONVERSIONS
To convert from Multiply by to Obtain
To convert from Multiply by to Obtain acres 1/640 square miles
foot candles 10.764 lux (lumen/m²)
acres 0.40469 hectares (ha)
ft-pounds(force) 1.3558 J acres 43560 square feet
ft-pounds/sec 1/550 horsepower (hp)
amperes 1 Coulombs/sec
ft-pounds/sec 1/738 kW ampere hours 3600 Coulombs
furlongs 660 feet
Angstrom 1E-08 Cm
furlongs 1/8 mile Angstrom 0.1 nanometers
foot candles 10.764 lux (lumen/m²)
atmospheres 14.696 pounds/in²
ft-pounds(force) 1.3558 J atmospheres 29.921 inches of Hg
ft-pounds/sec 1/550=0.001818 horsepower (hp)
atmospheres 33.78 feet of water
ft-pounds/sec 1/738=0.001355 kW atmospheres 760 mm of Hg
furlongs 1/8 = 0.125 mile
atmospheres 101,330 Pa
furlongs 660 feet barrel (of oil) 42 gallons(US)
gallons(US) 1/7.48=0.13369 ft³ (= 231 cubic in.)
bars 0.98692 atmospheres
gallons(US) 3.7854 L British gallon 1.2 gal (US)
gallons(US) 4 quarts (US)
Btu 777.65 ft-lb(f)
gallons(US) 128 fluid ounces (oz) Btu 1055.1 Joules
grams 1/453.6 pounds (force)
Btu/hour 1/3414 kW
g/(cm-s) 1 poises Btu/hr. ft² ºF 5.69 W/m²K
grains 7000 pound(mass)
bushels (US) 1.2445 cubic feet
hectares 2.4711 acres bushels(US) 35.239 L
hectares 10,000 m²
bushels(US) 0.0035239 m³
horsepower 2546.1 Btu/h calories 1/4.186=0.2389 J
horsepower 550 ft-lbf/s
calories 252 Btu
horsepower 0.7457 kW candelas 1 lumen/st
horsepower hrs 2546.1 Btu
centimeters 1/2.54 inches
Imperial gallon 1.2 gal(US) centimeters 1/30.48 Feet
inches 2.54 Cm
centipoises 0.01 g/(cm-s)
inches 1000 mils centipoises 2.419 lbm/(hr-ft)
Joules 1/1055 Btu
circular mil 5.06771E-06 cm²
Joules 1 W-s Coulombs 1 A-s
Joules/kg 430 E-6 Btu/pound
cubic centimeters 0.001 L
Joules/sec 1.341E-03 Hp cubic feet 2.2957E-05 acre-ft
kilograms 2.2046 lbm
cubic feet 7.4805 gal (US)
km 0.62137 miles cubic feet 0.028317 m³
km 3280.8 feet
cubic meters 35.315 ft³
km/hour 0.62137 miles/h cubic yards 201.97 gal (US)
kilowatts 3414 Btu/h
cubic yards 0.76455 cubic meters
kilowatts 1.341 Hp density(gm/cm³) 1 specific gravity
kilowatt hours 3,600,000 Joules
dynes 1E-05 Newtons (N)
knots 1.151 miles/h dynes/sq.cm 1E-06 bars
liters 0.035315 ft³
dyne-cm 1E-07 N-m
liters 0.2642 gal (US) fathoms 6 feet
lumen/sq.ft 1 foot candle
feet 30.48 cm
lux 1 lumen/m² feet 1/5280 miles
meters 3.28083 feet
feet 1/3280.8 kilometers
meters 39.37 inches ft³ 28.3317 L
microns 1E-06 meters
feet/sec 1/1.467 miles/hour
miles 5280 feet feet/sec 1.0973 km/hour
miles 8 furlongs
feet/s² 0.30048 m/s²
miles 1.6093 km
ENGR 190 Page vi
To convert from Multiply by to Obtain miles/hour 1.4667 ft/sec miles/hour 1.6093 km/h nautical miles 1.1508 Miles Newtons 100,000 Dynes Newtons 0.22481 pounds(f) N-m or J 1E+07 dyne-cm N-m or J 0.73756 ft-lbf ounce(US fluid) 29.574 cm³(=1/128 gal) ounce (avd) 1/16 pound(mass) ounce (avd) 28.35 Grams ounce (Troy) 1/12 Pound Pascals 0.000145 lbf/in² poises 1 gm/(cm-s) pound(f) 4.4482 Newtons (N) pound (m) 453.59 Grams pound (m) 1/32.17=0.031081 Slugs pounds/sq. foot 47.88 Pa pounds/sq. inch 2.036 inches of Hg pounds/sq. inch 27.59 inches of water pounds(m)/ft³ 16.018 kg/m³ radians 57.296 Degrees radians 1/6.2832 (2π) revolutions slugs 32.174 pounds(m) stokes(poise/gm/cm³) 1 cm²/s tablespoon 14.18 Grams tons(long, metric) 2240 Pounds tons (metric) 1.12 tons(short) tons (short) 2000 Pounds Watts 3.414 Btu/h Watts 1E+07 ergs/s Watts 1 J/s Watt/sq. meter 0.317 Btu/(hr sq ft) Water density =1 gm/cm³ = 62.427 lb/ft³ =1000 kg/m³ at 4 degrees C Note: 0 degrees C = 32 degrees F 5 C degrees change = 9 F degrees change Speed of light =299,792,458 m/s = 184,000 miles/sec. Acceleration of gravity =32.2 ft/s² = 9.80 m/s²
The Greek Alphabet
Alpha Α α Nu Ν ν Beta Β β Xi Ξ ξ Gamma Γ γ Omicron Ο ο Delta Δ δ Pi Π π Epsilon Ε ε Rho Ρ ρ Zeta Ζ ζ Sigma Σ σ Eta Η η Tau Τ τ Theta Θ θ Upsilon Υ υ Iota Ι ι Phi Φ φ Kappa Κ κ Chi Χ χ Lambda Λ λ Psi Ψ ψ Mu Μ μ Omega Ω ω
Normal Distribution Curve (known as the Gaussian Distribution) It is mathematically represented by:
𝑓(𝑥) =1
𝜎√2𝜋𝑒−
𝑥22
Integration of this equation can be used to determine the area under the curve between any two locations on the x-axis. The integral over all values should equal 1.000, i.e. 100% probability of obtaining all values of x. The value of x has real meaning, where:
𝑥 =𝑧 − 𝜇𝜎
with z being any one of the observations that gave a mean value of μ and a standard deviation of σ. The following is a table of the areas under the Gaussian Distribution Function from x= 0 (the center, or mean) to various values of x (total for ±x = 2 times the value given):
x Area 0.0 0.0000 0.1 0.0398 0.2 0.0793 0.3 0.1179 0.4 0.1554 0.5 0.1915 0.6 0.2258 0.7 0.258 0.8 0.2881 0.9 0.3159 1.0 0.3413 = 68.26% probability for 1σ on
each side of the mean (i.e. 2 x 0.3413 = 0.6826)
1.1 0.3643 1.2 0.3849 1.3 0.4032 1.4 0.4192 1.5 0.4332
1.6 0.4452 1.7 0.4555 1.8 0.4641 1.9 0.4713 2.0 0.4772 = 95.44% probability for 2σ on
each side of the mean 2.1 0.4821 2.2 0.4861
2.3 0.4893 2.4 0.4918 2.5 0.4938 3.0 0.4987 = 99.74% for 3σ each side of
mean 4.0 0.5000 100%, to four significant figures
ENGR 190 Page vii
BASIC NUMBERS FOR NUCLEAR ENGINEERS
1 eV = 1.6x10-19 joules
1 fission = 200 MeV (approx., including capture gammas)
1 atom undergoing combustion = ~4 eV
3.1x1010 fission/sec = 1 watt
1 MWD ~ 1 gm fissioned (actually1.05 gm) = 1.22 gm of fissile material consumed*
50,000 MWD/MTHM ~ 6.3% atom burnup
3.7x1010 disintegrations/sec = 1 Curie
1 MeV of 1 Curie source at 1 foot distance = 6 R/hr
Dose rate = [Curies x Mev/(4πR²)]x(conversion factor)
1 Rad = 1 cGy
1 Rem = 1 cSv
• Theory of Relativity E = ∆mc² gives actual change in mass of 9.6x10-7 kg
= ~1milli gram converted to energy to produce the 1MWD of energy.
The 1.22 gm remaining (less 1 milligram) is primarily the mass of the fission products, the
U-236 (from neutron capture), and the several neutrons released in each fission.
ENGR 190 Page 1
ELECTRICITY AND NATURAL GAS RATES
Current (September 2009) retail energy costs for electricity.
In eastern Idaho, the average residential cost for electricity is about 6.5 cents per kWh. In Idaho, the average industrial price for electricity charged in April 2008 was 4.8 cents per kWh. With the wholesale price decreasing recently because of low demand from the recession, the industrial rate would be expected to decrease when the PUC makes its next ruling. Overall average retail price in Idaho, all sectors was 5.4 cents/kWh in April 2008.
The current (September 2009) wholesale spot market price for purchasing power from the grid in the northwest is 3.0 cents/kWh for off-peak power (was 4.5 cents in March). (Reference: www.theice.com through the Energy Information Agency of the U.S. Department of Energy)
The national average retail residential price in the USA for electricity was about 10 cents per kWh in April 2009, with the highest price areas being New York (15.6 cents per kWh) and Hawaii (27 cents per kWh).
Power-Demand Charge – This is separate from the energy charge, and is imposed on major users who demand power in the 50 kW and above range. Idaho Power charges approximately $2.70 per kW each month, based on the highest demand (in kW) for any 15 minutes period during the month. Demand charges at most other utilities in the nation are in the $7 per kW per month range. (These charges are in addition to the energy charge.)
ELECTRICITY Producing Plants The following table shows the September 2010 costs of fossil fuels and indicates the overall net thermal efficiency of current technology (new) power plants. (Ref.: www.theice.com )
Type of Fuel Cost per MM Btu (Sept. 2009 Approx)
Current new plant net thermal efficiency
Coal $1.80 - $2.70 39%
Natural Gas* $3.00 - $5.00 60%*
Petroleum $12.50 ($70 per barrel) 40% (avg of diesel & GT)
* This is the overall thermal efficiency for new Gas Turbine Combine Cycle (GTCC) power plants now being offered by the three major GTCC suppliers, Mitsubishi, General Electric, and Siemens (Germany).
Since much of the electric generation system in the USA is quite old (more than 25 years), the overall thermodynamic efficiency for the USA’s fossil energy electricity plants is approximately 30%.
Nuclear power plants now in service have an efficiency in the 33% to 34% range. The newest Generation III Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) plants have an efficiency of nearly 37%.
ENGR 190 Page 2
Other Residential Energy Rates
Natural Gas – In Idaho these residential rates are currently in the $10 per million Btu (1000 cubic feet has about 1 million Btu). However, spot wholesale prices for natural gas peaked at $14 per million Btu in late 2007. These high rates would be expected to be adjusted downward, because the current national wholesale price of natural gas is approximately $3 per 1000 cubic feet (per million Btu)
Heating Oil and Propane – These generally track with the price of gasoline (excluding tax). During the coming winter, it is projected that these will be in the $2.00 per gallon range = $16 per million Btu.
Coal – though not used residentially, ISU currently pays $48 per ton of coal delivered from Wyoming. Its heating value is about 10,500 Btu/pound, giving a cost of $2.30 per million Btu
CAPACITY FACTOR
A facility output earning potential may be a hotel room, a theater seat, an airplane seat, or a kWh that could have been generated but was not (for various reasons). When such an income potential is not used to its fullest extent, the fraction of the use that is utilized is referred to as the capacity factor or utilization factor. This factor is the quotient of A/B, where
A = the amount of time, or occupancy, or amount generated in a certain period of time (usually a year)
B = the maximum amount of time, or occupancy, or amount generated that could have been accomplished in that same period of time.
For instance: If a hotel room has occupants (is sold) for 183 days in the year, its utilization factor (or capacity factor) for that year was only 50% – (183 days occupied / 365 days in the year).
If a power plant is rated at 1000 MW, it should be able to produce 1000 MW x 1000 kW/MW x 365 days x 24 hours per day 8.76 x 109 KWh in a year (B in the above equation).
If it only produced 5.1 x 109 kWh, its capacity factor was only 5. lE9/8.76E9 = 66%.
Determining the Average Annual Cost of a Capital Investment
PAYMENTS ON A LOAN or PERIODIC ANNUITY PAYMENTS
a.
𝑃𝑛,𝑖 = 𝑖 �1−1
(1 + 𝑖)𝑛�=
11 − (1 + 𝑖)−𝑛
=𝑖(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 1= 𝑎𝑛,𝑖
−1�
This gives the uniform payment required on a $1 loan, if the interest per payment period is i (a decimal), and the number of payments is n. This result is based on all payments being the same amount. The interest is entered as a decimal, as the rate per period. If the annual rate is 8% and the payments are made monthly, then the nominal monthly interest rate is (8/12)% = 0.006667 (Called Capital Recovery Factor).
ENGR 190 Page 3
b. The reciprocal of this is the annuity formula (called Present Worth Factor - Uniform Series).
𝑎𝑛,𝑖 =1 − (1 + 𝑖)−𝑛
𝑖=
(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 1𝑖(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
This is the amount of an ANNUITY required to be deposited now in order to pay 1 per period for n periods. An interesting relationship is that sn,i
-1 = an,i-1 - i, and basically represents the difference between
saving in advance for a purchase vs. borrowing money for a purchase.
This factor, Pn,i multiplied by the total Principal cost of the investment, gives the annual cost that must be made to pay off the loan. The reciprocal is the multiplier to amount you would “invest” in order receive the annual payments given in dollars.
ENGR 190 Page 4
ENERGY DATA FOR THE USA – 2009 ENERGY REVIEW
Energy Flow, 2009 ........................................................................................................................................ 5 Primary Energy Flow by Source and Sector ................................................................................................. 6 Primary Energy Overview ............................................................................................................................ 7 Primary Energy Production by Source .......................................................................................................... 8 Primary Energy Consumption by Source ...................................................................................................... 9 Petroleum Flow Chart ................................................................................................................................. 10 Crude Oil Production and Crude Oil Well Productivity ............................................................................. 11 Refinery Capacity and Utilization............................................................................................................... 12 Petroleum Net Imports by Country of Origin ............................................................................................. 13 Electricity Flow Chart ................................................................................................................................. 14 Electricity Overview ................................................................................................................................... 15 Electricity Net Generation, by Fuel Source (kWh) ..................................................................................... 16 Electricity Net Generation, by Plant Type .................................................................................................. 17 Consumption for Electricity Generation by Energy Source ....................................................................... 18 Natural Gas Flow Chart .............................................................................................................................. 19 Coal Flow Chart .......................................................................................................................................... 20 Nuclear Power Plant Operations ................................................................................................................. 21 Renewable Energy Production and Consumption by Primary Energy Source ........................................... 22
Figu
re 1
.0 E
nerg
y Fl
ow, 2
009
(Qua
drill
ion
Btu
)
U.S
. Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
/ Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009
3
1 Incl
udes
leas
e co
nden
sate
.2 N
atur
al g
as p
lant
liqu
ids.
3 Con
vent
iona
l hyd
roel
ectri
c po
wer
, bio
mas
s, g
eoth
erm
al, s
olar
/pho
tovo
ltaic
, and
win
d.4 C
rude
oil
and
petro
leum
pro
duct
s. I
nclu
des
impo
rts in
to th
e S
trate
gic
Pet
role
um R
eser
ve.
5 Nat
ural
gas
, coa
l, co
al c
oke,
bio
fuel
s, a
nd e
lect
ricity
.6 A
djus
tmen
ts, l
osse
s, a
nd u
nacc
ount
ed fo
r.7 C
oal,
natu
ral g
as, c
oal c
oke,
ele
ctric
ity, a
nd b
iofu
els.
8 Nat
ural
gas
onl
y; e
xclu
des
supp
lem
enta
l gas
eous
fuel
s.9 P
etro
leum
pro
duct
s, in
clud
ing
natu
ral g
as p
lant
liqu
ids,
and
cru
de o
il bu
rned
as
fuel
.
10 In
clud
es 0
.02
quad
rillio
n B
tu o
f coa
l cok
e ne
t exp
orts
.11
Incl
udes
0.1
2 qu
adril
lion
Btu
of e
lect
ricity
net
impo
rts.
12 T
otal
ene
rgy
cons
umpt
ion,
whi
ch is
the
sum
of p
rimar
y en
ergy
con
sum
ptio
n, e
lect
ricity
reta
ilsa
les,
and
ele
ctric
al s
yste
m e
nerg
y lo
sses
. L
osse
s ar
e al
loca
ted
to t
he e
nd-u
se s
ecto
rs i
npr
opor
tion
to e
ach
sect
or’s
sha
re o
f tot
al e
lect
ricity
ret
ail s
ales
. S
ee N
ote,
“E
lect
rical
Sys
tem
sE
nerg
y Lo
sses
,” at
end
of S
ectio
n 2.
Not
es: •
D
ata
are
prel
imin
ary.
•
Val
ues
are
deriv
ed fr
om s
ourc
e da
ta p
rior
to r
ound
ing
for
publ
icat
ion.
• T
otal
s m
ay n
ot e
qual
sum
of c
ompo
nent
s du
e to
inde
pend
ent r
ound
ing.
Sou
rces
: Tab
les
1.1,
1.2
, 1.3
, 1.4
, an
d 2.
1a.
ENGR 190 Page 5
Figu
re 2
.0 P
rimar
y En
ergy
Flo
w b
y So
urce
and
Sec
tor,
2009
(Q
uadr
illio
n B
tu)
U.S
. Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
/ Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009
37
Su
pp
ly S
ou
rce
s
De
ma
nd
Se
cto
rs
Pe
rce
nt
of
So
urc
eP
erc
en
t o
f S
ect
or
94
72
22 5
1 3 32
35
30
7 <1
93
53
10
0
3
3
41
40 7 11 17
76
1 7 1
18
48
11
Co
al3
19
.7
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tro
leu
m1
35
.3
Na
tura
lGa
s2
23
.4
Re
sid
en
tia
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om
me
rcia
l6
10
.6
12
26 9
22
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ctri
cP
ow
er7
3
8.3
Tra
nsp
ort
ati
on
2
7.0
Ind
ust
ria
l5
1
8.8
Nuc
lear
Elec
tric
Pow
er8.
3
Rene
wab
leEn
ergy
47.
7
1 D
oes
not i
nclu
de b
iofu
els
that
hav
e be
en b
lend
ed w
ith p
etro
leum
—bi
ofue
ls a
re in
clud
ed in
“Ren
ewab
le E
nerg
y."
2 E
xclu
des
supp
lem
enta
l gas
eous
fuel
s.3
Incl
udes
less
than
0.1
qua
drill
ion
Btu
of c
oal c
oke
net e
xpor
ts.
4 C
onve
ntio
nal h
ydro
elec
tric
pow
er, g
eoth
erm
al, s
olar
/PV
, win
d, a
nd b
iom
ass.
5 In
clud
es in
dust
rial c
ombi
ned-
heat
-and
-pow
er (C
HP
) and
indu
stria
l ele
ctric
ity-o
nly
plan
ts.
6 In
clud
es c
omm
erci
al c
ombi
ned-
heat
-and
-pow
er (C
HP
) and
com
mer
cial
ele
ctric
ity-o
nly
plan
ts.
7 E
lect
ricity
-onl
y an
d co
mbi
ned-
heat
-and
-pow
er (C
HP
) pla
nts
who
se p
rimar
y bu
sine
ss is
tose
ll el
ectri
city
, or e
lect
ricity
and
hea
t, to
the
publ
ic.
N
ote:
Sum
of c
ompo
nent
s m
ay n
ot e
qual
100
per
cent
due
to in
depe
nden
t rou
ndin
g. S
ourc
es:
U.S
. E
nerg
y In
form
atio
n A
dmin
istra
tion,
Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009,
Tab
les
1.3,
2.1b
-2.1
f , 1
0.3,
and
10.
4.
ENGR 190 Page 6
U.S
. Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
/ Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009
5
Tab
le 1
.1 P
rim
ary
En
erg
y O
verv
iew
, Sel
ecte
d Y
ears
, 194
9-20
09
(Qua
drill
ion
Btu
)
Yea
r
Pro
du
ctio
nT
rad
eS
tock
Ch
ang
ean
dO
ther
7
Co
nsu
mp
tio
n
Fo
ssil
Fu
els
2
Nu
clea
rE
lect
ric
Po
wer
Ren
ewab
leE
ner
gy
3T
ota
l
Imp
ort
sE
xpo
rts
Net
Imp
ort
s 1
Fo
ssil
Fu
els
8
Nu
clea
rE
lect
ric
Po
wer
Ren
ewab
leE
ner
gy
3T
ota
l 9P
etro
leu
m 4
To
tal 5
Co
al
To
tal 6
To
tal
1949
28.7
480.
000
2.97
431
.722
1.42
71.
448
0.87
71.
592
-0.1
440.
403
29.0
020.
000
2.97
431
.982
1950
32.5
63.0
002.
978
35.5
401.
886
1.91
3.7
861.
465
.448
-1.3
7231
.632
.000
2.97
834
.616
1955
37.3
64.0
002.
784
40.1
482.
752
2.79
01.
465
2.28
6.5
04-.
444
37.4
10.0
002.
784
40.2
0819
6039
.869
.006
2.92
942
.804
3.99
94.
188
1.02
31.
477
2.71
0-.
427
42.1
37.0
062.
929
45.0
8719
6547
.235
.043
3.39
850
.676
5.40
25.
892
1.37
61.
829
4.06
3-.
722
50.5
77.0
433.
398
54.0
1719
7059
.186
.239
4.07
663
.501
7.47
08.
342
1.93
62.
632
5.70
9-1
.367
63.5
22.2
394.
076
67.8
4419
7158
.042
.413
4.26
862
.723
8.54
09.
535
1.54
62.
151
7.38
4-.
818
64.5
96.4
134.
268
69.2
8919
7258
.938
.584
4.39
863
.920
10.2
9911
.387
1.53
12.
118
9.26
9-.
485
67.6
96.5
844.
398
72.7
0419
7358
.241
.910
4.43
363
.585
13.4
6614
.613
1.42
52.
033
12.5
80-.
456
70.3
16.9
104.
433
75.7
0819
7456
.331
1.27
24.
769
62.3
7213
.127
14.3
041.
620
2.20
312
.101
-.48
267
.906
1.27
24.
769
73.9
9119
7554
.733
1.90
04.
723
61.3
5712
.948
14.0
321.
761
2.32
311
.709
-1.0
6765
.355
1.90
04.
723
71.9
9919
7654
.723
2.11
14.
768
61.6
0215
.672
16.7
601.
597
2.17
214
.588
-.17
869
.104
2.11
14.
768
76.0
1219
7755
.101
2.70
24.
249
62.0
5218
.756
19.9
481.
442
2.05
217
.896
-1.9
4870
.989
2.70
24.
249
78.0
0019
7855
.074
3.02
45.
039
63.1
3717
.824
19.1
061.
078
1.92
017
.186
-.33
771
.856
3.02
45.
039
79.9
8619
7958
.006
2.77
65.
166
65.9
4817
.933
19.4
601.
753
2.85
516
.605
-1.6
4972
.892
2.77
65.
166
80.9
0319
8059
.008
2.73
95.
485
67.2
3214
.658
15.7
962.
421
3.69
512
.101
-1.2
1269
.826
2.73
95.
485
78.1
2219
8158
.529
3.00
8R5.
477
67.0
1412
.639
13.7
192.
944
4.30
79.
412
-.25
867
.570
3.00
8R5.
477
76.1
6819
8257
.458
3.13
16.
034
66.6
2310
.777
11.8
612.
787
4.60
87.
253
R-.
723
63.8
883.
131
6.03
473
.153
1983
54.4
163.
203
R6.
561
R64
.180
10.6
4711
.752
2.04
53.
693
8.05
9.7
9963
.154
3.20
3R6.
561
R73
.038
1984
58.8
493.
553
R6.
522
R68
.924
11.4
3312
.471
2.15
13.
786
8.68
5-.
894
66.5
043.
553
R6.
522
R76
.714
1985
57.5
394.
076
R6.
185
R67
.799
10.6
0911
.781
2.43
84.
196
7.58
41.
107
66.0
914.
076
R6.
185
R76
.491
1986
56.5
754.
380
R6.
223
R67
.178
13.2
0114
.151
2.24
84.
021
10.1
30-.
552
66.0
314.
380
R6.
223
R76
.756
1987
57.1
674.
754
R5.
739
R67
.659
14.1
6215
.398
2.09
33.
812
11.5
86-.
073
68.5
224.
754
R5.
739
R79
.173
1988
57.8
755.
587
R5.
568
R69
.030
15.7
4717
.296
2.49
94.
366
12.9
29.8
6071
.556
5.58
7R5.
568
R82
.819
1989
57.4
835.
602
R6.
391
R69
.476
17.1
6218
.766
2.63
74.
661
14.1
051.
362
72.9
135.
602
R6.
391
R84
.944
1990
58.5
606.
104
R6.
206
R70
.870
17.1
1718
.817
2.77
24.
752
14.0
65-.
283
72.3
336.
104
R6.
206
R84
.651
1991
57.8
726.
422
R6.
237
R70
.531
16.3
4818
.335
2.85
45.
141
13.1
94.8
8171
.880
6.42
2R6.
238
R84
.606
1992
57.6
556.
479
R5.
992
R70
.126
16.9
6819
.372
2.68
24.
937
14.4
351.
394
73.3
976.
479
R5.
992
R85
.955
1993
55.8
226.
410
R6.
261
R68
.494
18.5
1021
.273
1.96
24.
258
17.0
14R2.
093
R74
.835
6.41
0R6.
261
R87
.601
1994
58.0
446.
694
R6.
153
R70
.891
19.2
4322
.390
1.87
94.
061
18.3
29R.0
37R76
.257
6.69
4R6.
153
R89
.257
1995
57.5
407.
075
R6.
701
R71
.316
18.8
8122
.260
2.31
84.
511
17.7
50R2.
103
R77
.257
7.07
5R6.
703
R91
.169
1996
58.3
877.
087
R7.
165
R72
.639
20.2
8423
.702
2.36
84.
633
19.0
69R2.
465
R79
.782
7.08
7R7.
166
R94
.172
1997
58.8
576.
597
R7.
177
R72
.631
21.7
4025
.215
2.19
34.
514
20.7
01R1.
429
80.8
746.
597
R7.
175
R94
.761
1998
59.3
147.
068
R6.
655
R73
.037
22.9
0826
.581
2.09
24.
299
22.2
81R-.
140
R81
.369
7.06
8R6.
654
R95
.178
1999
57.6
147.
610
R6.
678
R71
.903
23.1
3327
.252
1.52
53.
715
23.5
37R1.
372
R82
.427
7.61
0R6.
677
R96
.812
2000
57.3
667.
862
R6.
257
R71
.485
24.5
3128
.973
1.52
84.
006
24.9
67R2.
517
R84
.732
7.86
2R6.
260
R98
.970
2001
58.5
41R8.
029
R5.
312
R71
.883
25.3
9830
.157
1.26
53.
770
26.3
86R-1
.953
R82
.902
R8.
029
R5.
311
R96
.316
2002
56.8
94R8.
145
R5.
892
R70
.931
24.6
7329
.407
1.03
23.
668
25.7
39R1.
183
R83
.749
R8.
145
R5.
888
R97
.853
2003
R56
.099
7.95
9R6.
139
R70
.197
26.2
1831
.061
1.11
74.
054
27.0
07R.9
27R84
.010
7.95
9R6.
141
R98
.131
2004
R55
.895
8.22
2R6.
235
R70
.352
28.1
9633
.543
1.25
34.
433
29.1
10R.8
51R85
.805
8.22
2R6.
247
R10
0.31
320
05R55
.038
R8.
161
R6.
393
R69
.592
29.2
4734
.710
1.27
34.
561
30.1
49R.7
04R85
.793
R8.
161
R6.
406
R10
0.44
520
0655
.968
R8.
215
R6.
774
R70
.957
29.1
6234
.673
1.26
44.
868
29.8
05R-.
973
R84
.687
R8.
215
R6.
824
R99
.790
2007
R56
.447
R8.
455
R6.
706
R71
.608
28.7
6234
.685
1.50
75.
448
29.2
38R.6
82R86
.246
R8.
455
R6.
719
R10
1.52
720
08R57
.613
R8.
427
R7.
381
R73
.421
R27
.644
R32
.952
2.07
1R7.
016
R25
.936
R.0
45R83
.496
R8.
427
R7.
366
R99
.402
2009
P56
.860
8.34
97.
761
72.9
7025
.160
29.7
811.
515
6.93
222
.849
-1.2
4178
.368
8.34
97.
744
94.5
78
1N
et im
port
s eq
ual i
mpo
rts
min
us e
xpor
ts.
A m
inus
sig
n in
dica
tes
expo
rts
are
grea
ter
than
impo
rts.
2C
oal,
natu
ral g
as (
dry)
, cru
de o
il, a
nd n
atur
al g
as p
lant
liqu
ids.
3S
ee N
ote
"Ren
ewab
le E
nerg
y P
rodu
ctio
n an
d C
onsu
mpt
ion"
at t
he e
nd o
f Sec
tion
10.
4C
rude
oil
and
petr
oleu
m p
rodu
cts.
Inc
lude
s im
port
s in
to th
e S
trat
egic
Pet
role
um R
eser
ve.
5A
lso
incl
udes
nat
ural
gas
, coa
l, co
al c
oke,
fuel
eth
anol
, bio
dies
el, a
nd e
lect
ricity
.6
Als
o in
clud
es n
atur
al g
as, p
etro
leum
, coa
l cok
e, b
iodi
esel
, and
ele
ctric
ity.
7C
alcu
late
d as
con
sum
ptio
n an
d ex
port
s m
inus
pro
duct
ion
and
impo
rts.
In
clud
es p
etro
leum
sto
ckch
ange
and
adj
ustm
ents
; na
tura
l ga
s ne
t st
orag
e w
ithdr
awal
s an
d ba
lanc
ing
item
; co
al s
tock
cha
nge,
loss
es, a
nd u
nacc
ount
ed fo
r; fu
el e
than
ol s
tock
cha
nge;
and
bio
dies
el s
tock
cha
nge
and
bala
ncin
g ite
m.
8C
oal,
coal
cok
e ne
t im
port
s, n
atur
al g
as, a
nd p
etro
leum
.9
Als
o in
clud
es e
lect
ricity
net
impo
rts.
R=
Rev
ised
. P
=P
relim
inar
y.
Not
es:
•
See
"P
rimar
y E
nerg
y,"
"Prim
ary
Ene
rgy
Pro
duct
ion,
" an
d "P
rimar
y E
nerg
y C
onsu
mpt
ion"
in
Glo
ssar
y. •
Tot
als
may
not
equ
al s
um o
f com
pone
nts
due
to in
depe
nden
t rou
ndin
g.W
eb P
age:
For
all
data
beg
inni
ng in
194
9, s
ee h
ttp://
ww
w.e
ia.g
ov/e
meu
/aer
/ove
rvie
w.h
tml.
Sou
rces
: T
able
s 1.
2, 1
.3, a
nd 1
.4.
ENGR 190 Page 7
U.S
. Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
/ Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009
7
Tab
le 1
.2 P
rim
ary
En
erg
y P
rod
uct
ion
by
So
urc
e, S
elec
ted
Yea
rs, 1
949-
2009
(Q
uadr
illio
n B
tu)
Yea
r
Fo
ssil
Fu
els
Nu
clea
rE
lect
ric
Po
wer
Ren
ewab
le E
ner
gy
1
To
tal
Co
al 2
Nat
ura
lG
as(D
ry)
Cru
de
Oil
3N
GP
L 4
To
tal
Hyd
ro-
elec
tric
Po
wer
5G
eoth
erm
alS
ola
r/P
VW
ind
Bio
mas
sT
ota
l
1949
11.9
745.
377
10.6
830.
714
28.7
480.
000
1.42
5
NA
N
A
NA
1.54
92.
974
31.7
2219
5014
.060
6.23
311
.447
.823
32.5
63.0
001.
415
N
A
NA
N
A1.
562
2.97
835
.540
1955
12.3
709.
345
14.4
101.
240
37.3
64.0
001.
360
N
A
NA
N
A1.
424
2.78
440
.148
1960
10.8
1712
.656
14.9
351.
461
39.8
69.0
061.
608
.001
N
A
NA
1.32
02.
929
42.8
0419
6513
.055
15.7
7516
.521
1.88
347
.235
.043
2.05
9.0
04
NA
N
A1.
335
3.39
850
.676
1970
14.6
0721
.666
20.4
012.
512
59.1
86.2
392.
634
.011
N
A
NA
1.43
14.
076
63.5
0119
7113
.186
22.2
8020
.033
2.54
458
.042
.413
2.82
4.0
12
NA
N
A1.
432
4.26
862
.723
1972
14.0
9222
.208
20.0
412.
598
58.9
38.5
842.
864
.031
N
A
NA
1.50
34.
398
63.9
2019
7313
.992
22.1
8719
.493
2.56
958
.241
.910
2.86
1.0
43
NA
N
A1.
529
4.43
363
.585
1974
14.0
7421
.210
18.5
752.
471
56.3
311.
272
3.17
7.0
53
NA
N
A1.
540
4.76
962
.372
1975
14.9
8919
.640
17.7
292.
374
54.7
331.
900
3.15
5.0
70
NA
N
A1.
499
4.72
361
.357
1976
15.6
5419
.480
17.2
622.
327
54.7
232.
111
2.97
6.0
78
NA
N
A1.
713
4.76
861
.602
1977
15.7
5519
.565
17.4
542.
327
55.1
012.
702
2.33
3.0
77
NA
N
A1.
838
4.24
962
.052
1978
14.9
1019
.485
18.4
342.
245
55.0
743.
024
2.93
7.0
64
NA
N
A2.
038
5.03
963
.137
1979
17.5
4020
.076
18.1
042.
286
58.0
062.
776
2.93
1.0
84
NA
N
A2.
152
5.16
665
.948
1980
18.5
9819
.908
18.2
492.
254
59.0
082.
739
2.90
0.1
10
NA
N
A2.
476
5.48
567
.232
1981
18.3
7719
.699
18.1
462.
307
58.5
293.
008
2.75
8.1
23
NA
N
AR2.
596
R5.
477
67.0
1419
8218
.639
18.3
1918
.309
2.19
157
.458
3.13
13.
266
.105
N
A
NA
R2.
663
6.03
466
.623
1983
17.2
4716
.593
18.3
922.
184
54.4
163.
203
3.52
7.1
29
NA
(
s)R2.
904
R6.
561
R64
.180
1984
19.7
1918
.008
18.8
482.
274
58.8
493.
553
3.38
6.1
65
(s)
(
s)R2.
971
R6.
522
R68
.924
1985
19.3
2516
.980
18.9
922.
241
57.5
394.
076
2.97
0.1
98
(s)
(
s)R3.
016
R6.
185
R67
.799
1986
19.5
0916
.541
18.3
762.
149
56.5
754.
380
3.07
1.2
19
(s)
(
s)R2.
932
R6.
223
R67
.178
1987
20.1
4117
.136
17.6
752.
215
57.1
674.
754
2.63
5.2
29
(s)
(
s)R2.
875
R5.
739
R67
.659
1988
20.7
3817
.599
17.2
792.
260
57.8
755.
587
2.33
4.2
17
(s)
(
s)R3.
016
R5.
568
R69
.030
1989
2 21.
360
17.8
4716
.117
2.15
857
.483
5.60
22.
837
.317
.055
.022
R3.
159
R6.
391
R69
.476
1990
22.4
8818
.326
15.5
712.
175
58.5
606.
104
3.04
6.3
36.0
60.0
29R2.
735
R6.
206
R70
.870
1991
21.6
3618
.229
15.7
012.
306
57.8
726.
422
3.01
6.3
46.0
63.0
31R2.
782
R6.
237
R70
.531
1992
21.6
9418
.375
15.2
232.
363
57.6
556.
479
2.61
7.3
49.0
64.0
30R2.
932
R5.
992
R70
.126
1993
20.3
3618
.584
14.4
942.
408
55.8
226.
410
2.89
2.3
64.0
66.0
31R2.
908
R6.
261
R68
.494
1994
22.2
0219
.348
14.1
032.
391
58.0
446.
694
2.68
3.3
38.0
69.0
36R3.
028
R6.
153
R70
.891
1995
22.1
3019
.082
13.8
872.
442
57.5
407.
075
3.20
5.2
94.0
70.0
33R3.
099
R6.
701
R71
.316
1996
22.7
9019
.344
13.7
232.
530
58.3
877.
087
3.59
0.3
16.0
71.0
33R3.
155
R7.
165
R72
.639
1997
23.3
1019
.394
13.6
582.
495
58.8
576.
597
3.64
0.3
25.0
70.0
34R3.
108
R7.
177
R72
.631
1998
24.0
4519
.613
13.2
352.
420
59.3
147.
068
3.29
7.3
28.0
70.0
31R2.
929
R6.
655
R73
.037
1999
23.2
9519
.341
12.4
512.
528
57.6
147.
610
3.26
8.3
31.0
69.0
46R2.
965
R6.
678
R71
.903
2000
22.7
3519
.662
12.3
582.
611
57.3
667.
862
2.81
1.3
17.0
66.0
57R3.
006
R6.
257
R71
.485
2001
2 23.
547
20.1
6612
.282
2.54
758
.541
R8.
029
2.24
2.3
11.0
65.0
70R2.
624
R5.
312
R71
.883
2002
22.7
3219
.439
12.1
632.
559
56.8
94R8.
145
2.68
9.3
28.0
64.1
05R2.
705
R5.
892
R70
.931
2003
22.0
94R19
.633
12.0
262.
346
R56
.099
7.95
92.
825
.331
.064
.115
R2.
805
R6.
139
R70
.197
2004
22.8
52R19
.074
11.5
032.
466
R55
.895
8.22
22.
690
.341
.065
.142
R2.
998
R6.
235
R70
.352
2005
23.1
85R18
.556
10.9
632.
334
R55
.038
R8.
161
2.70
3.3
43.0
66.1
78R3.
104
R6.
393
R69
.592
2006
23.7
9019
.022
10.8
012.
356
55.9
68R8.
215
2.86
9.3
43.0
72.2
64R3.
226
R6.
774
R70
.957
2007
23.4
93R19
.825
10.7
212.
409
R56
.447
R8.
455
2.44
6.3
49.0
81.3
41R3.
489
R6.
706
R71
.608
2008
R23
.851
R20
.834
R10
.509
R2.
419
R57
.613
R8.
427
R2.
511
R.3
60R.0
97R.5
46R3.
867
R7.
381
R73
.421
2009
P21
.578
21.5
0011
.241
2.54
156
.860
8.34
92.
682
.373
.109
.697
3.90
07.
761
72.9
70
1M
ost d
ata
are
estim
ates
. S
ee T
able
s 10
.1-1
0.2c
for
note
s on
ser
ies
com
pone
nts
and
estim
atio
n.2
Beg
inni
ng in
198
9, in
clud
es w
aste
coa
l sup
plie
d.
Beg
inni
ng in
200
1, a
lso
incl
udes
a s
mal
l am
ount
of
refu
se r
ecov
ery.
See
Tab
le 7
.1.
3In
clud
es le
ase
cond
ensa
te.
4N
atur
al g
as p
lant
liqu
ids.
5C
onve
ntio
nal h
ydro
elec
tric
pow
er.
R=
Rev
ised
. P
=P
relim
inar
y. N
A=
Not
ava
ilabl
e. (
s)=
Less
than
0.0
005
quad
rillio
n B
tu.
Not
es:
•
See
"P
rimar
y E
nerg
y P
rodu
ctio
n" i
n G
loss
ary.
•
Tot
als
may
not
equ
al s
um o
f co
mpo
nent
sdu
e to
inde
pend
ent r
ound
ing.
Web
Pag
e: F
or a
ll da
ta b
egin
ning
in 1
949,
see
http
://w
ww
.eia
.gov
/em
eu/a
er/o
verv
iew
.htm
l.S
ourc
es:
Tab
les
5.1,
6.1
, 7.1
, 8.2
a, 1
0.1,
A2,
A4,
A5,
and
A6.
ENGR 190 Page 8
U.S
. Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
/ Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009
9
Tab
le 1
.3 P
rim
ary
En
erg
y C
on
sum
pti
on
by
So
urc
e, S
elec
ted
Yea
rs, 1
949-
2009
(Q
uadr
illio
n B
tu)
Yea
r
Fo
ssil
Fu
els
Nu
clea
rE
lect
ric
Po
wer
Ren
ewab
le E
ner
gy
1
Ele
ctri
city
Net
Imp
ort
s 2
To
tal
Co
al
Co
al C
oke
Net
Imp
ort
s 2
Nat
ura
lG
as 3
Pet
role
um
4T
ota
l
Hyd
ro-
elec
tric
Po
wer
5G
eoth
erm
alS
ola
r/P
VW
ind
Bio
mas
sT
ota
l
1949
11.9
81-0
.007
5.14
511
.883
29.0
020.
000
1.42
5
NA
N
A
NA
1.54
92.
974
0.00
531
.982
1950
12.3
47.0
015.
968
13.3
1531
.632
.000
1.41
5
NA
N
A
NA
1.56
22.
978
.006
34.6
1619
5511
.167
-.01
08.
998
17.2
5537
.410
.000
1.36
0
NA
N
A
NA
1.42
42.
784
.014
40.2
0819
609.
838
-.00
612
.385
19.9
1942
.137
.006
1.60
8.0
01
NA
N
A1.
320
2.92
9.0
1545
.087
1965
11.5
81-.
018
15.7
6923
.246
50.5
77.0
432.
059
.004
N
A
NA
1.33
53.
398
(
s)54
.017
1970
12.2
65-.
058
21.7
9529
.521
63.5
22.2
392.
634
.011
N
A
NA
1.43
14.
076
.007
67.8
4419
7111
.598
-.03
322
.469
30.5
6164
.596
.413
2.82
4.0
12
NA
N
A1.
432
4.26
8.0
1269
.289
1972
12.0
77-.
026
22.6
9832
.947
67.6
96.5
842.
864
.031
N
A
NA
1.50
34.
398
.026
72.7
0419
7312
.971
-.00
722
.512
34.8
4070
.316
.910
2.86
1.0
43
NA
N
A1.
529
4.43
3.0
4975
.708
1974
12.6
63.0
5621
.732
33.4
5567
.906
1.27
23.
177
.053
N
A
NA
1.54
04.
769
.043
73.9
9119
7512
.663
.014
19.9
4832
.731
65.3
551.
900
3.15
5.0
70
NA
N
A1.
499
4.72
3.0
2171
.999
1976
13.5
84
(s)
20.3
4535
.175
69.1
042.
111
2.97
6.0
78
NA
N
A1.
713
4.76
8.0
2976
.012
1977
13.9
22.0
1519
.931
37.1
2270
.989
2.70
22.
333
.077
N
A
NA
1.83
84.
249
.059
78.0
0019
7813
.766
.125
20.0
0037
.965
71.8
563.
024
2.93
7.0
64
NA
N
A2.
038
5.03
9.0
6779
.986
1979
15.0
40.0
6320
.666
37.1
2372
.892
2.77
62.
931
.084
N
A
NA
2.15
25.
166
.069
80.9
0319
8015
.423
-.03
520
.235
34.2
0269
.826
2.73
92.
900
.110
N
A
NA
2.47
65.
485
.071
78.1
2219
8115
.908
-.01
619
.747
31.9
3167
.570
3.00
82.
758
.123
N
A
NA
R2.
596
R5.
477
.113
76.1
6819
8215
.322
-.02
218
.356
30.2
3263
.888
3.13
13.
266
.105
N
A
NA
R2.
663
6.03
4.1
0073
.153
1983
15.8
94-.
016
17.2
2130
.054
63.1
543.
203
3.52
7.1
29
NA
(
s)R2.
904
R6.
561
.121
R73
.038
1984
17.0
71-.
011
18.3
9431
.051
66.5
043.
553
3.38
6.1
65
(s)
(
s)R2.
971
R6.
522
.135
R76
.714
1985
17.4
78-.
013
17.7
0330
.922
66.0
914.
076
2.97
0.1
98
(s)
(
s)R3.
016
R6.
185
.140
R76
.491
1986
17.2
60-.
017
16.5
9132
.196
66.0
314.
380
3.07
1.2
19
(s)
(
s)R2.
932
R6.
223
.122
R76
.756
1987
18.0
08.0
0917
.640
32.8
6568
.522
4.75
42.
635
.229
(
s)
(s)
R2.
875
R5.
739
.158
R79
.173
1988
18.8
46.0
4018
.448
34.2
2271
.556
5.58
72.
334
.217
(
s)
(s)
R3.
016
R5.
568
.108
R82
.819
1989
19.0
70.0
3019
.602
34.2
1172
.913
5.60
22.
837
.317
.055
.022
R3.
159
R6.
391
.037
R84
.944
1990
19.1
73.0
0519
.603
33.5
5372
.333
6.10
43.
046
.336
.060
.029
R2.
735
R6.
206
.008
R84
.651
1991
18.9
92.0
1020
.033
32.8
4571
.880
6.42
23.
016
.346
.063
.031
R2.
782
R6.
238
.067
R84
.606
1992
19.1
22.0
3520
.714
33.5
2773
.397
6.47
92.
617
.349
.064
.030
R2.
932
R5.
992
.087
R85
.955
1993
19.8
35.0
2721
.229
33.7
44R74
.835
6.41
02.
892
.364
.066
.031
R2.
908
R6.
261
.095
R87
.601
1994
19.9
09.0
5821
.728
R34
.561
R76
.257
6.69
42.
683
.338
.069
.036
R3.
028
R6.
153
.153
R89
.257
1995
20.0
89.0
6122
.671
R34
.436
R77
.257
7.07
53.
205
.294
.070
.033
R3.
101
R6.
703
.134
R91
.169
1996
21.0
02.0
2323
.085
35.6
73R79
.782
7.08
73.
590
.316
.071
.033
R3.
157
R7.
166
.137
R94
.172
1997
21.4
45.0
4623
.223
R36
.159
80.8
746.
597
3.64
0.3
25.0
70.0
34R3.
105
R7.
175
.116
R94
.761
1998
21.6
56.0
6722
.830
R36
.816
R81
.369
7.06
83.
297
.328
.070
.031
R2.
928
R6.
654
.088
R95
.178
1999
21.6
23.0
5822
.909
R37
.837
R82
.427
7.61
03.
268
.331
.069
.046
R2.
963
R6.
677
.099
R96
.812
2000
22.5
80.0
6523
.824
R38
.263
R84
.732
7.86
22.
811
.317
.066
.057
R3.
008
R6.
260
.115
R98
.970
2001
21.9
14.0
2922
.773
R38
.185
R82
.902
R8.
029
2.24
2.3
11.0
65.0
70R2.
622
R5.
311
.075
R96
.316
2002
21.9
04.0
6123
.558
R38
.225
R83
.749
R8.
145
2.68
9.3
28.0
64.1
05R2.
701
R5.
888
.072
R97
.853
2003
22.3
21.0
51R22
.831
R38
.808
R84
.010
7.95
92.
825
.331
.064
.115
R2.
807
R6.
141
.022
R98
.131
2004
22.4
66.1
38R22
.909
R40
.292
R85
.805
8.22
22.
690
.341
.065
.142
R3.
010
R6.
247
.039
R10
0.31
320
0522
.797
.044
R22
.561
R40
.391
R85
.793
R8.
161
2.70
3.3
43.0
66.1
78R3.
117
R6.
406
.084
R10
0.44
520
0622
.447
.061
22.2
24R39
.955
R84
.687
R8.
215
2.86
9.3
43.0
72.2
64R3.
277
R6.
824
.063
R99
.790
2007
22.7
49.0
25R23
.702
R39
.769
R86
.246
R8.
455
2.44
6.3
49.0
81.3
41R3.
503
R6.
719
.107
R10
1.52
720
08R22
.385
.041
R23
.791
R37
.279
R83
.496
R8.
427
R2.
511
R.3
60R.0
97R.5
46R3.
852
R7.
366
.112
R99
.402
2009
P19
.761
-.02
423
.362
35.2
6878
.368
8.34
92.
682
.373
.109
.697
3.88
37.
744
.117
94.5
78
1M
ost d
ata
are
estim
ates
. S
ee T
able
s 10
.1-1
0.2c
for
note
s on
ser
ies
com
pone
nts
and
estim
atio
n.2
Net
impo
rts
equa
l im
port
s m
inus
exp
orts
. A
min
us s
ign
indi
cate
s ex
port
s ar
e gr
eate
r th
an im
port
s.3
Nat
ural
gas
onl
y; e
xclu
des
supp
lem
enta
l gas
eous
fue
ls.
See
Not
e 1,
"S
uppl
emen
tal G
aseo
us F
uels
,"at
end
of S
ectio
n 6.
4P
etro
leum
pro
duct
s su
pplie
d, i
nclu
ding
nat
ural
gas
pla
nt l
iqui
ds a
nd c
rude
oil
burn
ed a
s fu
el.
Doe
sno
t inc
lude
bio
fuel
s th
at h
ave
been
ble
nded
with
pet
role
um—
biof
uels
are
incl
uded
in "
Bio
mas
s."
5C
onve
ntio
nal h
ydro
elec
tric
pow
er.
R=
Rev
ised
.
P=
Pre
limin
ary.
NA
=N
ot
avai
labl
e.
(s
)=Le
ss
than
0.
0005
an
d gr
eate
r th
an
-0.0
005
quad
rillio
n B
tu.
Not
es:
•
See
"P
rimar
y E
nerg
y C
onsu
mpt
ion"
in
Glo
ssar
y.
• S
ee T
able
E1
for
estim
ated
ene
rgy
cons
umpt
ion
for
1635
-194
5.
• S
ee N
ote
3, "
Ele
ctric
ity I
mpo
rts
and
Exp
orts
," a
t en
d of
Sec
tion
8.•
Tot
als
may
not
equ
al s
um o
f com
pone
nts
due
to in
depe
nden
t rou
ndin
g.W
eb P
age:
For
all
data
beg
inni
ng in
194
9, s
ee h
ttp://
ww
w.e
ia.g
ov/e
meu
/aer
/ove
rvie
w.h
tml.
Sou
rces
: T
able
s 5.
12, 6
.1, 7
.1, 7
.7, 8
.1, 8
.2a,
10.
1, 1
0.3,
A4,
A5,
and
A6.
ENGR 190 Page 9
Figu
re 5
.0.
Petr
oleu
m F
low
, 200
9(M
illio
n B
arre
ls p
er D
ay)
U.S
. Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
/ Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009
127
1 U
nfin
ishe
d oi
ls,
hydr
ogen
/oxy
gena
tes/
rene
wab
les/
othe
r hy
droc
arbo
ns,
and
mot
or g
asol
ine
and
avia
tion
gaso
line
blen
ding
com
pone
nts.
2 Ren
ewab
le fu
els
and
oxyg
enat
e pl
ant n
et p
rodu
ctio
n (0
.75)
, net
impo
rts (1
.34)
and
adj
ustm
ents
(-0.0
3) m
inus
sto
ck c
hang
e (0
.06)
and
pro
duct
sup
plie
d (-0
.08)
.3 F
inis
hed
petro
leum
pro
duct
s, li
quef
ied
petro
leum
gas
es, a
nd p
enta
nes
plus
.4 N
atur
al g
as p
lant
liqu
ids.
5 Pro
duct
ion
min
us re
finer
y in
put.
Not
es:
• D
ata
are
prel
imin
ary.
•
Val
ues
are
deriv
ed fr
om s
ourc
e da
ta p
rior
to r
ound
ing
for
publ
icat
ion.
• T
otal
s m
ay n
ot e
qual
sum
of c
ompo
nent
s du
e to
inde
pend
ent r
ound
ing.
Sou
rces
: Ta
bles
5.1
, 5.
3, 5
.5,
5.8,
5.1
1, 5
.13a
-5.1
3d,
5.16
, an
d P
etro
leum
Sup
ply
Mon
thly
,Fe
brua
ry 2
010,
Tab
le 4
.
ENGR 190 Page 10
U.S
. Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
/ Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009
131
Tab
le 5
.2 C
rud
e O
il P
rod
uct
ion
an
d C
rud
e O
il W
ell P
rod
uct
ivit
y, S
elec
ted
Yea
rs, 1
954-
2009
Yea
r
Geo
gra
ph
ic L
oca
tio
nS
ite
Typ
eT
ota
lP
rod
uct
ion
Cru
de
Oil
Wel
l 1 P
rod
uct
ivit
y
48 S
tate
s 2
Ala
ska
On
sho
reO
ffsh
ore
Cru
de
Oil
Lea
se C
on
den
sate
Pro
du
cin
g W
ells
3A
vera
ge
Pro
du
ctiv
ity
4
Tho
usan
d B
arre
ls p
er D
ayT
hous
ands
Bar
rels
per
Day
per
Wel
l
1954
6,34
20
6,20
913
36,
342
5(
)6,
342
511
12.4
1955
6,80
70
6,64
516
26,
807
5(
)6,
807
524
13.0
1960
7,03
42
6,71
631
97,
035
5(
)7,
035
591
11.9
1965
7,77
430
7,14
066
57,
804
5(
)7,
804
589
13.2
1970
9,40
822
98,
060
1,57
79,
180
457
9,63
753
118
.119
758,
183
191
7,01
21,
362
8,00
736
78,
375
500
16.8
1976
7,95
817
36,
868
1,26
47,
776
356
8,13
249
916
.319
777,
781
464
7,06
91,
176
7,87
537
08,
245
507
16.3
1978
7,47
81,
229
7,57
11,
136
8,35
335
58,
707
517
16.8
1979
7,15
11,
401
7,48
51,
067
8,18
137
18,
552
531
16.1
1980
6,98
01,
617
7,56
21,
034
8,21
038
68,
597
548
15.7
1981
6,96
21,
609
7,53
71,
034
8,17
639
58,
572
557
15.4
1982
6,95
31,
696
7,53
81,
110
8,26
138
78,
649
580
14.9
1983
6,97
41,
714
7,49
21,
196
8,68
85
()
8,68
860
314
.419
847,
157
1,72
27,
596
1,28
38,
879
5(
)8,
879
621
14.3
1985
7,14
61,
825
7,72
21,
250
8,97
15
()
8,97
164
713
.919
866,
814
1,86
77,
426
1,25
48,
680
5(
)8,
680
623
13.9
1987
6,38
71,
962
7,15
31,
196
8,34
95
()
8,34
962
013
.519
886,
123
2,01
76,
949
1,19
18,
140
5(
)8,
140
612
13.3
1989
5,73
91,
874
6,48
61,
127
7,61
35
()
7,61
360
312
.619
905,
582
1,77
36,
273
1,08
27,
355
5(
)7,
355
602
12.2
1991
5,61
81,
798
6,24
51,
172
7,41
75
()
7,41
761
412
.119
925,
457
1,71
45,
953
1,21
87,
171
5(
)7,
171
594
12.1
1993
5,26
41,
582
5,60
61,
241
6,84
75
()
6,84
758
411
.719
945,
103
1,55
95,
291
1,37
06,
662
5(
)6,
662
582
11.4
1995
5,07
61,
484
5,03
51,
525
6,56
05
()
6,56
057
411
.419
965,
071
1,39
34,
902
1,56
26,
465
5(
)6,
465
574
11.3
1997
5,15
61,
296
4,80
31,
648
6,45
25
()
6,45
257
311
.319
985,
077
1,17
54,
560
1,69
26,
252
5(
)6,
252
562
11.1
1999
4,83
21,
050
4,13
21,
750
5,88
15
()
5,88
154
610
.820
004,
851
970
4,04
91,
773
5,82
25
()
5,82
253
410
.920
014,
839
963
3,87
91,
923
5,80
15
()
5,80
153
010
.920
024,
761
984
3,74
32,
003
5,74
65
()
5,74
652
910
.920
034,
706
974
3,66
82,
012
5,68
15
()
5,68
151
311
.120
044,
510
908
3,53
61,
883
5,41
95
()
5,41
951
010
.620
054,
314
864
3,46
61,
712
5,17
85
()
5,17
849
810
.420
064,
361
741
3,40
11,
701
5,10
25
()
5,10
249
710
.320
074,
342
722
3,40
71,
657
5,06
45
()
5,06
450
010
.120
08R4,
268
683
R3,
580
1,37
1R4,
950
5(
)R4,
950
R52
69.
420
09P4,
665
P64
5E3,
442
E1,
868
P5,
310
5(
)P5,
310
526
10.1
1S
ee "
Cru
de O
il W
ell"
in G
loss
ary.
2U
nite
d S
tate
s ex
clud
ing
Ala
ska
and
Haw
aii.
3A
s of
Dec
embe
r 31
.4
Thr
ough
197
6, a
vera
ge p
rodu
ctiv
ity is
bas
ed o
n th
e av
erag
e nu
mbe
r of
pro
duci
ng w
ells
. B
egin
ning
in19
77, a
vera
ge p
rodu
ctiv
ity is
bas
ed o
n th
e nu
mbe
r of
wel
ls p
rodu
cing
at e
nd o
f yea
r.5
Incl
uded
in "
Cru
de O
il."
R=
Rev
ised
. P
=P
relim
inar
y. E
=E
stim
ate.
N
ote:
Tot
als
may
not
equ
al s
um o
f com
pone
nts
due
to in
depe
nden
t rou
ndin
g.W
eb P
age:
See
http
://w
ww
.eia
.gov
/oil_
gas/
petr
oleu
m/in
fo_g
lanc
e/pe
trol
eum
.htm
l for
rel
ated
info
mat
ion.
Sou
rces
: O
nsh
ore
: •
19
54-1
975—
Bur
eau
of M
ines
, M
iner
al I
ndus
try
Sur
veys
, P
etro
leum
Sta
tem
ent
(PS
), A
nnua
l, an
nual
rep
orts
. •
19
76-1
980—
U.S
. E
nerg
y In
form
atio
n A
dmin
istr
atio
n (E
IA),
Ene
rgy
Dat
aR
epor
ts, P
S, A
nnua
l, an
nual
rep
orts
. •
198
1-20
08—
EIA
, Pet
role
um S
uppl
y A
nnua
l (P
SA
), a
nnua
l rep
orts
. •
200
9—E
IA e
stim
ates
bas
ed o
n F
orm
EIA
-182
, "D
omes
tic C
rude
Oil
Firs
t Pur
chas
e R
epor
t," a
nd c
rude
oil
prod
uctio
n da
ta r
epor
ted
by S
tate
con
serv
atio
n ag
enci
es.
Off
sho
re:
•
1954
-196
9—U
.S.
Geo
logi
c al
Sur
vey,
Out
er C
ontin
enta
l S
helf
Sta
tistic
s (J
une
1979
).
• 1
970-
1975
—B
urea
u of
Min
es,
Min
eral
Ind
ustr
yS
urve
ys,
PS
, A
nnua
l, an
nual
rep
orts
. •
19
76-1
980—
EIA
, E
nerg
y D
ata
Rep
orts
, P
S,
Ann
ual,
annu
alre
port
s.
• 1
981-
2008
—E
IA,
PS
A,
annu
al r
epor
ts.
•
2009
—E
IA e
stim
ates
bas
ed o
n F
orm
EIA
-182
,"D
omes
tic C
rude
Oil
Firs
t P
urch
ase
Rep
ort,"
and
cru
de o
il pr
oduc
tion
data
rep
orte
d by
Sta
te c
onse
rvat
ion
agen
cies
. P
rod
uci
ng
Wel
ls:
•
1954
-197
5—B
urea
u of
Min
es,
Min
eral
s Y
earb
ook,
"C
rude
Pet
role
um a
ndP
etro
leum
Pro
duct
s" c
hapt
er.
•
1976
-198
0—E
IA,
Ene
rgy
Dat
a R
epor
ts,
PS
, A
nnua
l, an
nual
rep
orts
.•
198
1-19
94—
Inde
pend
ent
Pet
role
um A
ssoc
iatio
n of
Am
eric
a, T
he O
il P
rodu
cing
Ind
ustr
y in
You
r S
tate
.•
199
5 fo
rwar
d—G
ulf
Pub
lishi
ng C
o.,
Wor
ld O
il, F
ebru
ary
issu
es.
All
Oth
er D
ata:
•
195
4-19
75—
Bur
eau
of M
ines
, M
iner
al I
ndus
try
Sur
veys
, P
S,
Ann
ual,
annu
al r
epor
ts.
•
1976
-198
0—E
IA,
Ene
rgy
Dat
a R
epor
ts,
PS
, A
nnua
l, an
nual
rep
orts
. •
19
81-2
008—
EIA
, P
SA
, an
nual
rep
orts
. •
20
09—
EIA
, P
etro
leum
Sup
ply
Mon
thly
(F
ebru
ary
2010
).
ENGR 190 Page 11
U.S
. Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
/ Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009
145
Tab
le 5
.9 R
efin
ery
Cap
acit
y an
d U
tiliz
atio
n, S
elec
ted
Yea
rs, 1
949-
2009
Yea
r
Op
erab
leR
efin
erie
s 1
Op
erab
le R
efin
erie
s C
apac
ity
Gro
ss In
pu
tto
Dis
tilla
tio
n U
nit
s 3
Uti
lizat
ion
4O
n J
anu
ary
1A
nn
ual
Ave
rag
e 2
Num
ber
Tho
usan
d B
arre
ls p
er D
ay T
hous
and
Bar
rels
per
Day
Per
cent
1949
336
6,23
1
NA
5,55
689
.219
5032
06,
223
N
A5,
980
92.5
1955
296
8,38
6
NA
7,82
092
.219
6030
99,
843
N
A8,
439
85.1
1965
293
10,4
20
NA
9,55
791
.819
7027
612
,021
N
A11
,517
92.6
1971
272
12,8
60
NA
11,8
8190
.919
7227
413
,292
N
A12
,431
92.3
1973
268
13,6
42
NA
13,1
5193
.919
7427
314
,362
N
A12
,689
86.6
1975
279
14,9
61
NA
12,9
0285
.519
7627
615
,237
N
A13
,884
87.8
1977
282
16,3
98
NA
14,9
8289
.619
7829
617
,048
N
A15
,071
87.4
1979
308
17,4
41
NA
14,9
5584
.419
8031
917
,988
N
A13
,796
75.4
1981
324
18,6
2118
,603
12,7
5268
.619
8230
117
,890
17,4
3212
,172
69.9
1983
258
16,8
5916
,668
11,9
4771
.719
8424
716
,137
16,0
3512
,216
76.2
1985
223
15,6
5915
,671
12,1
6577
.619
8621
615
,459
15,4
5912
,826
82.9
1987
219
15,5
6615
,642
13,0
0383
.119
8821
315
,915
15,9
2713
,447
84.7
1989
204
15,6
5515
,701
13,5
5186
.619
9020
515
,572
15,6
2313
,610
87.1
1991
202
15,6
7615
,707
13,5
0886
.019
9219
915
,696
15,4
6013
,600
87.9
1993
187
15,1
2115
,143
13,8
5191
.519
9417
915
,034
15,1
5014
,032
92.6
1995
175
15,4
3415
,346
14,1
1992
.019
9617
015
,333
15,2
3914
,337
94.1
1997
164
15,4
5215
,594
14,8
3895
.219
9816
315
,711
15,8
0215
,113
95.6
1999
159
16,2
6116
,282
15,0
8092
.620
0015
816
,512
16,5
2515
,299
92.6
2001
155
16,5
9516
,582
15,3
5292
.620
0215
316
,785
16,7
4415
,180
90.7
2003
149
16,7
5716
,748
15,5
0892
.620
0414
916
,894
16,9
7415
,783
93.0
2005
148
17,1
2517
,196
15,5
7890
.620
0614
917
,339
17,3
8515
,602
89.7
2007
149
17,4
4317
,450
15,4
5088
.520
0815
017
,594
R17
,607
15,0
27R85
.320
09P
150
17,6
7217
,674
14,6
4082
.8
1T
hrou
gh 1
956,
incl
udes
onl
y th
ose
refin
erie
s in
ope
ratio
n on
Jan
uary
1; b
egin
ning
in 1
957,
incl
udes
all
"ope
rabl
e" r
efin
erie
s on
Jan
uary
1.
See
"O
pera
ble
Ref
iner
ies"
in G
loss
ary.
2A
vera
ge o
f mon
thly
cap
acity
dat
a.3
See
Not
e 3,
"G
ross
Inpu
t to
Dis
tilla
tion
Uni
ts,"
at e
nd o
f sec
tion.
4T
hrou
gh 1
980,
util
izat
ion
is c
alcu
late
d by
div
idin
g gr
oss
inpu
t to
dist
illat
ion
units
by
one-
half
of th
e su
mof
the
cur
rent
yea
r’s J
anua
ry 1
cap
acity
and
the
fol
low
ing
year
’s J
anua
ry 1
cap
acity
. B
egin
ning
in
1981
,ut
iliza
tion
is c
alcu
late
d by
div
idin
g gr
oss
inpu
t to
dist
illat
ion
units
by
the
annu
al a
vera
ge c
apac
ity.
R=
Rev
ised
. P
=P
relim
inar
y. N
A=
Not
ava
ilabl
e.
Web
P
ages
:
•
For
al
l da
ta
begi
nnin
g in
19
49,
see
http
://w
ww
.eia
.gov
/em
eu/a
er/p
etro
.htm
l.•
For
rel
ated
info
rmat
ion,
see
http
://w
ww
.eia
.gov
/oil_
gas/
petr
oleu
m/in
fo_g
lanc
e/pe
trol
eum
.htm
l.S
ourc
es:
Op
erab
le R
efin
erie
s an
d O
per
able
Ref
iner
ies
Cap
acit
y:
• 1
949-
1961
—B
urea
u of
Min
es
Info
rmat
ion
Circ
ular
, "P
etro
leum
R
efin
erie
s,
Incl
udin
g C
rack
ing
Pla
nts
in
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes.
"•
196
2-19
77—
Bur
eau
of M
ines
, M
iner
al I
ndus
try
Sur
veys
, P
etro
leum
Ref
iner
ies,
Ann
ual,
annu
al r
epor
ts.
• 1
978-
1981
—U
.S. E
nerg
y In
form
atio
n A
dmin
istr
atio
n (E
IA),
Ene
rgy
Dat
a R
epor
ts, P
etro
leum
Ref
iner
ies
inth
e U
nite
d S
tate
s.
• 1
982-
2008
—E
IA,
Pet
role
um S
uppl
y A
nnua
l, an
nual
rep
orts
. •
20
09—
EIA
, R
efin
ery
Cap
acity
Rep
ort
(Jun
e 20
09),
Tab
le 1
. G
ross
In
pu
t to
Dis
tilla
tio
n U
nit
s:
• 1
949-
1966
—B
urea
u of
Min
es, M
iner
als
Yea
rboo
k, "
Nat
ural
Gas
Liq
uids
" an
d "C
rude
Pet
role
um a
nd P
etro
leum
Pro
duct
s" c
hapt
ers.
•
1967
-197
7—B
urea
u of
Min
es,
Min
eral
Ind
ustr
y S
urve
ys,
Pet
role
um R
efin
erie
s, A
nnua
l, an
nual
rep
orts
.•
197
8-19
80—
EIA
, E
nerg
y D
ata
Rep
orts
, P
etro
leum
Ref
iner
ies
in t
he U
nite
d S
tate
s an
d U
.S.
Ter
ritor
ies.
• 1
981-
2008
—E
IA,
Pet
role
um S
uppl
y A
nnua
l, an
nual
rep
orts
. •
20
09—
EIA
, P
etro
leum
Sup
ply
Mon
thly
(Jan
uary
-Dec
embe
r 20
09 is
sues
).
Uti
lizat
ion
: •
19
49-1
980—
Cal
cula
ted.
•
198
1-20
08—
EIA
, P
etro
leum
Sup
ply
Ann
ual,
annu
al r
epor
ts.
• 2
009—
Cal
cula
ted.
ENGR 190 Page 12
U.S
. Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
/ Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009
141
Tab
le 5
.7
Pet
role
um
Net
Imp
ort
s b
y C
ou
ntr
y o
f O
rig
in, S
elec
ted
Yea
rs, 1
960-
2009
Yea
r
Per
sian
Gu
lf 2
Sel
ecte
d O
PE
C 1
Co
un
trie
sS
elec
ted
No
n-O
PE
C 1
Co
un
trie
s
To
tal
Net
Imp
ort
s
To
tal N
etIm
po
rts
asS
har
e o
f C
on
sum
pti
on
5
Net
Imp
ort
s F
rom
OP
EC
1
Alg
eria
Nig
eria
Sau
di
Ara
bia
3V
enez
uel
aT
ota
lO
PE
C 4
Can
ada
Mex
ico
Un
ited
Kin
gd
om
U.S
. Vir
gin
Isla
nd
s an
dP
uer
to R
ico
To
tal
No
n-O
PE
C 4
Sh
are
of
To
tal N
etIm
po
rts
6S
har
e o
fC
on
sum
pti
on
7
Tho
usan
d B
arre
ls p
er D
ayP
erce
nt
1960
N
A8
()
9(
)84
910
1,23
286
-2-1
234
381
1,61
316
.576
.412
.619
65
NA
8(
)9
()
158
994
1,43
829
721
-11
4584
32,
281
19.8
63.0
12.5
1970
N
A8
9(
)30
989
1,29
473
69
-127
01,
867
3,16
121
.540
.98.
819
71
NA
1510
212
81,
019
1,67
183
1-1
41
365
2,03
03,
701
24.3
45.1
11.0
1972
N
A92
251
189
959
2,04
41,
082
-20
-142
82,
475
4,51
927
.645
.212
.519
73
NA
136
459
485
1,13
42,
991
1,29
4-2
86
426
3,03
46,
025
34.8
49.6
17.3
1974
N
A19
071
346
197
83,
254
1,03
8-2
71
475
2,63
85,
892
35.4
55.2
19.5
1975
N
A28
276
271
470
23,
599
824
297
484
2,24
85,
846
35.8
61.6
22.1
1976
N
A43
21,
025
1,22
969
95,
063
571
5319
488
2,02
77,
090
40.6
71.4
29.0
1977
N
A55
91,
143
1,37
968
96,
190
446
155
117
560
2,37
58,
565
46.5
72.3
33.6
1978
N
A64
991
91,
142
644
5,74
735
929
117
343
62,
255
8,00
242
.571
.830
.519
79
NA
636
1,08
01,
354
688
5,63
343
841
819
635
32,
352
7,98
543
.170
.530
.419
80
NA
488
857
1,25
947
84,
293
347
506
169
256
2,07
16,
365
37.3
67.5
25.2
1981
1,21
531
162
01,
128
403
3,31
535
849
737
016
92,
086
5,40
133
.661
.420
.619
8269
217
051
255
140
92,
136
397
632
442
154
2,16
34,
298
28.1
49.7
14.0
1983
439
240
299
336
420
1,84
347
180
237
417
82,
469
4,31
228
.342
.712
.119
8450
232
321
532
454
42,
037
547
714
388
184
2,67
94,
715
30.0
43.2
13.0
1985
309
187
293
167
602
1,82
169
675
529
511
42,
465
4,28
627
.342
.511
.619
8690
927
144
068
578
82,
828
721
642
342
152
2,61
15,
439
33.4
52.0
17.4
1987
1,07
429
553
575
180
13,
055
765
585
346
158
2,85
95,
914
35.5
51.7
18.3
1988
1,52
930
061
81,
064
790
3,51
391
667
730
611
73,
074
6,58
738
.153
.320
.319
891,
858
269
815
1,22
486
14,
124
839
678
206
212
3,07
87,
202
41.6
57.3
23.8
1990
1,96
228
080
01,
339
1,01
64,
285
843
666
179
213
2,87
67,
161
42.2
59.8
25.2
1991
1,83
325
370
31,
796
1,02
04,
065
963
707
125
153
2,56
16,
626
39.6
61.3
24.3
1992
1,77
319
668
01,
720
1,16
14,
071
1,00
570
621
918
02,
867
6,93
840
.758
.723
.919
931,
774
219
736
1,41
31,
296
4,25
31,
109
809
340
175
3,36
57,
618
44.2
55.8
24.7
1994
1,72
324
363
71,
402
1,32
24,
233
1,19
486
044
824
63,
822
8,05
445
.552
.623
.919
951,
563
234
626
1,34
31,
468
3,98
01,
260
943
369
170
3,90
67,
886
44.5
50.5
22.5
1996
1,59
625
661
61,
362
1,66
74,
193
1,33
01,
101
299
262
4,30
58,
498
46.4
49.3
22.9
1997
1,74
728
569
31,
407
1,75
84,
542
1,44
41,
178
214
298
4,61
69,
158
49.2
49.6
24.4
1998
2,13
229
069
31,
491
1,70
04,
880
1,45
11,
116
239
305
4,88
49,
764
51.6
50.0
25.8
1999
2,45
925
965
51,
478
1,48
04,
934
1,42
11,
063
356
284
4,97
89,
912
50.8
49.8
25.3
2000
2,48
322
589
61,
571
1,53
05,
181
1,69
71,
015
356
297
5,23
810
,419
52.9
49.7
26.3
2001
2,75
827
888
41,
662
1,54
05,
510
1,71
71,
166
311
268
5,39
010
,900
55.5
50.5
28.0
2002
2,26
526
462
01,
551
1,38
74,
589
1,86
41,
292
467
224
5,95
810
,546
53.4
43.5
23.2
2003
2,49
738
186
61,
774
1,36
45,
144
1,93
21,
395
434
279
6,09
411
,238
56.1
45.8
25.7
2004
2,48
945
21,
139
1,55
71,
548
5,68
81,
980
1,45
636
632
16,
409
12,0
9758
.447
.027
.420
052,
330
478
1,16
51,
536
1,51
55,
567
2,00
11,
394
375
317
6,98
212
,549
60.3
44.4
26.8
2006
2,20
865
71,
111
1,46
21,
392
5,48
02,
194
1,45
024
431
86,
910
12,3
9059
.944
.226
.520
072,
159
663
1,13
31,
483
1,33
95,
946
2,26
61,
254
268
336
6,09
012
,036
58.2
49.4
28.8
2008
R2,
368
R54
8R98
2R1,
529
R1,
162
R5,
899
R2,
229
R96
9R21
930
7R5,
214
R11
,114
R57
.0R53
.1R30
.320
09P
1,69
048
579
31,
011
1,05
24,
686
2,24
191
221
125
75,
014
9,70
051
.948
.325
.1
1S
ee "
Org
aniz
atio
n of
the
Pet
role
um E
xpor
ting
Cou
ntrie
s (O
PE
C)"
in G
loss
ary.
2B
ahra
in,
Iran
, Ir
aq,
Kuw
ait,
Qat
ar,
Sau
di
Ara
bia,
U
nite
d A
rab
Em
irate
s,
and
the
Neu
tral
Z
one
(bet
wee
n K
uwai
t and
Sau
di A
rabi
a).
3T
hrou
gh 1
970,
incl
udes
hal
f th
e im
port
s fr
om t
he N
eutr
al Z
one.
B
egin
ning
in 1
971,
incl
udes
impo
rts
from
the
Neu
tral
Zon
e th
at a
re r
epor
ted
to U
.S. C
usto
ms
as o
rigin
atin
g in
Sau
di A
rabi
a.4
On
this
tabl
e, "
Tot
al O
PE
C"
for
all y
ears
incl
udes
Iran
, Ira
q, K
uwai
t, S
audi
Ara
bia,
Ven
ezue
la, a
nd th
eN
eutr
al Z
one
(bet
wee
n K
uwai
t an
d S
audi
Ara
bia)
; be
ginn
ing
in 1
961,
als
o in
clud
es Q
atar
; be
ginn
ing
in19
62,
also
incl
udes
Lib
ya;
for
1962
-200
8, a
lso
incl
udes
Ind
ones
ia;
begi
nnin
g in
196
7, a
lso
incl
udes
Uni
ted
Ara
b E
mira
tes;
beg
inni
ng i
n 19
69,
also
inc
lude
s A
lger
ia;
begi
nnin
g in
197
1, a
lso
incl
udes
Nig
eria
; fo
r19
73-1
992
and
begi
nnin
g in
200
8, a
lso
incl
udes
Ecu
ador
(al
thou
gh E
cuad
or r
ejoi
ned
OP
EC
in N
ovem
ber
2007
, on
thi
s ta
ble
Ecu
ador
is
incl
uded
in
"Tot
al N
on-O
PE
C"
for
2007
); f
or 1
975-
1994
, al
so i
nclu
des
Gab
on;
and
begi
nnin
g in
200
7, a
lso
incl
udes
Ang
ola.
D
ata
for
all c
ount
ries
not
incl
uded
in "
Tot
al O
PE
C"
are
incl
uded
in "
Tot
al N
on-O
PE
C."
5
Cal
cula
ted
by
divi
ding
to
tal
net
petr
oleu
m
impo
rts
by
tota
l U
.S.
petr
oleu
m
prod
ucts
su
pplie
d(c
onsu
mpt
ion)
.6
Cal
cula
ted
by d
ivid
ing
net p
etro
leum
impo
rts
from
OP
EC
cou
ntrie
s by
tota
l net
pet
role
um im
port
s.7
Cal
cula
ted
by d
ivid
ing
net
petr
oleu
m i
mpo
rts
from
OP
EC
cou
ntrie
s by
tot
al U
.S.
petr
oleu
m p
rodu
ct
supp
lied
(con
sum
ptio
n).
8A
lger
ia jo
ined
OP
EC
in 1
969.
For
196
0-19
68, A
lger
ia is
incl
uded
in "
Tot
al N
on-O
PE
C."
9
Nig
eria
join
ed O
PE
C in
197
1. F
or 1
960-
1970
, Nig
eria
is in
clud
ed in
"T
otal
Non
-OP
EC
."
R=
Rev
ised
. P
=P
relim
inar
y. N
A=
Not
ava
ilabl
e.
Not
es:
•
The
cou
ntry
of
orig
in f
or r
efin
ed p
etro
leum
pro
duct
s m
ay n
ot b
e th
e co
untr
y of
orig
in f
or t
hecr
ude
oil
from
whi
ch t
he r
efin
ed p
rodu
cts
wer
e pr
oduc
ed.
For
exa
mpl
e, r
efin
ed p
rodu
cts
impo
rted
fro
mre
finer
ies
in t
he C
arib
bean
may
hav
e be
en p
rodu
ced
from
Mid
dle
Eas
t cr
ude
oil.
•
Net
im
port
s eq
ual
impo
rts
min
us e
xpor
ts.
Min
us s
ign
indi
cate
s ex
port
s ar
e gr
eate
r th
an im
port
s.
• D
ata
incl
ude
any
impo
rts
for
the
Str
ateg
ic P
etro
leum
Res
erve
, w
hich
beg
an i
n 19
77.
•
Tot
als
may
not
equ
al s
um o
f co
mpo
nent
sdu
e to
inde
pend
ent r
ound
ing.
Web
P
age:
See
ht
tp://
ww
w.e
ia.g
ov/o
il_ga
s/pe
trol
eum
/info
_gla
nce/
petr
oleu
m.h
tml
for
rela
ted
info
rmat
ion.
Sou
rces
: •
19
60-1
975—
Bur
eau
of M
ines
, M
iner
als
Yea
rboo
k, "
Cru
de P
etro
leum
and
Pet
role
u mP
rodu
cts"
cha
pter
. •
19
76-1
980—
U.S
. E
nerg
y In
form
atio
n A
dmin
istr
atio
n (E
IA),
Ene
rgy
Dat
a R
epor
ts,
P.A
.D.
Dis
tric
ts S
uppl
y/D
eman
d, A
nnua
l, an
nual
rep
orts
. •
19
81-2
008—
EIA
, P
etro
leum
Sup
ply
Ann
ual,
annu
al r
epor
ts.
• 2
009—
EIA
, Pet
role
um S
uppl
y M
onth
ly (
Feb
ruar
y 20
10).
ENGR 190 Page 13
Figu
re 8
.0El
ectr
icity
Flo
w, 2
009
(Qua
drill
ion
Btu
)
U.S
. Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
/ Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009
225
1 Bla
st f
urna
ce g
as,
prop
ane
gas,
and
oth
er m
anuf
actu
red
and
was
te g
ases
der
ived
fro
mfo
ssil
fuel
s.2 B
atte
ries,
che
mic
als,
hyd
roge
n, p
itch,
pur
chas
ed s
team
, sul
fur,
mis
cella
neou
s te
chno
logi
es,
and
non-
rene
wab
le w
aste
(m
unic
ipal
sol
id w
aste
fro
m n
on-b
ioge
nic
sour
ces,
and
tire
-der
ived
fuel
s).
3 Dat
a co
llect
ion
fram
e di
ffere
nces
and
non
sam
plin
g er
ror.
Der
ived
for
the
dia
gram
by
subt
ract
ing
the
“T &
D L
osse
s” e
stim
ate
from
“T &
D L
osse
s an
d U
nacc
ount
ed fo
r” d
eriv
ed fr
omTa
ble
8.1.
4 Ele
ctric
ene
rgy
used
in th
e op
erat
ion
of p
ower
pla
nts.
5 Tra
nsm
issi
on a
nd d
istri
butio
n lo
sses
(ele
ctric
ity lo
sses
that
occ
ur b
etw
een
the
poin
t of
gene
ratio
n an
d de
liver
y to
the
cust
omer
) are
est
imat
ed a
s 7
perc
ent o
f gro
ss g
ener
atio
n.6
Use
of
elec
trici
ty t
hat
is 1
) se
lf-ge
nera
ted,
2)
prod
uced
by
eith
er t
he s
ame
entit
y th
atco
nsum
es t
he p
ower
or
an a
ffilia
te,
and
3) u
sed
in d
irect
sup
port
of a
ser
vice
or
indu
stria
lpr
oces
s lo
cate
d w
ithin
the
sam
e fa
cilit
y or
gro
up o
f fac
ilitie
s th
at h
ouse
the
gene
ratin
g eq
uip-
men
t. D
irect
use
is e
xclu
sive
of s
tatio
n us
e.
Not
es:
•
Dat
a ar
e pr
elim
inar
y.
• S
ee N
ote,
“E
lect
rical
Sys
tem
Ene
rgy
Loss
es,”
at t
heen
d of
Sec
tion
2.
• N
et g
ener
atio
n of
ele
ctric
ity in
clud
es p
umpe
d st
orag
e fa
cilit
y pr
oduc
tion
min
us e
nerg
y us
ed fo
r pum
ping
. •
Val
ues
are
deriv
ed fr
om s
ourc
e da
ta p
rior
to ro
undi
ng fo
rpu
blic
atio
n. •
Tot
als
may
not
equ
al s
um o
f com
pone
nts
due
to in
depe
nden
t rou
ndin
g.S
ourc
es:
Ta
bles
8.
1,
8.4a
, 8.
9,
A6
(col
umn
4),
and
U.S
. E
nerg
y In
form
atio
nA
dmin
istra
tion,
For
m E
IA-9
23, "
Pow
er P
lant
Ope
ratio
ns R
epor
t."
ENGR 190 Page 14
U.S
. Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
/ Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009
227
Tab
le 8
.1 E
lect
rici
ty O
verv
iew
, Sel
ecte
d Y
ears
, 194
9-20
09
(Bill
ion
Kilo
wat
thou
rs)
Yea
r
Net
Gen
erat
ion
Tra
de
T &
D L
oss
es 5
and
Un
acco
un
ted
for
6
En
d U
se
Ele
ctri
c P
ow
erS
ecto
r 2
Co
mm
erci
alS
ecto
r 3
Ind
ust
rial
Sec
tor
4T
ota
l
Imp
ort
s 1
Exp
ort
s 1
Net
Imp
ort
s 1
Ret
ail
Sal
es 7
Dir
ect
Use
8T
ota
lF
rom
Can
ada
To
tal
To
Can
ada
To
tal
To
tal
1949
291
N
A5
296
N
A2
N
A
(s)
243
255
N
A25
519
5032
9
NA
533
4
NA
2
NA
(
s)2
4429
1
NA
291
1955
547
N
A3
550
N
A5
N
A
(s)
458
497
N
A49
719
6075
6
NA
475
9
NA
5
NA
15
7668
8
NA
688
1965
1,05
5
NA
31,
058
N
A4
N
A4
(
s)10
495
4
NA
954
1970
1,53
2
NA
31,
535
N
A6
N
A4
214
51,
392
N
A1,
392
1971
1,61
3
NA
31,
616
N
A7
N
A4
415
01,
470
N
A1,
470
1972
1,75
0
NA
31,
753
N
A10
N
A3
816
61,
595
N
A1,
595
1973
1,86
1
NA
31,
864
N
A17
N
A3
1416
51,
713
N
A1,
713
1974
1,86
7
NA
31,
870
N
A15
N
A3
1317
71,
706
N
A1,
706
1975
1,91
8
NA
31,
921
N
A11
N
A5
618
01,
747
N
A1,
747
1976
2,03
8
NA
32,
041
N
A11
N
A2
919
41,
855
N
A1,
855
1977
2,12
4
NA
32,
127
N
A20
N
A3
1719
71,
948
N
A1,
948
1978
2,20
6
NA
32,
209
N
A21
N
A1
2021
12,
018
N
A2,
018
1979
2,24
7
NA
32,
251
N
A23
N
A2
2020
02,
071
N
A2,
071
1980
2,28
6
NA
32,
290
N
A25
N
A4
2121
62,
094
N
A2,
094
1981
2,29
5
NA
32,
298
N
A36
N
A3
3318
42,
147
N
A2,
147
1982
2,24
1
NA
32,
244
N
A33
N
A4
2918
72,
086
N
A2,
086
1983
2,31
0
NA
32,
313
N
A39
N
A3
3519
82,
151
N
A2,
151
1984
2,41
6
NA
32,
419
N
A42
N
A3
4017
32,
286
N
A2,
286
1985
2,47
0
NA
32,
473
N
A46
N
A5
4119
02,
324
N
A2,
324
1986
2,48
7
NA
32,
490
N
A41
N
A5
3615
82,
369
N
A2,
369
1987
2,57
2
NA
32,
575
N
A52
N
A6
4616
42,
457
N
A2,
457
1988
2,70
4
NA
32,
707
N
A39
N
A7
3216
12,
578
N
A2,
578
1989
2 2,8
484
4 115
2,96
7
NA
26
NA
1511
222
2,64
710
92,
756
1990
2,90
16
131
3,03
816
1816
162
203
2,71
312
52,
837
1991
2,93
66
133
3,07
420
222
220
207
2,76
212
42,
886
1992
2,93
46
143
3,08
426
282
325
212
2,76
313
42,
897
1993
3,04
47
146
3,19
729
313
428
224
2,86
113
93,
001
1994
3,08
98
151
3,24
845
471
245
211
2,93
514
63,
081
1995
3,19
48
151
3,35
341
432
439
229
3,01
315
13,
164
1996
3,28
49
151
3,44
442
432
340
231
3,10
115
33,
254
1997
3,32
99
154
3,49
243
437
934
224
3,14
615
63,
302
1998
3,45
79
154
3,62
040
4012
1426
221
3,26
416
13,
425
1999
3,53
09
156
3,69
543
4313
1429
240
3,31
217
23,
484
2000
3,63
88
157
3,80
249
4913
1534
244
3,42
117
13,
592
2001
3,58
07
149
3,73
738
3916
1622
202
3,39
416
33,
557
2002
3,69
87
153
3,85
837
3715
1621
248
3,46
516
63,
632
2003
3,72
17
155
3,88
329
3024
246
228
3,49
416
83,
662
2004
3,80
88
154
3,97
133
3422
2311
266
3,54
716
83,
716
2005
3,90
28
145
4,05
543
4519
2025
269
3,66
115
03,
811
2006
3,90
88
148
4,06
542
4323
2418
266
3,67
014
73,
817
2007
4,00
58
143
4,15
750
5120
2031
264
3,76
515
93,
924
2008
R3,
974
8R13
7R4,
119
5657
2324
33R24
6R3,
733
R17
3R3,
906
2009
P3,
814
813
13,
953
5152
1718
3424
63,
575
E16
63,
741
1E
lect
ricity
tran
smitt
ed a
cros
s U
.S. b
orde
rs.
Net
impo
rts
equa
l im
port
s m
inus
exp
orts
.2
Ele
ctric
ity-o
nly
and
com
bine
d-he
at-a
nd-p
ower
(C
HP
) pl
ants
with
in t
he N
AIC
S 2
2 ca
tego
ry w
hose
prim
ary
busi
ness
is
to s
ell
elec
tric
ity,
or e
lect
ricity
and
hea
t, to
the
pub
lic.
Thr
ough
198
8, d
ata
are
for
elec
tric
util
ities
onl
y; b
egin
ning
in 1
989,
dat
a ar
e fo
r el
ectr
ic u
tiliti
es a
nd in
depe
nden
t pow
er p
rodu
cers
.3
Com
mer
cial
com
bine
d-he
at-a
nd-p
ower
(C
HP
) an
d co
mm
erci
al e
lect
ricity
-onl
y pl
ants
.4
Indu
stria
l co
mbi
ned-
heat
-and
-pow
er (
CH
P)
and
indu
stria
l el
ectr
icity
-onl
y pl
ants
. T
hrou
gh 1
988,
dat
aar
e fo
r in
dust
rial h
ydro
elec
tric
pow
er o
nly.
5T
rans
mis
sion
and
dis
trib
utio
n lo
sses
(el
ectr
icity
loss
es t
hat
occu
r be
twee
n th
e po
int
of g
ener
atio
n an
dde
liver
y to
the
cust
omer
). S
ee N
ote,
"E
lect
rical
Sys
tem
Ene
rgy
Loss
es,"
at e
nd o
f Sec
tion
2.6
Dat
a co
llect
ion
fram
e di
ffere
nces
and
non
sam
plin
g er
ror.
7E
lect
ricity
ret
ail
sale
s to
ulti
mat
e cu
stom
ers
by e
lect
ric u
tiliti
es a
nd,
begi
nnin
g in
199
6, o
ther
ene
rgy
serv
ice
prov
ider
s.8
Use
of
elec
tric
ity t
hat
is 1
) se
lf-ge
nera
ted,
2)
prod
uced
by
eith
er t
he s
ame
entit
y th
at c
onsu
mes
the
pow
er o
r an
affi
liate
, and
3)
used
in d
irect
sup
port
of a
ser
vice
or
indu
stria
l pro
cess
loca
ted
with
in th
e sa
me
faci
lity
or g
roup
of f
acili
ties
that
hou
se th
e ge
nera
ting
equi
pmen
t. D
irect
use
is e
xclu
sive
of s
tatio
n us
e.R
=R
evis
ed.
P=
Pre
limin
ary.
E=
Est
imat
e. N
A=
Not
ava
ilabl
e. (
s)=
Less
than
0.5
bill
ion
kilo
wat
thou
rs.
Not
es:
• S
ee N
ote
1, "
Cov
erag
e of
Ele
ctric
ity S
tatis
tics,
" an
d N
ote
2, "
Cla
ssifi
catio
n of
Pow
er P
lant
s In
toE
nerg
y-U
se S
ecto
rs,"
at
end
of s
ectio
n.
• T
otal
s m
ay n
ot e
qual
sum
of
com
pone
nts
due
to i
ndep
ende
ntro
undi
ng.
Web
P
ages
:
•
For
al
l da
ta
begi
nnin
g in
19
49,
see
http
://w
ww
.eia
.gov
/em
eu/a
er/e
lect
.htm
l.•
For
rel
ated
info
rmat
ion,
see
http
://w
ww
.eia
.gov
/fuel
elec
tric
.htm
l.S
ourc
es:
See
end
of s
ectio
n.
ENGR 190 Page 15
230
U.S
. Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
/ Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009
Tab
le 8
.2a
Ele
ctri
city
Net
Gen
erat
ion
: T
ota
l (A
ll S
ecto
rs),
Sel
ecte
d Y
ears
, 194
9-20
09
(S
um o
f Tab
les
8.2b
and
8.2
d; B
illio
n K
ilow
atth
ours
)
Yea
r
Fo
ssil
Fu
els
Nu
clea
rE
lect
ric
Po
wer
Hyd
ro-
elec
tric
Pu
mp
edS
tora
ge
5
Ren
ewab
le E
ner
gy
Oth
er 1
0T
ota
lC
oal
1P
etro
leu
m 2
Nat
ura
lG
as 3
Oth
erG
ases
4T
ota
l
Co
nve
nti
on
alH
ydro
elec
tric
Po
wer
6
Bio
mas
sG
eo-
ther
mal
So
lar/
PV
9W
ind
To
tal
Wo
od
7W
aste
8
1949
135.
528
.537
.0N
A20
1.0
0.0
6(
)94
.80.
4
N
A
N
A
N
A
N
A95
.2
N
A29
6.1
1950
154.
533
.744
.6N
A23
2.8
.06
()
100.
9.4
NA
NA
NA
NA
101.
3
N
A33
4.1
1955
301.
437
.195
.3N
A43
3.8
.06
()
116.
2.3
NA
NA
NA
NA
116.
5
N
A55
0.3
1960
403.
148
.015
8.0
NA
609.
0.5
6(
)14
9.4
.1
N
A
(
s)
N
A
N
A14
9.6
NA
759.
219
6557
0.9
64.8
221.
6N
A85
7.3
3.7
6(
)19
7.0
.3
N
A.2
NA
NA
197.
4
N
A1,
058.
419
7070
4.4
184.
237
2.9
NA
1,26
1.5
21.8
6(
)25
1.0
.1.2
.5
N
A
N
A25
1.8
NA
1,53
5.1
1971
713.
122
0.2
374.
0N
A1,
307.
438
.16
()
269.
5.1
.2.5
NA
NA
270.
4
N
A1,
615.
919
7277
1.1
274.
337
5.7
NA
1,42
1.2
54.1
6(
)27
5.9
.1.2
1.5
NA
NA
277.
7
N
A1,
753.
019
7384
7.7
314.
334
0.9
NA
1,50
2.9
83.5
6(
)27
5.4
.1.2
2.0
NA
NA
277.
7
N
A1,
864.
119
7482
8.4
300.
932
0.1
NA
1,44
9.4
114.
06
()
304.
2.1
.22.
5
N
A
N
A30
6.9
NA
1,87
0.3
1975
852.
828
9.1
299.
8N
A1,
441.
717
2.5
6(
)30
3.2
(s)
.23.
2
N
A
N
A30
6.6
NA
1,92
0.8
1976
944.
432
0.0
294.
6N
A1,
559.
019
1.1
6(
)28
6.9
.1.2
3.6
NA
NA
290.
8
N
A2,
040.
919
7798
5.2
358.
230
5.5
NA
1,64
8.9
250.
96
()
223.
6.3
.23.
6
N
A
N
A22
7.7
NA
2,12
7.4
1978
975.
736
5.1
305.
4N
A1,
646.
227
6.4
6(
)28
3.5
.2.1
3.0
NA
NA
286.
8
N
A2,
209.
419
791,
075.
030
3.5
329.
5N
A1,
708.
025
5.2
6(
)28
3.1
.3.2
3.9
NA
NA
287.
5
N
A2,
250.
719
801,
161.
624
6.0
346.
2N
A1,
753.
825
1.1
6(
)27
9.2
.3.2
5.1
NA
NA
284.
7
N
A2,
289.
619
811,
203.
220
6.4
345.
8N
A1,
755.
427
2.7
6(
)26
3.8
.2.1
5.7
NA
NA
269.
9
N
A2,
298.
019
821,
192.
014
6.8
305.
3N
A1,
644.
128
2.8
6(
)31
2.4
.2.1
4.8
NA
NA
317.
5
N
A2,
244.
419
831,
259.
414
4.5
274.
1N
A1,
678.
029
3.7
6(
)33
5.3
.2.2
6.1
NA
(s)
341.
7
N
A2,
313.
419
841,
341.
711
9.8
297.
4N
A1,
758.
932
7.6
6(
)32
4.3
.5.4
7.7
(s)
(s)
332.
9
N
A2,
419.
519
851,
402.
110
0.2
291.
9N
A1,
794.
338
3.7
6(
)28
4.3
.7.6
9.3
(s)
(s)
295.
0
N
A2,
473.
019
861,
385.
813
6.6
248.
5N
A1,
770.
941
4.0
6(
)29
4.0
.5.7
10.3
(s)
(s)
305.
5
N
A2,
490.
519
871,
463.
811
8.5
272.
6N
A1,
854.
945
5.3
6(
)25
2.9
.8.7
10.8
(s)
(s)
265.
1
N
A2,
575.
319
881,
540.
714
8.9
252.
8N
A1,
942.
452
7.0
6(
)22
6.1
.9.7
10.3
(s)
(s)
238.
1
N
A2,
707.
419
8911
1,58
3.8
164.
435
2.6
7.9
2,10
8.6
529.
46
()
272.
027
.29.
214
.6.3
2.1
325.
33.
82,
967.
119
901,
594.
012
6.5
372.
810
.42,
103.
657
6.9
-3.5
292.
932
.513
.315
.4.4
2.8
357.
23.
63,
037.
819
911,
590.
611
9.8
381.
611
.32,
103.
361
2.6
-4.5
289.
033
.715
.716
.0.5
3.0
357.
84.
73,
073.
819
921,
621.
210
0.2
404.
113
.32,
138.
761
8.8
-4.2
253.
136
.517
.816
.1.4
2.9
326.
93.
73,
083.
919
931,
690.
111
2.8
414.
913
.02,
230.
761
0.3
-4.0
280.
537
.618
.316
.8.5
3.0
356.
73.
53,
197.
219
941,
690.
710
5.9
460.
213
.32,
270.
164
0.4
-3.4
260.
137
.919
.115
.5.5
3.4
336.
73.
73,
247.
519
951,
709.
474
.649
6.1
13.9
2,29
3.9
673.
4-2
.731
0.8
36.5
20.4
13.4
.53.
238
4.8
4.1
3,35
3.5
1996
1,79
5.2
81.4
455.
114
.42,
346.
067
4.7
-3.1
347.
236
.820
.914
.3.5
3.2
423.
03.
63,
444.
219
971,
845.
092
.647
9.4
13.4
2,43
0.3
628.
6-4
.035
6.5
36.9
21.7
14.7
.53.
343
3.6
3.6
3,49
2.2
1998
1,87
3.5
128.
853
1.3
13.5
2,54
7.1
673.
7-4
.532
3.3
36.3
22.4
14.8
.53.
040
0.4
3.6
3,62
0.3
1999
1,88
1.1
118.
155
6.4
14.1
2,56
9.7
728.
3-6
.131
9.5
37.0
22.6
14.8
.54.
539
9.0
4.0
3,69
4.8
2000
1,96
6.3
111.
260
1.0
14.0
2,69
2.5
753.
9-5
.527
5.6
37.6
23.1
14.1
.55.
635
6.5
4.8
3,80
2.1
2001
1,90
4.0
124.
963
9.1
9.0
2,67
7.0
768.
8-8
.821
7.0
35.2
14.5
13.7
.56.
728
7.7
11.9
3,73
6.6
2002
1,93
3.1
94.6
691.
011
.52,
730.
278
0.1
-8.7
264.
338
.715
.014
.5.6
10.4
343.
413
.53,
858.
520
031,
973.
711
9.4
649.
915
.62,
758.
676
3.7
-8.5
275.
837
.515
.814
.4.5
11.2
355.
314
.03,
883.
220
041,
978.
312
1.1
710.
115
.32,
824.
878
8.5
-8.5
268.
438
.115
.414
.8.6
14.1
351.
514
.23,
970.
620
052,
012.
912
2.2
761.
013
.52,
909.
578
2.0
-6.6
270.
338
.915
.414
.7.6
17.8
357.
712
.84,
055.
420
061,
990.
564
.281
6.4
14.2
2,88
5.3
787.
2-6
.628
9.2
38.8
16.1
14.6
.526
.638
5.8
13.0
4,06
4.7
2007
2,01
6.5
65.7
896.
613
.52,
992.
280
6.4
-6.9
247.
539
.016
.514
.6.6
34.4
352.
712
.24,
156.
720
08R1,
985.
8R46
.2R88
3.0
R11
.7R2,
926.
780
6.2
R-6
.3R25
4.8
R37
.3R17
.7R15
.0R.9
R55
.4R38
1.0
R11
.7R4,
119.
420
09P
1,76
4.5
38.8
920.
410
.72,
734.
479
8.7
-4.3
272.
136
.218
.115
.2.8
70.8
413.
211
.13,
953.
1
1A
nthr
acite
, bitu
min
ous
coal
, sub
bitu
min
ous
coal
, lig
nite
, was
te c
oal,
and
coal
syn
fuel
.2
Dis
tilla
te fu
el o
il, r
esid
ual f
uel o
il, p
etro
leum
cok
e, je
t fue
l, ke
rose
ne, o
ther
pet
role
um, a
nd w
aste
oil.
3N
atur
al g
as, p
lus
a sm
all a
mou
nt o
f sup
plem
enta
l gas
eous
fuel
s.4
Bla
st fu
rnac
e ga
s, p
ropa
ne g
as, a
nd o
ther
man
ufac
ture
d an
d w
aste
gas
es d
eriv
ed fr
om fo
ssil
fuel
s.5
Pum
ped
stor
age
faci
lity
prod
uctio
n m
inus
ene
rgy
used
for
pum
ping
.6
Thr
ough
198
9, h
ydro
elec
tric
pum
ped
stor
age
is in
clud
ed in
"C
onve
ntio
nal H
ydro
elec
tric
Pow
er."
7W
ood
and
woo
d-de
rived
fuel
s.8
Mun
icip
al s
olid
was
te f
rom
bio
geni
c so
urce
s, l
andf
ill g
as,
slud
ge w
aste
, ag
ricul
tura
l by
prod
ucts
, an
dot
her
biom
ass.
Thr
ough
200
0, a
lso
incl
udes
non
-ren
ewab
le w
aste
(m
unic
ipal
sol
id w
aste
from
non
-bio
geni
cso
urce
s, a
nd ti
re-d
eriv
ed fu
els)
.9
Sol
ar th
erm
al a
nd p
hoto
volta
ic (
PV
) en
ergy
.10
Bat
terie
s,
chem
ical
s,
hydr
ogen
, pi
tch,
pu
rcha
sed
stea
m,
sulfu
r,
mis
cella
neou
s te
chno
logi
es,
and,
begi
nnin
g in
200
1, n
on-r
enew
able
was
te (
mun
icip
al s
olid
was
te f
rom
non
-bio
geni
c so
urce
s, a
nd t
ire-d
eriv
e dfu
els)
.11
Thr
ough
198
8, a
ll da
ta e
xcep
t hy
droe
lect
ric a
re f
or e
lect
ric u
tiliti
es o
nly;
hyd
roel
ectr
ic d
ata
thro
ugh
1988
inc
lude
ind
ustr
ial
plan
ts a
s w
ell
as e
lect
ric u
tiliti
es.
Beg
inni
ng i
n 19
89,
data
are
for
ele
ctric
util
ities
,in
depe
nden
t pow
er p
rodu
cers
, com
mer
cial
pla
nts,
and
indu
stria
l pla
nts.
R=
Rev
ised
. P
=P
relim
inar
y. N
A=
Not
ava
ilabl
e. (
s)=
Less
than
0.0
5 bi
llion
kill
owat
thou
rs.
Not
es:
•
See
Not
e 1,
"C
over
age
of E
lect
ricity
Sta
tistic
s,"
at e
nd o
f se
ctio
n.
• T
otal
s m
ay n
ot e
qual
sum
of c
ompo
nent
s du
e to
inde
pend
ent r
ound
ing.
Web
P
ages
:
•
For
al
l da
ta
begi
nnin
g in
19
49,
see
http
://w
ww
.eia
.gov
/em
eu/a
er/e
lect
.htm
l.•
For
rel
ated
info
rmat
ion,
see
http
://w
ww
.eia
.gov
/fuel
elec
tric
.htm
l.S
ourc
es:
•
1949
-198
8—T
able
8.2
b fo
r el
ectr
ic p
ower
sec
tor,
and
Tab
le 8
.1 f
or in
dust
rial s
ecto
r.
• 1
989
forw
ard—
Tab
les
8.2b
and
8.2
d.
ENGR 190 Page 16
232
U.S
. Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
/ Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009
Tab
le 8
.2c
Ele
ctri
city
Net
Gen
erat
ion
: E
lect
ric
Po
wer
Sec
tor
by
Pla
nt
Typ
e, 1
989-
2009
(Bre
akou
t of T
able
8.2
b; B
illio
n K
ilow
atth
ours
)
Yea
r
Fo
ssil
Fu
els
Nu
clea
rE
lect
ric
Po
wer
Hyd
ro-
elec
tric
Pu
mp
edS
tora
ge
5
Ren
ewab
le E
ner
gy
Oth
er 1
0T
ota
lC
oal
1P
etro
leu
m 2
Nat
ura
lG
as 3
Oth
erG
ases
4T
ota
l
Co
nve
nti
on
alH
ydro
elec
tric
Po
wer
6
Bio
mas
sG
eo-
ther
mal
So
lar/
PV
9W
ind
To
tal
Wo
od
7W
aste
8
Ele
ctri
city
-On
ly P
lan
ts 1
1
1989
1,55
4.0
158.
326
6.9
–
1,97
9.3
529.
46
()
269.
24.
26.
914
.60.
32.
129
7.3
–
2,80
5.9
1990
1,56
0.2
117.
626
4.7
(s
)1,
942.
457
6.9
-3.5
289.
85.
610
.415
.4.4
2.8
324.
3
–2,
840.
019
911,
551.
911
2.2
267.
8
(s)
1,93
1.9
612.
6-4
.528
6.0
6.0
12.2
16.0
.53.
032
3.7
–
2,86
3.6
1992
1,57
7.1
90.1
270.
9
(s)
1,93
8.0
618.
8-4
.225
0.0
6.6
14.4
16.1
.42.
929
0.4
–
2,84
3.1
1993
1,64
2.1
100.
626
7.2
(s
)2,
009.
961
0.3
-4.0
277.
57.
214
.916
.8.5
3.0
319.
8
–2,
935.
919
941,
639.
992
.129
9.7
(s
)2,
031.
764
0.4
-3.4
254.
07.
615
.415
.5.5
3.4
296.
5
–2,
965.
219
951,
658.
062
.031
7.4
(s
)2,
037.
467
3.4
-2.7
305.
45.
916
.313
.4.5
3.2
344.
7
–3,
052.
819
961,
742.
868
.527
2.8
(s
)2,
084.
167
4.7
-3.1
341.
26.
516
.114
.3.5
3.2
381.
8
–3,
137.
619
971,
793.
280
.329
1.1
(s
)2,
164.
662
8.6
-4.0
350.
66.
516
.414
.7.5
3.3
392.
0
–3,
181.
319
981,
823.
011
5.7
335.
9.1
2,27
4.6
673.
7-4
.531
7.9
6.6
17.0
14.8
.53.
035
9.8
–
3,30
3.6
1999
1,83
2.1
104.
835
6.6
(s
)2,
293.
672
8.3
-6.1
314.
77.
317
.114
.8.5
4.5
358.
8
–3,
374.
620
001,
910.
698
.039
9.4
.22,
408.
275
3.9
-5.5
271.
37.
317
.614
.1.5
5.6
316.
4
–3,
472.
920
011,
851.
811
3.2
427.
0
(s)
2,39
2.0
768.
8-8
.821
3.7
6.6
11.3
13.7
.56.
725
2.6
5.9
3,41
0.5
2002
1,88
1.2
83.3
456.
8.2
2,42
1.5
780.
1-8
.726
0.5
7.3
11.2
14.5
.610
.430
4.3
7.6
3,50
4.8
2003
1,91
5.8
108.
542
1.2
.32,
445.
776
3.7
-8.5
271.
57.
411
.914
.4.5
11.2
317.
07.
63,
525.
520
041,
921.
110
9.4
491.
2.4
2,52
2.0
788.
5-8
.526
5.1
8.1
11.8
14.8
.614
.131
4.5
7.6
3,62
4.1
2005
1,95
5.5
111.
255
3.2
(s
)2,
619.
978
2.0
-6.6
267.
08.
511
.714
.7.6
17.8
320.
36.
23,
721.
820
061,
933.
755
.261
8.0
(s
)2,
607.
078
7.2
-6.6
286.
28.
312
.514
.6.5
26.6
348.
76.
33,
742.
720
071,
962.
056
.968
6.3
.12,
705.
380
6.4
-6.9
245.
88.
712
.914
.6.6
34.4
317.
16.
03,
828.
020
08R1,
932.
0R39
.3R68
3.3
(s
)R2,
654.
680
6.2
R-6
.3R25
3.1
R8.
6R14
.0R15
.0R.9
R55
.4R34
6.9
R6.
0R3,
807.
420
09P
1,71
8.8
31.8
721.
8.1
2,47
2.4
798.
7-4
.327
0.2
8.3
14.3
15.2
.870
.837
9.6
6.2
3,65
2.7
Co
mb
ined
-Hea
t-an
d-P
ow
er P
lan
ts 1
2
1989
8.4
0.7
30.4
0.5
39.9
–
–
–
1.3
0.9
–
–
–
2.2
0.3
42.3
1990
11.9
1.3
44.8
.658
.7
–
–
–1.
41.
1
–
–
–2.
6
(s)
61.3
1991
16.9
.650
.0.7
68.2
–
–
–
1.7
1.6
–
–
–
3.3
.471
.919
9220
.72.
263
.41.
287
.4
–
–
–1.
91.
5
–
–
–3.
4.5
91.3
1993
23.4
4.8
75.0
1.0
104.
2
–
–
–2.
01.
4
–
–
–3.
4.4
108.
019
9426
.46.
686
.01.
112
0.1
–
–
–
1.6
1.6
–
–
–
3.2
.212
3.5
1995
28.1
6.1
101.
71.
913
7.9
–
–
–
1.7
1.7
–
–
–
3.4
.214
1.5
1996
29.2
6.3
105.
91.
314
2.7
–
–
–
1.9
1.7
–
–
–
3.6
.214
6.6
1997
27.6
6.2
108.
51.
514
3.7
–
–
–
2.2
2.1
–
–
–
4.3
.114
8.1
1998
27.2
6.6
113.
42.
314
9.4
–
–
–
2.0
2.3
–
–
–
4.2
.215
3.8
1999
26.6
6.7
116.
41.
615
1.2
–
–
–
1.7
2.4
–
–
–
4.1
.115
5.4
2000
32.5
7.2
118.
61.
816
0.2
–
–
–
1.6
2.7
–
–
–
4.3
.116
4.6
2001
31.0
6.0
128.
0.6
165.
5
–
–
–1.
71.
7
–
–
–3.
4.6
169.
520
0229
.46.
515
0.9
1.7
188.
5
–
–
–1.
72.
0
–
–
–3.
71.
419
3.7
2003
36.9
5.2
146.
12.
419
0.6
–
–
–
2.1
1.9
–
–
–
4.0
1.1
195.
720
0436
.15.
313
6.0
3.2
180.
6
–
–
–1.
61.
3
–
–
–2.
9.7
184.
320
0536
.55.
313
0.7
3.8
176.
2
–
–
(s)
2.1
1.3
–
–
–
3.4
.718
0.4
2006
36.0
4.5
116.
44.
216
1.1
–
–
(s
)2.
01.
4
–
–
–3.
5.8
165.
420
0736
.44.
412
8.4
3.9
173.
2
–
–
(s)
2.0
1.4
–
–
–
3.5
.717
7.4
2008
R36
.9R3.
6R11
9.0
3.2
R16
2.7
–
–
(s
)R2.
01.
4
–
–
–R3.
4.8
R16
6.9
2009
P30
.84.
011
9.2
3.0
157.
0
–
–
(s)
2.2
1.4
–
–
–
3.7
.916
1.6
1A
nthr
acite
, bitu
min
ous
coal
, sub
bitu
min
ous
coal
, lig
nite
, was
te c
oal,
and
coal
syn
fuel
.2
Dis
tilla
te fu
el o
il, r
esid
ual f
uel o
il, p
etro
leum
cok
e, je
t fue
l, ke
rose
ne, o
ther
pet
role
um, a
nd w
aste
oil.
3N
atur
al g
as, p
lus
a sm
all a
mou
nt o
f sup
plem
enta
l gas
eous
fuel
s.4
Bla
st fu
rnac
e ga
s, p
ropa
ne g
as, a
nd o
ther
man
ufac
ture
d an
d w
aste
gas
es d
eriv
ed fr
om fo
ssil
fuel
s.5
Pum
ped
stor
age
faci
lity
prod
uctio
n m
inus
ene
rgy
used
for
pum
ping
.6
Thr
ough
198
9, h
ydro
elec
tric
pum
ped
stor
age
is in
clud
ed in
"C
onve
ntio
nal H
ydro
elec
tric
Pow
er."
7W
ood
and
woo
d-de
rived
fuel
s.8
Mun
icip
al s
olid
was
te f
rom
bio
geni
c so
urce
s, l
andf
ill g
as,
slud
ge w
aste
, ag
ricul
tura
l by
prod
ucts
, an
dot
her
biom
ass.
Thr
ough
200
0, a
lso
incl
udes
non
-ren
ewab
le w
aste
(m
unic
ipal
sol
id w
aste
from
non
-bio
geni
cso
urce
s, a
nd ti
re-d
eriv
ed fu
els)
.9
Sol
ar th
erm
al a
nd p
hoto
volta
ic (
PV
) en
ergy
.10
Bat
terie
s,
chem
ical
s,
hydr
ogen
, pi
tch,
pu
rcha
sed
stea
m,
sulfu
r,
mis
cella
neou
s te
chno
logi
es,
and,
begi
nnin
g in
200
1, n
on-r
enew
able
was
te (
mun
icip
al s
olid
was
te f
rom
non
-bio
geni
c so
urce
s, a
nd t
ire-d
eriv
edfu
els)
.11
Ele
ctric
ity-o
nly
plan
ts w
ithin
the
NA
ICS
22
cate
gory
who
se p
rimar
y bu
sine
ss is
to
sell
elec
tric
ity t
o th
e
publ
ic.
Dat
a al
so in
clud
e a
smal
l num
ber
of e
lect
ric u
tility
com
bine
d-he
at-a
nd-p
ower
(C
HP
) pl
ants
.12
Com
bine
d-he
at-a
nd-p
ower
(C
HP
) pl
ants
with
in t
he N
AIC
S 2
2 ca
tego
ry w
hose
prim
ary
busi
ness
is
tose
ll el
ectr
icity
and
hea
t to
the
pub
lic.
Dat
a do
not
inc
lude
ele
ctric
util
ity C
HP
pla
nts—
thes
e ar
e in
clud
edun
der
"Ele
ctric
ity-O
nly
Pla
nts.
"R
=R
evis
ed.
P=
Pre
limin
ary.
– =
No
data
rep
orte
d. (
s)=
Less
than
0.0
5 bi
llion
kilo
wat
thou
rs.
Not
es:
•
See
Tab
le 8
.2d
for
com
mer
cial
and
ind
ustr
ial
CH
P a
nd e
lect
ricity
-onl
y da
ta.
•
See
Not
e 1,
"Cov
erag
e of
Ele
ctric
ity S
tatis
tics,
" an
d N
ote
2, "
Cla
ssifi
catio
n of
Pow
er P
lant
s In
to E
nerg
y-U
se S
ecto
rs,"
at
end
of s
ectio
n. •
Tot
als
may
not
equ
al s
um o
f com
pone
nts
due
to in
depe
nden
t rou
ndin
g.W
eb P
age:
For
rel
ated
info
rmat
ion,
see
http
://w
ww
.eia
.gov
/fuel
elec
tric
.htm
l.S
ourc
es:
•
1989
-199
7—U
.S.
Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
(EIA
), F
orm
EIA
-759
, "M
onth
ly P
ower
Pla
nt R
epor
t," a
nd F
orm
EIA
-867
, "A
nnua
l N
onut
ility
Pow
er P
rodu
cer
Rep
ort."
•
199
8-20
00—
EIA
, F
orm
EIA
-759
, "M
onth
ly
Pow
er
Pla
nt
Rep
ort,"
an
d F
orm
E
IA-8
60B
, "A
nnua
l E
lect
ric
Gen
erat
orR
epor
t—N
onut
ility
."
• 2
001-
2003
—E
IA,
For
m E
IA-9
06,
"Pow
er P
lant
Rep
ort."
•
200
4-20
07—
EIA
, F
orm
EIA
-906
, "P
ower
Pla
nt R
epor
t," a
nd F
orm
EIA
-920
, "C
ombi
ned
Hea
t an
d P
ower
Pla
nt R
epor
t."
• 2
008
and
2009
—E
IA, F
orm
EIA
-923
, "P
ower
Pla
nt O
pera
tions
Rep
ort."
ENGR 190 Page 17
U.S
. Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
/ Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009
239
Tab
le 8
.4a
Co
nsu
mp
tio
n f
or
Ele
ctri
city
Gen
erat
ion
by
En
erg
y S
ou
rce:
To
tal (
All
Sec
tors
), S
elec
ted
Yea
rs, 1
949-
2009
(Sum
of T
able
s 8.
4b a
nd 8
.4c;
Tril
lion
Btu
)
Yea
r
Fo
ssil
Fu
els
Nu
clea
rE
lect
ric
Po
wer
5
Ren
ewab
le E
ner
gy
Oth
er 9
Ele
ctri
city
Net
Imp
ort
s 10
To
tal
Co
al 1
Pet
role
um
2N
atu
ral
Gas
3O
ther
Gas
es 4
To
tal
Co
nve
nti
on
alH
ydro
elec
tric
Po
wer
5
Bio
mas
sG
eo-
ther
mal
5S
ola
r/P
V 5
,8W
ind
5T
ota
lW
oo
d 6
Was
te 7
1949
1,99
541
556
9
N
A2,
979
01,
425
6
N
A
N
A
N
A
N
A1,
431
NA
54,
415
1950
2,19
947
265
1
N
A3,
322
01,
415
5
N
A
N
A
N
A
N
A1,
421
NA
64,
749
1955
3,45
847
11,
194
NA
5,12
30
1,36
03
NA
NA
NA
NA
1,36
3
N
A14
6,50
019
604,
228
553
1,78
5
N
A6,
565
61,
608
2
N
A1
NA
NA
1,61
0
N
A15
8,19
719
655,
821
722
2,39
5
N
A8,
938
432,
059
3
N
A4
NA
NA
2,06
6
N
A
(
s)11
,047
1970
7,22
72,
117
4,05
4
N
A13
,399
239
2,63
41
211
NA
NA
2,64
9
N
A7
16,2
9319
717,
299
2,49
54,
099
NA
13,8
9341
32,
824
12
12
N
A
N
A2,
839
NA
1217
,158
1972
7,81
13,
097
4,08
4
N
A14
,992
584
2,86
41
231
NA
NA
2,89
9
N
A26
18,5
0119
738,
658
3,51
53,
748
NA
15,9
2191
02,
861
12
43
N
A
N
A2,
907
NA
4919
,788
1974
8,53
43,
365
3,51
9
N
A15
,418
1,27
23,
177
12
53
N
A
N
A3,
232
NA
4319
,966
1975
8,78
63,
166
3,24
0
N
A15
,191
1,90
03,
155
(s)
270
NA
NA
3,22
7
N
A21
20,3
3919
769,
720
3,47
73,
152
NA
16,3
492,
111
2,97
61
278
NA
NA
3,05
7
N
A29
21,5
4719
7710
,262
3,90
13,
284
NA
17,4
462,
702
2,33
33
277
NA
NA
2,41
6
N
A59
22,6
2319
7810
,238
3,98
73,
297
NA
17,5
223,
024
2,93
72
164
NA
NA
3,00
5
N
A67
23,6
1819
7911
,260
3,28
33,
613
NA
18,1
562,
776
2,93
13
284
NA
NA
3,02
0
N
A69
24,0
2119
8012
,123
2,63
43,
810
NA
18,5
672,
739
2,90
03
211
0
N
A
N
A3,
014
NA
7124
,392
1981
12,5
832,
202
3,76
8
N
A18
,553
3,00
82,
758
31
123
NA
NA
2,88
5
N
A11
324
,559
1982
12,5
821,
568
3,34
2
N
A17
,491
3,13
13,
266
21
105
NA
NA
3,37
4
N
A10
024
,096
1983
13,2
131,
544
2,99
8
N
A17
,754
3,20
33,
527
22
129
NA
(s)
3,66
1
N
A12
124
,738
1984
14,0
191,
286
3,22
0
N
A18
,526
3,55
33,
386
54
165
(s)
(s)
3,56
0
N
A13
525
,774
1985
14,5
421,
090
3,16
0
N
A18
,792
4,07
62,
970
87
198
(s)
(s)
3,18
3
N
A14
026
,191
1986
14,4
441,
452
2,69
1
N
A18
,586
4,38
03,
071
57
219
(s)
(s)
3,30
3
N
A12
226
,392
1987
15,1
731,
257
2,93
5
N
A19
,365
4,75
42,
635
87
229
(s)
(s)
2,87
9
N
A15
827
,157
1988
15,8
501,
563
2,70
9
N
A20
,123
5,58
72,
334
108
217
(s)
(s)
2,56
9
N
A10
828
,387
1989
1116
,359
111,
756
113,
582
9011
21,7
8811
5,60
212
2,83
711
345
1115
111
308
113
1122
113,
665
3937
31,1
3119
9016
,477
1,36
63,
791
112
21,7
466,
104
3,04
644
221
132
64
294,
058
368
31,9
5319
9116
,460
1,27
63,
861
125
21,7
236,
422
3,01
642
524
733
55
314,
058
5967
32,3
2919
9216
,686
1,07
63,
999
141
21,9
036,
479
2,61
748
128
333
84
303,
752
4087
32,2
6119
9317
,424
1,20
34,
027
136
22,7
906,
410
2,89
248
528
835
15
314,
052
3495
33,3
8119
9417
,485
1,13
54,
476
136
23,2
336,
694
2,68
349
830
132
55
363,
848
4015
333
,968
1995
17,6
8781
34,
840
133
23,4
737,
075
3,20
548
031
628
05
334,
318
4213
435
,043
1996
18,6
5088
84,
400
159
24,0
977,
087
3,59
051
332
430
05
334,
765
3713
736
,123
1997
19,1
2898
54,
658
119
24,8
906,
597
3,64
048
433
930
95
344,
811
3611
636
,451
1998
19,4
171,
378
5,20
512
526
,124
7,06
83,
297
475
332
311
531
4,45
036
8837
,767
1999
19,4
671,
285
5,44
112
626
,320
7,61
03,
268
490
332
312
546
4,45
241
9938
,522
2000
20,4
111,
212
5,81
812
627
,567
7,86
22,
811
496
330
296
557
3,99
546
115
39,5
8620
0119
,789
1,34
76,
001
9727
,235
R8,
029
2,24
248
622
828
96
703,
320
160
75R38
,819
2002
19,9
971,
014
6,25
013
127
,392
R8,
145
2,68
960
525
730
56
105
3,96
719
172
R39
,767
2003
20,3
671,
266
5,73
615
627
,525
7,95
92,
825
519
249
303
511
54,
016
193
2239
,715
2004
20,3
761,
248
5,82
713
527
,586
8,22
22,
690
344
230
311
614
23,
723
183
3939
,753
2005
20,8
021,
269
6,21
211
028
,393
R8,
161
2,70
335
523
030
96
178
3,78
117
384
R40
,592
2006
20,5
2766
86,
644
115
27,9
54R8,
215
2,86
935
024
130
65
264
4,03
516
263
R40
,429
2007
20,8
4268
37,
288
115
28,9
27R8,
455
2,44
635
324
530
86
341
3,69
916
810
7R41
,356
2008
R20
,549
R48
5R7,
087
R97
R28
,218
R8,
427
R2,
511
R33
9R26
7R31
4R9
R54
6R3,
985
R17
011
2R40
,913
2009
P18
,325
404
7,28
586
26,1
018,
349
2,68
231
825
932
08
697
4,28
315
911
639
,008
1A
nthr
acite
, bitu
min
ous
coal
, sub
bitu
min
ous
coal
, lig
nite
, was
te c
oal,
and
coal
syn
fuel
.2
Dis
tilla
te fu
el o
il, r
esid
ual f
uel o
il, p
etro
leum
cok
e, je
t fue
l, ke
rose
ne, o
ther
pet
role
um, a
nd w
aste
oil.
3N
atur
al g
as, p
lus
a sm
all a
mou
nt o
f sup
plem
enta
l gas
eous
fuel
s.4
Bla
st fu
rnac
e ga
s, p
ropa
ne g
as, a
nd o
ther
man
ufac
ture
d an
d w
aste
gas
es d
eriv
ed fr
om fo
ssil
fuel
s.5
Val
ues
are
conv
erte
d fr
om k
ilow
attth
ours
to B
tu u
sing
the
appr
oxim
ate
heat
rat
es in
Tab
le A
6.6
Woo
d an
d w
ood-
deriv
ed fu
els.
7M
unic
ipal
sol
id w
aste
fro
m b
ioge
nic
sour
ces,
lan
dfill
gas
, sl
udge
was
te,
agric
ultu
ral
bypr
oduc
ts,
and
othe
r bi
omas
s.
T
hrou
gh
2000
, al
so
incl
udes
no
n-re
new
able
w
aste
(m
unic
ipal
so
lid
was
te
from
non-
biog
enic
sou
rces
, and
tire
-der
ived
fuel
s).
8S
olar
ther
mal
and
pho
tovo
ltaic
(P
V)
ener
gy.
9B
atte
ries,
che
mic
als,
hyd
roge
n, p
itch,
pur
chas
ed s
team
, su
lfur,
mis
cella
neou
s te
chno
logi
es,
and,
begi
nnin
g in
200
1, n
on-r
enew
able
was
te (
mun
icip
al s
olid
was
te fr
om n
on-b
ioge
nic
sour
ces,
and
tire
-der
ived
fuel
s).
10N
et i
mpo
rts
equa
l im
port
s m
inus
exp
orts
. S
ee N
ote
3, "
Ele
ctric
ity I
mpo
rts
and
Exp
orts
," a
t en
d of
sect
ion.
11T
hrou
gh 1
988,
dat
a ar
e fo
r el
ectr
ic u
tiliti
es o
nly.
B
egin
ning
in
1989
, da
ta a
re f
or e
lect
ric u
tiliti
es,
inde
pend
ent p
ower
pro
duce
rs, c
omm
erci
al p
lant
s, a
nd in
dust
rial p
lant
s.12
Thr
ough
198
8, d
ata
are
for
elec
tric
util
ities
and
ind
ustr
ial
plan
ts.
Beg
inni
ng i
n 19
89,
data
are
for
elec
tric
util
ities
, ind
epen
dent
pow
er p
rodu
cers
, com
mer
cial
pla
nts,
and
indu
stria
l pla
nts.
R=
Rev
ised
. P
=P
relim
inar
y. N
A=
Not
ava
ilabl
e. (
s)=
Less
than
0.5
trill
ion
Btu
. N
otes
: •
D
ata
are
for
ener
gy c
onsu
med
to
prod
uce
elec
tric
ity.
Dat
a al
so in
clud
e en
ergy
con
sum
ed t
opr
oduc
e us
eful
the
rmal
out
put
at a
sm
all n
umbe
r of
ele
ctric
util
ity c
ombi
ned-
heat
-and
-pow
er (
CH
P)
plan
ts.
• T
his
tabl
e no
lon
ger
show
s en
ergy
con
sum
ptio
n by
hyd
roel
ectr
ic p
umpe
d st
orag
e pl
ants
. T
he c
hang
ew
as m
ade
beca
use
mos
t of t
he e
lect
ricity
use
d to
pum
p w
ater
into
ele
vate
d st
orag
e re
serv
oirs
is g
ener
ated
by p
lant
s ot
her
than
pum
ped-
stor
age
plan
ts;
thus
, th
e as
soci
ated
ene
rgy
is a
lread
y ac
coun
ted
for
in o
ther
data
col
umns
in t
his
tabl
e (s
uch
as "
Con
vent
iona
l Hyd
roel
ectr
ic P
ower
," "
Coa
l," "
Nat
ural
Gas
," a
nd s
o on
).•
See
Not
e 1,
"C
over
age
of E
lect
ricity
Sta
tistic
s,"
at e
nd o
f se
ctio
n.
• T
otal
s m
ay n
ot e
qual
sum
of
com
pone
nts
due
to in
depe
nden
t rou
ndin
g.W
eb
Pag
es:
•
F
or
all
data
be
ginn
ing
in
1949
, se
e ht
tp://
ww
w.e
ia.g
ov/e
meu
/aer
/ele
ct.h
tml.
• F
or r
elat
ed in
form
atio
n, s
ee h
ttp://
ww
w.e
ia.g
ov/fu
elel
ectr
ic.h
tml.
Sou
rces
: •
19
49-1
988—
Tab
le 8
.4b
for
elec
tric
pow
er s
ecto
r, a
nd T
able
s 8.
1 an
d A
6 fo
r in
dust
rial
sect
or.
• 1
989
forw
ard—
Tab
les
8.4b
and
8.4
c.
ENGR 190 Page 18
Figu
re 6
.0N
atur
al G
as F
low
, 200
9(T
rillio
n C
ubic
Fee
t)
U.S
. Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
/ Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009
185
1 Qua
ntiti
es lo
st a
nd im
bala
nces
in d
ata
due
to d
iffer
ence
s am
ong
data
sou
rces
.2 L
ease
and
pla
nt fu
el, a
nd o
ther
indu
stria
l.3 N
atur
al g
as c
onsu
med
in th
e op
erat
ion
of p
ipel
ines
(pr
imar
ily in
com
pres
sors
), an
d as
fuel
inth
e de
liver
y of
nat
ural
gas
to c
onsu
mer
s; p
lus
a sm
all q
uant
ity u
sed
as v
ehic
le fu
el.
Not
es:
•
Dat
a ar
e pr
elim
inar
y.
• V
alue
s ar
e de
rived
fro
m s
ourc
e da
ta p
rior
to r
ound
ing
for
publ
icat
ion.
•
Tota
ls m
ay n
ot e
qual
sum
of c
ompo
nent
s du
e to
inde
pend
ent r
ound
ing.
Sou
rces
: Ta
bles
6.1
, 6.2
, and
6.5
.
ENGR 190 Page 19
Figu
re 7
.0C
oal F
low
, 200
9(M
illio
n S
hort
Tons
)
U.S
. Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
/ Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009
205
1 Inc
lude
s fin
e co
al, c
oal o
btai
ned
from
a re
fuse
ban
k or
slu
rry
dam
, ant
hrac
ite c
ulm
, bitu
mi-
nous
gob
, and
lign
ite w
aste
that
are
con
sum
ed b
y th
e el
ectri
c po
wer
and
indu
stria
l sec
tors
.N
otes
: •
P
rodu
ctio
n ca
tego
ries
are
estim
ated
; ot
her
data
are
pre
limin
ary.
•
Val
ues
are
deriv
ed f
rom
sou
rce
data
prio
r to
rou
ndin
g fo
r pu
blic
atio
n.
• T
otal
s m
ay n
ot e
qual
sum
of
com
pone
nts
due
to in
depe
nden
t rou
ndin
g.S
ourc
es:
Tabl
es 7
.1, 7
.2, a
nd 7
.3.
ENGR 190 Page 20
U.S
. Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
/ Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009
277
Tab
le 9
.2 N
ucl
ear
Po
wer
Pla
nt
Op
erat
ion
s, 1
957-
2009
Yea
r
Nu
clea
r E
lect
rici
ty N
et G
ener
atio
nN
ucl
ear
Sh
are
of
To
tal E
lect
rici
ty N
et G
ener
atio
nN
et S
um
mer
Cap
acit
y o
f O
per
able
Un
its
1C
apac
ity
Fac
tor
2
Bill
ion
Kilo
wat
thou
rsP
erce
ntM
illio
n K
ilow
atts
Per
cent
1957
(s)
(s)
0.1
NA
1958
.2 (
s).1
NA
1959
.2 (
s).1
NA
1960
.5.1
.4N
A19
611.
7.2
.4N
A19
622.
3.3
.7N
A19
633.
2.3
.8N
A19
643.
3.3
.8N
A19
653.
7.3
.8N
A19
665.
5.5
1.7
NA
1967
7.7
.62.
7N
A19
6812
.5.9
2.7
NA
1969
13.9
1.0
4.4
NA
1970
21.8
1.4
7.0
NA
1971
38.1
2.4
9.0
NA
1972
54.1
3.1
14.5
NA
1973
83.5
4.5
22.7
53.5
1974
114.
06.
131
.947
.819
7517
2.5
9.0
37.3
55.9
1976
191.
19.
443
.854
.719
7725
0.9
11.8
46.3
63.3
1978
276.
412
.550
.864
.519
7925
5.2
11.3
49.7
58.4
1980
251.
111
.051
.856
.319
8127
2.7
11.9
56.0
58.2
1982
282.
812
.660
.056
.619
8329
3.7
12.7
63.0
54.4
1984
327.
613
.569
.756
.319
8538
3.7
15.5
79.4
58.0
1986
414.
016
.685
.256
.919
8745
5.3
17.7
93.6
57.4
1988
527.
019
.594
.763
.519
8952
9.4
17.8
98.2
62.2
1990
576.
919
.099
.666
.019
9161
2.6
19.9
99.6
70.2
1992
618.
820
.199
.070
.919
9361
0.3
19.1
99.0
70.5
1994
640.
419
.799
.173
.819
9567
3.4
20.1
99.5
77.4
1996
674.
719
.610
0.8
76.2
1997
628.
618
.099
.771
.119
9867
3.7
18.6
97.1
78.2
1999
728.
319
.797
.485
.320
0075
3.9
19.8
97.9
88.1
2001
768.
820
.698
.289
.420
0278
0.1
20.2
98.7
90.3
2003
763.
719
.799
.287
.920
0478
8.5
19.9
99.6
90.1
2005
782.
019
.310
0.0
89.3
2006
787.
219
.410
0.3
89.6
2007
806.
419
.410
0.3
91.8
2008
806.
219
.6R10
0.8
R91
.120
09P
798.
720
.210
0.8
90.5
1A
t end
of y
ear.
See
"G
ener
ator
Net
Sum
mer
Cap
acity
" in
Glo
ssar
y.2
See
"G
ener
ator
Cap
acity
Fac
tor"
in G
loss
ary.
R=
Rev
ised
. P
=P
relim
inar
y. N
A=
Not
ava
ilabl
e. (
s)=
Less
than
0.0
5.
Not
e: S
ee N
ote
2, "
Cov
erag
e of
Nuc
lear
Ene
rgy
Sta
tistic
s,"
at e
nd o
f sec
tion.
Web
Pag
e: F
or r
elat
ed in
form
atio
n, s
ee h
ttp://
ww
w.e
ia.g
ov/fu
elnu
clea
r.ht
ml.
Sou
rces
: N
ucl
ear
Ele
ctri
city
Net
Gen
erat
ion
and
Nu
clea
r S
har
e o
f E
lect
rici
ty N
et G
ener
atio
n:
Tab
le 8
.2a.
N
et S
um
mer
Cap
acit
y o
f O
per
able
Un
its:
•
194
9-20
08:
Tab
le 8
.11a
. •
20
09—
U.S
.E
nerg
y In
form
atio
n A
dmin
istr
atio
n (E
IA),
Mon
thly
Ene
rgy
Rev
iew
(M
ER
) (A
pril
2010
), T
able
8.1
. C
apac
ity
Fac
tor:
E
IA,
ME
R (
Apr
il 20
10),
Tab
le 8
.1.
Ann
ual
capa
city
fac
tors
are
wei
ghte
d av
erag
es o
f m
onth
lyca
paci
ty fa
ctor
s.
ENGR 190 Page 21
U.S
. Ene
rgy
Info
rmat
ion
Adm
inis
trat
ion
/ Ann
ual E
nerg
y R
evie
w 2
009
283
Tab
le 1
0.1
Ren
ewab
le E
ner
gy
Pro
du
ctio
n a
nd
Co
nsu
mp
tio
n b
y P
rim
ary
En
erg
y S
ou
rce,
Sel
ecte
d Y
ears
, 194
9-20
09
(T
rillio
n B
tu)
Yea
r
Pro
du
ctio
n 1
Co
nsu
mp
tio
n
Bio
mas
sT
ota
lR
enew
able
En
erg
y 4
Hyd
ro-
elec
tric
Po
wer
5G
eo-
ther
mal
6S
ola
r/P
V 7
Win
d 8
Bio
mas
sT
ota
lR
enew
able
En
erg
yB
iofu
els
2T
ota
l 3W
oo
d 9
Was
te 1
0B
iofu
els
11T
ota
l
1949
N
A1,
549
2,97
41,
425
N
A
NA
N
A1,
549
N
A
NA
1,54
92,
974
1950
N
A1,
562
2,97
81,
415
N
A
NA
N
A1,
562
N
A
NA
1,56
22,
978
1955
N
A1,
424
2,78
41,
360
N
A
NA
N
A1,
424
N
A
NA
1,42
42,
784
1960
N
A1,
320
2,92
91,
608
1
NA
N
A1,
320
N
A
NA
1,32
02,
929
1965
N
A1,
335
3,39
82,
059
4
NA
N
A1,
335
N
A
NA
1,33
53,
398
1970
N
A1,
431
4,07
62,
634
11
NA
N
A1,
429
2
NA
1,43
14,
076
1971
N
A1,
432
4,26
82,
824
12
NA
N
A1,
430
2
NA
1,43
24,
268
1972
N
A1,
503
4,39
82,
864
31
NA
N
A1,
501
2
NA
1,50
34,
398
1973
N
A1,
529
4,43
32,
861
43
NA
N
A1,
527
2
NA
1,52
94,
433
1974
N
A1,
540
4,76
93,
177
53
NA
N
A1,
538
2
NA
1,54
04,
769
1975
N
A1,
499
4,72
33,
155
70
NA
N
A1,
497
2
NA
1,49
94,
723
1976
N
A1,
713
4,76
82,
976
78
NA
N
A1,
711
2
NA
1,71
34,
768
1977
N
A1,
838
4,24
92,
333
77
NA
N
A1,
837
2
NA
1,83
84,
249
1978
N
A2,
038
5,03
92,
937
64
NA
N
A2,
036
1
NA
2,03
85,
039
1979
N
A2,
152
5,16
62,
931
84
NA
N
A2,
150
2
NA
2,15
25,
166
1980
N
A2,
476
5,48
52,
900
110
N
A
NA
2,47
42
N
A2,
476
5,48
519
8113
R2,
596
R5,
477
2,75
812
3
NA
N
A2,
496
8813
R2,
596
R5,
477
1982
R34
R2,
663
6,03
43,
266
105
N
A
NA
2,51
011
9R34
R2,
663
6,03
419
83R63
R2,
904
R6,
561
3,52
712
9
NA
(
s)2,
684
157
R63
R2,
904
R6,
561
1984
R77
R2,
971
R6,
522
3,38
616
5
(s)
(
s)2,
686
208
R77
R2,
971
R6,
522
1985
R93
R3,
016
R6,
185
2,97
019
8
(s)
(
s)2,
687
236
R93
R3,
016
R6,
185
1986
R10
7R2,
932
R6,
223
3,07
121
9
(s)
(
s)2,
562
263
R10
7R2,
932
R6,
223
1987
R12
3R2,
875
R5,
739
2,63
522
9
(s)
(
s)2,
463
289
R12
3R2,
875
R5,
739
1988
R12
4R3,
016
R5,
568
2,33
421
7
(s)
(
s)2,
577
315
R12
4R3,
016
R5,
568
1989
R12
5R3,
159
R6,
391
2,83
731
755
222,
680
354
R12
5R3,
159
R6,
391
1990
R11
1R2,
735
R6,
206
3,04
633
660
292,
216
408
R11
1R2,
735
R6,
206
1991
R12
8R2,
782
R6,
237
3,01
634
663
312,
214
440
R12
8R2,
782
R6,
238
1992
R14
5R2,
932
R5,
992
2,61
734
964
302,
313
473
R14
5R2,
932
R5,
992
1993
R16
9R2,
908
R6,
261
2,89
236
466
312,
260
479
R16
9R2,
908
R6,
261
1994
R18
8R3,
028
R6,
153
2,68
333
869
362,
324
515
R18
8R3,
028
R6,
153
1995
R19
8R3,
099
R6,
701
3,20
529
470
332,
370
531
R20
0R3,
101
R6,
703
1996
R14
1R3,
155
R7,
165
3,59
031
671
332,
437
577
R14
3R3,
157
R7,
166
1997
R18
6R3,
108
R7,
177
3,64
032
570
342,
371
551
R18
4R3,
105
R7,
175
1998
R20
2R2,
929
R6,
655
3,29
732
870
312,
184
542
R20
1R2,
928
R6,
654
1999
R21
1R2,
965
R6,
678
3,26
833
169
462,
214
540
R20
9R2,
963
R6,
677
2000
R23
3R3,
006
R6,
257
2,81
131
766
572,
262
511
R23
6R3,
008
R6,
260
2001
R25
4R2,
624
R5,
312
2,24
231
165
702,
006
364
R25
3R2,
622
R5,
311
2002
R30
8R2,
705
R5,
892
2,68
932
864
105
1,99
540
2R30
3R2,
701
R5,
888
2003
R40
2R2,
805
R6,
139
2,82
533
164
115
2,00
240
1R40
4R2,
807
R6,
141
2004
R48
7R2,
998
R6,
235
2,69
034
165
142
2,12
138
9R50
0R3,
010
R6,
247
2005
R56
4R3,
104
R6,
393
2,70
334
366
178
2,13
640
3R57
7R3,
117
R6,
406
2006
R72
0R3,
226
R6,
774
2,86
934
372
264
R2,
109
R39
7R77
1R3,
277
R6,
824
2007
R97
8R3,
489
R6,
706
2,44
634
981
341
R2,
098
R41
3R99
1R3,
503
R6,
719
2008
R1,
387
R3,
867
R7,
381
R2,
511
R36
0R97
R54
6R2,
044
R43
6R1,
372
R3,
852
R7,
366
2009
P1,
562
3,90
07,
761
2,68
237
310
969
71,
891
447
1,54
53,
883
7,74
4
1P
rodu
ctio
n eq
uals
con
sum
ptio
n fo
r al
l ren
ewab
le e
nerg
y so
urce
s ex
cept
bio
fuel
s.2
Tot
al b
iom
ass
inpu
ts to
the
prod
uctio
n of
fuel
eth
anol
and
bio
dies
el.
3W
ood
and
woo
d-de
rived
fue
ls,
biom
ass
was
te,
and
tota
l bi
omas
s in
puts
to
the
prod
uctio
n of
fue
let
hano
l and
bio
dies
el.
4H
ydro
elec
tric
pow
er, g
eoth
erm
al, s
olar
ther
mal
/pho
tovo
ltaic
, win
d, a
nd b
iom
ass.
5C
onve
ntio
nal h
ydro
elec
tric
ity n
et g
ener
atio
n (c
onve
rted
to B
tu u
sing
the
foss
il-fu
eled
pla
nts
heat
rat
e).
6G
eoth
erm
al e
lect
ricity
net
gen
erat
ion
(con
vert
ed t
o B
tu u
sing
the
geo
ther
mal
ene
rgy
plan
ts h
eat
rate
),an
d ge
othe
rmal
hea
t pum
p an
d di
rect
use
ene
rgy.
7S
olar
the
rmal
and
pho
tovo
ltaic
(P
V)
elec
tric
ity n
et g
ener
atio
n (c
onve
rted
to
Btu
usi
ng t
he f
ossi
l-fue
led
plan
ts h
eat r
ate)
, and
sol
ar th
erm
al d
irect
use
ene
rgy.
8W
ind
elec
tric
ity n
et g
ener
atio
n (c
onve
rted
to B
tu u
sing
the
foss
il-fu
eled
pla
nts
heat
rat
e).
9W
ood
and
woo
d-de
rived
fuel
s.10
Mun
icip
al s
olid
was
te f
rom
bio
geni
c so
urce
s, l
andf
ill g
as,
slud
ge w
aste
, ag
ricul
tura
l by
prod
ucts
, an
dot
her
biom
ass.
Thr
ough
20
00,
also
in
clud
es
non-
rene
wab
le
was
te
(mun
icip
al
solid
w
aste
fr
om
non-
biog
enic
sou
rces
, and
tire
-der
ived
fuel
s).
11F
uel
etha
nol
(min
us d
enat
uran
t) a
nd b
iodi
esel
con
sum
ptio
n, p
lus
loss
es a
nd c
o-pr
oduc
ts f
rom
the
prod
uctio
n of
fuel
eth
anol
and
bio
dies
el.
R=
Rev
ised
. P
=P
relim
inar
y. N
A=
Not
ava
ilabl
e. (
s)=
Less
than
0.5
trill
ion
Btu
. N
otes
: •
M
ost
data
for
the
res
iden
tial,
com
mer
cial
, in
dust
rial,
and
tran
spor
tatio
n se
ctor
s ar
e es
timat
es.
See
not
es a
nd s
ourc
es f
or T
able
s 10
.2a
and
10.2
b.
• S
ee S
ectio
n 8,
Tab
les
8.2a
-d a
nd 8
.3a-
c, f
orel
ectr
icity
net
gen
erat
ion
and
usef
ul t
herm
al o
utpu
t fr
om r
enew
able
ene
rgy
sour
ces;
Tab
les
8.4a
-c,
8.5a
-d,
8.6a
-c,
and
8.7a
-c f
or r
enew
able
ene
rgy
cons
umpt
ion
for
elec
tric
ity g
ener
atio
n an
d us
eful
the
rmal
out
put;
and
Tab
les
8.11
a-d
for
rene
wab
le e
nerg
y el
ectr
ic n
et s
umm
er c
apac
ity.
•
See
Not
e, "
Ren
ewab
le E
nerg
yP
rodu
ctio
n an
d C
onsu
mpt
ion,
" at
end
of
sect
ion.
•
See
Tab
le E
1 fo
r es
timat
ed r
enew
able
ene
rgy
cons
umpt
ion
for
1635
-194
5. •
Tot
als
may
not
equ
al s
um o
f com
pone
nts
due
to in
depe
nden
t rou
ndin
g.W
eb
Pag
es:
•
F
or
all
data
be
ginn
ing
in
1949
, se
e ht
tp://
ww
w.e
ia.g
ov/e
meu
/aer
/ren
ew.h
tml.
• F
or r
elat
ed in
form
atio
n, s
ee h
ttp://
ww
w.e
ia.g
ov/fu
elre
new
able
.htm
l.S
ourc
es:
Bio
fuel
s: T
able
s 10
.3 a
nd 1
0.4.
A
ll O
ther
Dat
a: T
able
s 10
.2a-
c.
ENGR 190 Page 22
ENGR 190 Page 23
HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC STUDIES LEADING TO NUCLEAR POWER
History of the Scientific Discoveries and the Development of the Application of Nuclear Energy for the Benefit of Civilization
The understanding of the structure of matter, consisting of atoms, only began with the hypothesis of Dalton in 1805 in England. This was also the year that the Lewis and Clark Expedition reached the Pacific Ocean. Subsequent developments saw great discoveries about the atom, and particularly the nucleus. Essentially all of these discoveries were made in Europe up until the time of World War II, when a crash program was initiated in the United States to harness this new “nuclear” energy to make a highly destructive bomb that brought -a quick end to the war.
Simultaneous these early discoveries came at a time when the United States of America was being settled from east to west, and the Industrial Revolution was occurring, involving the use of machinery that harnessed chemical energy.
The ultimate discovery of the difference between chemical (atomic) energy and nuclear energy showed a huge factor. The energy that could be obtained by manipulating the nucleus was the order of one million to several hundred million greater than that obtained from chemical reactions involving the exchange of electrons (in orbit) between atoms.
Why History? This historical review shows the steps which are key to the understanding and the development of nuclear power. This harnessing of the energy derived from the fissioning of the uranium atom (and plutonium) results in a vast reserve of energy available from the earth’s crust, the order of 50,000 times more energy that is available from all of the coal, natural gas (methane), and petroleum in the earth’s crust.
Environmental Effects Because of the tremendous difference in nuclear energy compared to chemical energy, the consequences to ultimate safety, environmental effects, and benefits to mankind are very much different. Environmentally, waste products from the nuclear processes are much, much smaller than from chemical processes, but these small product amounts are very dangerous. The challenge is to protect from the danger, while taking advantage of the minimal overall environmental effects of nuclear energy.
Tile Challenges Today Nuclear (fission) power represents a virtually inexhaustible source of energy, for hundreds of thousands of years. The nations of the world are working together to further harness this energy in various ways, not only to produce power, but to treat disease, to make new types of materials, and to make life healthier and more productive.
The waste products are so small in volume that these can be easily confined safely. However, nuclear energy also represents the horrendous destructive potential of nuclear bombs. The challenge is to prevent the use of such bombs in warfare, and perhaps the key to such a goal is the prevention of any type of warfare between nations or among terrorist organizations.
ENGR 190 Page 24
NUCLEAR ENERGY VS. CHEMICAL ENERGY
One fission of a uranium or plutonium nucleus = 200,000,000 eV
One carbon atom burning = 4.1eV
Geological data of the Earth’s Crust shows that the concentration of carbon is ~300 ppm (parts per million) by weight and about 2.7 ppm by weight for uranium plus about 9 ppm for thorium.
Note that uranium and thorium have a mass that is about 20 times that of carbon.
Hence, there are about 500 times more carbon atoms in the earth’s crust than Uranium and Thorium
The carbon resource also includes oil and natural gas adding about 30% to the pure carbon values, which would raise the 500 atoms of carbon to one uranium atom to about 650.
Therefore, the nuclear resource is about (200,000,000 / [4.1 x 650])
= ~75,000, the ratio of the nuclear energy resource in the earth’s crust to the fossil fuel resource.
The discovery of this huge nuclear energy capability per atom occurred in Germany in 1938, and the data was made known to scientists throughout the world. The experiments of Hahn, Strassmann, and Meitner in Germany were repeated within a year at about 100 universities in the USA, in 1939.
However, this was also the beginning of World War II, in 1939, and the USA and British scientists decided to no longer publish the results of their research on uranium fission. A number of scientists of Jewish heritage left Italy and Germany, escaping for their lives to the USA. Many of them, such as Enrico Fermi, became key individuals in the development of the nuclear bomb (“atomic bomb”) in the USA during the war.
INITIAL DEVELOPMENT – BUILDING A BOMB
The initial development of nuclear power was to build a weapon – a bomb.
The Issues and Concerns:
• Are there enough neutrons released per fission to maintain a chain reaction? Answer: ~2.5 neutrons released per fission.
• The speed of these reactions is about a nanosecond to a microsecond. How can this be done safely? Answer: It was determined that about 2/3% of the total neutrons produced in a fission are delayed by about 12 seconds.
• Can a chain reaction be produced and controlled? Answer: This was done on December 2, 1942 at the University of Chicago with a large reactor (26' x 28' x 28') made of natural uranium rods (about 1" diameter) inserted in pure graphite blocks.
ENGR 190 Page 25
How can a bomb be made? Answer: Pure fissile material must be used: either U-235 or Pu-239. Both projects were launched - the pure U-235 to be made at Oak Ridge, TN and the Pu-239 to be made at Richland, WA
Will the bomb be effective? Answer: The first bomb (pure Pu-239) was tested near Alamogordo, NM on July 16, 1945. The Pu bomb required special construction using shaped charges of chemical explosives to force the supercritical configuration to be developed in very short time period, and held into place while the reaction developed to enormous power levels.
The Hiroshima bomb (Aug. 5, 1945) was made of U-235 and did not require the extensive shaped charges that were used on the Pu bomb. It was called “Little Boy” because it easily fit into the bomb bay of the B-29. The bomb was delivered to the island by the battleship Indianapolis, which was sunk a few days later. The Enola Gay took off from Tinian Island and dropped the bomb over Hiroshima about 8 AM on Aug. 5. The Nagasaki bomb (Aug 8) was Pu-239. Both released about 15,000 tons of TNT equivalent. Each bomb killed an estimated 75,000 people; many immediately, many others died horrible deaths within weeks from thermal burns or from radiation exposure.
Note: In February of 1945, shortly after the USA developed the airstrip on Tinian Island, the USA relentlessly bombed Tokyo with incendiary bombs, destroying much of the city and killing an estimated 350,000.
THE EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS
(Information extracted from EG&G charts, which were derived from “The Effects of Nuclear Weapons,” USAEC, edited by Samuel Glasstone - 1956. Other data obtained from Eisenbud, Environmentally Radioactivity)
Effects of a one Megaton blast at the earth’s surface:
Crater depth (ft.) Crater radius (miles) In West Soil 100 0.4 In Hard Rock 115 0.18 In Dry Soil 142 0.24
The Fireball Radius would be about 0.7 miles
Surface Burst Air Burst Maximum Overpressure (psi) 46 74 Maximum Wind Speed (mph) 150 230
ENGR 190 Page 26
Thermal and Ionizing Radiation:
Distance from center of blast Thennal Radiation (cal/cm²) Direct Dose (Rem) 1 mile 1000 20,000 2 miles 200 18 5 miles 22 Less than l
10 miles 5 Negligible 20 miles 1 Negligible
Note: First degree burns are the result of a minimum of 2 to 4 cal/cm² Second degree burns 4 to 8 Third degree burns 7 to l2
The range depends on the intensity and duration of the blast. The higher values would be the requirements for the supermegaton blasts.
The solar constant at the earth’s surface for perpendicular incidence is 0.032 cal/sec/cm². A 10 minute exposure to the sun gives the skin a dose of 19 cal/cm², which will redden the skin, possibly giving a sun burn that might peel.
For ionizing radiation: 350 Rem without medical treatment, the result is 50% will die.
On March 1, 1954, a large (probably about one megaton) nuclear bomb test was conducted at the Bikini Atoll in the Pacific. The natives were not evacuated from the most distant islands, because it was felt the fall out doses would not be severe. Many days after the blast the instruments on these islands were recovered to determine the fallout doses, which were worse than expected. Also, by mistake, a Japanese fishing boat was in the restricted area, only 80 miles from the blast in the downwind direction for fallout. Thirteen days later it reached port in Japan, at which time it was clear that most of the crew were ill.
Island name Distance (in miles)
# Persons exposed
Time after blast fallout began
Exposure duration
Whole body dose (Rem)
Thyroid dose(Rem)
Rongelap 105 64 4to6 50 hrs 175 100 Rongerik 160 28 7 30 78 50 Alinginac 75 18 4 to 6 50 69 -- Utrik 300 157 22 60 14 -- Japanese fishing boat
80 23 4 ~2 days 200 to 500 --
Note: a thyroid dose of 50 Rem is probably not clinically serious.
Total yield of atmospheric nuclear tests by the 7 or 8 nuclear powers has been about 600 MT, 2/3 fusion.
ENGR 190 Page 27
CONCEPTS FOR POWER PLANTS FOLLOWING WORLD WAR II
Following the end of World War, scientists/engineers considered what type of reactor would be best to produce electricity. The following six concepts were the ones that were selected:
1. Natural uranium graphite moderated, CO2 cooled – United Kingdom and France opted for this concept.
2. Light water moderated and cooled, using enriched uranium – the USA chose this, since the U.S. already had enrichment plants.
3. Organic-cooled reactor, requiring enriched uranium. Prototype units were built for Italy and one in the USA. However, the organic coolant experienced radiation damage, causing it to polymerize, and requiring continual cleanup and replenishment.
4. Natural uranium, heavy-water moderated, light-water cooled – Canada opted for this, and has successfully built and operated these with 48 still operating around the world, 22 of these in Canada.
5. Fast breeder reactor, cooled by liquid Na or NaK mixture. The USA opted for this reactor for development. The fast spectrum made it possible to “breed” more fuel than the reactor consumes.
6. A liquid uranium chemical fueled reactor, with the uranium chemical being the “coolant,” i.e. it carries the energy to heat exchangers to produce steam. This type was deferred from development until the 1960s, when one was built and successfully operated at Oak Ridge National Laboratory – the Molten Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE).
The first two peaceful use reactors were put into operation in Idaho, at the National Reactor Testing Station in Idaho, in 1952 – the MTR (Type 2 above) and EBR-1 (Type 5 above).
Meanwhile, the idea of nuclear submarines reached reality, with the first unit, the Nautilus, going to sea in 1954. The prototype nuclear plant for that reactor was built and tested at the National Reactor Testing Station.
The Atomic Energy Commission funded the construction of several reactor plants for connection into utility systems – Shippingport, a 60 MW PWR built by Westinghouse, near Pittsburgh, and Dresden, a 200 MW BWR built by General Electric near Chicago. These were followed by a number of other prototype reactors, mostly funded by the federal government through the Atomic Energy Commission.
The first commercial utility nuclear electric power plant, built without government funding, bid in competition with coal in 1965, and General Electric won the fixed price bid. That Oyster Creek plant (550 MW) was completed and connected to the grid in November 1969 in New Jersey (by General Electric Co.), a 4.5 year construction time.
In the next 10 years, to 1979, approximately 200 nuclear plants were constructed or planned for construction. However, with the advent of the Three Mile Island accident, and a significant effort for electric power conservation, only 104 of those reactors were eventually completed.
Most of these 104 plants now in operation have been completely paid for, and hence the cost of electricity produced by them is as cheap or cheaper than that from coal plants.
ENGR 190 Page 28
PRESSURIZED AND BOILER WATER REACTORS
Commercial Nuclear Reactors that produce electricity in the USA are designated as Light Water Reactors (LWR).
Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR) – Approximately 2/3 of the plants in the United States are of this type.
In this design the reactor core is maintained at a high pressure, so that the water coolant in the primary cooling system never boils. Typical operating pressures are 2250 psia. Core exit temperatures are rarely higher than 620º F.
Steam for the turbines is produced by steam generators that transfer heat from the primary system water to the secondary water/steam system.
Principal suppliers of this type of reactor were: Westinghouse, Combustion Engineering (now part of Westinghouse-Toshiba), and Babcock and Wilcox (now part of AREVA).
Current suppliers are: Toshiba-Westinghouse, Mitsubishi, and AREVA.
Boiling Water Reactors (BWR) – Approximately 1/3 of the plants in the USA are of this type.
In this design, the water flowing upward through the core is permitted to turn to steam. The water-steam mixture then flows upward through “dryers” that collect the water and deliver it back into the main water coolant stream, allowing the “dried” steam to pass onward to the turbines.
Principal suppliers: General Electric-Hitachi and Toshiba.
Steam Turbine and Generator Systems In both systems, there are usually one high pressure turbine, and two or three low pressure turbines, with steam re-heaters in between. All of the turbines are on the same shaft, which drives the generator. These generators are highly efficient, converting ~98% of their rotational mechanical energy into electricity. The coolant for the generators is gaseous hydrogen, which is recycled by depositing the heat through a heat exchanger to a cooling water circuit.
Condenser Cooling System The condenser is cooled by a separate system of water flowing through tubes in the condenser. This water, incoming at about 90º F and outgoing at about 120º F either comes from and goes to a lake, an ocean, or to a large natural draft cooling tower. These cooling towers are typically about 550 feet high. Clouds of water vapor (low temperature steam) emerge from the tops of these towers at a temperature of about 100º to 115º F.
ENGR 190 Page 29
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ENGR 190 Page 32
Just pump system of a boiling water reactor (courtesy General Electric Co.).
BWR module containing four fuel assemblies and a cruciform control rod (courtesy General Electric Co.).
ENGR 190 Page 33
WORLD LIST OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
Courtesy of the American Nuclear Society (ANS)
Notes on the 2010 World List of Nuclear Power Plants ............................................................................. 34 World List of Nuclear Power Plants ........................................................................................................... 35 Maps of Commercial Nuclear Power Plants Worldwide ............................................................................ 51 U.S. Power Reactor License Renewal ........................................................................................................ 57 New Power Reactor Projects in the United States ...................................................................................... 58 U.S. Power Reactors Ownership/Operator Changes ................................................................................... 59 Nuclear Power Plants No Longer in Service .............................................................................................. 60 Abbreviations .............................................................................................................................................. 61
, ! Notes on the 20 I0 World List of Nuclear Power PlantsThe following is a summary of changes and developments that oc-curred during 2009 and an update on the status of pending proj-ects, with explanations of judgment calls on what has (or has not)been included. In some cases, information from early 2010 hasbeen incorporated.
Because some plants have changed ownership, the work done by aprevious owner is attributed to that organization in the "Participants"column. In some cases, the current owner has been responsible fora great deal of the work on a project (for instance, acting as its ownarchitect-engineer and constructor), and where this is the case, theword "owner" is included in the "Participants" column.
Argentina: Nucleoelectrica Argentina announced on January 13that work on Atucha-2 is to be finished this year, with fuel load-ing scheduled for November. This list now shows initial criticali-ty in December and commercial operation in 2011.
Canada: New Brunswick Power Corporation's generating assetsare to be acquired by Hydro Quebec during 2010, except for PointLepreau, which will be acquired after the refurbishment of the re-actor has been completed, perhaps in early 2011. Both utilities re-main listed separately here, each with its own power reactor (PointLepreau and Gentilly-2, respectively).
China: Every year there are numerous announcements of devel-opment plans and new joint ventures, but based on what we haveseen, we are adding only four new reactors to the list: Ningde-3 and-4 and Chiangjiang-l and -2. We will await further developmentsbefore deciding on the Shidaowan HTR, Tianwan-3 and -4, andthe dozens of other projects that have been proposed.
France: Phenix ceased electricity production in March 2009 andhas been removed from the list, along with its owner, Commis-sariat a l'Energie Atomique.
India: Rajasthan-7 and -8 and Kakrapar-3 and -4 have been addedto the list; some equipment contracts for these projects have beenannounced, but no significant construction had taken place by theend of 2009. Construction has been completed on Rajasthan-S and-6. Rajasthan-S went commercial on February 4, 2010, but itis not shown as commercial in the list or the numerical tablesbecause of our December 2009 cutoff. Rajasthan-6 is expectedto go commercial before midyear. The PFBR reactor vessel was in-stalled on December 5, and BHAVINI has stated that the projectis on schedule.
Iran: Bushehr is essentially complete. Fuel has been delivered,and startup is expected during 20 IO.
Japan: Tomari-3 went critical last March and began commercialoperation on December 22. The Japan Atomic Energy Agency fin-ished its system function tests at Monju during 2009, and althoughstartup testing was planned for the first quarter of 2010, we arestill listing its commercial operation date as "indefinite" becauseof the many di~culties this project has encountered over the years.We do not cO~~lder any of the pending new reactor projects inJapan to have advanced to (he point where we can include them inthe list, but t e closest are Japan Atomic Power Company's
46 NUCLEAR NEWS March 2() 1()
Tsuruga-3 and -4, and Tokyo Electric Power Company's Fukushi-ma Daiichi-7 and -8 and Higashidori-l and -2 (not to be confusedwith the Higashidori-l already being operated by Tohoku ElectricPower Company).
Lithuania: Ignalina-2 closed on December 31,2009, as a condi-tion of Lithuania's entry into the European Union. The reactor wasthe only one in service in Lithuania, so both the reactor and thelisting for Lithuania have been removed from the list.
Pakistan: Although there were reports in 2009 of subtier con-tracts placed in China for work related to the third and fourth re-actors planned for Chashma, we have not seen enough to persuadeus to add these proposed reactors to the list.
Russia: Fuel loading began at Rostov-2 on December 19,2009.Electricity production was expected to begin in February, withcommercial operation to follow later in 2010. The Kalinin-4 con-tainment dome was installed in early January 2010; commercialoperation is now scheduled for 2011. Rostov-3 and -4 have beenadded to the list because of announcements of equipment pur-chases for the project; none of the other planned reactors in Rus-sia have reached the point of being added to the list. The ship-borne power reactors previously referred to as Severodvinsk arenow referred to as Vilyuchinsk, named after the location in Kam-chatka where they will be put in service upon completion.Balakovo-f and Kursk-5 have been removed from the list becauseRosatom no longer refers to them as active projects.
Taiwan, China: Taiwan Power Company has announced that it in-tends to load fuel later this year in Lungrnen-I and begin initialpower operation in December, with commercial operation to be-gin in 2011. We are listing commercial dates of 2011 and 2012 forUnits 1 and 2, although the utility has acknowledged that the al-ready delayed project may not adhere to this schedule.
United Arab Emirates: Contracts have been signed with aSouth Korean consortium for the construction and, to some ex-tent, operation of four power reactors, so these reactors (and thiscountry) have been added to the list. At this writing, the sites forthe two two-unit plants had not been announced; a decision wasexpected in February 2010. Emirates Nuclear Energy Corporationhas declared its intent to put the first unit in service in 2017 andthe others by 2020, so until more detailed schedules become avail-able, we are listing 2017 for one reactor and 2020 for the others.We are listing Doosan as the-reactor vendor because it has filledthis role for the APR-1400s in South Korea and is a member ofthe consortium, but this also may be subject to change as the proj-ects come into sharper focus.
United States: The third and fourth units at the South Texas Proj-ect site have been added to the list, based on an engineering, pro-curement, and construction contract signed by STP Nuclear Op-erating Company and Toshiba in February 2009. TVA Nuclear hasinformed us that Watts Bar-2 was 80 percent complete as of theend of 2009 and that schedules are being met "to bring the unit online before the end of 20 12."We are therefore now using 2012 asa commercial operation date, although the previous estimate of2013 remains possible.
ENGR 190 Page 34
Nuclear Ne","sWorld List of Nuclear Power Plants
Operable, Under Construction, or on Order as of December 31, 2009
Reactor
c:o=-g~~--",~~0_U(/)
Operationm.~
'"EE't:o~U(/)Net MWe Type Model Reactor Supplier Major Participants
ArgentinaNucleoelectrica Argentina SA [ 935 + 692 = 1627]
Atucha (Lima, Buenos Aires) [ 335+ 692= 1027):I.i:\. _ Unit 1
Unit 2SiemerisSiemens
SiemensOwnerlSiemens
335692
PHWRPHWR
(two-loop)(two-loop)
100. 1174 617495 12/10 111
Embalse (Rio Tercero, Cordoba) [ 600)IB-' -Unil1 AECL Ansaldo, Italimpianti600 PHWR CANDU-6 100 3/83 1/84
ArmeniaMinistry of Energy, Department of Atomic Energy
2A "1111@fkl"I.)I'WMW1""'t'i"6W'DlCt<I-Unit 2 376 PWR VVER-440N270 100 1/80 5/80 MTM Electrosila, AEP, Armgidroenergostroi
BelgiumElectrabel [ 5801 )
Ilmrllltpluf1.immmlt-{:ull3A -Unit 1 392 PWR (two-loop) 100 7174 2175 ACECOWEN Tosi, TEE, Franki/Engema, MHI
- Unit 2 433 PWR (two-loop) 100 8175 12/75 ACECOWEN Tosi, TEE, Franki/Engema, MHI-Unit 3 1006 PWR (three-loop) 100 6/82 10/82 FRAMACECO Aistom, TEE, AMGC-Unit 4 985 PWR (three-loop) 100 3/85 7/85 ACECOWEN Aistom, TEE. TVBB. Siemens
Tihange (Huy, Liege) [2985]' .. -Unit 1 962 PWR (three-loop) 100 2175 10175 ACLF Aistom, TEE. others
-Unit 2 1008 PWR (three-loop) 100 10/82 6183 FRAMACECO Aistom, TEE, MHI, others-Unit 3 1015 PWR (three-loop) 100 6/85 9/85 ACECOWEN Brown Boveri, Alstom, TEE, Siemens,
others
BrazilEletronuclear-Eletrobras Termonuclear SA
~WlQf!6t.li'E';"*fJki,mii·J1leHlnt*fait4'.4A -Unit 1 626 PWR (two-loop) 100 3/82 1/85 W G&H. Furnas, Nuclep
-Unit 2 1275 PWR (four-loop) 100 7/00 12100 KWU OwnerUnit 3 1275 PWR (four-loop) 10 indef. indef. KWU Owner
BulgariaNatsionalna Elektricheska Kompania EAD [ 1906 + 2000 = 3906]
- .....I:rnmj:mm,[jU'4im,Jlt~UIlUI'S'A: Unit 1 1000 PWR AES-92 0 114 ASE Parsons E&C Europe
Unit 2 1000 PWR AES-92 a 115 ASE Parsons E&C Europe
l I;W@i[filJljW@i"§ltfll'S\lljl58 -Unit 5 953 PWR VVER-1000N320 100 11/87 12/88 AEE/OKG Gidropress Electrosila, TEP/Moskva,
Promishleno Stroiteltsvo/Montaji-Unit 6 953 PWR VVER-l000N320 100 5/91 12/93 AEE/OKG Gidropress Electrosila. TEP/Moskva.
Prom ish Ieno Stroiteltsvo/Montaji
- Units in commercial operation Green: Operating Capacity Orange: Forthcoming Capacity Blue: Operating and Forthcoming Capacity CONTINUED
March 2010 Copyright © 2010 by (he American Nuclear Society. Inc. Unauthorized printed or electronic reproduction or dissemination prohibited. 47
ENGR 190 Page 35
World List of Nuclear Operation<: rn.Q
Power Plants, cont'd ~~ ~ 'uQ;
Reactor... - rn E-", «L~~g E't:=.-== o.l'l Major ParticipantsNelMWe Type Model 0_ "20 Reactor Supplierurn urn
CanadaBruce Power
l:jjiBjt;il,lfli·U·WftJI",• Unit 1 (Block A) 769 PHWR CANDU 100 12/76 9177 AECL OH, PARS TG• Unit 2 (Block A) 769 PHWR CANDU 100 7f76 9177 AECL OH, PARS TG- Unit 3 (Block A) 750 PHWR CANDU 100 11177 2/78 AECL OH, PARS TG6A - Unit 4 (Block A) 750 PHWR CANDU 100 12/78 1/79 AECL OH, PARS TG- Unit 5 (Block B) 790 PHWR CANDU 100 11/84 3/85 AECL OH, GE Can- Unit 6 (Block B) 822 PHWR CANDU 100 5/84 9/84 AECL OH, GE Can- Unit 7 (Block B) 806 PHWR CANDU 100 1/86 4/86 AECL OH, GE Can- Unit 8 (Block B) 790 PHWR CANDU 100 2/87 5/87 AECL OH, GE Can
Hydro-Ouebec
Gentilly (Becancour, Que.) [ 635]_68.:L:. -Unit 2
New Brunswick Power Corp.
ft2~"- Unit 1
AECL Owner, GE, CTLPHWR CANDU-6635 100 9/82 10/83
Point Lepreau (Bay of Fundy, N.B.) [ 635]AECL Owner, PARS TG, CTL635 PHWR CANDU·6 100 7/82 2/83
Ontario Power Generation [ 7648]
Darlington (Clarington, Onl.) [3524]
.' -Unit 1-Unit 2-Unit3-Unit4
881881881881
PHWRPHWRPHWRPHWR
CANDU 100 10/90 11/92 AECL OH,ABBCANDU 100 11/89 10/90 AECL OH,ABBCANDU 100 11/92 2/93 AECL OH, ABBCANDU 100 3/93 6/93 AECL OH, ABB
CANDU 100 2171 7f71 AECL OH, PARS TGCANDU 100 9/71 12171 AECL OH, PARS TGCANDU 100 4/72 6/72 AECL OH, PARS TGCANDU 100 5/73 6/73 AECL OH, PARS TGCANDU 100 10/82 5/83 AECL OH, PARS TGCANDU 100 10/83 2/84 AECL OH, PARS TGCANDU 100 10/84 1/85 AECL OH, PARS TGCANDU 100 12/85 2/86 AECL OH, PARS TG
·.··'ilG3§l!.!·i1iIGmm·rnUfiJt.p1-Unit 1 (Block A) 515 PHWR- Unit 2 (Block A) 515 PHWR-Unit3 (Block A) 515 PHWR- Unit 4 (Block A) 515 PHWR- Unit 5 (Block B) 516 PHWR- Unit 6 (Block B) 516 PHWR- Unit 7 (Block B) 516 PHWR- Unit 8 (Block B) 516 PHWR
.6E
ChinaChina Guangdong Nuclear Power Co. [ 3764 + 19 200 = 29 964]
Daya Bay (Shenzhen, Guangdong) [ 1888];.7 Jf.... -Unit 1
:~:(i£:"J - Unit 2PWRPWR
CPY/M31aCPY/M31a
FraFra.
GEC, Aistom, HCCMGEC, Aistom, HCCM
944944
100 7/93 2/94100 1/94 5/94
. ~'.!iihH;,(S,J·4WiliUlt!'9"9"·GW8$'61,"i3JJ'j·ltUI78 Unit 1 1000 PWR CPR·1000 a /16,,;'.Unit 2 1000 PWR CPR·1000 0 /16
'j[,],t·i'ki•ijTJ,.mm!6!·i,ii,I·UII,I,I"Unit 1 1000 PWR CPR-1000 30 /12
f~7c. Unit 2 1000 PWR CPR-1000 5 /14Unit 3 1000 PWR CPR-1000 5 /14Unit 4 1000 PWR CPR·1000 a /15
.',Qli!ilSl!iUi'*'Wfi!.!·UlI":fjft4'r.!,D!:tl!l-Unit 1 938 PWR CPY/M310 100 2/02 5/027D -Unit2 938 PWR CPY/M310 100 8/02 12/02
Unit 3 1000 PWR CPR·1000 80 12/10Unit 4 1000 PWR CPR-1000 70 /11
1'.'.-':IWj!W!iIljlI@!itijII!EljJICIr"1r1
Unit 1 1000 PWR CPR·1000 20 /127E Unit 2 1000 PWR CPR·1000 15 /14Unit 3 1000 PWR CPR·l000 5 /14Unit 4 1000 PWR CPR·toOO a /15
.. 'Mm'MM§'6UHmut!lJtW1•1·7F Unit 1 1600 PWR EPR 5 /14
Unit 2 1600 PWR EPR a /15
CNNCCNNC
CNNCCNNCCNNCCNNC
FraFra
CNNCCNNC
Aistom, C23/HuaxingAistom, C23/Huaxing
CNNCCNNCCNNCCNNC
ArevaAreva
48 NUCLEAR NEWS March 2010
ENGR 190 Page 36
s:::Operation
.~ <ag~ ~ 'zs
Q;Reactor
~~ <a~t(f)~ - '-'Ol._
S~ =~ 02Net MWe Type Model 000 "c: U 000 Reactor Supplier Major Participants
mmWldiWiliNNi,!·!·r;;mCI'N"Unit 1 1000 PWR CPR·1QOO 20 /13 CNNC7G Unit 2 1000 PWR CPR-1000 10 114 CNNCUnit 3 1000 PWR CPR-l000 0 /15 CNNCUnit 4 1000 PWR CPR·1000 0 116 CNNC
China National Nuclear Corp. [ 4930 + 8540 = 13 570 ]
1,.lft',I·IWI""E"'·'GNi6!i'E'··,ltf11'7H Unit 1 6tO PWR CNp·600 0 /14 CNNCUnit 2 610 PWR CNp·600 0 /15 CNNC
'tl,[.jIWmlilUVliLltWWllt1'l,1"71 Unit 1 1000 PWR CPR-1000 10 /14 CNNCUnit 2 1000 PWR CPR-1000 10 /14 CNNC
Fuqing (Fuqing, Fujian) [2000 I1,'71'" Unit 1
Unit 2PWRPWR
CPR-1000CPR-1000
55
/16116
CNNCCNNC
10001000
Qinshan (Haiyan, Zhejiang) [2930 + 1220 = 4150 I;>', -Unit I-I
-Unit II-I7~';;- Unit 11-2
, Unit 11·3Unit 11-4
-Unit 111-1-Unit 111-2
310 PWR CNP-300 100 12/91 4/94 MHI SBF, CNNC610 PWR CNP-600 100 • 11/01 4/02 CNNC CNNC610 PWR CNP-600 100 3/04 6/04 CNNC CNNC610 PWR CNP-600 70 3/11 CNNC CNNC610 PWR CNp·600· 70 9/11 CNNC CNNC700 PHWR CANDU-6 100 9/02 12/02 AECL Hitachi, Bechtel, CNNC700 PHWR CANDU·6 100 4/03 7/03 AECL Hitachi, Bechtel, CNNC
Sanmen (San men, Zhejiang) [ 2200 IUnit 1Unit 2
PWRPWR
8/13/14
WW
MHIMHI
11001100
AP1000AP1000
1010
I·EI,""k',lt!Ei"WtUWt'Ej,j·Wltj,I,II'7M _ Unit 1 1000 PWR
- Unit 2 1000 PWRAES·91AES·91
100 12/05 5/07100 /07 8/07
ASEASE
China Power Investment Corp.
ijSWiWWflmpJt.r1.r,.7N Unit 1 1100 PWR AP1000 10 /14
Unit 2 1100·. PWR AP1000 0 /15PHWRs: 2 operating (1400 MWe). PWRs: 9 operating (7294 MWe), 30 forthcoming (30 040 MWe).
WW
Czech RepublicCEZ, a.s. (Czech Power Co.) [ 3574]
Dukovany (Trebic, Jihomoravsky) [1648], "-Unit 1 412 PWR VVER·440IV213 100 2/85 8/85 Skoda
SA:. -Unit 2 412 PWR VVER-440IV213 100 1/86 9/86 Skoda-Unit 3 412 PWR VVER·440IV213 100 10/86 5/87 Skoda-Unit 4 412 PWR VVER-440IV213 100 6/87 12/87 Skoda
'..'Rmt'RtGln,(.ji}13TU'J!1I1'S8 -Unit 1 963 PWR VVER·l0001V320 100 10/00 10/04 Skoda EGP, VSIVJET
-Unit2 963 PWR VVER-l0001V320 100 3/02 10/04 Skoda EGP, VSIVJET
FinlandFortum Corp.
'WIMI!mR'/ttiI"WJ'W"9A -Unit 1 488 PWR VVER-440IV213 100 1177 5177 AEE Imatran Voima
"_ -Unit 2 488 PWR VVER-440IV213 100 10/80 1/81 AEE Imatran Voima
Teollisuuden Voima Oyj (Industrial Power Co., Ltd.)
"""1!mnm!itW!f!-;mm:mpJltfl'D'M'PUl!I95 -Unit 1 860 BWR BWR 75 100 m8 10/79 ASEA-Atom SL, Atomirakennus
-Unit 2 860 BWR BWR 75 100 10179 7182 ASEA-Atom SL, Tyoyhtyma, JukolaUnit 3 1600 PWR EPR 60 /13 /13 Areva Siemens, Bouygues, Heitkamp
BWRs: 2 operating (1720 MWe). PWRs: 2 operating (976 MWe), 1 forthcoming (1600 MWe).
- Units in commercial operation Green: Operating Capacity Orange: Forthcoming Capacity Blue: Operating and Forthcoming Capacity CONTINUED
March 2010 NUCLEAR NEWS 49
ENGR 190 Page 37
World List of NuclearPower Plants, cont'd
Operation
Reactor
"""eQ)
EE"t::o!!!ucn Reactor Supplier Major ParticipantsNet MWe Type Model
FranceElectricilli de France [ 63 130 + 1600 = 64 730 I
1:!)l'G'V'oo:mlmlmlMllmt42'1!1lOA -Unit 1 1310 PWR P'4 100 9/87 6/88 Fra Alstom, GTM
-Unit 2 1310 PWR P'4 100 5/88 1/89 Fra Alstom, GTM
l' ' .mmaOOLJ-rnIlM!"-Unit 1 910 PWR CPl 100 5/81 12/81 Fra Alstom, SB/Oumez
lOB -Unit2 910 PWR CPl 100 6/82 2183 Fra Alstom, SB/Oumez-Unit 3 910 PWR CPl 100 7/83 11/83 Fra Alstom, SB/Oumez-Unit 4 910 PWR CPl 100 5/83 10/83 Fra Alstom, SB/Oumez
Bugey (Layettes, Ain) [ 3580I910 PWR CPO 100 4/78 3/79 Fra Alstom, Bouygues/Bruyeres910 PWR CPO 100 8/78 3/79 Fra Alstom, Bouygues/Bruyeres880 PWR CPO 100 2/79 7/79 Fra Alstom, Bouygues/Bruyeres880 PWR CPO 100 7/79 1/80 Fra Alstom, Bouygues/Bruyeres... . .. "1300 PWR P'4 100 10/86 4/87 Fra Alstom, OumeziSB/SAE
1300 PWR P'4 100 '8/87 2188 Fra Alstom, Oumez/SB/SAE1300 PWR P'4 100 2190 2191 Fra Alstom, OumeziSB/SAE1300 PWR P'4 100 5/91 1/92 Fra Alstom, OumezlS8/SAE
Chinon (Chinon, Indre-el-Loire) [ 3620 IPWRPWRPWRPWR
100 10/82 2184100 9/83 8/84100 9/86 3/87100 10/87 4/88
FraFraFraFra
Alstom, GTMAlstom, GTMAlstom, GTMAlstom, GTM
-Unit Bl-Unit B2-Unit B3-Unit B4
CP2CP2CP2CP2
905905905905
Chooz (Chooz, Ardennes) [30001nOFj _ Unit 81
. r. _ Unit 82FraFra
Alstom, BouyguesAlstom, Bouygues
PWRPWR
N4N4
100 4/96 5/00100 12/96 9/00
15001500
Civaux (Civaux, Vienne) [2990 I _ _ _'lOG -Unit 1
;., -Unit 214951495
PWRPWR
N4 100 9/97 1/02 Fra Alstom, Fougerotte/CMN4 100 9/99 4/02 Fra Alstom, Fougerotte/CM
CP2 100 4/83 4/84 Fra Alstom, CoBCP2 100 8/84 4/85 Fra Alstom, CoBCP2 100 4/84 9/84 Fra Alstom, CoBCP2 100 10/84 2185 Fra Aistom, CoB
..', - Unit 1 915 PWR,·1 QI;f _ Unit 2 915 PWR
-Unit3 915 PWR- Unit 4 915 PWRDampierre (Ouzouer, Loirel) [ 3560I-Unit 1 890 PWR CPl 100 3/80 9/80 Fra Alstom, CM/SeB/Baliot-Unit 2 890 PWR CPl 100 12/80 2/81 Fra Alstom, CM/SeB/Baliot-Unit3 890 PWR CPl 100 1/81 5/81 Fra Alstom, CM/SeB/Battot-Unit 4 890 PWR CPl 100 8/81 11/81 Fra Alstom, CM/SeB/Battot
.. _~J34ii9,jdHi.,IIi4iig,jP:WO jJi1G)II-t4sll,IO(j _Unit 1 880 PWR CPO 100 3/77 12177 Fra Alstom, CoB
>; - Unit 2 880 PWR CPO 100 6/77 3/78 Fra Alstom, CoB
Flamanville (Flamanville, Manche) [2660 + 1600 = 4260 I,c IO~ - Unit 1
. .~: - Unit 2Unit 3
PWRPWRPWR
P4P4
EPR
100 9/85 12186 Fra Alstom, OTP/SCREGISGE100 6/86 3/87 Fra Alstom, OTP/SCREG/SGE
40 /12 /13 Areva Aistom, Bouygues
100 4/90 2/91 Fra Aistom, Fougerotte100 5/93 3/94 Fra Aistom, Fougerotte
100 2180 11/80 Fra Alstom, SGE/OTP/SCREG100 8/80 12180 Fra Alstom, SGE/OTP/SCREG100 11180 6181 Fra Aistom, SGE/DTP/SCREG100 5/81 10/81 Fra Alstom, SGE/OTP/SCREG100 8/84 1/85 Fra Alstom, SGEIOTP/SCREG100 7/85 10/85 Fra Alstom, SGE/OTP/SCREG
100 9187 2188 Fra Alstom, C-BIQuiliery100 10/88 5/89 Fra Aistom, C-B/Quittery
133013301600
i,lO( - Unit 1 1310 PWR P'4-Unit2 1310 PWR P'4
-;"P1h1f1(tJ'EWllIiMjlr;yl1 ••tl1"'"},;,ci_UnitBl 910 PWR CPl
- Unit B2 910 PWR CPlTOM _ Unit B3 910 PWR CPl."-::' - Unit B4 910 PWR CPl
• Unit 85 910 PWR CP1<...:' .• Unit 86 910 PWR CPl
'fON' -Unit 1 1310 PWR P'4-Unit2 1310 PWR P'4
50 March 2010NUCLEAR NEWS
ENGR 190 Page 38
c:Operation
.Q c;;u~ .~ .~
Reactor2~ <Q OJ-", E~~ m.~ E1::= :!
NetMWe Type Model 8Cii .- •.. 019 Reactor Supplier Major Participants.!::o orn
':maa'wmmi•igi,IjI1'f@W ••lt4"-Unill 1330 PWR P4 100 5/84 2185 Fra Aistom, CM/BalioliChag
100 -Unit 2 1330 PWR P4 100 8/84 12/85 Fra Aistom, CM/BalioliChag-Unil3 1330 PWR P4 100 8/85 2186 Fra Aistom, CM/BalioliChag-Unit 4 1330 PWR P4 100 3/86 6/86 Fra Aistom, CM/BalloliChag
1:mm.ma~rn!il'4'bh"itIf·_mmtmJt+I1'1lOp -Unit 1 1330 PWR P'4 100 4/90 12190 Fra Aistom, CM/BalioliChag
-Unit 2 1330 PWR P'4 100 1/92 11/92 Fra Aistom, CMlBalioliChag
•.mt11i1i1jW1ittlMJmt42'it110Q -Unit 1 1335 PWR P4 100 8/85 5/86 Fra Aistom, Bouygues/Bruyeres
'-. -Unit 2 1335 PWR P4 100 6/86 3/87 Fra Aistom, Bouygues/Bruyeres
'lOR' _ Unit Bl\ .,:: - Unit B2
Saint-Laurent (Saint-Laurent-des-Eaux, tolr-et-cher) [ 1830IAistom, GTMAistom, GTM
915915
PWRPWR
CP2CP2
100 1/81100 5/81
8/838/83
FraFra
Tricastin (Pierrelatte, Drome) [ 3660]. '._ ,--- -Unit 1JOS -Unit 2"":);'1,1 _ Unit 3
~,.;. - Unit 4
915915915915
PWRPWRPWRPWR
CPlCPlCPlCPl
GermanyE.ON Kernkraft GmbH [ 7668]
dlA-Unit 1 1410 PWR (lour-loop)
I-'B''W'GiDttMlmG';13d'OOrnmmmrUI,ml
Brokdorf (Brokdorf, S.-H_) [1410]
- Unit 1 1360 PWR
-Unit 1 1275 PWR (lour-loop)
I Ie 0li1j1jt1I!$"hMjljTJ1,IGU'fW'(four-loop)
100 2180100 7/80100 ·11/80100 5/81
12180121805/81
11/81
FraFraFraFra
Aistom, CoBAistom, CoBAistom, CoBAistom, CoB
100 10/86 12/86
100 12/81 6182
100 9/84 2/85
KWU KWU
KWU KWU
KWU KWU
, ,'I!j!lI!4-1MtUtl!!Ult1@1I, 10 _ Unit 1 878
, - Unit 2 1400BWRPWR
BWR-69Konvoi
100 11177 3/79100 1/88 4/88
KWUKWU
KWUKWU
KWU Arge/Kernkraftwerk Unterweser GmbH.E
- Unit 1 1345 PWR
EnBW Kernkraft GmbH
~:r:-'I~mmJ~mtliW4i"mi!!Q:Il.f~-Unit 1 785
, - Unit 2 1269
EnBW Kraftwerke AG
(four-loop) 100 9/78 9/79
.) [2054]
"lijmp,'iii.MM®t)lli.a;II~ - Unit 1 890
- Unit 2 1392
Kernkraftwerk Gundremmingen GmbH
'G'iQ,·j·,ii.I·w'G'H"i.,H
PWRPWR
(three-loop)Konvoi
100100
5/76 12/7612/88 4189
KWUKWU
KWUKWU
.-W.) [2282]KWUKWU
BWRPWR
BWR-69(four-loop)
100100
3/7912/84
2/804/85
KWUKWU
ngen, 8a.) [ 2572]•.I H, -Block B 1284
, - Block C 1288
Kernkraftwerk Lippe-Ems GmbH
II I liIittimm't!4I!@8ltmiUW', - Unit 1 1329
RWE PowerAG
BWRBWR
PWR
BWR-72BWR-72
Konvoi
100100
3/8410/84
7/841/85
KWUKWU
HochtiefHochtiel
KWU KWU100 4/88 7/88
l:fti1!!]!:fti1!a!!i!f-lMdlt{1ttiHochtiefHochtief
IIJ -BlockA 1167 PWR'. J -Slock S 1240 PWR
Vattenfall Europe Nuclear Energy GmbH [ 2117]
., f~';!iihWl1GjG":UMM'Miffi.,iUtID·s -Unit 1 771 BWR
I I'L Il1i'i$"hMM!;ma!fliftIIE§!1I
(four-loop)(four-loop)
BWR-69
- Unit 1 1346 BWR BWR-69BWRs: 6 operating (6457 MWe), PWRs: 11 operating (13 972 MWe).
- Units in commercial operation
March 2010
100100
7n4 2/753/76 1177
KWUKWU
KWU KWU100 6/76 2177
KWU KWU100 9/83 3/84
Green Operating Capacity Orange' Forthcoming Capacity Blue: Operating and Forthcoming Capacity
NUCLEAR NEWS
CONTINUED
51
ENGR 190 Page 39
World List of Nuclear '"Operation
g- (ij
Power Plants, cont'd ~ 'v2~ Q;Reactor (ij E-", - uCl)cn co._ Et::c co ~.'t:' o.s
Net MWe Type Model 0_ £0 Reactor Supplier Major Participantsuen u en
HungaryHungarian Power Companies, Ltd.
":mOI:mprnWII:tN-Unit 1 470 PWR VVER-4401V213 100 12/82 8/83 AEE/Skoda GVM, Eroterv
12A -Unit 2 443 PWR VVER-440!V213 100 8/84 11/84 AEE/Skoda GVM, Eroterv·Unil3 443 PWR VVER-440!V213 100 9/86 12/86 AEE/Skoda GVM, Eroterv-Unit 4 473 PWR VVER-440!V213 100 8/87 11/87 AEE/Skoda GVM, Eroterv
IndiaBharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Ltd.
PFBR (Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu) [ 500]:1(l~,~iIi Unit 1 Owner/L&T/BHEL Owner, BHEL500 LMFBR 55 9/11 3/12
Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. [ 3732 + 5000 = 8732 ].t, :I:
-Unit 1 202 PHWR (four -loop) 100 9/00 11/00 Owner/others-Unit 2 202 PHWR (four-loop) 100 9/99 3/00 Owner/others-Unit 3 202 PHWR (four-loop) 100 /07 5/07 Owner/others
Unit 4 202 PHWR (four-loop) 97.1 /10 5/10 Owner/others'11'1, II .:~
-Unit 1 202 PHWR (four-loop) 100 9/92 5/93 Owner/others+",l.Unit2 202 PHWR (four-loop) 100 1/95 9/95 Owner/others
Unit 3 640 PHWR 0 /14 Owner/othersUnit 4 640 PHWR 0 /15 Owner/others
Owner, BHELOwner, BHELOwner, BHELOwner, BHEL
Owner, BHEL, HCCOwner, BHEL, HCC
Owner, L&TOwner, L&T
Kalpakkam (Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu) [ 357 ]~13t;ii - Unit 1
- -Unit 2Owner/othersOwner/others
Owner, BHEL, EECOwner, BHEL, EEC
155202
PHWRPHWR
(eight-loop)(eight-loop)
100 7/83 1/84100 8/85 3/86
Kudankulam (Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu) [1834]13E; Unit 1. ':/£ Unit 2
AES-92AES-92
94.2 /10 9/10 ASE854 /10 3/11 ASE
100 3/89 1/91 Owner/others Owner, BHEL, HCC100 10/91 7/92 Owner/others Owner, BHEL, HCC
100 8/72 2/73 AECUDAE Owner, BHEL, HCC100 10/80 4/81 AECUDAE Owner, BHEL, HCC100 12/99 6/00 Owner/others Owner, BHEL100 11/00 12/00 Owner/others Owner, BHEL100 11/09 2/10 Owner/others Owner, BHEL100 1/10 4/10 Owner/others Owner, BHEL
0 /14 Owner/others Owner, L&T0 /15 Owner/others Owner, L&T
917917
PWRPWR
::'~6'/.I6Ijnil·jf.l!!trtlmGiPI'\ln13F:, _ Unit 1 202 PHWR (four-loop)
.,;,'~~: - Unit 2 202. PHWR (four-loop)
oo!m!,mEl®1i!;m;u,*jD'*P"l@01. - Unit 1 90 PHWR CANDU
- Unit 2 187 PHWR CANDU- Unit 3 202 PHWR (four-loop)- Unit 4 202 PHWR (four-loop)
Unit 5 202 PHWR (four-loop)Unit 6 202 PHWR (four-loop)Unit 7 640 PHWRUnit 8 640 PHWR
Tarapur (Tarapur, Maharashtra) [ 1280 ]'... • - Unit 1 150 BWR BWR-1/Mark II 100 2169 10/69 GE Bechtel
:I31;-1-, _ Unit 2 150 BWR BWR-l/Mark II 100 2/69 10/69 GE Bechtel. - Unit 3 490 PHWR (two-loop) 100 5/06 8/06 Owner/others Owner, BHEL
- Unit 4 490 PHWR (two-loop) 100 3/05 9/05 Owner/others Owner, BHEL, othersBWRS: 2 operating (300 MWe). LMFBRs: 1 forthcoming (500 MWe). PHWRs: 15 operating (3432 MWe), 7 forthcoming (3166 MWe). PWRs: 2 forthcoming (1834 MWe).
IranNuclear Power Production and Development Company of Iran/Atomic Energy Organization of Iran
Bushehr (Bushehr, Bushehr) [ 915 ]
915 PWR VVER-1000 ASE/10 /10 ASE99
JapanChubu Electric Power Co" me,
Hamaoka (Omaezaki, Shizuoka) [ 3473]. 'SA .Unit3
'", .,' -Unit 4.Unit 5
100 11/86 8/87100 12/92 9/93100 3/04 1/05
ToshibaToshibaToshiba
Hitachi, Kajima/Tak/Shim/othersHitachi, Kajima/Tak/Shim/othersHitachi, Kajima/TakiShim/others
105610921325
BWRBWR8WR
BWR-5BWR-5A8WR
52 March 2010NUCLEAR NEWS
ENGR 190 Page 40
c:Operation
,g~ (Q
.~ '02~ 4;Reactor -", c;;
~-:::"'0> co .~c'" =~ o~Net MWe Type Model 0_ :Su Reactor Supplier Major ParticipantsU<n U<n
Chugoku Electric Power Co., Inc.
fiDi"Fi,iitmmM"fii'f'Di"fii,IM'trJ:Detrft1U'u158 -Unit 1 439 BWR BWR-3 100 6/73 3/74 Hitachi KajimalTaisei/Goyou/MaedaiKum
-Unit 2 789 BWR BWR·5 100 5/88 2/89 Hitachi Kajima/ShimlOkumuraUnit 3 1373 BWR ABWR 76.7 12/11 Hitachi
Hokkaido Electric Power Go., Inc.
1,·J"fi1il"·)"E'I;.,illf8iG'aWmIIIWII15c -Unit 1 550 PWR (two-loop) 100 11/88 6189 MHI MAPI, Taisei/Obay/Shim
-Unit2 550 PWR (two-loop) 100 7/90 4/91 MHI MAPI, TaiseilObay/Shim-Unit3 866 PWR (three-loop) 100 3/09 12109 MHI MAPI, Taisei/Obay/Shim
Hokuriku Electric Power Co.
5051304
Shika (Shika-machi, Ishikawa) [ 1809]
KajimaKajima
BWRBWR
BWR·5ABWR
100 11/92 7193100 5/05 3/06
HitachiHitachi
I.~~,!~'- Unit 1 1383
Japan Atomic Energy Agency
Ohma (Ohma, Aomori) [1383]
BWR ABWR o . ----- 11/14 Toshiba/Hitachi
ISF<-" :"'; Unit 1 246
Japan Atomic Power Co. [2512]
Monju FBR (Tsuruga, Fukui) [246]
LMFBR 100 4/94 indel. ToshibalHitachi/MHl/Fuji Owner, FBEC, Obay/Taisei/Kajima
J.5G," - .:! - Unit 2
Tokai (Tokai-mura, Ibaraki) [ 1056]GE Ebasco, Shim/Kajima1056 BWR BWR-5 100 1178 11178
··fiiiii[.mM'iii!·6fiQlgn3MIG-~MISH -Unit 1 341 BWR
-Unit2 1115 PWR
Kansai Electric Power Co., Inc. [ 9284]
.'ffin'Ei"E"lln'fii"6*SiP!@W'lfp·1151 - Unit 1 320 PWR
- Unit 2 470. PWR- Unit 3 780 PWR
: I'Jnn'JmiT!!#!1(j1!!lf!~m, i>~ _ Unit 1 1120-1.~J:l-Unit2 1120
- Unit 3 1127- Unit 4 1127
PWRPWRPWRPWR
BWR·2(four-loop)
100 10/69 3/70100 5/86 2/87
GEMHI
(two-loop) 100 7170 11170 W(two· loop) 100 4172 7172 MHI
(three-loop) 100 1176 12176 MHI
(four-loop) tOO 12177 3179 W(four-loop) 100 9178 12179 W(four -loop) 100 5/91 12/91 MHI(tour-loop] 100 6/92 2/93 MHI
Ebasco, TaklKumMAPI, Obay/Tak/Tobishima/
Shim/Kum/MaedalHaz
MHI, Owner, Gilbert, MaedaiKumlObayOwner, MAPI, Maeda/KumlObay
Owner, MAPI, Haz/Tak
MHI, Owner, Gilbert, Kum/ObayMHI, Owner, Gilbert, KumlObay
Owner, MAPIOwner, MAPI
Takahama (Takahama-cho, Fukui) [ 3220 ]-:~.,"® - Unit 1 780 PWR15K _ Unit 2 780 PWRs ' -~-- 0<;
- Unit 3 830 PWR- Unit 4 830 PWR
Kyushu Electric Power Co., Inc. [ 5004]
(three-loop)(three-loop)(three-loop)(three-loop]
100 3174 11174100 12174 11175100 4/84 1/85100 10/84 6/85
WMHIMHIMHI
MHI, Owner, Gilbert, Maeda/Haz/TaiseiOwner, MAPI, MaedalHaz/Taisei
Owner, MAPI, MaedalHaziKum/TakiObay/TaiseiOwner, MAPI, MaedalHaziKum/TakiObay/Taisei
Genkai (Genkai, Saga) [ 3312]- ; -Unit 1 529 PWR (two-loop) 100 1175 10175 MHI MAPI,Obay
1St -Unit 2 529 PWR (two-loop) 100 5/80 3/81 MHI MAPI.Obay-Unit 3 1127 PWR (four-loop) 100 5/93 3/94 MHI MAPI, Obay/ShimlTak-Unit 4 1127 PWR (four-loop) 100 10/96 7/97 MHI MAPI, Obay/Shim/Tak
. '.:.> fmml'B'h&B4."Nptf[+1DIIIMJ15M -Unit 1 846 PWR (three-loop) 100 8/83 7/84 MHI MAPI, Taisei
"'!''''-:~ -Unit 2 846 PWR (three-loop) 100 3/85 11/85 MHI MAPI, Taisei
Shikoku Electric Power Co., Inc.
Ikata (Ikata-cho, Ehime) [1922)
ISN- -Unit 1• ci - Unit 2
• -Unit 3
- Units in commercial operation
March 2010
538538846
PWRPWRPWR
(tWO-lOOp)(two-loop)
(three·loop)
100 1177 9177100 7/81 3/82100 2/94 12194
MHIMHIMHI
MAPI, TaiseilTaklKajimaMAPI, Taisei/KajimalOkumura
MAPI, Taisei/Nish/Haz/Okumura
CONTINUEDGreen: Operating Capacity Orange: Forthcoming Capacity Blue: Operating and Forthcoming Capacity
NUCLEAR NEWS 53
ENGR 190 Page 41
World List of NuclearPower Plants, cont'd
Reactor
JAPAN, cont'd Net MWe Type Model
Tohoku Electric Power Co., Inc. [3157]
Operation
Reactor Supplier Major Participants
150BWR-5
Higashidori (Higashidori, Aomori) [ 1067]
-Unit 1 1067 BWR
I·J,E'·rWkl(·j,6t,EUEPltl'iju.BWRBWRBWR
BWR-SBWR·5BWR·5
ISp • Unit 1 498• Unit 2 796• Unit 3 796
Tokyo Electric Power Co. [ 16779]
'f'1mni'H,lj$i1f{,lnali"6Nf'1mDI(i!.11!J
100 1/05 12105 Toshiba KajimalObay
100 10/83 6/84 Toshiba Kajima100 11/94 7/95 Toshiba Kajima/Haz/Nish100 4/01 1/02 Toshiba Hitachi, KajimalHazJNish
100 10170 3/71 GE Ebasco, Kajima100 5/73 7174 GE Ebasco, Kajima100 9174 3176 Toshiba Kajima100 1178 10178 Hitachi Kajima100 8/77 4178 Toshiba Kajima100 3/79 10/79 GE Ebasco, Kajima
• Unit 1 439 BWR BWR-3• Unit 2 760 BWR BWR-4
ISQ • Unit 3 760 BWR BWR-4:. ,. Unit 4 760 BWR BWR-4
.:,) J • Unit 5 760 BWR BWR-4.• Unit 6 1067 BWR BWR-5
Fukushima Oaini (Naraha, Fukushima) [ 4268 ]
.Unit 1'iSR .Unit2
.Unit 3
.Unit4
BWRBWRBWRBWR
BWR-5BWR-5BWR-5BWR-5
1067106710671067
100100100100
ToshibaHitachiToshibaHitachi
KajimaKajimaKajima
Tak/Shim
6/81• 4/8310/8410/86
4/8221846/858/87
Kashiwazaki Kariwa-1 (Kashiwazaki, Niigata) [7965] .
• Unit 1 1067 BWR BWR-5 100 12/84 9/85 Toshiba Kajima_ ""1.\. Unit 2 1067 BWR BWR-5 100 11/89 9/90 Toshiba Kajima~rs\si• Unit 3 1067 BWR BWR-5 100 10/92 8/93 Toshiba Kajima\.... ,.. Unit 4 1067 BWR BWR-5 100 11/93 8/94 Hitachi Tak/Shim
.Unit5 1067 BWR BWR-5 100 7/894/90 Hitachi Tak/Shim
.Unit6 1315 BWR ABWR 100 1219511/96 ToshibalGE Hitachi, KajimalHazlKum-Unit 7 1315 BWR ABWR 100 11/96 7197 Hitachi/GE Toshiba, Shim/TakiMaeda
BWRs: 30 operating (27 843 MWe), 2 forthcoming (2756 MWe). LMFBRs: 1 forthcoming (246 MWe). PWRs: 24 operating (19 291 MWe).
MexicoComision Federal de Electricidad
W'ii'E'mPttt!$iij,eumt:l94f'ii'flJ'em·'I 6A _ Unit 1 680 BWR BWR-5
• Unit 2 680 BWR BWR-5100 11/88 7/90100 9/94 4/95
GEGE
MHI, Owner, EbascoMHI, Owner, Ebasco
NetherlandsN.V. Elektriciteits-Produktiemaatschappij Zuid - Nederland
(two- loop)
Borssele (Borssele, Zeeland) [ 485]
100 6/73 10173 KWU/RDM Stork, KWU/Bredero485 PWR
PakistanPakistan Atomic Energy Commission [ 425 + 300 = 725]
'\ ""I"EH,jiiijOO6'ti',Nblllj1Ij1tWl1t"HgIII'W,.I11ISA: • Unit 1 300 PWR CNP-300
Unit 2 300 PWR CNP-30010050
5/00 9/009/11
CNNCCNNC
CNNCCNNC
Hitachi• Unit 1 125 PHWR CANDU 100 8171 12172PHWRs: 1 operating (125 MWe). PWRs: 1 operating (300 MWe), 1 forthcoming (300 MWe).
RomaniaSocietatea Nationala "Nuclearelectrica" S.A.
'H@IMHaW@IMN·FJ@!]1!i1JIP'fDI:W,DWlfJ• Unit 1 706 PHWR CANDU-6
I 9 A - Unit 2 706 PHWR CANDU-6Unit 3 620 PHWR CANDU-6Unit 4 620 PHWR CANDU-6Unit 5 620 PHWR CANDU·6
54
GE Can
100 4/96 12196100 5/07 1010723 /1612 /178 indef.
AECUVickersAECUVickers
GE,AACGE·SUA, General Turbo-Romania, ISPE
NUCLEAR NEWS March 2010
ENGR 190 Page 42
cOperation
0 ro-.:;-£ '0~~ ;;;
Reactor ~- ro E-dl n;.~"'en Et:t: <u =~ o~Net MWe Type Model 0_ "c(3 Reactor Supplier Major Participants(.)(J) (.)(J)
RussiaRosenergoatom [ 21 743 T 9210 = 30 953 )
':E1ma·i'l•• f:mma'lII'lfm\iI?If!:!JI.1-Unit 1 950 PWR VVER·1000N320 100 12185 5/86 MTM KTl, AEP, MPS20A • Unit 2 950 PWR VVER·l000N320 100 10/87 1188 MTM KTl, AEP, MPS-Unit 3 950 PWR VVER·l000N320 100 12/88 4189 MTM KTl, AEP, MPS-Unit 4 950 PWR VVER·l000N320 100 3/93 4/93 MTM KTZ, AEP, MPS
':fj1I'!Ilili.j3t!$E,j,I'J"fD1m3Jf1,j,DfUltiil1'208 -Unit 3 560 LMFBR BN·600 100 2/80 11/81 MTM Electrosila, AEP, MPS
Unit 4 750 LMFBR BN·800 12 112 OKMB
Bilibino (Bilibino, Chukotka) [ 44 ]
11111111
LGRLGRLGRLGR
EGP·6EGP-6EGP-6EGP·6
100 12/73 4174100 12174 2175100 12175 2176100 12/76 1177
MTMMTMMTMMTM
Kalinin (Udomlya, Tver) [ 2850 + 950 = 3800 ].', -Unit 1'2001 _ Unit 2
-Unit3Unit 4
950950950950
PWRPWRPWRPWR
VVER-l000N338 100VVER-l000N338 100VVER-l000N338 100VVER-l000N338 70
.4/84 6/8511/86 3/8711/04 11105
111
MTMMTMMTMMTM
KTl, AEP, MPSKTl, AEP, MPSKTl, AEP, MPSKTl, AEP, MPS
Kola (Polyarnyye Zori, Murmansk) [1644]. . ;:~~ - Unit 120E. -Unit 2" ..•, "
'."b;ii - Unit 3-Unit 4
411411411411
PWRPWRPWRPWR
VVER-440N230 100VVER·440N230 100VVER-440N230 100VVER-440N230 100
6173 1217311174 21752181 12182
10/84 12184
MTMMTMMTMMTM
Electrosila, AEP, MPSElectrosila, AEP, MPSElectrosila, AEP, MPSElectrosila, AEP, MPS
'm3!i1!!iil;mmatm31ft1.\I,20F
-Unit 1 925 LGR RBMK-l000 100 10176 10177-Unit 2 925 LGR RBMK-l000 100 12178 8/79-Unit 3 925 LGR RBMK-l000 100 8/83 3/84-Unit 4 925 LGR RBMK·l000 100 10/85 2/86
'$9,lhl.!li!fIt.i·NMWt1:Ii1jfi,:mtmPltM'Cf¥!,I,p;!\II"-Unit 1.1 925 LGR RBMK-l000 100 9173 11/74
20G-Unit 1·2 925 LGR RBMK·l000 100 5175 2176-Unit 1-3 925 LGR RBMK-l000 100 9179 6/80-Unit 1-4 925 LGR RBMK-l000 100 12/80 8181
Unit 11-1 1150 PWR AES-2006 20 113\11- Unit 11-2 1150 PWR AES-2006 0 116
MTMMTMMTMMTM
KTl, AEP, MPSKTl, AEP, MPSKTl, AEP, MPSKTl, AEP, MPS
MTMMTMMTMMTMAEPAEP
KTl, MPSKTl, MPSKTl, MPSKTl, MPS
Novovoronezh (Novovoronezh, Voronezh) [ 1720 + 2300 = 4020 ]~'~':;';: - Unit 1-3.2.01-. i-Unit 1-4." . -Unit 1-5'i"~'::;< Unit 11.1
Unit 11-2
385385950
11501150
PWRPWRPWRPWRPWR
VVER-440N230 100VVER-440N230 100
VVER-l000N320 100AES-2006 30AES·2006 0
12/71 12/7112/72 12/72
4180 4/80112115
MTMMTMMTMAEPAEP
KTl, AEP, MPSKTZ, AEP, MPSKTl, AEP, MPS
"2"0' i-Unit 1 950 PWR VVER-l000N320 100I Unit 2 950 PWR VVER-l000N320 100
Unit 3 950 PWR VVER-l000N320 0Unit 4 950 PWR VVER-l000N320 0
2/01 12101/10114116
KTlKTZ
MTMMTMAEPAEP
I-SA3"1fiI\o!·!·Ii.j&SA31fflt120J - Unit 1 925 LGR
- Unit 2 925 LGR- Unit 3 925 LGR
flU'lttij1!j@3-j1!j@IPiE'!:tlJW
RBMK-l000RBMK-l000RBMK-l000
100100100
9/824/85
12189
9/837/851/90
MTMMTMMTM
KTZ, AEP, MPSKTl, AEP, MPSKTZ, AEP, MPS
20k Unit 1 30 PWR (ship-borne) 40 112 OKBM OwnerUnit 2 30 PWR (ship-borne) 40 112 OKBM Owner
LGRs: 15 operating (10 219 MWe), LMFBRs: 1 operating (560 MWe), 1 forthcoming (750 MWe), PWRs: 15 operating (10964 MWe), 10 forthcoming (8460 MWe)
SlovakiaSiovenske Elektrarne, a.s. [ 1705 + 810 = 2515)
1:!iljt!U1tQjii,EW+iMPkiMII:m21 A • Unit 3 408 PWR VVER-440!V213 100 8/84 2/85
_ Unit 4 425 PWR VVER-440!V213 100 8/85 12/85
• Units in commercial operation
March 2010
SkodaSkoda
EGP, HydrostavEGP, Hydrostav
CONTINUEDGreen: Operating Capacity Orange; Forthcoming Capacity Blue: Operating and Forthcoming Capacity
ssNUCLEAR NEWS
ENGR 190 Page 43
, World List of Nuclear Operation!!(~ c:il' 0 co
Power Plants, cont'd g~ .~ 'u; 4:;Reactor
~~ co E-", (ij .~<n"" E"l::c '" ~15 o.s
SLOVAKIA. conrc Net MWe Type Model 8Ci5 ucn Reactor Supplier Major Participants
Siovenske Elektrarne, a.s., cont'd1~1r;;,[·l!l;;jfOr;;,t·Wdi,~n'jEI'H_II:ttD:J-IlnM;YJ
21B-Unit 1 436 PWR VVER·440IV213 100 6/98 10/98 Skoda EGP, Hydrostav-Unit 2 436 PWR VVER-440IV213 100 12/99 4100 Skoda EGP, Hydrostav
Unit 3 405 PWR VVER-440IV213 40 indef. Skoda EGP, HydrostavUnit 4 405 PWR VVER·440IV213 30 indet. Skoda EGP, Hydrostav
SloveniaNuklearna Elektrarna Krsko
22A100 9/81 1/83
Krsko (Krsko, Vrbina) [ 666]-Unit 1 666 PWR (two-loop)
South AfricaEskom
W Gilbert
\71,~'i- Unit 1. ~ •. -Unit 2
(two-loop)(two-loop)
100 3/84 8/841 QO 7/85 11/85
Koeberg (Melkbosstrand, Cape) [1800]900900
PWRPWR
South KoreaKorea Hydro & Nuclear Power Co. [ 16 810 + 9600 = 26 410 ]
FraFra
Aistom, W, FramategAistom, W, Framateg
Kori (Gijang, Busan) [ 2951]-Unit 1 556 PWR (two· loop) 100 6/77 4178 W GEC, Gilbert-Unit 2 605 PWR [two-loop] 100 4/83 7/83 W GEC, Gilbert-Unit 3 895 PWR (three-loop) 100 1/85 9/85 W GEC, Bechtel, Hyundai
il-Unit4 895 PWR (three-loop) 100 10/85 4186 W GEC, Bechtel, Hyundai
;,'~ ,f'mm@wN:iitf'·iJlf:i,It'
I 2~B,Unit 1 1000 PWR OPR-l000 93 110 12110 Doosan KOPEC, HyundaiiDaelim/SKUnit 2 1000 PWR OPR-l000 93 111 12/11 Doosan KOPEC, Hyundai/Daelim/SKUnit 3 1400 PWR APR-1400 44 113 9/13 Doosan KOPEC, Hyundai, SK
,I Unit 4 1400 PWR APR·1400 44 114 9/14 Doosan KOPEC, Hyundai, SK
:I"~"";'lilmmllmj11jllllm""§'L!4ibWWiIfl1Il1!fr:ufJ:!'\l124'(:.. Unit 1 1400 PWR APR-1400 0 115 12115 Doosan KOPEC
,1 ~~:/£:j~'. Unit 2 1400 PWR APR·1400 0 116 12/16 Doosan KOPEC:1 .:." ••1M1WCR%!·WlUllIW'.U'ilIltftillfj!l11t1
'2.lt~} Unit 1 1000 PWR OPR-l000 65 111 3/12 Doosan KOPEC, Daewoo/Samsung/LG;:..,{~~~ Unit 2 1000 PWR OPR-1000 65 112 1/13 Doosan KOPEC, Daewoo/Samsung/LG
Ulchin (Ulchin-gun, Gyeongsangbuk-do) [ 5680 J. c;': -Unit 1 920 PWR CPl 100 2188 9/88 Fra Aistom, Dong Ah/HanjungV~",t~o"_ Unit 2 920 PWR CP1 100 2/89 9/89 Fra Aistom, Dong Ah/Hanjung2~l:~_Unit 3 960 PWR System 80 100 12/97 8198 Hanjung/C-E GE, KOPEC/S&L, Dong Ah/Hanjung
-Unit4 960 PWR System 80 100 12/98 12/99 Hanjung/C-E GE, KOPEC/S&L, Dong Ah/Hanjung-UnitS 960 PWR OPR-1000 100 11/03 7104 Doosan KOPEC, Dong Ah/Doosan/Samsung-Unit 6 960 PWR OPR-1000 100 12/04 6105 Doosan KOPEC, Dong Ah/Doosan/Samsung
Wolsong (Gyeongjiu-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do) [2579 J
24: :~~::~-Unit 3-Unit 4
629650650650
PHWRPHWRPHWRPHWR
CANDU-6CANDU-6CANDU-6CANDU-6
100100100100
11/82119721984/99
4/837/977/98
10/99
AECLAECUHanjungAECUHanjungAECUHanjung
NEI-PGE, AECL, KOPEC, HyundaiGE, AECL, KOPEC, DaewooGE, AECL, KOPEC, Daewoo
·1'l.I,I'GNki,[.iDUWki,[.O!M&H.),I,Ei"IJf';till- Unit 1 900 PWR (three-loop) 100 1/86 8/86- Unit 2 900 PWR (three-loop) 100 10/86 6/87
24G _ Unit 3 950 PWR OPR-l000 100 10/94 3/95-Unit4 950 PWR OPR·1000 100 7/951/96-UnitS 950 PWR OPR-1000 10011/015/02- Unit 6 950 PWR OPR·l000 100 9/02 12/02
PHWRs: 4 operating (2579 MWe). PWRs: 16 operating (14 231 MWe), 8 forthcoming (9600 MWe).
SpainAlmaraz-Trillo, A.l.E. [ 2897 J
"'I'ik'fifJitl1i@UM!MlMl":!i1l
WW
Hanjung/C-EHanjung/C-E
DoosanDoosan
Bechtel, HyundaiBechtel, Hyundai
GE, KOPEC/S&L, HyundaiGE, KOPEC/S&L, HyundaiKOPEC, HyundaiiDaelimKOPEC, Hyundai/Daelim
25A _ Unit 1 947 PWR- Unit 2 950 PWR
(three-loop)(three-loop)
100 4/81 10/81100 9183 2/84
NUCLEAR NEWS
WW
ENothersENothers
March 2010
ENGR 190 Page 44
Reactor
Net MWe Type Model Reactor Supplier Major Participants
Operation
Trillo (Trillo, Guadalajara) ( 1000)258-Unit 1 1000 PWR (three-loop) 100 5/88 8/88 KWU/ENSA ENB. EAlothers
Asociacion Nuclear Asco-Vandellos II, A.l.E. [ 3033]
tMMi;·iE'i6'·Wfim:,25c -Unit 1 996 PWR (three-loop) 100 6/83 12/84 W ENB. Bechtel, Initec, lyP, Fra, Siemens
-Unit 2 992 PWR (three-loop) 100 9/85 3/86 W ENB. Bechtel. Initec. lyP. Fra, Siemens
250PWR (three-loop)
Vandellos (Vandellos, Tarragona) [ 1045]W ENB. Initec/Bechtel. VANEA-Unit 2
Iberdrola, S.A.
1045 100 11/87 3/88
100 8/84 3/85
100 11170 5171
SwedenForsmark Kraftgrupp AB
.:';')ti"eUI'i"ti"fiiiiIJU+f'mf'ftJ-Unit 1 1011 BWR BWR 75 100 4/80 12180-Unit 2 951 BWR BWR 75 100 11/80 7/81-Unit 3 1190 BWR BWR 75 100 10/84 8/85
OKG Aktiebolag
l'mm,Ei,!i,I('mm,fl"i'8®mlt1'fD268 -Unit 1 467 BWR 100 12170 2/72
-Unit 2 602 BWR 100 3174 1/75-Unit 3 1160 BWR BWR 75 100 12/84 8/85
BWR BWR-6
Cofrentes (Cofrentes, Valencia) [ 1063]GE EAlSener/G&H, EyT
- Unit 1 355 BWR
Kernkraftwerk Goesgen-Daeniken AG
BWR-4
25E-Unit 1
Nuclenor, S.A.
1063
100 8/73 1176100 6/74 5/75100 7/80 9/81100 5/82 11/83
Santa Maria de Garona (Santa Maria de Garona, Burgos) [ 446]
278_ - Unit 1 970
Kernkraftwerk Leibstadt AG
PWR (three-loop)
,25F.t::'.~-Unit 1 446 BWR BWR-3BWRs: 2 operating (1509 MWe). PWRs: 6 operating (5930 MWe).
Ringhals AB
ljl1jTilj111tlW,mi'Niffi11ffitilJfWt1- Unit 1 830· BWR
26c _ Unit 2 875 PWR (three-loop)- Unit 3 915 PWR (three-loop)- Unit 4 915 PWR (three-loop)
BWRs: 7 operating (6211 MWe). PWRs: 3 operating (2705 MWe).
SwitzerlandBKW FMB Energie AG
27A
GE Ebasco
ABS-AtomASS-AtomASB-Atom
AAlSV/SLAAISV/SLAA/SV/SL
ABB-Atom AA, SL, Armerad-BetongABB-Atom SL, VBB, Owner. Armerad-BetongABB-Atom AAlSUOwnerNBB. ABV/SCG/Boliden-WP-Contech
ABS-AtomWWW
EE. AAlSVSV/G&HISL
SL, VBB-TE, Fra, Siemens, SVVSS-TEISL. SV
Muehleberg (Muehleberg, Bern) [ 355]100 3/71 11172 GETSCO BBC/E&B/GETSCO
Goesgen (Daeniken, Solothurn) [970]
100 1179 11179 KWU KWU
Leibstadt (Leibstadt, Aargau) [1165]27c-Unit 1 1165 BWR
Nordostschweizerische Kraltwerk AG
BWR-6 100 3/84 12184 GETSCO BBC/GETSCO/EWI
Beznau (Doetlingen, Aargau) [ 730 ]
270' -Unit 1 365 PWR (two-loop)- Unit 2 365 PWR (two-loop)
BWRs: 2 operating (1520 MWe). PWRS: 3 operating (1700 MWe).
Taiwan, ChinaTaiwan Power Co. [ 4884 + 2500= 7484]
ltli1lj1jW1il!rii1lj1j •••• n1'l:128A _ Unit 1 604 BWR
- Unit 2 604 BWRBWR-4BWR-4
100 6/69 12/69100 10171 3172
100 10177 12178100 11/78 7/79
WW
ABB. G&H/BBC, ZschokkeABS. G&H/BBC, Zschokke
GEGE
W. Ebasco, OwnerW, Ebasco, Owner
CONTINUED
Mnrrh ?nln
Green: Operating Capacity Oranqe: Forthcoming Capacity Blue: Operating and Forthcoming Capacity
57
- Units in commercial operation
NUCLEAR NEWS
ENGR 190 Page 45
World List of Nuclear cOperation
~- mPower Plants, cont'd .~ .~2~ '"Reactor m Ecn~ m.5::? Et~", ;; ;: oSTAIWAN, CHINA, conrd Net MWe Type Model 0_ £0uw uwTaiwan Power Co., cont'd..' ·'·'im.!§,[@mrl§r!o8Wnm,.,II*ljI2813 -Unit 1 948 BWR BWR·6 100 2181 12/81
-Unil2 948 BWR BWR-6 100 3/82 3/83
-; -.'~\,"'hi,hrIij"lii!liliUQI4J!$Ilftunl2ac Unit 1 1300 BWR ABWR 95 /11Unit 2 1300 BWR ABWR 85 /12
Reactor Supplier Major Participants
GEGE
W, Bechtel, OwnerW, Bechtel, Owner
GEGE
MHI, S&W, OwnerMHI, S&W, Owner
780 - Unit 1 890 PWR (three-loop) 100 3/84 7/84": - Unit 2 890 PWR (three-loop) 100 2/85 5/85
BWRs: 4 operating (3104 MWe), 2 forthcoming (2600 MWe). PWRs: 2 operating (1780 MWe).
UkraineEnergoatom [ 13 095 + 2850 = 15 945]
WW
GE, Bechtel, OwnerGE, Bechtel, Owner
Khmelnitsky (Neteshin, Khmelnitsky) [1900 + 1900 = 3800]-Unit 1-Unit2
Unit 3Unit 4
950950950950
PWRPWRPWRPWR
VVER-l000N320VVER·l000N320VVER-l000N320VVER-l000N320
100 12187 8/88100 104 1210530 •.... - indef.15 indef.
MTMMTMMTMMTM
LMZ, AEP, MPSLMZ, AEP, MPSLMZ, AEP, MPSLMZ, AEP, MPS
Rovno (Kuznetsovsk, Rovno) [2645]
-Unit 1-Unit 2-Unit3-Unit4
361384950950
PWRPWRPWRPWR
VVER-440N213VVER-440N213
VVER-l000N320VVER-l 000N~20
100 12180 9/81100 12181 7/82100 11/86 5/87100 10/01 4106
MTMMTMMTMMTM
KTZ, AEP, MPSKTZ, AEP, MPSLMZ, AEP, MPSLMZ, AEP, MPS
South Ukraine (Konstantinovka, Nikolaev) [ 2850 + 950 = 3800 ]"", -Unit 1
;29c~_Unit 2-Unit 3
,,-,.; Unit 4
950950950950
PWRPWRPWRPWR
VVER·l000N302VVER-l000N338VVER-l000N320VVER-l000N320
100 12/82 10/83100 12/84 4/85100 9/89 12189
indef.
MTMMTMMTMMTM
KTZ, AEP, MPSKTZ, AEP, MPSLMZ, AEP, MPSLMZ, AEP, MPS
Zaporozhye (Energodar, Zaporozhye) [ 5700] .
• -Unit 1;;-. -Unit 22,9q -Unit 3
. ,'"'' ,; - Unit 4-Unit 5-Unit 6
United Arab EmiratesEmirates Nuclear Energy Corp. [ 5600 ]
950950950950950950
PWRPWRPWR
, PWRPWRPWR
VVER-l000N320VVER-l000N320VVER-l000N320VVER-l000N320VVER-l000N320VVER-l000N320
100 11/84 4185100 6/85 10/85100 12/86 1/87100 12187 1/88100 6/89 10/89100 10/95 9/96
MTMMTMMTMMTMMTMMTM
KTZ, AEP, MPSKTZ, AEP, MPSKTZ, AEP, MPSKTZ, AEP, MPSKTZ, AEP, MPSKTZ, AEP, MPS
Plant A (site to be determined) [2800 JKOPEC, Hyundai, Samsung, WKOPEC, Hyundai, Samsung, W
14001400
PWRPWR
APR-1400APR-1400
oo
117120
DoosanDoosan
~30B; Unit 1?;!Jg~ Unit 2
Plant B (site to be determined) [ 2800 ]
KOPEC, Hyundai, Samsung, WKOPEC, Hyundai, Samsung, W
United KingdomBritish Energy Group pic [ 9568]
14001400
PWRPWR
APR-1400APR-1400
oo
DoosanDoosan
/20120
:iJ IA. • Unit Bl;~ _:~: - Unit B2
Dungeness (Lydd, Kent) [1110]
CAPCAP
555555
GCRGCR
AGRAGR
100 12182 4/85100 12185 12185
APCAPC
3 fe" -Unit 1ioLd~:• Unit 2
Hartlepool (Hartlepool, Cleveland) [1210]
GECGEC
605605
GCRGCR
AGRAGR
100 6/83 8/83100 9/84 10/84
NNCNNC
Heysham (Heysham, Lancashire) [ 2400 J-UnitAl-UnitA2-Unit 81• Unit 82
575575625625
GCRGCRGCRGCR
AGRAGRAGRAGR
100 4/83 7/83100 6/84 10/84100 6/88 7/88100 11/88 11/88
NNCNNCNNCNNC
GEeGEC
NEI, CEGBNEI, GEGS
3;1,0' • Unit B1- Unit B2
Hinkley Point (Hinkley POint, Somerset) [1220 J .100 9/76 10/78100 2/76 9/76
NPCNPC
AEI/GECAEI/GEC
58
610610
GCRGCR
AGRAGR
NUCLEAR NEWS March 2010
ENGR 190 Page 46
'"Operation
.S:! roti;e ~ 'u
Reactor~~ (ij t(;)~ (ij .~ ~!::"'ro :,;::;::: 0.$
Net MWe Type Model 0_ :So Reactor Supplier Major Participantsurn urn
'jWrmm.-il£1ljlilWU"RI"31E -UnitB1 595 GCR AGR 100 1/76 6/76 TNPG CAP
-Unit 82 595 GCR AGR 100 zm 3177 TNPG CAP
j IF 1§f14WA"~4f14Wml-m'mI311'f;U1-Unit B llBB PWR (tour-loop) 100 1/95 5/95 PPP GEC, NNC, JL
'1oI/,lMj!l!!!j1m:m'!ilIjl!ffi1J't+11131G -Unit 1 625 GCR AGR 100 9/87 5/88 NNC GEC
-Unit 2 625 GCR AGR 100 12/88 2/89 NNC GEC
Magnox North Ltd. [ 1414]
Old bury (Old bury, Avon) [ 434]
3 'Hi -Unit 1, "; leu nz.~~ Ill
217217
GCRGCR
MagnoxMagnox
100 B/67 12/67100 12/67 9/68
TNPGTNPG
AEI/CAP, McAlpineAEIICAP, McAlpine
Wylfa (Anglesey, Wales) [ 980]
- Unit 1 490 GCR Magnox- Unit 2 490 GCR Magnox
GCRs: 18 operating (9794 MWe). PWRs: 1 operating (1188 MWe).
United StatesAmerenUE
100 12/69 11171100 9/70 1/72
EE/B&WITWEEJB&WITW
EE/BPLITWEEJBPLITW
Callaway (Fulton, Mo.) [ 1228]- Unit 1 1228
Arizona Public Service Co.
PWR SNUPPS 100 10/84 4/85 W GE, Bechtel, Daniel
Palo Verde (Wintersburg, Ariz.) [ 4003].... 2:;:-; - Unit 1 1333
- Unit 2 1336, - Unit 3 1334
Constellation Nuclear [ 4031.3]
PWRPWRPWR
System 80System BOSystem BO
100 5/85 l/B6100 4/86 9/86100 10/87 1/88
C-EC-EC-E
GE, BechtelGE, BechtelGE, Bechtel
Calvert Cliffs (Lusby, Md.) [1690]'3"\ -Unit 1
-Unit2845B45
PWRPWR
(two-loop)(two-loop]
100 10/74 5/75100 11/76 4177
C-EC-E
GE, BechtelGE, Bechtel
Ginna (Ontario, N.Y.) [585].. ""c" -Unit 1 585 PWR (two-loop) 100 11/69 7170 W Gilbert, Bechtel
.S '~i_ Unit 1 613 BWR;~~;J- Unit 2 1143.3 BWR
Detroit Edison Co.
BWR-2BWR-5
100 9/69 12/69100 5/87 4/88
GEGE
NiMo, S&WS&W
Fermi (Newport, Mich.) [1150].6- ... ~~ • -Unit 2 1150
Dominion Generation [ 6088.5]
,-7,,,,. ",," -Unit 1
Kewaunee (Carlton, Wis.) [ 574 J
BWR
574 PWR
BWR-4
(two-loop)
100 6/85 1/88 GE Alstom, Owner, Daniel
Millstone (Waterford, Conn.) [2112.5]W Pioneer
"8'1 -Unit 2.:., -Unit 3
;.,; ~.>,1~r;;ii!.',iIElt~!il,I§kimlll:k1'883.5 PWR
1229 PWR
100 3/74 6/74
(two-loop) 100 10/75 12/75 C-E GE, Bechtel(four-loop) 100 1/86 4/86 W GE, S&W
(three-loop) 100 4/78 6/78 W S&W(three-loop) 100 6/80 12/80 W S&W
(three-loop) 100 7172 12172 W S&W(three-loop) 100 3/73 5/73 W S&W
....9ji -Unit 1 913 PWR'.' -Unit 2 913 PWR
.·_:rr~f1i'ii'l_'~m;.'lfti'19-;' - Unit 1 788 PWR
; •. ;;::,;~ - Unit 2 788 PWR
Duke Power Co. [ 7308]
Catawba (Clover, S.C.) [ 2290 I .'f'.!;'.!;;, _ Unit 1
"'if - Unit 211451145
PWRPWR
(four-loop)(four-loop)
100 1/85 6/85100 5/86 8/86
WW
GE, OwnerGE, Owner
12,' • Unit 1 1180 PWReUnit2 1180 PWR
- Units in commercial operation
March 2010
(four-loop)(four-loop)
100 B/Bl 12/B1100 5183 3/84
WW
OwnerOwner
CONTINUEDGreen: Operating Capacity Orange: Forthcoming Capacity Blue: Operating and Forthcoming Capacity
NUCLEAR NEWS S9
ENGR 190 Page 47
World List of NuclearPower Plants, cont'd
Operation
Reaclor
.!!!
~EEt:oSU (J) Major ParticipantsUNITED STATES, cont'd Net MWe Type Model Reactor Supplier
Duke Power Co., cont'd
,,13·1,144M4,'4*+111It141:11 3 - Unit 1 886 PWR
- Unit 2 886 PWR- Unit 3 886 PWR
Energy Northwest
14 "'Wmrll;1tiQt!W!l'imiU"fiC'
B&WB&WB&W
GE, Bechlel, OwnerGE, Bechtel, OwnerGE, Bechtel, Owner
(two- loop)(two-cop)(two-loop)
100100100
4173 717311173 9/749174 12174
-Unill 1153 BWR
Entergy [ 10312]
~.',..'lnlfj,tftj~m;.·mt;tif.ii4'ml"ln"lf:f:tJ
BWR-5 1/84 12/84 GE W, B&R, Bechtel100
151" _ Unit 1 850 PWR (two-loop),,'<:;':, - Unit 2 1032 PWR (two-loop)
B&WC-E
100 8/74 12/74100 12178 3/80
W, BechtelGE, Bechtel
FitzPatrick (Scriba, N.Y.) [ 816).. 16 .. ;~,,;;~ - Unit 1 GE S&W816 BWR BWR-4 100 11174 7175
Grand Gulf (port Gibson, Miss.) [ 1279]17, , "" -Unit 1 BWR BWR-6 100 8/82 7/85 GE Allis, Bechtel1279
Indian Point (Buchanan, N.Y.) [2083]
-Unil2-Unil3
WW
GE, UE&C, WedcoUE&C, Wedco
10351048
PWRPWR
(four-loop)(four-loop)
100 5/73 8174100 4/76 8/76
Palisades (South Haven, Mich.) [ 805]."9..";,,,0;:1: -Unill 805 PWR (two-loop) 100 5171 12171 C-E W, Bechtel
Pilgrim (Plymouth, Mass.) [ 690 ]
. -Unill 690 BWR BWR-3 100 6172 12172 GE Bechtel
'2 f_ljII'GJ:m'i-i,iif1rli@!IMD.-Unill 967 BWR BWR-6 100 10/85 6/86 GE S&W
22,·'Wil,[.j,lf€:1jlmfBi,[,I,WJ0f·-Unit 1 617 BWR BWR-4 100 3172 11172 GE Ebasco
Waterford (Taft, La.) [ 1173]21·-Unil3 1173 PWR (two-loop) 100 3/85 9/85 C-E W, Ebasco
Exelon Generation [ 17 652]
l_, -."~.{~.I:mm'W·I,,.lt:rm'w,'·I'M'lttltJ24 -Unit 1 1187 PWR (four-loop) 100 5/87 7/88 W S&L, Com Ed
.~ - Unit 2 1155 PWR (four-loop) 100 3/88 10/88 W S&L, ComEd
Byron (Byron, III.) [ 2342 J(four-loop)(four-loop)
WW
S&L, ComEdS&L, Com Ed
11871155
PWRPWR
100 2/85 9/85100 1/87 8/87
Clinton (Clinton, III.) [1062]
BWR GE S&L, Baldwin1062 BWR-6 100 4/87 11/87
,27:.· _ Unit 2 867
, - Unit 3 867GEGE
S&L, UE&CS&L, UE&C
BWRBWR
BWR-3BWR-3
100100
1170 61701/71 11171
LaSalle (Seneca, III.) [ 2308]
,M
'28¥1 _ Unit 1 1154 BWR BWR-5 100 6/82 1/84 GE S&L, ComEd-Unit2 1154 BWR BWR-5 100 3/84 10/84 GE S&L, ComEd
29l.i,'i4i'dOOilij'ti',IW·UUtit:tJ
-Unit 1 1191 BWR BWR-4 100 12/84 2/86 GE Bechtel-Unit2 1191 BWR BWR-4 100 8/89 1/90 GE Bechtel
, 3oItmG'ltmnl3!QW';hWWJl\j.111" _ -Unit 1 650 BWR BWR-2 100 5/69 12/69 GE B&R
., .....,IMi':tilBiIttM1lIMltf!d31 -Unit2 1138 BWR BWR-4 100 9/73 7174 GE Bechtel
"-Unit 3 1138 BWR BWR-4 100 8174 12174 GE Bechtel
"mIlfJW(ff!tp,·iWM'llkifl32 -Unit 1 866 BWR BWR-3 100 10/71 2/73 GE S&L, UE&C
-Unit 2 871 BWR BWR-3 100 4172 3/73 GE S&L,UE&C
33 •iMWntilSm'lmr:yr:!1!1i1JDD":iHI-Unit 1 819 PWR (two-loop) 100 6174 9/74 B&W GE, Gilbert, UE&C, Areva
I
60 N U C L E A R N E W s March 2010 I
ENGR 190 Page 48
Reactor
Net MWe Type Model
FirstEnergy Nuclear Operating Co. [ 3991 ]
<=.913-2C1ii'"cO>o coum
OperationJ2~'"EEt::0'"uw
~<a
- <>:~~Cu Reactor Supplier Major Participants
34 -Unill 911 PWR- Unit 2 904 PWR
(three-loop)(three-loop)
S&WIDuquesneS&W/Ouquesne
100 5/76 10176100 8187 11/87
WW
.3 5 ,,1.Ji'tIJI3{IIU(·m:Jjffiffi1jJ.ljlTilJ_B&W GE, Bechtel- Unit 1 908 PWR (two-loop) 100 8/77 7178
.36 iilliiiJw;nljl:24ii'l!1lli!JJmEIGilbert, CEI"-Unit2 1268 BWR BWR-6 100 6/8611/87
FPL Group (including Florida Power & Light Co., NextEra Energy Resources) [ 6063.91 )
GE
621.9 BWR BWR-4
Arnold (Palo, Iowa) [ 621.9)
100 3/74 2175 GE Bechtel:f:.r. .11
PWRPWR
(two-loop)(two-loop)
• Seabrook (Seabrook, N.H.) [ 1246)
100 6/89 8/90 W GE,UE&C
522522
1246 PWR (four-loop)
100 11170 '12170100 5172 10172
BechtelBechtel
WW
(two-loop)(two-loop)
4176 121766/83 8/83
-Unit 1'''' -Unit 2
.iU~!"l\\:";1r~I'1~ .~'i;;I.:'i'~- Unit 3;~:.l!-Umt4
tndiana Michigan Power Co.
856856
PWRPWR
100100
C-EC-E
W, EbascoW, Ebasco
Turkey Point (Florida City, Fla.) [ 1440]
720720
PWRPWR
(three-loop)(three-loop)
100100
W, BechtelW, Bechtel
10/72 121726/73 9/73
WW
42. . _ Unit 1
, -Unit 2
Luminant Power
(four-loop)(four-loop)
WW
I!I!E3l:llli1iliilililll'illiJfllD10841107
PWRPWR
100 1175 8/75100 3/78 7/78
GE, Siemens, OwnerBBC, Owner
43 -Unit 1 1150 PWR-Unit 2 1150 PWR
Nebraska Public Power District •
(four-loop)(four-loop)
Allis, G&H, BrownAllis, G&H, Brown
.•lljiljjljlj'I3i'fC1'iEl:J~H1!IiI100 4/90 8/90100 3/93 8193
WW
44 ..1.;;;:1 - Unit 1 815 BWR
Northern State Power Co.-Minnesota [ 1672]
BWR-4
•• Cooper (Brownville, Nebr.) [815)W, B&R100 2174 7174 GE
45'3 -Unit 1',~w..- BWR-3
Monticello (Monticello, Minn.) [ 600 ]
GE600 BWR 100 12170 6/71 BechtelPrairie Island (Red Wing, Minn.) [ 1072]
46 -Unit 1-Unit 2
Omaha Public Power District
536536
PWRPWR
(two-loop)(two-loop)
100 12/73 12/73100 12/74 12/74
WW
PioneerPioneer
47. "":",-Unit 1
Pacific Gas and Electric Co .
(two-loop)
Fort Calhoun (Fort Calhoun, Nebr.) [ 502)
C-E502 PWR 100 9/73 9/73 GE,G&H
48. -Unit 1 1138 PWR-Unit2 1151 PWR
PPL Susquehanna LLC
··Wl!liliEIll1Eiilltm!.l
(four-loop)(four-loop)
4/84 5/858/85 3/86
..·llmi]~~Jml1I
49. -Unit 1 1235 BWR• Unit 2 1235 BWR
Progress Energy [ 4529.7 + 2200 = 6729.7)
BWR-4BWR-4
100100
WW
OwnerOwner
100 9/82 6183100 5184 2185
GEGE
Bechtel, SiemensBechtel, Siemens
SO.' • Unit 1 983 BWR. • Unit 2 980 BWR
BWR-4BWR-4
B!I:'"swick (Southport, N.C_) [1963]
100 10176 3177100 3175 11175
GEGE
UE&C, BrownUE&C, Brown
51 rystal River (Red Level, Fla.) [ 860
• Unit 3 860 PWR (two-loop)
Green: Operating Capacity Grange: Forthcoming Capacity Blue: Operating and Forthcoming Capacity
NUCLEAR NEWS 61
• Units in commercial operation
March 2010
100 1177 3177 B&W. Siemens, Gilbert, Jones
CONTINUED
ENGR 190 Page 49
Operation~,
World List of Nuclear c(;j0
Power Plants, cont'd'';:::'- ~ '(32~ Q;
Reactor (;j E-Q) en .~<no> E"t:c: co =:t:: 02UNITED STATES, cont'd Net MWe Type Model 0_ 50 Reactor Supplier Major Participantsom omProgress Energy, cont'd52 ,:mmmmjN!'lstftJI!,tf
-Unit 1 941.7 PWR (three-loop) 100 1/87 5/87 W Ebasco, Daniel
U1JW!i'lMU'tk·W'53 Unit 1 1100 PWR AP1000 a /16 W Shaw/S&W
Unit 2 1100 PWR AP1000 a /16 W Shaw/S&W
54 Ij!ilill.!}!.l!jmWiM1tftlt&'-Unit 2 765 PWR (three-loop) 100 9/70 3171 W Ebasco
PSEG Nuclear LLC
'iGltfmf.1i1 g!.1'PWl Eptt:I'55 -Hope Creek 1228.1 BWR BWR-4 100 6/86 12/86 GE Bechtel
-Salem-l 1169 PWR (four-loop) 100 12/76 6177 W Owner, UE&C, Siemens-Salem-2 1181 PWR (four-loop) 100 8/80 10/81 W Owner, UE&C, GE, Siemens
South Carolina Electric & Gas Co.
\~ {'l.illulum·-1'1llft'''-¥N'DW.f'
'1,5-6 -Unit 1 972,7 PWR (three-loop) 100 10/82 1/84 W GE, Gilbert, Daniel'j;:',~ ' Unit 2 1100 PWR AP1000 0 /16 W Shaw/S&W:'\:'::. ,-, Unit 3 1100 PWR AP1000 0 /19 W Shaw/S&W
Southern California Edison Co.
San Onofre (San Clemente, Calif.) [ 2150 ]57 -Unit2 1070 PWR (two-loop) 100 7/82 8/83 C-E Bechtel, GEC/Alstom, MHI
-Unit 3 1080 PWR (two-loop) 100 8/83 4/84 C-E Bechtel, GEC Aistom
Southern Nuctear Operating Co. [ 5840 + 2200 = 8040 ]
nng! 1m Ipwnw'58 -Unit 1 854 PWR (three-loop) 100 8177 12177 W Owner, Bechtel, Daniel
-Unit 2 855 PWR (three-loop) 100 5/81 7/81 W Owner, Bechtel, Daniel
'mrnit!:!13t1t!Mlltij'59 -Unit 1 885 BWR BWR-4 100 9/74 12/75 GE Owner, Bechtel
-Unit 2 908 BWR BWR-4 100 7178 9/79 GE Owner, Bechtel
i¢!Il!ti44'lI1f1.I.I!·8frMt-Hif;DW,I,RJOj!:'
60 -Unit 1 1169 PWR (four-loop) 100 3/87 6/87 W Owner, GE, Bechtel-Unit 2 1169 . PWR (four-loop) 100 3/89 5/89 W Owner, GE, Bechtel
Unit 3 1100 PWR AP1000 a /16 W Shaw/S&WUnit4 1100 PWR AP1000 0 116 W Shaw/S&W
STP Nuclear Operating Co.
South Texas (Palacios, Tex.) [2501.2 + 2700 = 5201.2]. -Unit 1 1250.6 PWR (four-loop) 100 3/88 8/88 W Bechtel, Ebasco
61 -Unit2 1250.6 PWR (four-loop) 100 3/89 6/89 W Bechtel, EbascoUnit 3 1350 BWR ABWR a /15 ToshibaUnit 4 1350 BWR ABWR a /16 Toshiba
TVA Nuclear [6839 + 1177 = 8016]
l:ii.iW,t),§iPlf·mmuufS!H"62 -Unit 1 1120 BWR BWR-4 100 8/73 8/74 GE Owner
-Unit 2 1120 BWR BWR-4 100 7174 3/75 GE Owner-Unit 3 1120 BWR BWR-4 100 8/76 3177 GE Owner
63Wwmt.-amrJ'klnAlttt{'
-Unit 1 1173 PWR (four-loop) 100 7/80 7/81 W Owner-Unit 2 1151 PWR (four-loop) 100 11/81 6/82 W Owner
641mIt1:mt\;l iUUliMW "f}UI ttft¥!CYJ-Unit 1 1155 PWR (four-loop) 100 2/96 5/96 W Owner
Unit 2 1177 PWR (four-loop) 80 /12 W Owner/Bechtel
Wolf Creek Nuclear Operating Corp.
65 IWi111fi:tl:I!Tlt!jfffi'i1jJ;p1'U1"-Unit 1 1170 PWR SNUPPS 100 5/85 9/85 W GE, BechleIlS&L, Daniel
BWRs: 35 operating (34 696,3 MWe), 2 forthcoming (2700 MWe). PWRs: 69 operating (68 104.1 MWe), 7 forthcoming (7777 MWe),
- Units in commercial operation Green: Operating Capacity Orange: Forthcoming Capacity Blue: Operating and Forthcoming Capacity
62 March 2010NUCLEAR NEWS
ENGR 190 Page 50
Nuclear NelMsMaps of COlJ1lJ1ercial r:Nuclear. Power Plants .~WorldwIde !)l(As of December 31,2009. Plants are identified by Yl ' ~
numbers that correlate to information printed in /' ( ;the adjoining World List.)
~.~ .."':"
Copyright © 2010 by the American Nuclear Society, lnc. Unauthorized printed or electronic reproduction or dissemination prohibited.
March 2010 63NUCLEAR NEWS
ENGR 190 Page 51
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NucleatlCommercial nuclear power j
66 N U C LEA R NEW S March 2010
ENGR 190 Page 54
':Ne1NS! plants in the United States
!!2!!!!55
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March 2010 NUCLEAR NEW S 67
ENGR 190 Page 55
Nuclear New!i;
68 March 2010NUCLEAR NEWS
ENGR 190 Page 56
Reactor
Originallicense
Expiration
u.s. Power Reactor License Renewal
Reactor
Originallicense
Expiration
RenewalApproval
Date
Renewedlicense
Expiration
RenewalApplication
Date
ANO-1 ' 5/20/14 ,ANO-2 7/17/18Arnold 2/21/14BeaverValley-l 1/29/16BeaverValley-2 5/27/27Braidwood-l 10/17/26Braidwood-2 ·12/18/27Browns Ferry-l 12/20/13 116/04 5/4/06 12120/33~~ownsFerry~2 .6/28/14',1/6/04 5/4/06 6/28/34Browns Ferry-3 7/2/16 1/6/04 5/4/06 7/2/36 'tB~ri~~sgitl1'!lt,~fi~l~X~Zi§Y~1fj.~t~!9i,t:,~,~1~64~21~~:~'9{~L~~J;slBrunswick-2 12/27/14 10/18/04 6/26/06 12/27/34
21110010115/0310/1/088128/078/28/07
61l2l016/30/05
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1ifpjL~~a.¥;'~!~~flfgllj;{~~(g!Jli?3}f~;3lJ2~U 1~~t;;~t~"i£~l'J~41~i~1"'j~;;Calvert Cliffs-l 7/31/14 4/10/98 3/23/00 7/31/34
~alyert?Cliffs~2~iJ~:WffB11.6'?!:h41foj98 '''~f'3/a37Q(tX~;'~8/:f3/365~~ .~· ..",-",-""_~~~·'!,,~!,,,,"_J:~_.1o.-~Uo~ ..••.t..,o.1 .lI-"S..ki':-~_~;;.;"J. ~ ~ .••". _,t" .....· ll"u ••. ·;ci.,,~·,.;..;!:-:;t· ""';>::'1"';. •• ~"1S_~.
Catawba-l 1/17/25 6/14/01 12/3/03 12/5/43~G,~~~~'lP~2c¥t'~it~~t{i~W~.§!:\~Zg6:;':~/6/j4101,~'~~lgZ?i.~~;:'~l ~5/43;'~Clinton 9/29/26
i{t1(jm"{ffi'a~'q1:~~I{f,~~ri;l~iifftfi2'j2ilj2'3·~{fJ,..~1%19!10:~1f~~~;;&i~~,.~~1~;~£:iiFl,~~'h,i:_:r):;•••.••••_l>4-;..&:J;.;>~,::tiB'r.?~~~.t~~~~ ;o~'C.~_~.t,~,'P~~~,~n!w:.~_<;.,~R\.'::~i;;l{;..m~,_i',«:~( :i{\{;'~~,;.)::~IMf.l-'-6;\N'~~
ComanchePeak-l 2/8/30Com'anch~Pe,ak~2'" '2/2/33 'Cook-l 10/25/14 10/31/03 8130105 10/25/34Cook-2 12/23/17 10/31/03 8/30/05 12/23/37Cooper 1/18/14 9/30/08Crystal R1v~r-31213/16 12/18/08Davis-Besse 4/22/17 302010piabloCanyqn71: ,7.1/2124 11/24/09Diablo Canyon:2 4/26/25 11/24/09Dresden"2.,;' '12/221091/3/03 10/28/04,12/22129
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tGrfind~ulf1i1.1~;;i~:~;,:l;;",~'i'','3, 6/1.6(22f?<+'BQ?011 ,,¥\,k,:, ,iH~rris~1-' "~'" L 1'0124;26 11/14/06 12/17/08 10/24/46'Hatch~t~;:,fl'r,i~:.;.,~,;"t~,\,"8/6/14, ,~aI110o "c.':',.117102"? , :'8/6/~4'."Hatch-2 6/13/18 3/1/00 117102 6/13/38Hope Creek 4/11/26 8/18/09Indian Point-2 9/28/13 4/30/07Indian Polfl.t-3~;,,' 12/12115 4130/07.Kewaunee 12/21/13 8/14/08LaSaHe~14/17 /22LaSalle-2 12/16/23
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Limerick-2McGuire-f ~'. - ,"~~'-.~'
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Date
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MiUstbh~~2 7/31/15 1122104 11/28/05 7/31135. '.<..;s,
Millstone-3 11/25/45 1122104 11/28/05 11/25/45MO(lticiillo,' . 9/8/10 3/24/05 11/8/06 9/8/30Nine Mile Point-1 8/22109 5/27/04 10/31/06 8/22129NIn.~'MiI~PfJint-2 10/31/26 5/27/04 10/31/06 10/31/46North Ailna-l 4/1/18 5/29/01 3/20/03 4/1/38North Anna-2 8/21/20 5/29/01 3/20/03 8/21/40
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Bold type indicates reactors with renewed licenses. Bold italic indicates reactors for which renewal applications are under review by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Italic indicates reactors forwhich renewal applications are formally planned, with projected application dates. Normal type indicates reactors for which renewal applications have not yet been submitted or announced publicly,Two organizations-Exelon and the StrategiC Teaming and Resource Sharing (STARS)alliance-have notified the NRC of plans for more renewal applications, but the specific reactors for these ap-plications have not been made public,
March 2010 NUCLEAR NEWS 69
ENGR 190 Page 57
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U.S. Power Reactor Ownership/Operator ChangesThe following list traces changes for power reactors in service now, in which a completely different organization took over ownership, operation, or both. Instances in whichspecific plant operation companies were created by what were essentially the reactors' Originalowners (such as at Wolf Creek) are not included.
1994River Bend is acquired by Entergy as part of the util-ity's merger with the reactor's original owner, GulfStates Utilities.
1998FirstEnergy Nuclear Operating Company (FENOC)ac-quires Davis-Besse from Toledo Edison. PECo En-ergy becomes operator of Clinton.
1999AmerGen Energy Company, created as a partner-ship of PECo Energy and British Energy, assumesownership and operation of Clinton and Three MileIsland-l from Illinois Power and GPU Nuclear, re-spectively. Entergy buys Pilgrim from Boston Edi-son Company. FENOCacquires Beaver Valley fromDuquesne Light.
2000Commonwealth Edison parent company Unicommerges with PECo Energy to form Exelon, unifyingthe ownership and operation of Braidwood, Byron,Dresden, LaSalle, Limerick, Peach Bottom, andQuad Cities. Exelon also becomes part-owner ofAmerGen, which during the year acquires OysterCreek from GPU Nuclear. Entergy acquires Fitz-Patrick and Indian Point-S from New York PowerAuthority. Nuclear Management Company (NMC) iscreated to form a single operational entity for Arnold,Kewaunee, Monticello, Point Beach, and PrairieIsland, which remain owned by four unrelated com-panies.
2001Dominion Generation, created as a parent companyfor Virginia Power, buys Millstone from NortheastUtilities. Constellation Energy, created as a parentcompany for Baltimore Gas & Electric, buys NineMile Point from Niagara Mohawk Power. Entergybuys Indian Point-2 from Consolidated Edison. NMCtakes over as operator of Palisades.
2002FPL Energy, created as a parent company for FloridaPower & Light, buys Seabrook from Public ServiceCompany of New Hampshire. Entergy buys VermontYankee from Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Corpo-ration.
2003The merger of Carolina Power & Light Company andFlorida Power Corporation creates Progress Energy,adding Florida Power's Crystal River-3 to theownership that already held Carolina Power'sBrunswick, Harris, and Robinson-2.
2004Constellation buys Ginna from Rochester Gas& Elec-tric. Exelon buys out British Energy to become thesole owner of AmerGen and its reactors.
2005Dominion buys Kewaunee from its original owners inWisconsin and replaces NMC as operator. Exelon iscontracted by PSEGNuclear to operate Hope Creekand Salem in anticipation of a merger that was later
canceled; Exelon's contract as operator expired in2009.
2006FPL buys the controlling 70 percent share of Arnoldfrom Alliant Energy and replaces NMC as operator.NRG Energy buys Texas Genco's share of SouthTexas Project and becomes in effect the controllingowner, with the company's nuclear operating com-pany kept intact.
2007Two more NMC-operated plants change hands asEntergy buys Palisades from CMS Energy and FPLacquires Point Beach from We Energies. In bothcases, NMC is replaced as operator.
2008NMC's remaining three reactors-Monticello andPrairie Island-l and -2-are all owned by Xcel En-ergy. Xcel absorbs NMC, with its personnel essen-tially continuing with their current work but doing soas employees of Xcel's subsidiary, Northern StatesPower Company-Minnesota.
2009In early January, Exelon fully absorbs AmerGen, es-tablishing Clinton, Oyster Creek, and Three Milelstsnti-i as Exelon reactors. FPL's nuclear plantsoutside Florida-Arnold, Point Beach, andSeabrook-are transferred to a new subsidiary,NextEra Energy Resources.
ENGR 190 Page 59
~
Nuclear Power Plants No Longer In ServiceNet Net
MWe Type started closed MWe Type started closed
Armenia Bohunice 1 (Trnava, Zapadoslovensky) 408 PWR 4/80 12/06Bohunice 2 (Trnava, Zapadoslovensky) 408 PWR 1/81 12108
Metzamor -1 (Metsamor, Armenia) 440 PWR 10m 2189 SpainBulgariaJose Cabrera (Zorita, Guadalajara) 142 BWR 2/69 4/06
Kozloduy-l (Kozloduy, Vratsa) 408 PWR 10/74 12/02 Vandellos-l (Vandellos, Tarragona) 480 GCR 8/72 10/89Kozloduy-2 (Kozloduy, Vratsa) 408 PWR 11/75 12102Kozloduy-3 (Kozloduy, Vratsa) 408 PWR 1/81 12/06 SwedenKozloduy-4 (Kozloduy, Vratsa) 408 PWR 6/82 12/06 Barsebaeck-l (Barsebaeck, Malmohus) 615 BWR 7/75 12/99
Canada Barsebaeck-2 (Barsebaeck, Malmohus) 600 BWR 9177 5/05
Douglas Point (Tiverton, Ont.) 216 PHWR 9/68 5/84 UkraineGentilly-l (Becancour, Que.) 250 PHWR 5172 6177 Chernobyl-1 (Pripyat, Kiev) 950 LGR 5/78 11/96
France Chernobyl-2 (Pripyat, Kiev) 950 LGR 5/79 8/91Bugey-l (Loyettes, Ain) 540 GCR 7172 6/94 Chernobyl-3 (Pripyat, Kiev) 950 LGR 6/82 12/00Chinon AI (Chinon, Indre-et-Loire) 70 GCR 2/64 4/73 Chernobyl-4 (Pripyat, Kiev) 950 LGR 4/84 4/86Chinon A2 (Chinon, Indre-et-Loire) 210 GCR 2165 6/85 United KingdomChinon A3 (Chinon, Indre-et-Loire) 480 GCR 8/66 6/90Creys-Malville (Bouvesse, Isere) 1200 LMFBR 1/86 12/98 Berkeley-1 (Berkeley, Gloucester) 138 GCR 11/62 3/89Chooz A (Chooz, Ardennes) 310 PWR 4/67 10/91 Berkeley-2 (Berkeley, Gloucester) 138 GCR 11/62 10/88Marcoule G2 (Marcoule, Gard) 38 GCR 4/59 2/80 Bradwell-1 (Bradwell, Essex) 123 GCR 8/62 3/02Marcoule G3 (Marcoule, Gard) 38 GCR 4/60 6/84 Bradwell-2 (Bradwell, Essex) 123 GCR 12162 3/02Monts d'Arree (Brenilis, Finistere) 70 GCHWR 6/68 7/8~ Calder Hall-1 (Seaside, Cumbria) 50 GCR 10/56 3103Phenix (Marcoule, Gard) 233 LMFBR 7174 3/09 Calder Hall-2 (Seaside, Cumbria) 50 GCR 3/57 3/03Saint-Laurent AI (Saint-Laurent- 480 GCR 6/69 4/90 Calder Hall-3 (Seaside, Cumbria) 50 GCR 4/59 3/03
des-Eaux, Loir-et-Cher) Calder Hall-4 (Seaside, Cumbria) 50 GCR 5/59 3/03Saint-Laurent A2 (Saint-Laurent- 515 GCR 11/71 5192 Chapelcross-1 (Annan, Dumfriesshire) 50 GCR 3/59 6/04
des-Eaux, Loir-et-Cher) Chapelcross-2 (Annan, Dumfriesshire) 50 GCR 8/59 6/04Germany Chapelcross-3 (Annan, Dumfriesshire) 50 GCR 12/59 6104
Gundremmingen A (Gundremmingen, BA.) 237 BWR 4/67 1/80 Chapelcross-4 (Annan, Dumfriesshire) 50 GCR 3/60 6/04Lingen (Lingen, Nied.) 256 BWR 10/68 5/79 Dounreay PFR (Dounreay, Highland) 250 LMFBR 8/76 3/94Muelheim-Kaerlich 1219 PWR 10/87 6101 Dungeness AI (Lydd, Kent) 225 GCR 12/65 12106
(Muelheim-Kaerlich, R.-P.) Dungeness A2 (Lydd, Kent) 225 GCR 12/65 12/06Neideraichbach (Landshut, Ba.) 100 GCHWR 1/73 8/74 Hinkley Point AI (Hinkley Point, Somerset) 235 GCR 4/65 5/00Nord-: (Lubmin, Mecklenburg-West Pomerania) 408 PWR 7174 12190 Hinkley Point A2 (Hinkley Point, Somerset) 235 GCR 5/65 5/00Nord-2 (Lubmin, Mecklenburg-West Pomerania) 408 PWR 4/75 2190 Hunterston AI (Ayrshire, Strathclyde) 160 GCR 3/64 3/90Nord-3 (Lubmin, Mecklenburg-West Pomerania) 408 PWR 5/78 2/90 Hunterston A2 (Ayrshire, Strathclyde) 160 GCR 9/64 12/89Nord-4 (Lubmin, Mecklenburg-West Pomerania) 408 PWR 11/79 6/90 Sizewell Al (Sizewell, Suffolk) 210 GCR 3/66 12106Nord-5 (Lubmin, Mecklenburg-West Pomerania) 408 PWR 11/89 11/89Obrigheim (Obrigheim, B.-W) 340 PWR 4/69 5/05 Sizewell A2 (Sizewell, Suffolk) 210 GCR 9/66 12106
Rheinsberg-l (Rheinsberg, Brandenberg) 70 PWR 10/66 10/90 Trawsfynydd-1 (Gwynedd, Wales) 195 GCR 3/65 2/91
Stade (Stade, Nied.) . 630 PWR 5172 11/03 Trawsfynydd-2 (Gwynedd, Wales) 195 GCR 4/65 2191
THTR-300 (Hamm-Uentrop, N.W) 296 HTGR 6/87 10/89 Winfrith SGHWR (Winfrith Heath, Dorset) 92 HWLWR 2168 9/90Wuergassen (Lauenforde, Nied.) 640 BWR 12172 5/95 United States
Italy Big Rock Point (Charlevoix, Mich.) 67 BWR 11/65 8197Caorso (Caorso, Piacenza) 860 BWR 12/81 6190 BONUS (Rincon, P.R.) 72 BWR 8/64 6/68Garigliano (Sessa Aurunca, Campania) 150 BWR 6/64 3/82 CVTR (Parr, S.C.) 17 PHWR 12/63 1167Latina (Borgo Sabotino, Latina) 153 GCR 1/64 12187 Dresden-I (Morris, 111.) 200 BWR 7/60 10178Trino Vercellese (Trino, Vercelli) 260 PWR 1/65 6/90 EBR-II (Idaho Falls, Ida.) 20 LMFBR 8/64 9/94
Japan Elk River (Elk River, Minn.) 23' BWR 7/64 2168
Fugen ATR (Tsuruga, Fukui) 148 HWLWR 3/79 3/03 Fermi-1 (Monroe, Mich.) 61 LMFBR 8/66 11/72Hamaoka-l (Omezaki, Shizuoka) 515 BWR 3/76 1/09 Fort SI. Vrain (Platteville, Colo.) 330 HTGR 1/79 8/89Hamaoka-2 (Omezaki, Shizuoka) 806 BWR 3/76 1/09 Haddam Neck (Haddam Neck, Conn.) 582 PWR 1/68 12196Tokai-l (Tokai-Mura, Ibaraki) 159 GCR 7/66 3/98 Hallam (Hallam, Neb.) 75 LMGMR 11/63 9164
Kazakhstan Hanford-N (Richland, Wash.) 860 LGR 7/66 2188
Aktau (Aktau, Mangyshlak) 135 LMFBR 7/73 4/99 Humboldt Bay-3 (Eureka, Calif.) 63 BWR 8/63 7/76
LithuaniaIndian Point-t (Buchanan, N.Y.) 257' PWR 1/63 10/74LaCrosse (Genoa, Wis.) 50 BWR 11/69 4187
Ignalina-l (Ignalina, Visaginas) 1187 LGR 12183 12/04 Maine Yankee (Wiscasset, Me.) 860 PWR 12172 8/97Ignalina-2 (Ignalina, Visaginas) 1185 LGR 8/87 12109 Millstone-I (Waterford, Conn.) 660 BWR 6/71 8/98
Netherlands Pathfinder (Sioux Falls, S.D.) 59 BWR 7/66 10/67
Dodewaard (Dodewaard, Gelderland) 55 BWR 1/69 3/97 Peach Bottorn-t (Delta, Pa.) 40 HTGR 6/67 11/74
Russia Piqua (Piqua, Ohio) 12 OCR 11/63 1166Rancho Seco (Clay Station, Calit.) 913 PWR 4/75 6/89
Beloyarsk-l (Zarechnyy, Sverdlovsk) 102 LGR 4/64 183 San Onofre-l (San Clemente, Cali!.) 436 PWR 1/68 t1/92Beloyarsk-2 (Zarechnyy, Sverdlovsk) 146 LGR 12169 1/90 Shippingport (Shippingport, Pa.) 60 PWR/LWBR 12157 10/82Novovoronezh-1 (Novovoronezh, Voronezh) 265 PWR 12/64 2/88 Shoreham (Brookhaven, N.Y.) 809 BWR .. 5/89Novovoronezh-2 (Novovoronezh, Voronezh) 336 PWR 4170 8/90
-
Troitsk A (Troitsk, Chelyabinsk) 100 LGR 9/58 189 Three Mile Island-2 (Londonderry Twp., Pa.) 792 PWR 12/78 3/79
Troitsk B (Troitsk, Chelyabinsk) 100 LGR 12/59 189 Trojan (Prescott, Ore.) 1095 PWR 5/76 11/92
Troi\sk C (Troitsk, ChelyabinSk) 100 LGR 12160 189 Vallecitos (pleasanton, Cali!.) 5 BWR 10/57 12/63
Troitsk D (Troitsk, Chelyabinsk) 100 LGR 12/61 11/90 Yankee (Rowe, Mass.) 175 PWR 7/61 9/91Troitsk. E (Troitsk., Ghelyabin5k) 100 LGR 12/62 11/90 Zion-1 (Zion, 111.) 1040 PWR 12/73 1198
Troitsk F (Troitsk, Chelyabinsk) 100 LGR 12/63 11/90 Zion-2 (Zion, 111.) 1040 PWR 9/74 1/98
VK-50 (Dimitrovgrad, Ulyanovsk) 50 BWR 1/66 1/89 , Including output from fossil-fired superheaters.Slovakia •• The Shoreham unit achieved criticality and produced power, but closed before it could
Bohunice Al (Trnava, Zapadoslovensky) 104 GCHWR 12172 5/79 begin commercial operation.
7? N U C L E A R NEW S March 2010
ENGR 190 Page 60
'j
NUCLEAR POWER UNITS BY NATION
Nation 1# Units Net MWe # Units NetMWe Nation 1# Units NetMWe # Units Net MWe
(in operation) (total) (in operation) (total)
Argentina 2 935 3 1627 Netherlands 1 485 1 485Armenia 1 376 1 376 Pakistan 2 425 3 725Belgium 7 5801 7 5801 Romania 2 1 412 5 3272Brazil 2 1901 3 3176 Russia 31 21743 42 30 953Bulgaria 2 1906 4 3906 Slovakia 4 1705 6 2515Canada 22 15164 22 15164 Slovenia 1 666 1 666China 11 8694 41 38734 South Africa 2 1800 2 1800Czech Republic 6 3574 6 3574 South Korea 20 16810 28 26410Finland 4 2696 5 4296 Spain 8 7439 8 7439France 58 63130 59 64730 Sweden 10 8916 10 8916Germany 17 20429 17 20429 Switzerland 5 3220 5 3220Hungary 4 1829 4 1 829 Taiwan, China 6 4884 8 7484India 17 3732 27 9232 Ukraine 15 13095 18 15945Iran 0 0 1 915 United Arab Emirates 0 0 4 5600Japan 54 47134 57 50136 United Kingdom 19 10 982 19 10982Mexico 2 1360 2 1360 United States 104 102800.4 113 113277.4
TOTALS 439 375043.4 532 464974.4
NUCLEAR POWER UNITS BY REACTOR TYPE, WORLDWIDE
Reactor Type # Units Net MWe # Units Net MWe
(in operation) (total)
Pressurized light-water reactors (PWR) 265 244703.1 338 319364.1Boiling light-water reactors (BWR) 92 84720.3 98 92776.3Gas-cooled reactors, all types 18 9794 18 9794Heavy-water reactors, all types 48 25047 59 30765Graphite-moderated light-water reactors (LGR) 15 10219 15 10219ttqutd-metal-cocied fast-breeder reactors (LMFBR) 1 560 4 2056
TOTALS 439 375043.4 532 464974.4
AA: ASEA-Atom (Sweden)MC: AECUAnsaido (Romania)ABB: ASENBrown Boveri (Sweden, Switzerland)ABWR: advanced boiling water reactorACEC: Ateliers de Constructions Electriques de
Charleroi SA (Belgium)ACECOWEN: ACEC/COPlWestinghouse (Belgium)ACLF: ACEC/COP/C-UFralWestinghouse (France)ADF: Auxeltra-Delens-Francols (Belgium)AECL: Alomic Energy of Canada Ltd.AEE: Atomenergoexport (USSR)AEG: Allgemeine Elektricitaets-Gesellschaft, AEG
Telefunken (Germany)AEI: Associated Electric lndustrtes Ltd. (UK)AEP: Atomenergoproject (Russia)AGR: advanced gas-cooled reactorAllis: Allis-Chalmers (US)AMGC: Associalion Momentanee de Genie Civil
(Belgium)AMN: Ansaldo Meccanico Nucleare SpA (Italy)APe: Atomic Power Construction Ltd. (UK)
Arge: Dyckerhoff & Widmann AGlWayss & FreitagAGIHedgkamp (Germany)
ASE: Atomstroyexport (Russia)
B&R: Burns and Roe, Inc. (US)B&W: The Babcock & Wilcox Co. (US)BAM: Bataafsche Aanneming Maatschappij
(Netherlands)BBC: Brown Boveri et Cie. (SWitzerland)BBR: Babcock-Brown Boveri Reaklor GmbH
(Germany)Bech: Bechtel Corp. (US)BHEL: Bharat Heavy Electrical Ltd. (IndialBPL: Babcock Power Ltd. (UK)Brown: Brown & Root, Inc. (US)BWR: boiling water reactor
CAP: C.A. Parsons & Co., Ltd. (UK)CoB: Campenon-Bernard (France)CdA: Gonaone a Acqua (Italy)C-E: Combustion Engineering, Inc. (US)CEGB: Central Electricity Generating Board (UK)CEI: Cleveland Electric illuminating Co. (US)CEM: Compagnie Electro Mechanique (France)CFE: Cie. d'Enterprises CFE SA (Belgium)Chag: Chagnaud (France)Chuba EPGO: Chuba Electric Power Co., Inc.CITRA: Compagnie Industrielle de Iravaux (France)C-L: CreusoHoire (France)CM: Chantiers Moderoes (France)CNIM: Constructions Navales et Industrielles de la
Mediterranee (France)
March 2010
Abbreviations used in this listCNNC: China National Nuclear CorporationCom Ed: Commonwealth Edison (US)COP: Cockeril Ougree-Providence (Belgium)CTAFMC: CFElTravauxiAstrobel General
Contractors/Francois et Fils/MauriceDelens/Campenon-Bernard (France)
CTL: Can atom Ltd. (Canada)
0005an: Doasan Heavy Industries and ConstructionCompany, Ltd. (South Korea)
DTP: Dragages Travaux PubliquesDuquesne: Duquesne Light Co. (US)
E&B: Emch & Berger (Switzerland)
EA: Empresarios Agrupados (Spain)ECC: Engineering Construction Corp. (India)EDF: Electricite de FranceEE: English Electric Co., Ltd. (UK)EEC: English Electric Co., Ltd. (Canada)ENB: Empresa Nacional Bazan (Spain)ENSA: Equipos Nucleares SA (Spain)EPDC: Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. (Japan)EROTERV: Power Station and Network Engineering
Company (Hungary)EW: Electrowatt Ltd. (SWitzerland)EyT: Entrecanales y Tavora (Spain)
FBEC: FBR Engineering Co., Ltd. (Japan)FECNE: Nucelar Power Plant Equipment Factory
(Romania)Fou: Fougerolle (France)Fra: Framatome ANP (France)FRAMACECO: Framatome/ACEC/COP (Belgium)FUE: Power Equipment Factory (Romania)
G&H: Gibbs & Hill, Inc. (US)G&HE: Gibbs & Hill Espanola SA (Spain)GCR: gas-cooled reactor (lncludes advanced gas-
cooled reactors in the United Kingdom)GE: General Elecbic Co. (US)GE Can: GE CanadaGEC: General Electric Co. (UK)GETSCO: General Electric Technical Services Co.
(US)Goyou: Penta-Ocean Construction Corp. (Japan)GTM: Grands Travaux de Marseille (France)GVM: GANZ Villamos MureK (Hungary)
Haz: Hazama Gumi Co. (Japan)HCC: Hindustan Construction Co. (India)HCCM: Huaxing (China)/China Construction
Engineenng Corp. (China)/Gampenon-Bernard(France)/Maeda (Japan)
N U C LEA R
Hitachi: Hitachi Ltd. (Japan)
Hoch: Hochtief AG (Germany)HWLWR: heavy-watermght-water reactor
Initec: Empresa Nacional de Ingeneria y TecnologiaSA (Spain)
ISPE: Institute for Power Studies and Design(Romania)
lyP: Inform as. y Proisctas SA (Spain)
JL: John Laing Construction Ltd. (UK)J-S: Jeumont-Schneider (France)
Kajima: Kajima Corp. (Japan)
KEPCO: Korea Electric Power CorporationKHIC: Korea Heavy Industries and Construction Co.KOPEC: Korea Power Engineering Co., Ltd.KTZ: Kharkovsky Turbinny Zavod (Ukraine)Kum: Kumagai Gumi Co. (Japan)KWU: Kraftwerk Union AG (Genmany)
L&T: Larson & Toubro (India)LGR: light-water-cooled, graphite-moderated reactorLMFBR: liquid metal fast breeder reactorLMGMR: Liquid-metal-cooled gas-moderated
reactorLMZ: Leningradsky Metalichesky Zavod (Russia)LOAEP: Filial Leningradense de Atomenergoprojekt
(USSR/Cuba)LWBR: light-water breeder reactor
Maeda: Maeda Corp. (Japan)MAPt: Mitsubishi Atomic Power Industries, Inc. <
(Japan)MECO: Montreal Engineering Co. (Canada)MEL: Mitsubishi Etectric Corp. (Japan)MHI: Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. (Japan)MPS: Ministry of Power Stations (RUSSia)MTM: Mintyazhmash (Russia)
NCC: Nuclear Civil Constructors (UK)NEI: Northern Engineering Industries (UK)NiMo: Niagara MohawK Power Gorp. (US)NIRA: Nucleare ltaliana Reattori Avanzati (Italy)Nish: Nishimatso Construction Co., Ltd. (Japan)NNC: National Nuclear Corporation (UK)NPCIL: Nuclear Power Corporation of India, Ltd.NSP: Northern States Power Co. (US)Nucten: Nuclebras Engenaria SA (Brazil)
Obay: Obayashi Gumi Co. (Japan)OCR: Organically cooled reactor
NEW S
OH: Ontario Hydro (Canada)
PARS TG: Parsons Turbine Generators Canada, Ltd.(Canada)
PH: Philip Holzman (Genmany)PHWR: pressurized heavy-water reactorPioneer: Pioneer Services & EngineeringPPP: PWR Power Projects (UK)PWR: pressurized (Iight-) water reactor
R&C: Richardson & Cruddas (tndia)ROM: Rotterdamse Drookdok Maatschappij
(Nellleriands)RW: Richardsons Westgarth Ltd. (UK)
S&L: Sargent & Lundy Engineers (US)S&W: Stone & Webster Engineering Corp. (US)SAE: Societe Auxiliaire d Entreprise (France)SB: Spie Batignolles SA (France)SBF: Shanghai Boiler Factory (China)SC Electrosila: StocK Company Electrosila (Saint
Petersburg, Russia)SCG: SKansKa Cementgjuteriet (Sweden)SCREG: Societe Chimique et Houtiere d Entreprise
Generale (France)SeB: Saiorapt et Brice (France)SGE: Societe General d'Enterprises (France)SHI: Sumttomo Heavy Industries Ltd. (Japan)Shim: Shimizu Corp. (Japan)SL: Stat-Laval Turbin AB (Sweden)SV: Statens Vattenfallsverk (Sweden)
Tak: Takenaka Corp. (Japan)TEE: Tractabel Energy Engineering (Belgium)TNPG: The Nuclear Power Group (UK)Toshiba: Toshiba Corp. (Japan)Tosi: Franco Tosi SpA (Belgium)TVB8: Tijdelijke Vereniging Burgerlijke Bouwkunde
(Belgium)TW: Taylor Woodrow construction Ltd. (UK)
UE&C: United Engineers & Constructors (US)UKAEA: United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority
VBB: AB Vattenbyggnadsbryan (Sweden)
W: Westinghouse Electric Corp. (US)Wedco: a subsidiary of Westinghouse (US)WIL: Walchandnagar Industries Ltd. (Indial
ZAES: Zarubezhatomenergostroy (Russia)
73I
,jI
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NEUTRON CROSS SECTIONS
In order to calculate the rate at which neutrons interact with the fuel and other materials in the reactor, one needs to know something about the “apparent” size of the nucleus of each material. This size is designated as the cross section, and is stated in units of cm² according to long time custom. The unit of 10-24 sq. cm is known as the barn. Note: some authors are trying to convert these to the metric system of square meters. Convention seems to continue, to use the units as barns, and to make all reactor calculations for input to computer programs using dimensions of cm. The microscopic cross section is designated with the symbol σ, with units of 10-24 sq. cm.
However, a useful unit for comparison is the macroscopic cross section, Σ = 𝑁𝜎, where N = the atom density of the material, in atoms/cm³ = [6.022E23/atomic weight] x [density of the material in the reactor core in gm/cc]
There are several types of cross sections designated, the most important being: Scattering cross section Absorption cross = fission cross section + capture cross section
Fission cross section – splitting of the atom into two (or more) parts plus several neutrons Capture cross section – usually results in emission of a gamma ray
At thermal energies (0.025 eV, neutron velocity = 2240 meters per second) the scattering cross section is generally somewhat related to a “physical” size of the nucleus.
However, the absorption cross section varies significantly for most materials, as a function of energy (and hence of temperature). Most absorption cross sections vary inversely proportional to the velocity, and hence inversely proportional to the square root of the energy of the incoming neutron. The energy of neutrons in equilibrium with the surroundings is referred to as the thermal energy, which is proportional to the square root of the temperature of the material in which the neutron is “bouncing around.”
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Some materials, including common ones used in nuclear reactors, have rather unusually large cross section in the “slowing down” range of energies, from 0.1 MeV down to about 1 eV. At specific energies, a resonance for absorption occurs, and can be described similar to resonance vibrations in a structure. At these specific energies the cross section for absorption is extremely high. Figure (2.18) shows the cross sections for U-238 in this slowing down energy range.
The cross section graph for U-235 is shown in figure (2.19). The following page lists the thermal cross sections (both microscopic and macroscopic) for both absorption and scattering, for all of the stable elements in the periodic table, plus the normal density and nuclear density (x1024). The symbol refers to the slowing down capability of the element. This capability is known as the average logarithmic energy decrement, or logarithm of the average ratio of energy, before collision to that after collision. I.e.𝜉 =[ln (𝐸1/𝐸2)]𝑎𝑣𝑔.
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NEUTRON FLUX
Neutron flux in a nuclear reactor is an important concept in the design and operation of these systems. The flux is usually designated with the Greek letter phi, (φ), and is usually designated with the cgs units of (neutrons per second) per square centimeter of area, i.e. n/(sec cm²).
One important quantity is the fission power generated per unit volume, and is equal to
Σ𝑓𝜑 = 𝜎𝑓𝑁𝜑
with units of [cm2][atoms/cm3][n/(cm2sec)] = (fissions per second) per cm3. Multiplying by the volume involved, results in the total fissions in that volume.
The flux in the reactor tends to peak at the center, and drops off to zero at the edge of the reactor (the edge where there is vacuum beyond). Expressions for the shape of the flux in the three basic geometrical forms for a reactor:
For rectangular coordinates:
Cosine[πx/H]
where H is the effective height (or width) of the reactor.
For cylindrical coordinates in the radial direction:
Jo[2.405 r/R]
where R = effective radius of the reactor cylinder.
For spherical coordinates:
sin[πr/R]/r
where R is the effective radius of the sphere.
The Buckling is a term that is used in the equation that describes the leakage of neutrons from the reactor for each of these three basic configurations. The larger the reactor, the smaller the Buckling (see chart below), and the lower is the leakage.
Buckling and Flux Distribution in Bare Reactors Geometry Buckling Critical Flux Distribution Minimum Critical Volume
Sphere (𝜋/𝑅)2 𝐴𝑟
sin𝜋𝑟𝑅𝑐
130/𝐵𝑐3
Rectangular parallelepiped �
𝜋𝑎�2
+ �𝜋𝑏�2
+ �𝜋𝑐�2 𝐴 cos
𝜋𝑥𝑎𝑐
cos𝜋𝑦𝑏𝑐
cos𝜋𝑧𝑐𝑐
161/𝐵𝑐3 (for a = b = c)
Finite Cylinder (2.405/𝑅)2 + (𝜋/𝐻)2 𝐴𝐽0 �2.405𝑟𝑅𝑐
� cos𝜋𝑧𝐻𝑐
148/𝐵𝑐3 (for H = 1.847R)
Functions for determination of neutron flux distribution
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Neutron flux also determines the rate at which a particular isotope will burn-up. Just as radioactive decay is expressed by exp(-λt), the rate of burn-up is expressed by exp(-σφt). These two terms are multiplicative, i.e. the rate of loss of the isotope, N(t) = No[exp(-λt) exp(-σφt)].
MAKING A REACTOR CRITICAL
The Four-Factor + Leakage Formula
Though most reactor calculations are now done by computer programs, a conceptual understanding of the factors involved in designing a reactor. These factors help to obtain an appreciation for what factors are positive and those that are negative in helping achieve a critical assembly.
η = Number of neutrons produced per neutron absorbed in the fuel. This has a value of 2.06 for U-235 thermal fission, 2.18 for fast fission ofU-235, and 133 for thermal fission involving natural uranium.
ε = A small advantage that is produced by fast fissions that occur in the U-238 present in reactors. This value is approximately 1.05 for natural uranium-fueled reactors, and is 1.00 for highly enriched reactors, such as the ATR.
p = Resonance escape probability. This is the probability (a number ≤ 1.00), giving the probability of a neutron escaping capture in the U-238 resonances while slowing down.
f = Thermal utilization. This is the ratio of the macroscopic absorption in the fuel to the macroscopic absorption in the entire reactor core (including that in the fuel).
f = Σ𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙Σ𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙+Σ𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟+Σ𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠
= fraction of neutrons absorbed in the fuel.
Non-Leakage Probability from the reactor: This is usually defined as two terms, first for the leakage during slowing down, and then for leakage of the neutrons while they are migrating around at thermal energies.
Finally, the simplified equation representing the multiplication factor from one generation of neutrons to the next is:
keff = ηεpf [Non-Leakage Probability) = ηεpf [1 - fast leakage prob.] [1 - thermal leakage prob.]
If keff is exactly equal to 1.000…, the reactor is said to be critical.
If keff is less than 1.0000, the reactor will lose power.
If keff is greater than 1.0000, the reactor will increase in power with time.
Of the above factors, leakage depends on size of the reactor, and hence can be easily varied. The other factors over which the designer has significant control are p and f. The former can be optimized by
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appropriately separating the fuel into “lumps” inserted in the moderator, thus shielding much of the U-238 from resonance capture.
The thermal utilization, f, is the main factor that the reactor designer has the ability to adjust, even during reactor operation by the insertion of control rods consisting of a neutron “poison” or neutron absorber. Most moderators have absorption characteristics which make the selection of the amount of moderator to amount of fuel and important consideration However, skimping on the amount of moderator increases the path length for slowing down of the neutrons, and therefore will increase the leakage during slowing down, as well as the resonance capture probability. The designer needs to be careful to establish a balance between these two characteristics, p and f. The designer can control η by specifying the enrichment of the uranium. Today’s light water reactors have enrichment of ~4.5% U-235 (by law, they are limited to no more than 5%).
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ν = Neutrons produced per fission. ε = Factor to account for U-238 fast fission neutrons created (ε > 1.0). If = Escape fraction as a fast neutron. Isd = Escape fraction while slowing down neutrons. p = Resonance Escape Probability (< 1) f = Thermal utilization of fuel (< 1) g = Thermal absorption ratio of U-235 in the U fuel (< 1)
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REACTIVITY AND TIME BEHAVIOR OF A REACTOR
Symbols
Consider the total number of neutrons, as symbol N, and study their variation with time as a function of the multiplication factor “k.” If k = 1 the power will remain steady.
Reactivity ρ = (k - 1)/k
Fraction of neutrons that are delayed, β = 0.0065, i.e. 0.65% of the total neutrons emitted. Note: The delayed neutrons are of lower energy than the prompt, hence they slow down sooner, and on small reactors a smaller percentage of delayed neutrons leak out compared to prompt neutrons. The result is an effective β that is greater than 0.0065. In some very small reactors such as the AGN-201, β-effective may be as high as 0.0075.)
Prompt neutron lifetime = L(or l lower case script) which typically has values between 10-3 for the large graphite reactors (like Chernobyl) to as short as 10-6 seconds for small fast reactors such as EBR-I and II.
There are nominally six delayed neutron groups that have been used since the early days of nuclear engineering. However, more detailed study has broken these up into additional groups. The decay constant for the delayed neutron groups is designated as λi, where the index i is for each group.
Characteristics of the Delayed Neutrons
The delayed neutrons arise from some of the fission products which spontaneously emit neutrons with a mean life of 1/λ. There are a number of fission products that behave in this manner, and in general six such fission products have been identified, each producing a separate group of delayed neutrons. Each of these fission products are referred to as “precursors” of the delayed neutrons, each having a distinct half life, and hence decay constant λ = (0.693/t1/2) (sec-1).
Essentially six groups of fission product delayed neutron precursors have been identified. These same precursor groups occur with all types of fissions, whether at thermal energies or fast energies, and for each of the three main types of nuclear fissile species, U-235, Pu- 239, or U-233. However, the fast fission values will be slightly different from the thermal values, but not significantly. Because these differences are slight, the following table can also be applied to any U-235 reactor.
Note: The values for Pu-239 are significantly different, with the delayed neutron fraction totaling only 0.0020, though the same precursor fission product groups, same set of decay constants are identified as for U-235. If a reactor has a significant amount of Pu-239 as its fissile material, the delayed neutron fraction and the resulting time behavior should be modified accordingly - generally using a weighted average value for each of the delayed neutron group fractions. Similarly, the delayed neutron fraction for U-233 is much less, 0.0026.
Each of the delayed groups can be represented with a subscript i, with i varying from 1 to 6.
Decay Constants and Yields of Delayed-Neutron Precursors in Thermal Fission of Uranium-235.
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t1/2 (sec) λi (sec-1) βi βi/λi 55.7 22.7 6.22 2.30 0.61 0.23
0.0124 0.0305 0.111 0.301 1.1 3.0
0.00021 0.00141 0.00127 0.00255 0.00074 0.00027
0.0171 0.0463 0.0114 0.0085 0.0007 0.0001
Total delayed neutron fraction 0.00645 Avg. λ -= 0.084 Note, in the above table the “average λ” has been calculated by weighting the decay constants of each of the groups according to the following formula
λaverage = β / [ ∑ (βi/λi)] where the summation, ∑ is from i = 1 to 6.
Writing the differential equations for the neutrons, N, and the precursors (six groups) C:
1. dN/dt = [(k - 1 - β)/L] N + ∑ λi Ci for which the summation is from 1 to 6.
2. dCi/dt = [βi/L] N - λi Ci There will be six of these precursor equations.
Each of the above equations has a form similar to the radioactive decay equation, except for the sign of the main term on the right side of the equation. Hence, one can postulate that the solution to these seven simultaneous differential equations have the form
3. N(t) = No eωt
4. Ci(t) = Co eωt where No and Co represent the initial values of these variables.
From equations (1), (3), and (4) it is found that
5. Coi = [βi/(L(ω + λi))] No
Assuming that k is approximately equal to 1.0, equation (1) can be written in terms of the reactivity, ρ, defined above.
6. dN/dt = [(ρ - β)/L] N + ∑ λi Ci
Substituting the solutions (3) and (4) into differential equation (6), and using equation (5), one obtains the following relationship
7. ωL = ρ - β +∑ [λiβi /(ω + λi)]
By inserting the β inside the summation term as each of the βi and rearranging, one obtains
8. ρ = ωL + ∑ [ωβi /(ω + λi)]
Equation (8) gives the relationship of the reactivity (and hence the multiplication factor, k) to the inverse reactor period ω, because the time behavior of the neutrons will be described by an equation (9).
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9. N(t) = Aoeω0 t + A1eω2 t + A2eω3 t +…A6eω6 t
where the ω0 through ω6 are the seven roots of equation (8). For a positive reactivity, ω0 is positive and all of the other ω roots are negative. For a negative reactivity all the roots are negative.
Reactor operators use equation (8) to determine the reactivity as a function of the stable reactor period, defined as
T = 1/ω where ω is the ω0 term in equation (9).
By stable period (occurs only for a positive reactivity) is meant the rate of rise of the neutron flux or the power by a factor of “e” after all of the other terms with negative ω have essentially died out (become negligible). Usually this requires a “wait time” of about 100 seconds.
If one considers only one delayed group, described by the average values in the bottom line of the table of delayed neutron constants (above), the one obtains
10. ρ = ωL + [ωβ /(ω + λ)]
By appropriate algebraic manipulation, especially neglecting small terms, one obtains the following
11. N = No { [β / (β - ρ)] exp[λρt/ (β - ρ)] - [ρ/(β - ρ)] exp[- (β - ρ)t / L] }
The first term gives the approximate inverse stable reactor period (factor of “e” rise in flux or power)
12. 1/τ = ω = λρ/ (β - ρ)
τ is the exponential folding time, usually referred to as the “reactor period.” Note: It has a relation similar to the relationship of the half life and the mean (exponential decay) life. For instance, the doubling time is 0.693 τ . The only difference is in this case of a reactor period it is a (positive) exponential increase, whereas with radioactive decay it is an (negative) exponential decrease.
The following figures show the time behavior of the two terms of the solution for equation (11), for positive and negative step changes in reactivity of ρ = 0.0022.
The delayed neutron fraction is often referred to as a “dollar,” i.e. one dollar is ρ = 0.0065.
It is apparent that, as the reactivity ρ goes through the 0.0065 value, and the equation is undefined when β = ρ. Note: that this undefined condition is only the result of the approximation made to reduce the equations to one delayed group, instead of the six that actually exist. If all six delayed neutron group equations are used, there is no point at which the solutions are undefined.
When ρ is larger than β the two terms in equation (11) then have different signs than when β < ρ. The exponent in the second term now determines the inverse reactor period. When that occurs, the exponent is very large, representing a very fast rise in power level. This condition is known as prompt critical. Obviously a reactor that is prompt critical is, for all practical purposes “out of control” with regard to human reaction times. However, virtually all of the nuclear reactors operating today have inherent controls which counter any rapid rise in power. These include, but are not limited to, various types of temperature coefficients (such as expansion lowering the density, cross section reduction with increasing
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temperature, and the Doppler coefficient), moderator void coefficient, and fuel expansion. All of these are negative coefficients of reactivity if an increase in power results in a reduction of the reactivity. The only reactors operating today that have prompt positive coefficients of reactivity are the Chernobyl type of reactors in Russia and Lithuania, known as the RBMK reactors.
SHUTDOWN DECAY HEAT
The total energy released in the fission process and reactions related to fission is approximately 200 MeV (this varies by a few percent, depending on the design of the reactor). Of this 7% (about 14 MeV) is delayed energy coming from the decay of the fission products. This energy is about equally divided between beta decay, for which the average energy of the electron is 0.4 MeV, and gamma decay, for which the average energy of the gamma is 0.7 MeV.
Note that based on 200 MeV per fission, there are 3.1x1010 (fissions/second)/watt.
The companion number for the delayed energy from the decay of fission products is
13. 2.8x10-6 t-1.2 (MeV/second)/fission. This is the total for beta plus gamma energy.
This formula, with the -1.2 power, applies if the time is designated in days after the fission occurred.
Integrating this equation for a period of constant power operation, Po, followed by shutdown for a period of time, allows one to determine the decay energy supplied at a given time after shutdown. The solution of the integrated equation is
14. P = Po x 6.1x10-3 [(time since shutdown) -0.2 - (time since startup) -0.2]
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The time used in the equation must be in days. Note: there are other forms of this equation with the time given in seconds, or some other unit, but the constants in front of the equation will be quite different.
The following figure graphically shows the relationship between the times involved in Eq.14.
This equation gives a reasonably good calculation (accurate to within about ±25%) of the shutdown power from about 10 minutes after shutdown to ten years, and is useful for estimation purposes out to much longer times.
A similar equation can be derived for the gamma activity of the fuel elements.
15. Gamma Activity in Curies = 0.7 x Po [(time since shutdown) -0.2 - (time since startup) -0.2]
The time must be given in days, and the operating power in watts.
The beta activity in Curies is approximately 2x the Gamma activity from Eq. 15. However, beta activity is usually not important for dose calculations, because the beta particles do not get through the fuel cladding.
The figure shows the results of decay power vs time for various periods of steady state operation. One can deduce a non-steady power operation as a sum of a number of different steady state operations.
There are more precise equations that are used for more accurately determining the decay heat and radioactivity. For instance the American Nuclear Society standard uses 26 different groups of decay of fission products.
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THE XENON-135 FISSION PRODUCT POISON PROBLEM
During operation, or rather following the shutdown and subsequent attempted operation, of one of the earliest high power reactors in the USA during the Manhattan Project days, it was determined that there was a mysterious fission product that had a huge capture cross section, that would build up and poison a reactor so it couldn’t operate. But the fission product appeared to disappear (decay) with a half life of about 9 hours. This decay chain was identified as:
135I 135 Xe 135 Cs 135Ba (stable) 6.7 hrs 9.2 hrs 2 million yrs
The only fission product in this chain that is a problem to reactors is the Xe-135, which has a thermal cross section of 2.6 million barns. Its effect on the reactor, when it builds up after shutdown, is horrendous. During normal operation the neutron flux will burn out much of this isotope, but such burnout does not occur when the reactor is shutdown. Then the iodine continues to decay, into the xenon, which then decays but with a longer half life. The figure shows this poison buildup and subsequent decay, in which the ordinate axis is essentially reactivity.
For the typical USA commercial nuclear power plant, which operates in the 1012 to1013 flux range, xenon poising is not a serious problem. But for the high flux ATR reactor, with a flux of 1015, xenon poising
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will prevent the reactor from being restarted after it is shutdown for a period of about 30 minutes. It then cannot be restarted for about 2 days. The high flux MURR reactor at the University of Missouri operates around the clock, 24/7, except for an 8 hour shutdown once per week to refuel. Should that reactor be shutdown for longer than 10 minutes (such as from a power outage), it cannot restart, and operators will then refuel the reactor (it only has eight fuel elements) using previously used fuel elements, and restart the reactor with the replaced fuel which has no xenon poison remaining
Effects of Other Fission Products
There are orders of 100 different fission products, plus higher elements formed from the absorption of neutrons by the U-23 8 in the reactor. These affect the reactivity of the reactor, since most are poisons, and the results of their absorption (capture) cross section. The exceptions are those that have significant fission cross sections, such as Pu-239 and Pu-24l. The continual buildup of these other isotopes (both the mid-periodic table fission products and the transuranic. often designated as TRU) results in a reduction in reactivity for the reactor.
Fuel reprocessing can relatively easily remove the fission products. However, it is somewhat more difficult to separate out the higher actinides (the TRU) from the useful fuel isotopes. A solution to this problem is to build fast reactors, which are rather insensitive to these transuranics, because in the fast neutron spectrum, these have very low absorption cross sections. The GNEP program (Global Nuclear Enterprise Partnership) focuses on a combination of conventional thermal reactors and fast reactors to accomplish a significant reduction in nuclear wastes. This program has been designated the Advance Fuel Cycle Initiative (AFCI). Though this program has been characterized as something distinctly new, the basic technology has been demonstrated with the EBR-II reactor (dismantled in the late 1990s) in Idaho, and with Japanese programs involving recycling of fuel in thermal reactors and some measurements with their fast research reactor.
HEAT REMOVAL FROM THE REACTOR
Nature of the Energy and its Distribution
A fission of uranium or plutonium releases approximately 200 MeV, which is distributed nominally as follows:
Type of Energy MeV per fission Kinetic Energy of Fission Fragments 165 (deposited in fuel)
Instantaneous Gamma Ray Energy 7.4 (most escapes from the fuel) Kinetic energy of fission neutrons 4.8 (most of energy to moderator and/or coolant)
Beta particles from fission products 7.6 (delayed, from decay, stays in fuel) Gamma rays from fission products 6.6 (delayed, from decay, escapes from fuel)
Neutrinos ~10 (Escapes to the universe!) Capture gamma rays ~ 8 (Most escapes from the fuel)
Nominal Total 209 MeV Nominal Useful Total 199 MeV
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Removing the Heat for Useful Purposes
Of the nominal 200 MeV per fission, most is desired to be recovered as useful heat to eventually produce steam for a Rankine (steam) cycle to turn a generator, or for transfer to other working fluids (such as to a gas to drive a turbine in a Brayton cycle).
A small portion (~1%) of the energy escapes to the shield and surroundings, and nominally cannot be captured for useful purposes. The bulk of the energy is deposited in the fuel elements, which are usually either long thin cylinders, or long thin plates.
In the typical light water commercial reactor, the fuel pins are nominally:
Fuel pellet diameter 0.325 inches (0.82 cm) - Uranium dioxide (UO2) Cladding thickness 0.022 inches (0.6 mm) - Zircalloy Fuel pin diameter 0.375 inches (3/8 inch = 0.95 cm) Center to center spacing ~0.496 inches
Plate type reactors, such as the ATR, the HFIR at Oak Ridge, and many university research reactors are thin plates
Fuel “meat” thickness 0.030 inches (a matrix of uranium, aluminum, and more recently some silicon or silicon carbide)
Cladding, each side, thickness 0.015 inches (aluminum) Total thickness of plate 0.060 inches (~1/16 inch)
Cooling channels between the plates are nominally 0.12 inches thick.
Heat removal is essentially all by conduction through the fuel and the cladding to the coolant. Transfer to the coolant is usually described as convection.
Conduction heat transfer coefficients, called the thermal conductivity, are given in units of heat transferred per unit area and gradient of temperature through the material.
Btu/hour per (square foot of area for a gradient of degrees F per foot)
= Btu/(hour ft2 {°F/ft}) = Btu/(hour ft. °F)
or watts per (sq. meter for a gradient of degrees per meter
= watts/(meter °F)
The conversion factor is 1 Btu/(hr Ft °F) = 1.731 watts/(M °C)
For heat convection, the coefficient of heat transfer is given in units of heat transferred per unit area and degrees of temperature difference:
Btu/(hour sq.ft. °F)
or Watt/(sq. meter °C)
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The conversion factor is 1 Btu/(hour sq. ft. °F) = 5.67 watts/(sq. meter °C)
Note: Often today, the absolute temperature symbols of R and K are used instead of F and C.
Thermal characteristics of some common reactor materials
Material Density [lb/ft3] Spec. Gr.
Specific Heat [Btu/(lb °F)]*
Thermal Conductivity [Btu/(hr Ft °F)]*
Aluminum 169 2.7 0.23 125 Graphite 196 1.7 0.2 - 0.4 90 - 40 Carbon Steel 490 7.85 0.12 - 0.16 30 - 20 Uranium 1205 19.3 0.028 - 0.04 14 - 20 Uranium dioxide 684 10.9 0.06 - 0.07 5.3 - 2.9 Zircaloy (~1.5% tin) 409 6.55 0.071 6.7 - 7.2
* The first number is about room temperature, the second number at 1000F or otherwise near the melting point.
Note: Melting points are as follows: Aluminum = 660 C = 1220 F Zircally = 1850 C = 3380 F Graphite = ~3500 C = 6330 F Uranium = 1130 C = 2066 F Uranium Dioxide = ~2800 C = 5070 F
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Supercritical Steam Cycles
Fossil plants (coal and natural gas) have been using supercritical steam cycles for the last several decades. The critical pressure for water is 3206 psia and the supercritical temperature is 705 F. These do require several reheat cycles to avoid going into the steam dome and producing water (condensing) in the turbine. These approach an efficiency of 50%. Most such plants in the USA operate in the 3500 psia range.
Light water reactors cannot achieve high enough temperatures for supercritical cycles. However, with new reactor designs for Gen IV, the supercritical steam cycle is getting significant attention for advanced nuclear power plants (next generation).
MAXIMUM POWER FROM A REACTOR WITHOUT AFFECTING SAFETY
The goal in operating commercial power reactors is to get as much power as possible from them without compromising safety. Energy is developed in the fuel pins, and that energy needs to get to the coolant. In the case of pressurized water reactors (PWR), the coolant must not be allowed to boil, because if it does, the heat transfer from pin to the coolant will drop significantly (liquid transfers heat much better than a gas). The following figure shows the heat transfer coefficient as a function of the temperature difference between the cladding surface and the coolant liquid film temperature. Obviously, as more power is produced in the fuel pin, the ∆T between the pin and the liquid has to increase in order to transfer more heat. The curve is not linear. Nucleate boiling is a desirable and very effective method of heat transfer, but if one approaches the peak of the curve, there is the chance that the conditions may go over the peak to the right, resulting in partial film boiling and resultant “burnout” (in which the cladding reaches an extremely high temperature) that it will be damaged, perhaps even melt. Such a condition is called departure from nucleate boiling (DNB) or reaching the critical heat flux (CHF). Such a situation must be avoided, and a safety factor is established to assure that such will not ever occur. That safety factor, known as the DNB ratio (DNBR) is usually in the 1.25 to 1.3 range.
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The reactor designer has a goal of flattening the flux (and hence the power distribution) as much as possible, i.e. does not wish to have a conventional flux shape for a uniformly loaded reactor. Hence, the fuel in the center is used (depleted) fuel, or new lower enriched fuel than that near the outside. Another method of flattening the flux in a reactor is to but a very effective reflector around it, giving the effect shown in the figure.
Temperature distributions and avoiding DNB or CHF
The core design work must be detailed enough to be able to predict the power distribution in each fuel rod over its entire length. The hottest location in the core is where the safety factor of DNBR is calculated. That point is what determines the maximum power at which the reactor is allowed to operate.
In a commercial water reactor, the maintaining of the integrity of the zircaloy cladding is the critical concern. A leak in the cladding allows gaseous fission products to escape into the coolant, which then spreads this contamination throughout the cooling system and deposits fission products on piping and other equipment (such as the steam generators). The melting point for the zircaloy is about 3300 F, but it will be damaged and lose some of its strength if the temperature exceeds about 1800 F. Because .the fuel in a commercial LWR is uranium dioxide, very high temperatures can be reached at the center line of the fuel pellet. Temperatures in excess of 3300 degrees can be reached there. Under normal operating conditions, this is of no concern, because the zircaloy cladding will still be quite cool, in the 800 to 1000 F range. However, should a significant loss in pressure occur from a break in the system, the coolant would tend to flash to steam. Even if the reactor is immediately shut down, there will be an equilibration of the temperatures of the cladding and the fuel, at the same time steam forming around the cladding, greatly reducing the heat transfer to the fluid. The result can be that the cladding can reach a very high temperature, still well below melting, but sufficient to reduce the integrity of the cladding. Designing to mitigate such events, which are called LOCA (Loss of Coolant Accidents), is a major task of reactor designers. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission carefully examines the ana1yis that the company does for the anticipated LOCA.
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Longitudinal Temperature Distribution
(in direction of coolant flow)
The attached figure shows the temperature distributions that occur longitudinally along the coolant path. The bottom trace shows the increasing temperature of the fluid. The center trace shows the power distribution shape, which is also the shape of the ∆T between the cladding surface and the fluid film. The net effect is a cladding temperature that is like that of the top trace. Note that the peak temperature occurs well past the center of the fuel rod, not at the center where the peak power production occurs. Two infamous reactor accidents (both gas-cooled reactors) occurred because the system operators didn’t recognize the distribution and placed their emergency shutdown thermocouples at the very center of the central most fuel pin. These were the Windscale Accident in United Kingdom (1957) and the HTRE III Accident in Idaho (1958).
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HEALTH, SAFETY AND RADIATION
Cancer
Despite the obvious benefits of nuclear power, radiation can cause cancer, and extremely high doses of radiation can result in short term death (in several days). The exact nature of the causing of cancer in humans is not yet known. Cancer is an uncontrolled multiplication of cells of a certain type and at a certain location in the body. However, this uncontrolled cell multiplication appears to be able to transfer to other cells in the body, by contact.
Radiation is not the only known cause for cancer. Certain chemicals are declared to be carcinogenic, by the Environmental Protection Agency. The onset of cancer appears to be delayed for years after exposure to these chemicals or radiation. The most significant and common cancer effect from radiation is that involving skin cancer, the result of excessive exposure to the rays from the sun. In the case of skin cancer, it is ultraviolet rays, with energy above 3 eV, that eventually trigger the cancer, perhaps as long as 20 years after significant exposure to the sun.
There are two types of exposure to cancer-causing chemicals or radiation:
• Acute exposures are those that occur over a short period of time, usually less than 24 hours. • Chronic exposures are those that occur over a long period of time, such as years. An example is
the natural background exposure that we receive from cosmic rays and naturally occurring activity within the earth and within our bodies.
Two other terms of interest in studying the effects of radiation are:
• Somatic effects – those that occur within the body, generally over a long period of time. • Genetic effects – those that are passed along to a fetus as a result of genetic alterations in the
parents’ reproductive cells. Note, the fastest growing cells are the most sensitive to radiation damage.
Experience over the last century with man-produced radiation exposure having deleterious effect on persons is rather limited. Some of these rather well known cases are:
• Madame Marie Curie died of cancer. • Women that had jobs painting radium onto watch hands and dials (so that they would glow in the
dark), often brought the brushes to a sharp point by wetting the tips in their mouths. They would then unknowingly place specks of radium in their mouth. Many eventually developed lip, tongue, or mouth cancer. Note, this practice of using radium as a fluorescent medium in commercial products has been discontinued. Tritium, a low energy beta (electron) emitter is now used.
• In 1945 and 1946 two workers at Los Alamos were killed (died within three days) in individual accidents from a supercritical excursion of a small nuclear reactor that they were assembling.
• Many survivors of the “atomic bomb” explosions over Hiroshima and Nagasaki soon died as a result of large doses of whole-body radiation. However, as subsequent material shows, those who received moderate (about 10% of a lethal dose) have exhibited much healthier longevity than the average Japanese.
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From the early days of the Manhattan Project during World War II, it was recognized that exposure to excessive amounts of radiation could have serious health effects. In the early days of the Atomic Energy Commission following the end of the war, health physicists and radiologists developed numerical limits of the amount of radiation that individuals may be allowed to take without any harm to the body.
Susceptibility to deleterious effects from radiation (or chemicals) varies substantially among individuals. From the above incidents, an international “standard’ has been stated that an acute radiation exposure of 350 Rads has a 50% chance of resulting in death to a human who does not receive immediate medical care.
Units of Radiation Dose and Dose Rate
The damage to cells is the result of ionization caused by a charged particle moving through material and stripping electrons from the orbits of atoms in molecules.
The basic unit is the Gray = one Joule of ionizing radiation per kg of body tissue.
The unit that has been used since the 1940s, and is still commonly referred to is the Rad = 0.01 Gray = 100 ergs per gram of tissue.
Some radiation is much more dangerous than normal ionizing radiation. These very dangerous types are neutrons and alpha particles (helium nuclei). They have a weighting factor of 10 and 20, respectively for fast neutrons and alpha particles. These waiting factors are referred to relative biological effectiveness (RBE) or Quality Factor (QF). The latter term has been adopted as the more appropriate designation.
Another term often used is LET = Linear Energy Transfer, and electrons and gamma rays are often referred to as low LET type of radiation.
Rules and Regulations
Knowing the above figure, plus the figures for chronic background radiation, standards were developed and adopted by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission in the USA and by regulatory agencies in other countries. An international body known as the ICRP (International Commission for Radiation Protection) keeps continually following scientific data that accumulates. The ICRP, along with the USA’s NCRP, and the Committee for Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR) revise these standards when appropriate.
It is known that the nominal natural background at sea level is approximately 160 milli Rads per year. However, those who live in rather tightly sealed homes, typically experience additional radiation of approximately 200 milli Rads annually, for a total of 360 milli Rads per year.
The standards for radiation exposure allowed to workers and the public are:
• Annual limit for those employed as “radiation workers:” 5 Rads per year* • Annual limit allowed to be given to any member of the public: 0.1 Rads per year • Annual “emergency dose” permitted to a member of the public: 0.5 Rads per year
*Pregnant women workers are limited to 500 milli Rad during the pregnancy.
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Beneficial Uses of Radiation
Because radiation can kill cells in the human body, it is used to kill the fast multiplying cells of cancerous growths. The typical dose given to a cancer to kill the cells is 5000 rads, usually administered in fractions over a period of about one month (20 treatments).
PROTECTION FROM RADIATION
Workers and the public are protected from receiving radiation from nuclear power plants and their waste products by shielding the radiation using materials such as concrete, water, or lead. Distance also reduces radiation levels.
Distance effect: Most calculations of the distance effect can be adequately estimated by assuming a point source and the radiation flux being given by
1. Φ(particles of MeV[/sq. cm ∗ second]) = Source strength (particles or MeV/second)4𝜋R2
Or, if a dose rate is known at one location (Dose #1), at a given distance R1 from the source, the dose rate (Dose #2) at a distance R2 is given by
2. Dose #2 = (Dose #1) * [R1/R2]2
Shielding effect: Shielding effects can be quickly estimated by using the exponential attenuation formula
3. Attenuation factor = e-μx
This represents the factor by which an amount of “shielding” of thickness x and attenuation coefficient μ will reduce the dose. The values of μ change somewhat with energy. However, most nuclear fuel waste products emit gamma rays of energy approximately 1 MeV (million electron volts), and values of μ for some common shielding materials are as follows:
μ = 0.071 cm-1 for water 0.15 cm-1 for concrete 0.47 cm-1 for iron 0.78 cm-1 for lead.
The strength os a source of radiation is designated in Curies (named after the famous husband-wife team of Pierre and Marie Curie).
1 Curie = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations/second; otherwise known as radioactive decays per second.
There is a simple rule of thumb for 1 MeV gamma rays as follows:
1 Curie of 1 MeV gamma rays at a distance of 1 foot = a dose rate of 6 Rads/hour.
In metric units, at a distance of one meter, 1 Curie of 1 MeV = a dose rate of 0.56 Rads/hour.)
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Using this result, and the above three formulas, dose rates can be determined at various locations. Note, another method of stating the conversion factor: a flux of 580 MeV/cm2-sec = dose rate of 1 R/hr, for nominally 1 MeV gamma rays. The response curve is essentially flat for 0.1 to 2 MeV gamma rays.
Gamma ray energies from common sources:
For an operating nuclear reactor, the average gamma ray energy is about 1.2 MeV. For fission product decay, after shutdown, the average gamma ray energy is about 0.7 MeV. For Cobalt-60 decay, two gamma rays are emitted with each decay, one at 1.17 MeV, one at 1.33 MeV. For all of these, the data for 1 MeV is a reasonable approximation.
Design for Shielding from Radiation
Shielding from gamma rays is accomplished by combination of distance and material attenuation. The high atomic number materials generally provide the best overall shielding. Those with high density provide better shielding on a weight basis, depending on the type of shield. For shipping of radioactive materials, in a so-called “cask,” the material preferred is depleted uranium because of its high density and high atomic number. However, in practice, lead, with only about half the density of uranium, is used because it is much less expensive and easier to obtain and use (possession of depleted uranium is regulated by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission).
Tables of attenuation coefficients for gamma rays for various materials are often presented in terms of “mass attenuation coefficients,” μ/ρ – where μ is the linear attenuation coefficient (1/cm) for the material in its normal form, and ρ is the density (in gm/cubic cm). Thus, the mass attenuation coefficient has units of cm2/gm. This coefficient gives a measure of the effectiveness of the atoms in attenuating gamma rays.
Consider two materials having similar mass attenuation coefficients, but having densities differing by a factor of 2.4 – this is nearly the case of steel (the less dense, 7.9 gm/cc) compared to uranium (having density = 18.9 gm/cc). Not only is the thickness needed less for the uranium because of the density difference, but the higher atomic number of the uranium gives it a factor of 1.27 effectiveness per unit mass (mass attenuation coefficient) compared to lead. Consider a spherical shield, 5 cm thick for the steel. The uranium shield needs to only be 1.6 cm thick to have the same attenuation effect.
Suppose the inner radius of this cask is 10 cm. Thus the mass of the spherical shield is
(4/3)π[R3 - 103]ρ
The mass of the more dense uranium cask, outer radius 11.6 cm is 44.4 kg. The mass of the less dense steel cask, outer radius 15 cm is 78.6 kg.
Note, there is an advantage in weight in using uranium instead of lead, but the advantage is much less dramatic than the example given above.
Effects of Radiation on Materials
Organic materials, such as plastics suffer radiation damage from gamma rays. Teflon is one of the most sensitive plastics, suffering some degradation with 1 million rads. Polystyrene is one of the most radiation resistant plastics, able to stand one billion rads before showing degradation.
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Ferritic steel (not stainless steel) shows damage from fast neutron irradiation (energies above ~1 MeV), the result of displacement of atoms in the crystal structure. The effect is to make the material brittle at a higher temperature. Total fast fluence (flux times the time period) of 1019 n/cm2 sec is sufficient to cause some increase in the non-ductility temperature (NDT). This is the main limitation on lifetime for the present reactors, for after 60 years of service, the pressure vessel NDT will be approaching room temperature.
Beta and Alpha Particles
Alpha particles, usually ~5 MeV, cannot penetrate a piece of paper. However, beta rays (electrons) have a bit more penetration ability. However, a 1 MeV beta can be stopped by 1/4 inch of plastic, and hence goggles will generally provide adequate eye protection from most common beta emitting sources. (The eye is one of the most sensitive organs in the body to the effects of radiation.)
LOW LEVEL RADIATION EFFECTS ON HUMANS
A Health Benefit
Units of Absorbed ionizing radiation energy
Rad = 100 ergs/gm Rem = Rad x RBE Gray (Gy) = I J/kg Sievert(Sv) = Gy x RilE I cGy = I Rad 1 cSv = I Rem
Known Large Dose Effects
350 Rem (3.5 Sv) single dose is lethal to 50% of the exposed without medical treatment (LD5O) (Accident victims with – 1000 Rem (10 Sv) have been saved by bone marrow transplants).
20 Rem (0.2 Sv) in a single dose shows blood effects. 5,000 Rem (50 Sv) is typical dose given to kill cancer (over 5 or 6 weeks, fractionated).
Approximate Annual Background Doses in USA
Cosmic rays 28 mRem/yr Terrestrial (rocks) 28 Internal (K-40 and C-14) 40 Consumer products 10 Medical Diagnostics 300 Other ~9
Subtotal 415 Add from radon in homes ~200
Approximate total 615 mRem/yr = 6.2 mSv/yr
(From NCRP Report #160, March 2009)
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The Linear, No-Threshold (LNT) Hypothesis
If the health effects are known for large doses of radiation (i.e. 350 cSv is LD5O), then extrapolation back to the origin (zero dose, zero effect) will enable one to estimate the probability of a similar health effect on those individuals exposed at a lower dose. For instance, this theory would deduce that 175 Rem single dose would cause 25% of those exposed to die.
The Collective Dose Hypothesis
This is a companion to the LNT hypothesis. It states that if a fatality rate or a cancer rate has been deduced for a large population exposed to a certain dose, that this can be extrapolated to any other population exposure, again using the equivalent of the LNT hypothesis, i.e. the product of number of persons and the average dose per person is a constant outcome, regardless of the value of the average dose.
The BEIR (Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation) Committee of the National Research Council, in their 5th published report (1989), concluded that 800 deaths can be expected for each one million person-Rem of 1 radiation received by the public. This figure is used as the basis for determining the relative risks of all nuclear activities. For instance, the risk to patients receiving dental x-rays, which typically give the patient 30 milliRem of radiation, would be, for every I million person, 0.030x1,000,000 = 30,000 person-Rem, resulting in (3 0,000/1,000,000) x 800 24 of these dying of cancer because of the x-rays.
A variety of national and international agencies have adopted this concept and the BEIR risk number, and have promoted the concept of ALARA, As Low As Reasonably Achievable, so as to encourage organizations to keep personnel exposures to a minimum. These organizations include:
NCRP National Council on Radiation Protection ICRP = International Commission Rad. Protection. NRC= Nuclear Regulatory Commission EPA = Environmental Protection Agency
Occupational doses are limited, by law, to 5 cSv (Rem) per year. However, most organizations have administrative limits that are only a small fraction of this amount. Idaho State University uses 0.1 Rem as an administrative limit.
The EPA has established a requirement that decontaminated and restored land must be at a low enough radiation level that no individuals would receive more than 15 mRem per year from that land.
Are the LNT and Collective Dose hypotheses reasonable? Consider the analogous case of the over- the-counter medicine, aspirin. A person ingesting 100 aspirin (an acute dose) would probably die, without medical treatment. Therefore the risk factor is one death per 100 person-aspirins. Hence, if 100 people each ingested one aspirin, you would expect one person of those 100 to die. This conclusion is obviously false. Aspirin, like many other medicines, can, kill in large doses, but is beneficial in low doses. This is an effect called hormesis.
Such an effect with radiation on humans was first noticed with the survivors of the two nuclear bombs dropped on Japan in the summer of 1945. The survivors have been followed since that time by the United
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National Scientific Commission on the Effects of Ionizing Radiation (UNSCEAR). The data in 1985 appeared as follows [1]:
Dr. Sadao Hattori, Vice President and Director of Research at the Central Research Institute for the Electric Power Industry (Japan):
“The follow up data of people who receive0 radiation from the atomic bomb show us an interesting feature especially in the low dose range. Figs. 1 and 2 show that about 8cGy, is the optimum dose for the suppression of leukemia through the surveys of the people of Hiroshima and Nagasaki exposed to the radiation of the atomic bomb”
The trend in this curve continues, now more than 60 years after the Japanese received these exposures. The lower cancer incidence rate at the 10 eGy region (2.5 to 25 cGy) is quite clear.
Similar effects are seen from natural radiation, such as is shown in the following data from India:
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In the late 1980s and early 1990s period, various studies were made of large groups of nuclear workers in the USA, Britain, and Canada, with the results shown in the following graphs, in the order as listed. [2],[3],[4]
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This effect of less cancer and lower mortality among workers exposed to radiation is quite convincing. The healthy worker syndrome probably has to be dismissed, because the comparison is between workers in the same organization, those not working in the nuclear environment compared to those who were exposed.
The Case of Radon in Homes
In 1980, in the Pacific Northwest, it was discovered that tomes that had been tightly sealed from air leakage, because of energy conservation measures, had measurable concentrations of the inert and radioactive gas radon. It had been known for years that radon in uranium mines had created a high incidence of lung cancer in the workers, and coal miners were believed to be similarly affected, though it was difficult to separate the radon effects from coal dust effects. One health physicist in particular, Dr. Bernard Cohen of the University of Pittsburgh, made it a personal campaign to convince the EPA that they should launch an information campaign to have all home owners throughout the country test their homes for radon concentration and to take preventive measures to reduce the in-leakage of radon in the basements (seeping up from the ground, the product of natural uranium decay). EPA was rather successful in carrying out a measurement and mitigation program for radon. The stated action level was 4 pico Curies/liter (148 Bq/cubic meter). In the early 1990s, Dr. Cohen obtained a vast amount of data from the EPA, covering 1600 counties throughout the USA, and obtained actuarial statistics on lung cancer deaths in those counties from the county clerks. The resultant data is shown in the following figure. [5] Instead of the slope of the line being positive, it is actually negative. One can conclude that the EPA program to reduce radon concentrations has actually produced more lung cancer cases!
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For many years, there was considerable concern among women, as well as in the medical profession, that (because of the application of the LNT and Collective Dose hypotheses) breast X-rays might be producing more cancer than they identify for treatment and cure. The medical profession is now in general agreement that such concern is not valid. This conclusion may be due in part to the results of a Canadian study of women who received breast x-rays regularly. The following figure clearly shows a benefit in a lower incidence of breast cancer for women who had received overall x-ray doses in the range of 10 to 30 cOy (Rem).
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Plutonium
Plutonium has received a very bad reputation. Not only is it the main substance in most fissile nuclear bombs, but it is the ingredient in the triggers for thermonuclear bombs. Furthermore, because it has chemical characteristics similar to calcium, it seeks the bones in the body, and it has for many decades had the reputation of the “most dangerous substance on earth.” Hence, the prospects for a healthy life would have been dim for some 26 young US Army machinists who had worked on making the first few bombs at Los Alamos, NM in the 1944 to 1945 period, before precautions were taken to limit the ingestion of plutonium by personnel. A follow-up study was conducted in 1994 to determine the fate of these workers, who, if still alive, would be in their late 60’s and early 70s. [6] Of the 26:
19 were still alive (expected would have been 10) 3 had died of cancer (4 would have been expected) 2 had died of circulatory disease (7.7 expected) 1 had died of respiratory disease 1 had died in an accident
One can attribute some of this excellent low mortality ratio to a “healthy worker” syndrome, since all were young Army recruits. However these men had average effective lifetime plutonium doses of 125 Rem, the highest being 720 Rem. Hence, this data alone should be sufficient to remove Pu from the category of “the most dangerous substance on earth.”
Though all of the above studies quite convincingly show a hormesis effect for low to moderate levels of radiation, many in the nuclear and medical ‘communities felt that without a double blind study, one cannot be sure that there aren’t confounding and unexpected effects producing the observed results. No one ever expected that such a study would be authorized, or that volunteers could be obtained, at any price. Furthermore, the true outcome of the study might not be known for several decades.
The Taiwan Co-60 Incident
Somewhat unexpectedly, the equivalent of a “double blind” study was performed, unintentionally in Taipei, Taiwan, from 1983 to the present. In 1982 a number of apartment and public buildings were constructed, unknowingly using steel rebar that contained cobalt-60, a radioactive gamma emitter (1.17 and 1.33 MeV) with a half life of 5.27 years. The presence of the radioactive rebar in these buildings was not discovered until 1992, two half lives after the first occupancy of some 1700 apartments so affected. By then the dose rates were rather low. Over the period of 10+ years, approximately 10,000 individuals had occupied the apartments or attended the kindergarten in these buildings. The mean total exposure for these individuals was 7.4 Rem, with 91 Rem being the highest exposure. The expected deaths from cancer in these last 20 years would have been 232 based on the average cancer death rate in Taiwan. However, only 7 cancer deaths have been observed among these 10,000 individuals (as of 2002). [7] The ICRP model predicted 302 cancer deaths. Genetic malformations were also studied, 46 normally expected, but only 3 were actually observed. The ICRP model predicted 67. However, a subsequent more detailed analysis showed that children had a slight increase in cases of leukemia. [8]
The generally acknowledged reason for the hormesis effect is that radiation stimulates the immune system. That being the case, one asks the question of what is the most optimum amount of either acute (onetime) or chronic (over a long period of time) radiation dose to obtain the best of health. The
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following composite figure shows a estimate of these two effects, and is similar to that proposed by T.D. Luckey in 1996. The area indicated with a “D” implies a deficiency of radiation, and that with an “X” extra (or too much) radiation. The optimum for an acute dose is about 5 cSv (Rem), that for annual chronic radiation is about 10 cSv/year.
References:
1. Japanese bomb survivor data: Kondo, S., Health Effects of Low-Level Radiation, Kinki University Press, 1993
2. U.S. Radiation Workers: Manatoski, GM, “Health Effects of Low-Level Radiation in Shipyard Workers,” Dept. Of Energy, 1991, Report E 1.99, DOE-ACO2-79EV10095-TI and 2.
3. U.K. Radiation Workers: Kendall, Muirhead, MacGibbon, O’Hagan, and Conquest, “Mortality and occupational radiation exposure,” National Registry for Radiation Workers, British Med. J., 304, 220-225, 1992
4. Canadian Workers: Abbatt, Hamilton, and Weeks, Epidemiological studies in three corporations covering the nuclear fuel cycle, “Biological Effects of Low-Level Radiation,” IAEA, 1983, pp.351-561
5. Radon: B.L. Cohen, “Test of the Linear-No-Threshold Theory of radiation Carcinogenesis for Inhaled Radon Decay Products,” Health Physics, 68, 157-174 (1990)
6. Plutonium Workers Report: Voelz, Lawrence, and Johnson, “Fifty Years of Plutonium Exposure to the Manhattan Project Plutonium workers: An Update,” Health Physics, Vol 73, #4, October 1997
7. Taiwan Co-60 Report: W.L. Chen, et al – “Is Chronic Radiation an Effective Prophylaxis Against Cancer?” Journal of Am. Physicians and Surgeons, Vol. 9, #1, Spring 2004
8. Taiwan Cancer Risks Report, S.L. Hwang et al, “Cancer risks in a population with prolonged low dose-rate γ-radiation, …1983-2002,” Int. J. Radiation Biology, 82, #12, Dec. 2006
Jay F. Kunze, September, 2009 ISU Engineering
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NUCLEAR AND REACTOR SAFETY AND REGULATIONS
The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is responsible for regulating all radioactive sources and nuclear reactors. The main headquarters are in Rockville, MD, Washington, DC 20555. There are four field offices (designated as Regions) - Philadelphia, Atlanta, Chicago, and Arlington, TX.
In general, the NRC has regulatory authority over all “by-product material,” defined as anything radioactive that is produced by a nuclear reactor or an accelerator. However, accelerators themselves are not under the regulatory responsibility of the NRC, but are dealt with by agencies in each state of the union. Some states have signed “agreements” to be responsible for governing and enforcing NRC regulations in the facilities in their state. Idaho is not an agreement state.
There are three main types of licenses issued by the NRC:
• Broad Scope Materials license to possess and use various by-product materials. • Nuclear Reactor construction and operating licenses. • Special Nuclear Material (SNM) licenses. Special nuclear material is defined as material that
contains fissile isotopes - principally U-235, U-233, and Pu-239.
The NRC is governed by five commissioners, appointed by the President of the USA, and confirmed by the Senate. The current chair of the NRC is Dr. Dale Klein, who holds a PhD in Nuclear Engineering from the University of Missouri (1978).
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 10
Title 10 of the Federal Code of Regulations pertains to Energy. Chapter 1 covers the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, and includes Parts 0 to 199. Chapters II, III and X cover the Department of Energy, and Parts 200 to the end. Chapter XV covers the Office of Inspector General for the Alaska Natural Gas Transportation System. Chapter XVII covers the Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board.
Idaho State University
ISU holds one of each of the above licenses.
• The Broad Scope Materials License is #11-273380-01, and is administered under the Technical Safety Office, by the Technical Safety Officer/ Radiation Safety Officer, Dr. Richard Brey.
• Nuclear Reactor License #R-110 - Administered under the College of Engineering, with Dr. Jay F. Kunze as the Reactor Administrator, Dr. Jon Bennion as Reactor Supervisor.
• Materials License SNM 1373 - Administered under the College of Engineering, through the same chain of command as the Reactor License.
Principal Nuclear Reactor Documentation
The basic documents that governing operation of a reactor, such as the AGN-201 at ISU, are:
• Safety Analysis Report
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• Technical Specifications • Technical Operating Limits, specifying various limiting conditions for operation
Currently, the NRC has streamlined the licensing for new power plants, as follows:
• First requiring a Site Permit Application and Environmental Report (ER), from which the NRC writes an Environmental Impact Report (EIS), which is subject to public review.
• After the site is approved, the company will complete design a Safety Analysis Report and license application, from which the NRC will eventually issue a combined Construction and Operating License (COL).
• The total time to file and obtain approval for these two basic licenses is nominally the order of four years. The applicant will probably spend two to four years preparing each of these documents in advance of filing them with the NRC. Then there will be a number of Requests for Additional Information (RAI) from the NRC.
ECONOMICS OF NUCLEAR ELECTRICITY
Nuclear power plants are capital intensive, meaning that the major cost of generating electricity from a nuclear power plant is in the capital cost of the plant. This cost is usually figured by amortizing it over a period of years, at a characteristic interest rate. Such a method is a convenience for estimating purposes. Financing of power plants is done in a variety of ways, some portions being funded by investor capital (i.e. common stocks, which usually expect a return on investment of 10% or more per year), some by venture capital (these investors expect much higher returns), and some by conventional borrowing from banks (typical interest rates are in the 6% range in 2007).
Current costs for new nuclear plants are in the $2000 per kW range. Such quotes are considered “overnight” costs, i.e. do not include interest during construction. The most recent costs quoted in a private communication for the newly completed Japanese plants are in the $2200 per kW range. At $2000 per kW, a 1600 MW electric plants will cost $3.2 billion.
Amortized over a 30 year period at 7% results in an annual amortization cost of $258 millon per year.
Operating costs include the costs of personnel, overhead, and fuel. A typical plant will have 800 employees, at an average cost of $100,000 per year, including benefits, FICA, etc. Thus, the employee cost is in the neighborhood of $80 million per year.
Additional overhead costs will be in the range of $20 million per year.
Repair and maintenance costs will probably be in the range of $20 million per year of the 3 year period, this includes a sinking fund for major repairs, such as steam generator replacement. Labor and non-fuel costs during refueling operations, occurring once every 18 months, will cost ~$10 million on an annual basis.
Adding all of these “fixed” costs together gives $388 million per year.
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It is important that these costs be used efficiently, by getting as high a capacity factor as from the plant. During the last several years, USA plants have been averaging 90% factor. Thus, these costs amount to:
$388E60.90 ∗ 1,600,000 kW ∗ 8760 hours/year� = 3.1 cents/kWh
The remaining cost is that of fuel. For a PWR, a typical fuel assembly will cost in the range of nearly $1 million. Using $900,000 for a 450 kg (heavy metal) assembly, and assuming that it can be run at a burnup of 52,000 MWD (thermal) (MegaWatt Days) per metric ton of heavy metal (~18,000 MWD electric), the fuel cost will then be:
$900,000/0.45 Metric Tons[18,000 MWD/Metric Ton] ∗ 24 hrs/day� = $4.60 per MWh
= 0.46 cents/kWh (plus an additional 0.1 cents/kWh tax)
Total cost for the electricity generated is the fixed costs + fuel costs = 3.7 cents/kWh.
SUMMARY OF SERIOUS NUCLEAR CRIT1CALITY ACCIDENTS
Or Nuclear Reactor Operation Accidents.
USA:
1. Los Alamos, Aug 21,1945 – Hand stacking of tungsten carbide reflector around a pseudo spherical (6.3 kg) Pu core. One fatality 1E16 fissions
2. Los Alamos, May 21, 1946 – Hand stacking of Be reflector around a pseudo spherical (63 kg) Pu core. One fatality 6E16 fissions
3. Idaho Test Station, July 22, 1954 – BORAX reactor was put on a planned transient test, which was a worse transient than had been calculated. The core was destroyed. 135 MJ of energy released, equivalent to about 70 pounds of high explosive. Remote operation. No one hurt or over exposed 4.7E18 fissions
4. EBR-1, National Reactor Test Station, Idaho, Nov 11, 1955 – Delayed scram (human caused) on planned transient. Extensive core melting. No injuries 4E17 fissions
5. Los Alamos National Lab, Feb 12, 1957 – Unreflected 54 kg sphere of U-235 shifted position. Severe damage to assembly No injuries l.2E17 fissions
6. Y-12 Chemical Processing Plant, Oak Ridge. June 16, 1958 – Wash water added to U-235 solution. Several exposed. Largest dose 461 Rem No fatalities 1E18 fissions
7. Test Area North, National Reactor Testing Station, Idaho, Nov 11, 1958 – Nichrome clad fuel, aircraft nuclear propulsion core with attached jet engine. Put on automatic control, but the temperature scram thermocouple was not at the hottest spot in the core for flow conditions. Fuel melted. Fission products distributed over nearby sage brush and some farms. No injuries 25E19 fissions
8. Los Alamos, Plutonium Recovery, Dec 20, 1958 – Stirrer changed geometry to super critical. One fatality 1.5E17 fissions.
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9. Idaho Chemical Processing Plant, Oct 10, 1959 – Solution inadvertently siphoned. No injuries 4E1 9 fissions
10. SL-1 Reactor, National Reactor Testing Station, Idaho, Jan 3,1961 – Control rod pulled up 27 inches, possibly inadvertently, possibly deliberately. Reactor went supercritical. Destroyed the reactor. Three fatalities 4.4E18 fissions
11. Idaho Chemical Processing Plant, Jan 25, 1961 – Solution moved to non-safe geometry. No injuries 4E1 9 fissions
12. National Reactor Testing Station, Nov 5, 1962 – SPERT Reactor. Transient worse than predicted. Extensive damage. No injuries 1E18 fissions
13. Lawrence Livermore National Lab, Mar 26, 1963 – Split table assembly, hung up on being closed. Extensive damage No injuries 3.7E17 fissions
14. Wood River Junction, RI, July24, 1964 – Solution moved to non-safe geometry. One fatality 6E17 fissions
15. Aberdeen Proving Grounds, MD, Sept 6, 1968 – Incorrect operation cylindrical assembly. Gross damage No injuries 6.1E17 fissions
16. Idaho Chemical Processing Plant, October 17, 1978 – U-235 stripped from a solvent by a non-specified aqueous stream No injuries 3E18 fissions
17. Three Mile Island II, near Harrisburg, PA, March 26, 1979 – PWR reactor lost pressure, coolant boiled, core melted. Very minor exposures. No injuries. Destroyed reactor worth $2 billion.
Submarines – The USA has lost two submarines: The Thresher in April 1963, and the Scorpion in May 1968. The causes are uncertain or unknown. However, all causes are believed to be the ultimate result of the structure being crushed. No radioactivity escaped.
RUSSIAN (USSR):
First major accident was at Mayak in 1953. Two major personnel exposures. Eighteen other major accidents through to June 1997, with 13 significant or serious exposures. All these were non-military activities.
Nuclear submarine accidents have been several, including at least two lost submarines, and one prompt criticality while refueling. A number of fatalities occurred in these accidents.
Chernobyl, April 28, 1986 – Reactor went supercritical and blew the top off the reactor. One killed instantly. 31 fireman suffered gross exposures fighting the fire, and died soon after. Perhaps two dozen children deaths occurred from thyroid cancer, the result of drinking milk that came from cows who had ingested radioactive iodine.
OTHER NATIONS:
1. Chalk River, Ontario, Canada, Dec 12, 1952 – Heavy water moderated, light water cooled. Positive void coefficient. Extensive damage to core and support. No injuries 1.2E20 fissions
2. Windscale, Great Britain 1957 – Annealing neutron damage to graphite moderator, by running it at high temperatures. Thermocouple monitoring the temperature was not at the core hot spot
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under flowing conditions. Part of core melted, and fission products were dispersed on the nearby farmland. Milk production was bought up by government for a number of months. No injuries
3. Vinca, Yugoslavia, Oct 15, 1958 – Fuel rods in heavy water. Faulty power monitoring. No serious damage, but 5 received extensive exposures, one nearly immediate fatality. All were flown to Paris for bone marrow transplants.
4. Mol, Belgium, Dec 20, 1965 – Heavy water system. Misoperation, and not draining tank. No damage but one severe exposure. 4E17 fissions
5. Buenos Aires, Argentina, Sept. 23, 1983 – Failure to drain tank One fatality 4E17 fissions
6. Tokaimura, Japan, Sept 30, 1999 – Uncontrolled chain reaction in a Uranium processing nuclear fuel plant, spewed high levels of radioactive liquid (and gas) into the air. Two nearby workers were killed and another was seriously injured.
7. Earthquake beneath the Kashiwazaki, Japan power plants, July 17, 2007 – Despite the earthquake magnitude being nearly twice as intense as the design earthquake for the plant, no significant damage has been observed to any of the seven nuclear power plants. The spent fuel storage pool in one of the plants experienced wave action, which resulted in some of the slightly contaminated water overflowing onto worker walkways. The press reports have been much exaggerated about damage. There apparently were some fires at substations when electrical lines touched each other.
NOTABLE RADIATION ACCIDENTS NOT INVOLVING REACTORS
1. (1970 period) Mexico – A lost Co-60 radiation source from a well logging truck was taken home by the boy who found it. It was placed in the kitchen cabinets, and a month or so later many of the family (except the father who was out of the home much of the day) developed radiation sickness. Some died.
2. 1982, Taipei, Taiwan, (Republic of China) – A number of new apartment buildings and a school were constructed using re-bar that was radioactive with Co-60. The radioactivity was not discovered until 1992. Despite exposures as high as 91 rads of those 10 years, the only indication of excess cancers was for leukemia, mostly in younger children, and numbered only in the range of 10, out of total population of nearly 10,000. However, deaths from cancer were remarkably lower than normal for Japan, with ~230 deaths to have been expected from cancer over the subsequent 20 year period, but only 7 were known to have died of cancer.
3. Sept 18, 1987, Golania, Brazil – 244 people were contaminated with Cs-137 from a cancer-therapy machine that had been sold for steel scrap. Four died. Note, Cs-137 has 30 year half life.
4. In the early 1990 period, at cancer therapy accelerators, two in Oklahoma and one in Washington State. AECL machines, developed a flaw whereby the patients were to have been exposed to gamma rays from electrons on a tungsten target, were instead exposed directly to the electrons. The three patients died.
5. About 1992, at a cancer therapy clinic at Indiana, PA (near Pittsburgh) – A female patient undergoing high dose radiation therapy from a strong source was injected through a catheter into her vagina for a short period for vaginal cancer therapy. When the source was removed (all done remotely), the lead wire on the source capsule broke, and the source was inadvertently left in the patient for more than a day. The sources injector device had indicated that the source was safely
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stored in the device. The trash collection company found the source in the trash a day later. The patient died from a massive overdose, and several nurses and the other patient in the hospital room were exposed to high doses of radiation.
Other (non-nuclear) Power Plant Accidents
Numerous accidents at fossil power plants occur each year; and-receive little attention in the press. When these occur at nuclear plants, even if involving no part of the nuclear portion of the plant, the accidents receive high publicity. Two examples are steam line explosions (usually at an elbow, where the steam has eroded part of the pipe) in the secondary systems of PWR plants. One of these occurred at a Surrey plant in Virginia, killing 4 (about 1990) and at Mihama, Japan on August 9, 2004, also killing four and severely burning seven others. Near the same period of the Surrey accident, a similar accident happened at a coal-fired plant in Wyoming killing three. Note: In all of these cases, it was unfortunate and coincidental that workers or others happened to be standing near the elbow in the steam pipe that broke.
Chemical Accidents
There have been many. Notable for environmental disasters were:
Donora, PA on October 30 and 31, – An inversion trapped pollutants from the steel industry in this small town 20 miles south of Pittsburgh. 19 people died suddenly from the air pollution (all of whom were over 50 and had a history of respiratory problems). Hundreds of others were made sick. Note: Donora is the home town of Stan Musial and Ken Griffeys (senior and.junior).
Bhopal, India, December 3, 1984 – Toxic gas (methyl isocyanate) seeped from a Union Carbide insecticide plant, killing more than 2,000 and injuring about 150,000.
London, England – Over many years in the late 9th century and early 20th century, London has had the reputation of horrible periods of air pollution during weather inversions. Many deaths were no doubt the result of such. Similarly, open hearth steel producing industrial cities in the USA such as Pittsburgh, PA and Birmingham, AL have had similar reputations. However, as the result of the Clean Air Act of 1970, and efforts initiated by the cities themselves, most severe air pollution from industry has been essentially eliminated in the USA.
Mining Accidents
During much of the first half of the 20th century, coal mining accident in the USA resulted in several hundred fatalities per year. By 1970, the accidental deaths had been reduced to the range of 70 per year. Over the last 10 years mining accidents have resulted in deaths of less than 10 per year (on average).
In China, the death rate for coal mining accidents has recently been in the range of 5,000 to 7,000 per year.
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LESSONS LEARNED
• (O1) Unfavorable geometry vessels should be avoided in areas where high concentration solutions might be present.
• (O2) Important instructions, information and procedural changes should always be in writing. • (O3) The processes should be familiar and well understood so that abnormal conditions can be
recognized. • (O4) Criticality Control should be part of an integrated program that includes tissue material
accountabi1ity • (O5) Operations personnel should know how to respond to foreseeable equipment malfunctions
or their own errors. • (O6) Operations personnel should be trained in the importance of not taking unapproved actions
after an initial evacuation. • (O7) Readouts of radiation levels in areas where accidents may occur should be considered. • (O8) Operations involving both organic and aqueous solutions require extra diligence in
understanding possible upset conditions if mixing of the phases is credible. • (O9) Operations personnel should he made aware of criticality hazards and be empowered to
implement a stop work policy. • (O10) Operating personnel should be trained to understand the basis for and adhere to the
requirement for always following procedures. • (O11) Hardware that is important to criticality control but whose failure or malfunction would not
necessarily be apparent to operations personnel should be used with caution. • (O12) Criticality alarms and adherence to emergency procedures have saved lives and reduced
exposures. • (M I) Process supervisors should ensure that the operators under their supervision are
knowledgeable and capable. • (M2) Equipment should be designed/configured with ease of operation as a key goal. • (M3) Policies and regulations should encourage self-reporting of process upsets and to err on the
side of learning more, not punishing more. • (M4) Senior management should be aware of the hazard of accidental criticality and its
consequences. • (M5) Regulations should exist which promote safe and efficient operations. • (M6) Regulators, like process supervisors, should ensure that those they regulate arc
knowledgeable and capable.
FROM MINE TO FUEL ASSEMBLY
Mining of Uranium
Uranium is found in a wide variety of ores, in various chemical forms, usually with valence of +4 of +6. After some refining, the most common form of uranium is as U3O8, often referred to as yellow cake (two valence 6 and one valence 4). Uranium prices have fluctuated significantly over the last several years, most recently averaging about $20 per pound of U3O8 ($23.60 per pound of Uranium). The spot price
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market peaked at nearly $90 per pound early in 2007, with the average spot price over the last year being in the $40 per pound range.
The yellow cake is put through a refining and chemical conversion process to produce UF6 (uranium hexafluoride) gas, which sublimates from a solid to a gas at 53ºC (127ºF) at one atmosphere pressure. The hexafluoride forms the feed for both the gaseous diffusion or the gas centrifuge enrichment processes. Cost of the conversion process is in the range of $10 per kg.
Enriching the Uranium to Higher Content of U-235
Enriching the uranium to a higher fraction of U-235 was initially done by electromagnetic separation (equivalent to a mass spectrograph device), which was a very expensive method of enriching the product, very energy intensive (electricity). The most common method that has been used by the USA, Russia, and United Kingdom over the last 50 years has been the gaseous diffusion process. In this, the gas is forced (by pumps) through a ceramic membrane. The U-235 hexafluoride migrates slightly faster than does the U-238 (a factor of 1.0043 ideally at best). Thus it takes many stages of 1.0043 separation factor to reach the enrichment of 4.5% typical of modern PWR plants. It takes thousands of stages to reach the enrichment needed to make a nuclear weapon (nominally 93% or more U-235).
At one time the USA has three gaseous diffusion enrichment plants, at Oak Ridge, TN, Portsmouth, OH, and Paducah, KY. All but the latter has been closed down and decommissioned. The European Union, with the consortium known as URENCO, built a number of gaseous centrifuge enrichment plant in the 1970s, in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. This technology is much more efficient and uses considerably less energy than the gaseous diffusion process.
Two centrifuge facilities are in the process of being built in the USA:
1. Louisiana Energy Services plant in Lea, NM 2. US Enrichment Corp (USEC) pilot plant at Piketon, OH
with the full scale plant to be built at the existing Portsmouth, OH site of the shut down diffusion plant.
3. A third plant is scheduled for construction near Idaho Falls, by the AREVA Corp.
The cost of enrichment is calculated in terms of separative work units (SWU). The number of SWU units needed to enrich to a certain level depends on the waste product that is permitted. This is termed the tails assay. Typically this waste product is run at 0.2% U-235. With this tails assay, the requirements for enrichment are as follows:
For 3% U-235, one kg of product requires 5.5 kg of feed and 4.09 SWU
For 4.5 % U-235, on kg or product requires 8.4 kg of feed and 7.7 SWU
The current cost of a SWU unit is in the range of $140. These are all based on number of SWU per kg of product.
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Manufacturing of the Fuel Assembly
After leaving the enrichment plant, the hexafluoride is converted to uranium dioxide (UO2), and sent to the fuel manufacturing plant. There the small fuel pellets are manufactured (approximately 0.3 inches in diameter, about 0.5 inches long), and sintered to give them some integrity. These are loaded into long thin zirconium alloy tubes which are then assembled into a fuel assembly. The typical PWR fuel assembly consists of a 17 by 17 square array of rods, 264 of which contain uranium, the other 25 either control rods or dummy rods of stainless steel.
The total cost of a typical fuel assembly that contains about 450 kg (about 1000 pounds) of uranium (in the form of the oxide) costs about $900,000 to $1 million. To obtain the 450 kg of 4.5% U-235 fuel required 3780 kg of natural uranium feed material (about $76,000) and utilized 3465 SWU (about $485,000). The conversion to the hexafluoride and back to the oxide probably accounted for $43,000. The manufacture of the assembly from the enriched oxide costs in the range of $400,000. In addition there are shipping costs.
Laser Excitation of UF6 is another method for separation of isotopes that uses much less energy than even the centrifuge method (which is 10 times more energy efficient than the gaseous diffusion method). General Electric-Hitachi is building a laser enrichment plant for uranium at its nuclear headquarters in North Carolina. Note: ISU achieved some success in a similar method applied to separation. of medical isotopes.
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Schematic of a Gaseous Centrifuge device. UF6 gas is injected into the rapidly rotating cylinder. The U-238 component tends to go to the outside of the cylinder, and the U-235 component accumulates near the inside. A thermal convective flow is set up so that the one component can be extracted at the bottom, the other at the top.
The Closing of the Fuel Cycle
Currently, a typical 1200 MW electric (3550 MW thermal) light water reactor discharges about 22 tons of used/waste fuel assemblies each year, or about 2200 tons per year for the 104 plants operating in the USA. This fuel is destined for the Yucca Mountain Long Term High Level Waste Repository, where it is planned to store these assemblies until the nation is ready to reprocess and recycle this fuel. The authorized capacity is Yucca Mtn. is 70,000 tons.
When the fuel is discharged from a nuclear power plant and destined to go to high level waste, less than 7% of the uranium in the fuel has been consumed. Note that even though the fuel only started with 4.5% U-235, during the time that the fuel is in the operating reactor, for each U-235 atom destroyed, approximately 0.6 Pu-239 atoms are created from the U-238. Thus, the final “burn-up” far exceeds the 4.5% initial fissile inventory. However, 93% of the uranium remains, representing 93% of the available nuclear energy originally in that fuel assembly.
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Furthermore, 7.4 kg of 0.2% U-235 tails assay is discharged from the enrichment plant for every 1 kg of fuel produced. There is currently about 900,000 tons of this “depleted” uranium in storage in large tanks at the sites of the once three gaseous diffusion plants in the USA. All of this could be used in a fast breeder reactor, to produce plutonium that could then fuel the light water reactors. The net effect of these two waste streams (the depleted uranium from the enrichment process and the unused uranium in the discarded fuel assemblies) is that less than 1% of the uranium that was mined has actually been fissioned. The remaining unused 99% is a terrible waste, and nations of the world are moving towards utilizing at least some of this waste. The world program is known as GNEP (Global Nuclear Enterprise Partnership) and involves developing an array of fast breeder reactors to work in parallel with light water reactors. The program to recycle the fuel in the USA has been designated the Advanced Fuel Cycle Initiative (AFCI). However, there is, at present, little economic pressure for the USA or the world to develop the “closed fuel cycle” instead of merely discharging the fuel after one use in the light water reactors. The reason is that at 0.5 to 0.6 cents per kWh cost of the fuel that goes into the reactor, the plant operators have little incentive to contribute towards research and development to close the fuel cycle. Note: from the above cost figures, the cost of the uranium in the fuel assembly is rather trivial, only about 8% of the total cost of the fuel assembly (i.e. less than 0.05 cents per kWh).
The above figure shows part of the vast array of depleted uranium stored at Oak Ridge, TN, site of one of the once three gaseous diffusion plants in the USA. The nuclear energy contained in the first row of cylinders is roughly the equivalent of the present oil reserves of Saudi Arabia.
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US DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY LABORATORIES