English Teaching Materials English Teaching Materials and Methodologyand Methodology

Yueh-chiu Helen WangYueh-chiu Helen Wang

National Penghu UniversityNational Penghu University

ESL vs. EFLESL vs. EFL

ESL refers to English as a ESL refers to English as a Second Language taught in Second Language taught in countries (such as the United countries (such as the United States, the United Kingdom, or States, the United Kingdom, or India) where English is a major India) where English is a major language of commerce and language of commerce and education). education).

EFL refers to English taught in EFL refers to English taught in countries such as Taiwan, countries such as Taiwan, Korea or Brazil where English is Korea or Brazil where English is not a major language of not a major language of commerce and education.commerce and education.

Cognitive PrinciplesCognitive Principles

1. automaticity: The Principle of Auto1. automaticity: The Principle of Automaticity includes the importance of thmaticity includes the importance of the following items:e following items:

a) subconscious absorption of langua) subconscious absorption of language through meaningful useage through meaningful use

b) efficient and rapid movement awab) efficient and rapid movement away from a focus on the forms of languy from a focus on the forms of language to a focus on the purposes to whage to a focus on the purposes to which language is put ich language is put

c) efficient and rapid movement c) efficient and rapid movement away from a focus on a away from a focus on a capacity-limited-control of a few capacity-limited-control of a few bits and pieces to a relatively bits and pieces to a relatively unlimited automatic mode of unlimited automatic mode of processing language formsprocessing language forms

d) resistance to the temptation d) resistance to the temptation to analyze language forms. to analyze language forms.

Because classroom learning Because classroom learning ordinarily applies to adult instruction, ordinarily applies to adult instruction, say to you as a teacher? Here are say to you as a teacher? Here are some possibilities:some possibilities:

(1) Because classroom learning (1) Because classroom learning normally begins with controlled, focal normally begins with controlled, focal processing, there is no mandate to processing, there is no mandate to entirely avoid overt attention to entirely avoid overt attention to language systems (of grammar, language systems (of grammar, phonology, discourse). phonology, discourse).

(2) Make sure that a large (2) Make sure that a large proportion of your lessons are proportion of your lessons are focused on the use of language focused on the use of language for purposes that are as genuine for purposes that are as genuine as a classroom context will as a classroom context will permit. Students will gain more permit. Students will gain more language competence in the language competence in the long run if the functional long run if the functional purposes of language are the purposes of language are the focal point. focal point.

(3) Automaticity isn’t gained ove(3) Automaticity isn’t gained overnight. Therefore, you need to ernight. Therefore, you need to exercise patience with students axercise patience with students as you slowly help them to achievs you slowly help them to achieve fluency.e fluency.

2.Meaningful Learning2.Meaningful Learning

Meaningful learning “subsumes” Meaningful learning “subsumes” new information into existing new information into existing structures and memory systems, structures and memory systems, and the resulting associative and the resulting associative links create stronger retention.links create stronger retention.

Children are good meaningful Children are good meaningful acquirers of language because acquirers of language because associate sounds, words, associate sounds, words, structures, and discourse structures, and discourse elements with that which is elements with that which is relevant and important in their relevant and important in their daily quest for knowledge and daily quest for knowledge and survival. survival.

Meaningful learning will lead toward Meaningful learning will lead toward better long-term retention than rote better long-term retention than rote learning. The principle of meaningful learning. The principle of meaningful learning tells us that some aural-oral learning tells us that some aural-oral drilling is appropriate; selected drilling is appropriate; selected phonological elements like phonological elements like phonemes, rhythm, stress, and phonemes, rhythm, stress, and intonation, for example, can be intonation, for example, can be effectively taught through pattern effectively taught through pattern repetition.repetition.

3.The Anticipation of Reward3.The Anticipation of Reward

According to Skinner, the According to Skinner, the anticipation of reward is the most anticipation of reward is the most powerful factor in directing one’s powerful factor in directing one’s behavior. behavior.

You can appreciate the importance You can appreciate the importance of the immediate administration of of the immediate administration of rewards such as the teacher’s praise rewards such as the teacher’s praise for correct responses (“Very good”, for correct responses (“Very good”, or “Nice job!”), appropriate grades or or “Nice job!”), appropriate grades or scores to indicate success, or other scores to indicate success, or other public recognition. public recognition.

Provide an optimal degree of Provide an optimal degree of immediate verbal praise and immediate verbal praise and encouragement to students as a encouragement to students as a form of short-term reward.form of short-term reward.

Encourage students to reward Encourage students to reward each other with compliments each other with compliments and supportive action. and supportive action.

4. The Intrinsic Motivation 4. The Intrinsic Motivation PrinciplePrinciple

The most powerful rewards are The most powerful rewards are those that are intrinsically those that are intrinsically motivated within the learner. motivated within the learner. Because the behavior stems Because the behavior stems from needs, wants, or desires from needs, wants, or desires within oneself, the behavior itself within oneself, the behavior itself is self-rewarding. is self-rewarding.

Classroom techniques have a Classroom techniques have a much greater chance for much greater chance for success if they are self-success if they are self-rewarding in the perception of rewarding in the perception of the learner: The learners the learner: The learners perform the task because it is perform the task because it is fun, interesting, useful or fun, interesting, useful or challenging. challenging.

5. Strategic investment5. Strategic investment

Successful mastery of the Successful mastery of the second language will be due to second language will be due to a large extent to a learner’s own a large extent to a learner’s own personal “investment” of time, personal “investment” of time, effort, and attention to the effort, and attention to the second language in the form of second language in the form of an individualized battery of an individualized battery of strategies for comprehending strategies for comprehending and producing the language. and producing the language.

In relatively large classes of 30 In relatively large classes of 30 to 50 students, individual to 50 students, individual attention becomes increasingly attention becomes increasingly difficult; in “extra large” classes, difficult; in “extra large” classes, it is virtually impossible. The it is virtually impossible. The principle of strategic investment principle of strategic investment is a reminder to provide as is a reminder to provide as much attention as you can to much attention as you can to each individual student.each individual student.

Affective PrinciplesAffective Principles

6. Language ego: As human beings 6. Language ego: As human beings learn to use a second language, they learn to use a second language, they also develop a new mode of thinking, also develop a new mode of thinking, feeling, and acting—a second feeling, and acting—a second identity. The new “language ego” identity. The new “language ego” intertwined with the second intertwined with the second language, can easily create within language, can easily create within the learner a sense of fragility, a the learner a sense of fragility, a defensiveness, and a raising of defensiveness, and a raising of inhibitions.inhibitions.

All second language learners need All second language learners need to be treated with affective tender to be treated with affective tender loving care. loving care.

(1) Overtly display a supportive (1) Overtly display a supportive attitude to your students. Your attitude to your students. Your “warm and fuzzy” patience and “warm and fuzzy” patience and empathy need to be openly and empathy need to be openly and clearly communicated, for fragile clearly communicated, for fragile language egos have a way of language egos have a way of misinterpreting intended input. misinterpreting intended input.

(2) On a more mechanical, (2) On a more mechanical, lesson-planning level, your lesson-planning level, your choice of techniques and choice of techniques and sequences of techniques needs sequences of techniques needs to be cognitively challenging but to be cognitively challenging but not overwhelming at an affective not overwhelming at an affective level. level.

7. Self-confidence 7. Self-confidence

The eventual success that The eventual success that learners attain in a task is at learners attain in a task is at least partially a factor of their least partially a factor of their belief that they indeed are fully belief that they indeed are fully capable of accomplishing the capable of accomplishing the task.task.

8. Risk-taking8. Risk-taking

Successful language learners Successful language learners must be willing to become must be willing to become “gamblers” in the game of “gamblers” in the game of language, to attempt to produce language, to attempt to produce and to interpret language that is and to interpret language that is a bit beyond their absolute a bit beyond their absolute certainty.certainty.

How can your classrooms reflect How can your classrooms reflect the Principle of Risk-taking? the Principle of Risk-taking?

(1) Create an atmosphere in the (1) Create an atmosphere in the classroom that encourages classroom that encourages students to try out language, to students to try out language, to venture a response, and not just venture a response, and not just to wait for someone else to to wait for someone else to volunteer language.volunteer language.

(2) Provide reasonable challenges in (2) Provide reasonable challenges in your techniques—make them neither your techniques—make them neither too easy nor too hard.too easy nor too hard.

(3) Return students’ risky attempts (3) Return students’ risky attempts with positive affirmation, praising with positive affirmation, praising them for trying while at the same them for trying while at the same time warmly but firmly attending to time warmly but firmly attending to their language.their language.

9. The Language-culture 9. The Language-culture ConnectionConnection

Whenever you teach a Whenever you teach a language, you also teach a language, you also teach a complex system of cultural complex system of cultural customs, values, and ways of customs, values, and ways of thinking, feeling, and acting. thinking, feeling, and acting.

Especially in “second” language Especially in “second” language learning contexts, the success learning contexts, the success with which learners adapt to a with which learners adapt to a new cultural milieu will affect new cultural milieu will affect their language acquisition their language acquisition success, and vice versa, in success, and vice versa, in some possibly significant ways.some possibly significant ways.

(1) In the classroom, you can (1) In the classroom, you can help students to be aware of help students to be aware of acculturation and its stages.acculturation and its stages.

(2) Stress the importance of the (2) Stress the importance of the second language as a powerful second language as a powerful tool for adjustment in the new tool for adjustment in the new culture.culture.

(3) Be especially sensitive to (3) Be especially sensitive to any students who appear to be any students who appear to be depressed and do what you can depressed and do what you can to assist them.to assist them.

Linguistic PrinciplesLinguistic Principles

10. The Native Language Effect: 10. The Native Language Effect: The native language of every The native language of every learner is an extremely learner is an extremely significant factor in the significant factor in the acquisition of a new language.acquisition of a new language.

The native language of learners will The native language of learners will be a highly significant system on be a highly significant system on which learners will rely to predict the which learners will rely to predict the target language system. While that target language system. While that native system will exercise both native system will exercise both facilitating and interfering effects on facilitating and interfering effects on the production and comprehension the production and comprehension of the new language, the interfering of the new language, the interfering effects are likely to be the most effects are likely to be the most salient. salient.

11. Interlanguage11. Interlanguage

Second language learners tend tSecond language learners tend to go through a systematic or quo go through a systematic or quasi-systematic developmental prasi-systematic developmental process as they progress to full coocess as they progress to full competence in the target language.mpetence in the target language. Successful interlanguage langu Successful interlanguage language development is partially a faage development is partially a factor of utilizing feedback from otctor of utilizing feedback from others.hers.

(1) Try to distinguish between a (1) Try to distinguish between a student’s systematic interlanguastudent’s systematic interlanguage errors (stemming from the nage errors (stemming from the native language or target languagtive language or target language) and other errors; the former we) and other errors; the former will probably have a logical source ill probably have a logical source that the student can become awthat the student can become aware of.are of.

(2) Teachers need to exercise s(2) Teachers need to exercise some tolerance for certain interlaome tolerance for certain interlanguage forms that may arise out nguage forms that may arise out of a student’s logical developmeof a student’s logical developmental process.ntal process.

(3) Your classroom feedback to (3) Your classroom feedback to students should give them the students should give them the message that mistakes are not message that mistakes are not “bad,” rather than most mistakes “bad,” rather than most mistakes are good indicators that innate are good indicators that innate language acquisition abilities are language acquisition abilities are alive and well. Mistakes are alive and well. Mistakes are often indicators of aspects of the often indicators of aspects of the new language that are still new language that are still developing.developing.

(4) Try to get students to self-(4) Try to get students to self-correct selected errors; the correct selected errors; the ability to self-correct may ability to self-correct may indicate readiness to regularly indicate readiness to regularly use that form correctly.use that form correctly.

(5) In your feedback on (5) In your feedback on students’ linguistic output, make students’ linguistic output, make sure that you provide ample sure that you provide ample affective feedback—verbal or affective feedback—verbal or nonverbal—in order to nonverbal—in order to encourage them to speak. encourage them to speak.

12. Communicative 12. Communicative competencecompetence

Given that communicative Given that communicative competence is the goal of a competence is the goal of a language classroom, then language classroom, then instruction needs to point toward instruction needs to point toward all of its components: all of its components: organizational, pragmatic, organizational, pragmatic, strategic, and psychomotor. strategic, and psychomotor. Communicative goals are best Communicative goals are best

achieved by giving due attention achieved by giving due attention to language use and not just to language use and not just usage, to fluency and not just usage, to fluency and not just accuracy, to authentic language accuracy, to authentic language and contexts, and to students’ and contexts, and to students’ eventual need to apply eventual need to apply classroom learning to classroom learning to unrehearsed contexts in the real unrehearsed contexts in the real world.world.

AssignmentAssignment

The twelve principles are The twelve principles are obviously all very important. If obviously all very important. If you were forced to pick them up, you were forced to pick them up, which three principles would you which three principles would you pick to be at the top of your list? pick to be at the top of your list? Why? Pool your thoughts and Why? Pool your thoughts and share your ideas with your share your ideas with your peers. peers.

Intrinsic motivation in the Intrinsic motivation in the classroomclassroom

Defining motivation: Motivation Defining motivation: Motivation is the extent to which you make is the extent to which you make choice about goals to pursue choice about goals to pursue and the effort you will devote to and the effort you will devote to that pursuit. that pursuit.

(1) a behavioristic defintion: Skin(1) a behavioristic defintion: Skinner or Watson would stress the rner or Watson would stress the role of rewards (and perhaps punole of rewards (and perhaps punishments) in motivating behavior.ishments) in motivating behavior. Human beings will pursue a go Human beings will pursue a goal because they perceive a rewaal because they perceive a reward for doing so. This reward serrd for doing so. This reward serves to reinforce behavior. ves to reinforce behavior.

Reinforcement theory is a Reinforcement theory is a powerful concept for the powerful concept for the classroom. Learners pursue classroom. Learners pursue goals in order to receive goals in order to receive externally administered rewards: externally administered rewards: praise, gold stars, grades, praise, gold stars, grades, certificates, diplomas, certificates, diplomas, scholarships, and etc. scholarships, and etc.

2. Cognitive definitions2. Cognitive definitions

A. Drive theory: Those who see A. Drive theory: Those who see human drives as fundamental to human drives as fundamental to human behavior claim that motivhuman behavior claim that motivation stems from basic innate driation stems from basic innate drives. Ausubel (1968) elaborated ves. Ausubel (1968) elaborated on six different drives:on six different drives:

ExplorationExploration manipulation manipulation

ActivityActivity StimulationStimulation KnowledgeKnowledge Ego enhancementEgo enhancement

B. Hierarchy of needs theory: PlB. Hierarchy of needs theory: Please refer to the chart of Masloease refer to the chart of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow,w’s Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow, 1970). Physical needs→safety 1970). Physical needs→safety needs→the needs of love and bneeds→the needs of love and belonging→the need of self-esteeelonging→the need of self-esteem→sel m→sel

C. Self-control theory: C. Self-control theory: Motivation is highest when one Motivation is highest when one can make one’s own choices, can make one’s own choices, whether they be in short-term or whether they be in short-term or long-term contexts. This theory long-term contexts. This theory is centered on the importance of is centered on the importance of people deciding for themselves people deciding for themselves what to think or feel or do. what to think or feel or do.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation:Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: Intrinsically motivated behaviors Intrinsically motivated behaviors

are aimed at bringing about are aimed at bringing about certain internally rewarding certain internally rewarding consequences, namely, feelings consequences, namely, feelings of competence and self-of competence and self-determination. determination.

Extrinsically motivated Extrinsically motivated behaviors, on the other hand, behaviors, on the other hand, are carried out in anticipation of are carried out in anticipation of a reward from outside and a reward from outside and beyond the self. Typical beyond the self. Typical extrinsic rewards are money, extrinsic rewards are money, prizes, grades, and even certain prizes, grades, and even certain types of positive feedback. types of positive feedback.

Maslow (1970) claimed that intriMaslow (1970) claimed that intrinsic motivation is clearly superionsic motivation is clearly superior to extrinsic. According to his hir to extrinsic. According to his hierarchy of needs, we are ultimaterarchy of needs, we are ultimately motivated to achieve “self-acely motivated to achieve “self-actualization” once the basic physitualization” once the basic physical, safety, and community needcal, safety, and community needs are met.s are met.

assignmentassignment

What do the three cognitive What do the three cognitive definitions of motivation have in definitions of motivation have in common?common?

Approach, method, and Approach, method, and techniquetechnique

For the century spanning the For the century spanning the mid-1880s to the mid-1980s, the mid-1880s to the mid-1980s, the language-teaching profession language-teaching profession may be aptly characterized by a may be aptly characterized by a series of methods that rose and series of methods that rose and declined in popularity. Historical declined in popularity. Historical accounts of the profession tend accounts of the profession tend to describe a succession of to describe a succession of methods. methods.

MethodMethod

A method, according to A method, according to Richards and Rogers, was “an Richards and Rogers, was “an umbrella terms for the umbrella terms for the specification and interrelation of specification and interrelation of theory and practice” (1982, p. theory and practice” (1982, p. 154). 154).

ApproachApproach

An approach defines An approach defines assumptions, beliefs, and assumptions, beliefs, and theories about the nature of theories about the nature of language and language language and language learning. learning.

Design Design

Designs specify the relationship Designs specify the relationship of those theories to classroom of those theories to classroom materials and activities. materials and activities.

ProcedureProcedure

Procedures are the techniques Procedures are the techniques and practices that are derived and practices that are derived from one’s approach and from one’s approach and design. design.

Please have a look at Fire 2. Please have a look at Fire 2. Components of method Components of method (Richards & Rogers, 2001, p. (Richards & Rogers, 2001, p. 33).33).

Methodology: Pedagogical Methodology: Pedagogical practices in general including practices in general including theoretical underpinnings and theoretical underpinnings and related researchrelated research

Approach: It is involved in the Approach: It is involved in the beliefs about the nature of beliefs about the nature of language, the nature of language, the nature of language learning, and the language learning, and the applicability of both to applicability of both to pedagogical settings. pedagogical settings.

Methods tend to be concerned Methods tend to be concerned primarily with teacher and primarily with teacher and student roles and behaviors and student roles and behaviors and secondarily with such features secondarily with such features as linguistic and subject-matter as linguistic and subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and objectives, sequencing, and materials.materials.

Design is involved in the Design is involved in the specification of linguistic and specification of linguistic and subject-matter objectives, subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials to sequencing, and materials to meet the needs of a group of meet the needs of a group of learners in a defined context. learners in a defined context.

Technique: It is involved in a Technique: It is involved in a wide variety of exercises, wide variety of exercises, activities, or tasks used in the activities, or tasks used in the language classroom for realizing language classroom for realizing lesson objectives. lesson objectives.