ENGLISH HISTORICAL GRAMMAR

NOUNS

present-day English:

3 (natural) genders: masculine, feminine, neuter (inanimate)2 numbers: singular, plural2 cases: common case, possessive case

most nouns 2 (spoken) or 4 (written) forms:

[boɪ] boy boys

[boɪz] boy’s boys’

All creatures, heavens and angels, the sun and the moon, the stars and the earth, animals and birds, the sea and all fish, God created and made in six days.

Ealle gesceafta, heofonas and englas, sunnan and mōnan,steorran and eorþan, ny tenu and fugelas, sǣ and ealle fiscas, God gescēop and geworhte on six dagum.

OE NOUNS

3 (grammatical) genders: masculine, feminine, neuter

2 numbers: singular, plural

4 cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative

8 different forms (stem + case/number ending)

Different inflectional patterns > different DECLENSIONS

6 major, several minor declensions:

4 vocalic (strong) declensions – stem ends in a vowel (a, ō, u, i)1 consonantal (weak) declension – stem ends in a consonant (n)1 root declension – stem equals the root

a-declension: n-declension root declension

stān stānas nama naman mann mennstānes stāna naman namena mannes mannastāne stānum naman namum menn mannumstān stānas naman naman mann menn

word word sunne sunnanwordes worda sunnan sunnenaworde wordum sunnan sunnumword word sunnan sunnan

THE FINAL FRICATIVE VOICING

wolf-wolves, thief-thieves, bath-baths, mouth-mouths, house-houses, loaf-loaves, half-halves, life-lives

BUT: dwarfs/dwarves, hoofs/hooves, scarfs/scarves…AND: beliefs, chiefs, roofs…

OE N/A sg. wulf, OE N/A pl. wulfas

OE wulfas > ME wulves > NE [wʊlvz] wolves

THE ZERO PLURAL

neuter nouns in the a-declension, monosyllabic, long syllable

OE N/A sg. word, N/A pl. word

OE N/A sg. hūs, N/A pl. hūs

but: OE sg. scip, pl. scipu ny ten, pl. nytenu

ME. word + es hūs + es …..

But: sheep < OE scēap deer < OE dēor….

so also: fish, trout, quail…

THE MUTATION PLURAL

mouse-mice, louse-lice, man-men, tooth-teeth, goose-geese, woman-women

PALATAL MUTATION/ i-MUTATION

Germ. *mūs-, pl. *mūs-iz-

OE N/A sg. mūs, N/A pl. mysME mūs, pl. mīsNE [maʊs] mouse, [maɪs] mice

A sound law operating in North Germanic and West Germanic dialects:

pre-OE*a > OE æ, e/_ [+nasal]pre-OE *o > OE epre-OE *u > OE ypre-OE *eo, *ea > OE ie

under the influence of *i in the next syllable

The same rules apply to long accented vowels and diphthongs

OE sg. wīf-mann, pl. wīf-menn

ME sg. wimman, pl. wimmen

sg. wumman, pl. wummen

NE sg. [‘wʊmən] woman, pl. [‘wɪmɪn] women

THE n-PLURAL

ox-oxen, child-children, brother-brethren…

OE n-declension (masculine)oxa oxanoxan oxenaoxan oxumoxan oxan

OE oxan > ME oxen > NE [ɒksn] oxen

OE cild, N/A pl. cildru

OE cildru > ME childre, childer + en > NE [ʧɪldrən] children

OE brōþor, pl. brōþorME brōther, pl. brōther, brōther+es, brēther+enNE [brʌðəz], [breðrən] brothers, brethren

FOREIGN PLURAL MARKERS

alumnus – alumnibacillus – bacillidatum – datastratum – stratagenus – generaanalysis – analysescriterion – criteriaphenomenon – phenomena…

Ealle gesceafta, heofonas and englas, sunnan and mōnan, steorran and eorþan, nytenu and fugelas, sǣ and ealle fiscas, God gescēop and geworhte on six dagum.

DO [ealla gesceafta, heofonas and englas, sunnan and mōnan, eorþan and steorran, nytenu and fugelas, sǣ and ealle fiscas,]S [God] P [gescēop and geworhte] A [on six dagum].

ealle > ME all(e) > NE allgesceafta – A. pl. fem., N. sg. gesceaftheofonas – A. pl. masc., N. sg. heofonenglas – A. pl. masc., N. sg. engelsunnan – A. sg. fem., N. sg. sunnemōnan – A. sg. masc., N. sg. mōnaeorþan – A. sg. fem., N. sg. eorþesteorran – A. pl. masc. N. sg. steorranytenu - A. pl. neut. N. sg. nytenfugelas – A. pl. masc., N. sg. fugelsǣ - A. sg. neut. fiscas – A. pl. masc., N. sg. fisc

God – N. sg. masc. gescēop – 3rd p. sg. preterite, indicative; infinitive: (ge)sceapangeworhte – 3rd p. sg. preterite, indicative; infinitive: wyrcandagum – D. pl. masc., N. sg. dæg

THE CASE

OE four cases – nominative, genitive, dative, accusative

a-declension: n-declension mutation plurals

stān stānas nama naman mann mennstānes stāna naman namena mannes

mannastāne stānum naman namummenn mannumstān stānas naman naman mann menn

The only surviving ending : -es (Genitive singular, a-declension

OE –es > ME – [əz] > NE [z] Mary’s > NE [s] Mat’s > NE [ız] Bruce’s

From late OE – spreading to all masculine, all neuter, all feminine and plural nouns

Apostrophe: since 1650 in singular, since 1780 in plural

In ME case endings replaced with prepostional endings

OE ….hit liīode Herode and eallum þe him mid ston…ME … and (it) pleside to Eroude and also to men restynge…NE … and pleased Herod and them that sat with him

THE FUNCTION OF SAXON GENITIVE

OE Hwæs bidde ic? …. Iohannes heofod þæs fulluhteres…verbs and adjectives governed different cases

we synt Abrahames cynnes partitive meaning

Herodiascan dohtor possessive meaning

In NE – mostly restricted to possessive function and human beings

PERSONAL PRONOUNSPERSONAL PRONOUNS

NE: NE: I I youyou he he she she ititmeme youyou himhim herher itit

wewe youyou theytheyusus you you themthem

-unlike nouns, case distinctionunlike nouns, case distinction-2nd person singular = 2nd person plural2nd person singular = 2nd person plural-common case = objective casecommon case = objective case-gender distinction in 3rd person singular onlygender distinction in 3rd person singular only-Scandinavian pronouns in 3rd person pluralScandinavian pronouns in 3rd person plural

OE PERSONAL PRONOUNSOE PERSONAL PRONOUNS

1st 2nd 3rd

singular:

ic þū hē hēo hitmīn þīn his hiere hismē þē him hiere himmē þē hine hēo hit

plural:

wē ʒē hīeūre ēower hieraūs ēow hem, heom, himūs ēow hīe

1st singular, 3rd singular masculine, 1st plural:

NE common case < OE nominative caseNE objective case < OE dative

ic þū hē hēo hitmīn þīn his hiere hismē þē him hiere himmē þē hine hēo hit

wē ʒē hīeūre ēower hieraūs ēow hem, heom, himūs ēow hīeOE ic > ME i(c, ī > NE [aı] I

OE mē > ME mē > NE [mi:] me

OE hē > ME hē > NE [hi:] heOE him > ME him > NE [hım] him

OE wē > ME wē > NE [wi:] weOE ūs > ME ūs, us > NE [Λs] us

3rd person singular neuter:

OE common case = OE accusative case = NE common, objective case

OE hit > ME hit > NE [ɪt] it

3rd person singular feminine:

OE nominative lostNE common case < ?OE dative case > NE objective case

ic þū hē hēo hitmīn þīn his hiere hismē þē him hiere himmē þē hine hēo hit

wē ʒē hīeūre ēower hieraūs ēow hem, heom, himūs ēow hīe

OE hēo > ME hē, hjē, hjōME sjē, shē > NE [∫i:] she

OE hiere > ME her(e > NE [hз:] her

2nd person singular, plural

OE nominative singular > NE common case singular (obsolete)OE dative singuar > NE objective case singular (obsolete)

OE þū > ME thou > NE [ðau] thouOE þē > ME thee > NE [ði:] thee

OE nominative plural > NE common case plural (obsolete)OE dative plural > NE common/objective case singular/plural

OE ʒē > ME yēK > NE [ji:] yeOE ēow > ME you > NE [ju:] you

plural → singular (13th - 18th century)objective case → common case (14th – 17th century)

þū ʒēþīn ēowerþē ēowþē ēow

3rd person plural

OE nominative case > lostOE objective case > lost?

OE hīe > ME hēK ; thei (12th c.) > NE [ðeɪ] they

OE hem, heom > ME hem, NE [əm] ‘em, them (14th c.) > [ðem] them

And specially from every shires endeof Engelond to Caunterbury they wendethe holy blisful martyr for to sekethat hem hath holpen whan that they were seke…

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNSPOSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

OOE genitives of personal pronouns also used as possessives.

Possessives were declined, they displayed gender and numberagreement

… ūrne gedæghwāmlican hlāf syle ūs tðdægand forgyf ūs ūre gyltasswā swā wē forgyfað ūrum gyltendum…

1st 2nd 3rd

singular

ic þū hē hēo hitmīn þīn his hiere hismē þē him hiere himmē þē hine hēo hit

plural:

wē ʒē hīeūre ēower hieraūs ēow hem, heom, himūs ēow hīe

NE my, mine his our, oursyour, yours her, hers your, yours

its their, theirs

1st person singular:

OE mīn > ME ‘mīn > NE [‘maın] mine (disjunctive)

ME ˚mi, mī > NE [mɪ], [maɪ] my (conjunctive)

2nd person singular (obsolete)

OE þīn > ME ‘thīn > NE [‘ðaɪn] thine (disjunctive)

ME Mthi(n, thī > NE [ðaɪ] thy (conjunctive)

2nd person plural

OE N. sg. masc. ēower > ME your > NE [jɔə], [jɔ:] your

3rd person plural

OE N. sg. masc. hiera > ME her(e ME their > NE [ðɛə] their

CONJUCTIVE (ATTRIBUTIVE) AND DISJUNCTIVE (PREDICATIVE) POSSESSIVES

mine, thine – accent related

hers, ours, yours, theirs

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

In OE regular personal pronouns were used in reflexive position

Bycgaþ eow ele ….Hē hine restan wolde…

Occasionally, reinforced with the adjective self:

Romane selfe sædon ……Ic swerige ðurh me selfne

The “old system” of reflexive pronouns:

me self us selfthee self you selfhim self them selfher selfit self

self adjective > self noun

⇒ personal pronouns > possessive pronouns

The “new system” of reflexive pronouns:

my self our selfthy self your selfhis self their selfher selfit(s) self

self pluralized, combination of the old system (3rd person) and of the new system (1st and 2nd persons):

myself ourselvesyourself yourselveshimself themselvesherselfitself

Modern English usage:

cf. :

She dressed and left for work. The little girl dressed herself and came down the stairs.

DEMONSTRATIVESDEMONSTRATIVES

Old English demonstratives: Old English demonstratives:

‘‘this’this’

N. sg. masc. N. sg. masc. þesþes N. pl. N. pl. þāsþāsN. sg. fem. N. sg. fem. þēosþēosN. sg. neut. N. sg. neut. þisþis

‘‘that’that’

N. sg. masc. N. sg. masc. se, sēse, sē N. pl. N. pl. þāþāN. sg. fem. N. sg. fem. sēosēoN. sg. neut. N. sg. neut. þætþæt

ARTICLESARTICLES

THE DEFINITE ARTICLETHE DEFINITE ARTICLE

In OE – unaccented In OE – unaccented ‘that’ ‘that’ demonstratives demonstratives occasionally used as the definite articleoccasionally used as the definite article

masc. sg. masc. sg. fem. sg. fem. sg. neut. sg. neut. sg. pl.pl.

N. N. sese ssēoēo þætþæt þāþāG. G. þesþes þǣreþǣre þesþes

þāraþāraD. D. þǣmþǣm þǣreþǣre þǣmþǣm

þǣmþǣmA.A. þoneþone þā þā þætþæt þāþāL. L. þēþēI.I. þþyy

ME the > NE [ME the > NE [ððǝ] theǝ] theME ‘the > thē[ > NE [‘ME ‘the > thē[ > NE [‘ðði:] thei:] the

ME [+vowel, -long] ME [+vowel, -long] ￫ ￫ [+long] / - V ⇒ thē[ apple [+long] / - V ⇒ thē[ apple > NE [> NE [ðði:] applei:] apple

the + comparative/superlative of adverbs:

The sooner the better.He runs (the) fastest

..forþām wæs sanctus Paulus þy strangra on gōdum weorcum…

.. þæt hēr þy māra wīsdom on lande wǣre…þy wē mā geþēoda cūþon….

= ‘even more’

OE þy, þē > ME the > NE the [ðə]

The indefinite articleThe indefinite article

OE:OE:

þæt dyde unhold mann… ‘an enemy did that’he bestēalcode on land swā swā wulf…’he stole into the land like a wolf’

occasionally:

.. ān mann wæs eardiende on Israhēla þēode… ‘a man lived in Israel’

... nim sume tigelan… ‘take a tablet’

OE ān > ME ǭn, wǭn, wōn > NE wūn, wun > [‘wʌn] one

OE °ān > ME an, a(n) > NE [ən], [ə] ME ‘an > NE [‘æn], [‘eɪ] a, an = RESTRESSED FORMS

ADJECTIVESADJECTIVES

Old English adjectives displayed number, gender and case agreement with the nouns which they modified.

strong and weak declension

…ān gōd mann wæs eardiende…. Se gōda mann wæs hālig…

The choice of the declension depended on the specific or non-specific referenceof the modified noun

STRONG ENDINGS = NON-SPECIFIC (INDEFINITE) REFERENCE

WEAK ENDINGS = SPECIFIC (DEFINITE) REFERENCE

Strong declension:

singular pluralmasc. fem. neut. all

cwic cwicu cwic cwicecwices cwicre cwices cwicracwicum cwicre cwicum cwicumcwicne cwice cwic cwicecwice (cwicre)

Weak declension

cwica cwice cwice cwicancwican cwican cwican cwicracwican cwican cwican cwicumcwican cwice cwican cwican

MIDDLE ENGLISH: The ending –e was the only ending retained:

strong singular: strong plural:(an) good man (many) goode men

weak singular: weak plural:(the) goode man the goode men

The final –e ceased to be pronounced in the 14th century.

Chaucer (Canterbury Tales):

Whan that Aprille with his shoures sootethe drought of March hath perced to the roote…Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth inspired hath in every holt and heeth the tendre croppes…… and smale foules maken melodyethat sleepen al the nyght with open ie….

In Modern English adjectives are invariable, except in the system of comparison.

COMPARISON: inflectional, periphrastic, irregular

Inlectional comparison

comparative degree:OE –ra (masc.), -re (fem.), -re (neut.), -ran (pl.) weak declension (endings)ME –r[ə] > NE [ə] –er

OE heardra (N.sg.masc.) > ME hardr(e, harder > NE harder [‘hɑ:də]

superlative degree: strong or weak declension

OE –ost, -est > ME –[ə]st > NE [ɪst] -est

OE heardost > ME hardest > NE [‘hɑ:dɪst] hardest

PERIPHRASTIC COMPARISON

“competes” with inflectional comparison since ME:

comparative/superlative of ‘much’ + positive degree

The origin of more, most:

OE micel ‘great’; comp. māra, sup. mǣst

OE micle ‘greatly’, comp. mā, sup. mǣst

OE mā > ME mǭ, mǭre > NE [mɔ:] more

OE mǣst > ME męst; mǭst > NE [‘məʊst] most

Shakespeare:

….to some more fitter place…… I am more better than Prospero……. in the calmest and most stillest of the night…… most unkindest cut of all…

present-day English:

inflectional comparison: all monosyllabic, disyllabic adjectives in -er, -le, -ow, -y

periphrastic comparison: disyllabic adjectives in –ed, -ish, -ful,-ing, -ive, -st, all adjectives longer than two syllables

IRREGULAR COMPARISON

1.good – better – the best

gōd bet(e)ra be(t)st

yfel wiersa wierst

micel māra mǣst

lytel lǣssa lǣst

b) old – older/elder - the oldest/eldest

OE eald , ald (Anglian) > ME ǭld > NE [əʊld] old

OE ieldra, eldra > ME eldr(e > NE [eldə] elder

> NE [əʊldə] older (17th c.)

OE ieldest, eldest > ME eldest > NE [eldɪst] eldest

> NE [əʊldɪst] oldest (17th c.)

OE læt, lat- > ME lāt > NE [leɪt] late

OE lætra > ME latr(e > NE [lætə] latter

ME lātr(e > NE [leɪtə] later

OE * lætst > ME last > NE [lɑ:st] last

ME lātest > NE [leɪtɪst] latest

OE nēah > ME neigh > NE [naɪ] nigh

OE nēarra > ME nęrre > NE [nɪə] near

OE nēahst > ME nehst > NE [nekst] next

OE forþ (adverb)

OE furþra > ME furthr(e > NE [fɜ:ðə] further

ME furthest > NE [fɜ:ðɪst] furthest

OE feorr (adverb)

OE fierra > ME ferre, farre > NE [fɑ:ðə] farther

OE fierrest > Me ferrest, farrest > NE [fɑ:ðɪst] farthest

ADVERBSADVERBS

according to form: SIMPLE, DERIVED, PERIPHRASTICaccording to form: SIMPLE, DERIVED, PERIPHRASTIC

SIMPLE: SIMPLE: now, then, here, there, well, hard, fast….. now, then, here, there, well, hard, fast…..

origin: origin:

a)a)OE OE simple adverbssimple adverbs: : nū, hēr, þǣr, wel….nū, hēr, þǣr, wel….

b)b)OE OE derived adverbs: heardderived adverbs: heardee, fæst, fæstee, wīd, wīdee……

OE hearde > ME harde > NE [hɑ:d] hardOE hearde > ME harde > NE [hɑ:d] hard

DERIVED ADVERBS: DERIVED ADVERBS: widely, strongly, hardly, eastward(s), clockwise… widely, strongly, hardly, eastward(s), clockwise…

origin: origin:

a)a)OE adjective + suffix OE adjective + suffix –līce–līce

OE noun sōþ + OE noun sōþ + līc līc (adjectival suffix) +(adjectival suffix) + e e (adverbial suffix) > sōþ(adverbial suffix) > sōþ-līce-līce

OE –līce > ME li(ch(e > NE -[lɪ] –lyOE –līce > ME li(ch(e > NE -[lɪ] –ly

ME –lich(e, -ly competes with –(e) ME –lich(e, -ly competes with –(e)

Shakespeare: Shakespeare: thou didst it excellentthou didst it excellentshe will speak most bitterly and strangeshe will speak most bitterly and strange

since 18th c. simple adverbs - exceptionssince 18th c. simple adverbs - exceptions

double adverbial forms:

Peter works Peter works hardhard..Peter Peter hardly hardly (ever) works.(ever) works.

I hate arriving I hate arriving late.late.I haven’t been to the theatre I haven’t been to the theatre latelylately

He can jump very He can jump very highhigh..He is He is highly highly spoken of.spoken of.

Come Come close.close.They are They are closely closely related.related.

Take it Take it easy.easy.This can be arranged This can be arranged easily.easily.

b) OE nouns/adverb + weardb) OE nouns/adverb + weard

OE weard ‘in direction of’ > ME ward > NE -ward(s)OE weard ‘in direction of’ > ME ward > NE -ward(s)

c) OE nound + wīs –e ‘in the manner c) OE nound + wīs –e ‘in the manner

OE –wīse > ME – wīs(e > NE –[waɪz]OE –wīse > ME – wīs(e > NE –[waɪz]

PERIPHRASTIC ADVERBIALS: PERIPHRASTIC ADVERBIALS: in a (adjective) manner/ wayin a (adjective) manner/ way

cf overboard, uphill, downside, upstream….cf overboard, uphill, downside, upstream….

NUMERALSNUMERALS

words representing numberswords representing numbers

cardinal – quantity: cardinal – quantity: one, two, threeone, two, threeordinal – sequential order: ordinal – sequential order: first, second, thirdfirst, second, thirdranking – order of relevance: ranking – order of relevance: primary, secondary, tertiaryprimary, secondary, tertiarypartitititve – division into fraction: partitititve – division into fraction: whole, half, thirdwhole, half, thirdcomposite – composition: composite – composition: unary, binary, ternaryunary, binary, ternarymultiplicative – repetition: multiplicative – repetition: once, twice, thriceonce, twice, thricereproductive – replication: reproductive – replication: single, double, triplesingle, double, triplecollective – sets: collective – sets: pair, triad, dozenpair, triad, dozendistributive – alternating patterns: every other, every third…(distributive – alternating patterns: every other, every third…(singuli, bini, ternisinguli, bini, terni…)…)……

OE cardinalOE cardinal OE ordinalOE ordinal

1 ān1 ān formaforma2 twā, twegen2 twā, twegen ōþerōþer3 þrēo, þrīe3 þrēo, þrīe þirda, þriddaþirda, þridda4 fēower4 fēower fēorþafēorþa5 fīf5 fīf fīftafīfta6 siex6 siex siextasiexta7 seofon7 seofon seofoþaseofoþa8 eahta8 eahta eahtoþaeahtoþa9 nigon9 nigon nigoþanigoþa10 tīen10 tīen tēoþatēoþa

22 twegen and twentig 22 twegen and twentig

1 – 3 : declined, gender distinction1 – 3 : declined, gender distinction

4 - 19 : not declined, but the ending 4 - 19 : not declined, but the ending –e –e when used alonewhen used alone

fīf menn - fīfe fīf menn - fīfe

Ordinal numerals: cardinal + Ordinal numerals: cardinal + oþaoþa

IE * -to- > Germ. * -þa- > OE – (o) þa > ME –th(e > NE – [IE * -to- > Germ. * -þa- > OE – (o) þa > ME –th(e > NE – [θθ]]

after voiceless fricatives – dissimilation of [after voiceless fricatives – dissimilation of [θθ] to [t] : fīfta] to [t] : fīfta

Ealla gesceafta […..] God gescēop and geworhte on six dagum.

And an þǣm seofoþan dæʒe hē ʒeendode his weorc and geswācþā and hīe wǣron swīþe gōde. (Ælfric) Henry the Fift, Twelft Night (Shakespeare)

Irregular ordinal numeralsIrregular ordinal numerals

one : (the) firstone : (the) first

OE ān > ME ǭn, w ǭn, wōn > NE wūn, wun, [wʌn] oneOE ān > ME ǭn, w ǭn, wōn > NE wūn, wun, [wʌn] one

OE forma, foremest, ǣrest, fyrstaOE forma, foremest, ǣrest, fyrsta

OE fyrsta > ME first(e > NE [fɜ:st] firstOE fyrsta > ME first(e > NE [fɜ:st] first

two : (the) secondtwo : (the) second

OE twā (fem., neut.) > ME twǭ > twō[ > NE [tu:] twoOE twā (fem., neut.) > ME twǭ > twō[ > NE [tu:] two

OE twegen (masc.) > ME tweien > NE [tweɪn] twainOE twegen (masc.) > ME tweien > NE [tweɪn] twain

OE OE ōþer > ME ō[ther > NE ūther, uther > [ʌðə] otherōþer > ME ō[ther > NE ūther, uther > [ʌðə] other

ME secounde > NE [‘sekənd] secondME secounde > NE [‘sekənd] second

three : (the )thirdthree : (the )third

OE þrēo (fem., neut.) > ME thrē > NE [OE þrēo (fem., neut.) > ME thrē > NE [θθri:] threeri:] three

OE þrīe > ME thrē[ > NE [OE þrīe > ME thrē[ > NE [θθri:] threeri:] three

OE þridda, þirda > ME third(e > NE [OE þridda, þirda > ME third(e > NE [θθɜ:d] thirdɜ:d] third

five : (the ) fifthfive : (the ) fifth

OE fīfe > ME fīv(e > NE [faɪv] fiveOE fīfe > ME fīv(e > NE [faɪv] five

OE fīfta > ME fift(e > NE fift, fifth [fɪfOE fīfta > ME fift(e > NE fift, fifth [fɪfθθ]]

VERBSVERBS

verbal categories: person, tense, mood, (voice?)verbal categories: person, tense, mood, (voice?)

PERSON - PERSON - Who is the doer of the action? I, you or somebody elseWho is the doer of the action? I, you or somebody else

AGENT > SUBJECT > NOUN PHRASE AGENT > SUBJECT > NOUN PHRASE and/or personal ending and/or personal ending

OE present tense (indicative)

singular plural

wrīt-e wrīt-aþwrīt-estwrīt-eþ

1st person – loss of the ending –e in ME

OE (ic) wrīte > ME wrīt(e > NE [raɪt] write

2nd person – loss of the 2nd person singular loss of singular reference in the 2nd person

3rd person singular:

OE –(e)þ, -t (in contracted forms) remains in ME, but gradually replaced with –es from the north

OE (hē) wrīteþ, wrītt > ME wrīteth, writt, wrītes

OE –es > ME [ə]s, [ə][z] > NE

ME (hē) wrītes > NE [‘raɪts] writes

[s]

[z]

[ɪz]

plural:

OE –aþ preserved as ME –eth, but soon replaced with –en

OE (hīe) wrītaþ > ME wrīteth, wrīt(e(n > NE [‘raɪt] write

The ending –es the only personal ending preserved, but even this onerestricted to the present tense and to the indicative mood.

Why not in the past tense?Why not in the subjunctive and the imperative?Why not in modal verbs?

PERSONAL ENDINGS IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE

OE present subjunctive singular : wrīteOE present subjuctive plural: wrīten

OE preterite subjunctive singular: writeOE preterite subjunctive plural: writen

PERSONAL ENDINGS IN THE IMPERATIVE

OE imperative singular: Wrīt! Lufe!OE imperative plural: Wrītaþ! Lufaþ!

PERSONAL ENDINGS IN MODAL VERBS

OE cunnan ‘know’

present: 1. cann2. canst plural: cunnon3. cann

OE sculan ‘be obliged’

present: 1. sceal2. scealt plural: sculon3. sceal

TENSE TENSE

relation between the time when the reported action relation between the time when the reported action occurred and the moment of speakingoccurred and the moment of speaking

NOWNOW

TENSE = MANDATORY FORMAL ENCODING OF TEMPORAL RELATIONS

OLD ENGLISH: two formal tenses: preterite and present (non-preterite)

NOWNOW

PRETERITENON-PRETERITE

OLD ENGLISH: two formal tenses: preterite and present

PRESENT TENSE: PRESENT TENSE: BASE FORM (+ PERSONAL ENDINGS)BASE FORM (+ PERSONAL ENDINGS)

PRETERITE TENSE: the marking depended on the type of the verbPRETERITE TENSE: the marking depended on the type of the verb

4 types of verbs:4 types of verbs:

1.1.STRONG VERBSSTRONG VERBS2.2.WEAK VERBSWEAK VERBS3.3.PRETERITE-PRESENT VERBSPRETERITE-PRESENT VERBS4.4.ANOMALOUS VERBSANOMALOUS VERBS

STRONG VERBS

Indo-European vowel gradation

gradation (Ablaut) = alteration of vowels in the stems of related words or different grammatical forms of the same word

IE: 2 gradation lines: e-gradation, a-gradation

e-gradation – potential grades:

*e ~ * ē ~ * ／ ~ * o ~ * ō

e-grade: present stem

o-grade, ē-grade, ō-grade, zero-grade: perfect stem

present stem (e-grade) : present tense indicative,present tense subjuctiveimperative,infinitive, present participle

perfect stem (o-grade) : 1st and 3rd p.sg. preterite indicative

perfect stem (ē/ō/zero-grade) : 2nd p. sg., plural preterite indicative,preterite subjunctive

perfect stem (zero-grade) past participle

OE wrīt-an

present indicative preterite indicative

1 wrīt-e wrāt2 wrīt-est writ-e3 wrīt-eþ wrāt

pl. wrīt-aþ writ-on

pres. part. wrīt-ende past part. ge-writ-en

representative forms: infinitive, 1st/3rd sg preterite, plural preterite, past participle

wrītan, wrāt, writon, gewriten

OE wrītan < Germanic * unrīt- < IE * unrei nt- IE *ei > Germ. * ī > OE ī > ME ī > NE [aɪ]

OE wrāt < Germanic * unrai nt- < IE * unroi nt-IE *o > Germ. * a; Germ. * ai > OE ā > ME ǭ > NE

[əʊ]

OE ge-writen < Germanic * - unrit- < IE * unrit-IE * / + *i n = *i > OE i > ME i > NE [ɪ]

OE drincan < Germanic * drink- < IE * drenk-IE *e > Germ. * i /_ [+nasal]

OE dranc < Germanic * drank - < IE * dronk- IE *o > Germ. *a > OE a,o > ME a > NE [æ]

OE gedruncen < Germanic * -drunk- < IE *-drnpk- IE * / + sonorant > Germ * un/um/ul/ur > OE u > ME u

> NE [ʌ]

SEVEN CLASSES OF STRONG SEVEN CLASSES OF STRONG VERBSVERBS

class Infinitive 1/3 pret.sg

Plural preterite

Past participle

I wrītan wrāt writon -writen write

II cēosan cēas curon -curen choose

III drincan dranc druncon -druncen drink

IV beran bær bǣron -boren bear

V sprecan spræc sprǣcon -sprecen speak

VI scacan scōc scōcon -scacen shake

VII feallan fēoll fēollon -feallen fall

WEAK VERBSWEAK VERBS

new Germanic formation:new Germanic formation:

only one stem (present stem)only one stem (present stem)

tense encoded with the dental sufifixtense encoded with the dental sufifix

3 CLASSES OF WEAK VERBS:

Class 1: infinitive ending –an, preterite ending –(e)de, pp -(e)d

Class 2: infinitive ending -ian, preterite ending –ode, pp ending –od

Class 3: habban, libban, secgan, hycgan

3 CLASSES OF WEAK VERBS:

Class 1: infinitive ending –an, preterite ending –(e)de, pp ending -(e)d

Class 2: infinitive ending -ian, preterite ending –ode, pp ending –od

Class 3: habban, libban, secgan, hycgan

class 1 class 2 class 3

inf. hieran lufian habbanpret. hier-de luf-ode hæfdepp. ge-hier(e)d ge-lufod ge-hæfd

OE -ede, -ode > ME [OE -ede, -ode > ME [ə]d[ə] > NE [d], [t], [ɪd] ə]d[ə] > NE [d], [t], [ɪd]

played, worked, embeddedplayed, worked, embedded

PRETERITE PRESENT VERBSPRETERITE PRESENT VERBS

one stem (perfect stem)one stem (perfect stem)

preterite tense – dental suffixpreterite tense – dental suffix

STRONG WEAK PRETERITE PRESENT

PRESENT STEM

PERFECT STEM

DENTAL SUFFIX

PRETERITE- PRESENT VERBS

present preterite

mæg mightemægst mightestmæg mighte

magon mighton

ANOMALOUS VERBSANOMALOUS VERBS

bbēon/wesan, dōn, gān, willanēon/wesan, dōn, gān, willan

bbēon/ ēon/ wesan,wesan,

eomeom bēobēoearteart bistbistisis biþbiþsindonsindon bēoþbēoþ

wæs, wǣron, wæs, wǣron, bbēonēon

dōn: dō, dōþ, dydon…dōn: dō, dōþ, dydon…gān: pret. ēodegān: pret. ēodewillan: pret. wolde….willan: pret. wolde….

FROM OE TO NE:FROM OE TO NE:

a)a)the levelling of the singular and the plural form of strong verbsthe levelling of the singular and the plural form of strong verbs in northern dialects since the 14th century:in northern dialects since the 14th century:

2nd form (1st, 3rd sg) 2nd form (1st, 3rd sg) 3rd form (plural)3rd form (plural)

OE OE wrwrītan ītan wrātwrāt writon writon gewritengewriten

MEME wr wrīten īten wrǭtwrǭt (y)writen(y)writen

b) in NE the preterite form (occasionally) extended to past participle:

OE standan stōd stōdon gestanden

NE stand stood stood

c) in NE the past participle form (occasionally) extended to preterite

OE stingan stang stungon gestungen

NE sting stung stung

The levelling still ongoing in non-standard varieties (dialects)

NON-STANDARD DIALECTS:

•the past participle used as the past tense form: I see I seen (yesterday)I have seen

•the past tense form used as the past participle: I go I went I have went

•the present tense form generalized:I give I give I have give

•“relict” forms:I write I writ I have writ

d) the change of classes

strong verbs turning weak ( = regular) – an ongoing process

WEAK verbs turning irregular

1. keep - kept - kept ALTERATION OF LONG AND SHORT VOWEL

OE cēpan cēpte ge-cēptME keepen kepte keptNE [ki:p] [kept] [kept]

also: hear-heard-heardmeet – met – metbleed-bled-bledread-read-read

2. set – set - set ALL THREE FORMS THE SAME

ME setten sett-(d)e (y) sett-(ed)NE set set set

Also: cast-cast-castcut-cut-cuthit-hit-hitshut-shut-shut

3. tell - told - told MUTATED PRESENTS

OE tellan tealde (WS), talde (Ang) getaldME tellen tǭlde (y)tǭldNE tell told told

also: teach-taught-taught, bring-brought-brought, think-thought-thoughtsell-sold-sold, seek-sought-sought etc.

4. send - sent - sent DEVOICED DENTAL SUFFIX IN THE PRETERITE

OE sendan sende gesendME senden sente (y)sentNE send sent sent

t replaced d in 12th-13th century, first if the stem ended in a sonorant + d, later extended to stems ending in a sonorant:

spend-spent-spent, build-built-built, dream-dreamt-dreamt, feel-felt-felt,learn-learnt-learnt etc.

! went (from OE wendan)

5. make - made - made SYNCOPATED PRETERITE AND P.P.

OE macian macode gemacod

ME māken ma(k)ede (y)ma(k)ed

māde mād

NE [meɪk][meɪd] [meɪd]

PERIPHRASTIC TENSES

OE PRESENT TENSE – “real” present, universal time, future reference:

Þā flōtmenn cumaþ and þē gebindaþ – ‘the pirates are comingand they will fetter you’

OE PRETERITE TENSE – a single act in the past, a continuous act in the past, present perfect, past perfect

þā þā menn slēpon, þā cōm his fēonda sum – ‘when the men were sleeping, one of his enemies came’

ic mid ealre heortan þē gewilnode – ‘I have wished for you with all my heart’

PERIPHRASTIC TENSES COMMON IN OE, BUT THEIR USE NOT CONSISTENT WITH THEIR MODERN ENGLISH FUNCTIONS:

a)bēon/wesan + present participle –ende

þā wæs se cyning openlīce andettende þæt hē wolde fæstlīce þǣm

deofolgiendum wiþsācan – ‘then the king publicly acknowledged that he would resolutely renounce the idols’

present participle: present stem + ende (< IE *-nt-)

Around 1200 the participle –ende was replaced with the –ing form, possibly under the influence of the construction been on + verbal noun –ing(e)

From 16th century on, the use of “expanded” tenses spread from the north,since 18th century in the function of progressive tenses.

b) bēon/wesan/habban + past participle

OE past participle: strong verbs: ge + perfect stem (zero-grade) + en

OE ge-writ-en > ME y-writ-en, y-write, writ-en > NE written

weak verbs: ge + present stem – ed/od/d/t

OE ge-luf-od > ME y-lov-ed, y-love, lov-ed > NE loved

In OE the auxiliary habban was used with transitive, bēon/wesan with intransitive verbs, the meaning of the construction not necessarily perfective.

In ME the auxiliary haven spread to intransitive verbs, and the past participle lost its adjectival properties. The use became consistent with the function of perfect tenses

c) willan/sculan + infinitive

After the year 1200 shal ‘to be obliged’ and will ‘to want’ lost some of their modal meaning and started to be used for future time reference.

18th century: will volition in the 1st person, simple futurity in the 2nd and 3rd; shall obligation in the 2nd and 3rd, simple futurity in the 1st person.

Infinitive (nomen actionis: < *-ono-, inflected in West Germanic in the Genitive and in the Dative singular)

OE uninflected (bare) infinitive: present stem + anOE inflected infinitive: tō + present stem + -enne/anne (supine)

ME: tō becomes a simple infinitive marker, -enne/anne merges with –an to –en, which subsequently disappeares.

The supine function rendered (for a while) with the for to infinitive.

1 Whan that Aprille, with his shoures soote

The drought of March hath perced to the roote

And bathed every veyne in swich licour,

Of which vertu engendred is the flour;

5 Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth

Inspired hath in every holt and heeth

The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne

Hath in the Ram his halfe cours yronne,

And smale foweles maken melodye,

10 That slepen al the nyght with open eye -

(So priketh hem Nature in her courages);

heath, heatherfugol > fowleage > eyerennen ran runnenrinnan ræn -runnen (III)

Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages

And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes

To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes;

15 And specially from every shires ende

Of Engelond, to Caunterbury they wende,

The hooly blisful martir for to seke

That hem hath holpen, whan that they were seeke.        

cūþ > couth > couth, uncouth

Bifil that in that sesoun, on a day,

20 In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay

Redy to wenden on my pilgrymage

To Caunterbury with ful devout courage,

At nyght were come into that hostelrye

Wel nyne and twenty in a compaignye

25 Of sondry folk, by aventure yfalle

In felaweshipe, and pilgrimes were they alle,

That toward Caunterbury wolden ryde.

befallen - impersonal verb (befallen, befel/befil, befallen (VII)

cumen cam, cām cumen

cuman cōm cōmon cumen (IV)

THE MOOD

OE: indicative, imperative, subjunctive

imperative singular: base form (SV) or base + e/a (WV)

imperative plural: same as present indicative plural

Lufe þīn nēahstan! Nim sume tiʒele!Bycʒaþ ēow ele!

subjunctive singular: present stem + eperfect stem + e

subjuntive plural: present stem + enperfect stem + en

The use of subjunctive in OE:

• in independent sentences wish or command:Gōd sīe þē milde!Ne hē ealu ne drince oþþe wīn!

• in dependent clauses after verbs of desire, command, purpose, potentiality, hypothetical comparison, concession…

Geongum mannum gedafenaþ þæt hīe leornien sumne wīsdōm.

Ic wilnode þæt þū! hām wǣre

In ME both subjunctive endings were lost. The only distinctive preterite subjunctive form left is were.

The use of modal auxiliaries spread in ME and NE.

Modal Verbs

can, could

OE cunnan ‘know’

cann canstcann

pl. cunnonpret. cūþe p.p. cūþ

OE cann > ME can > NE [‘kæn]

OE cūþe > ME cude > NE could (remodelled after would, should)

may, might

OE magan ‘to be able’

mægmeaht, mihtmæg

pl. magonpret. meahte, mehte, mihtep. p. meaht, miht

OE mæg > ME mai > NE [meɪ] may

OE mihte > ME mīhte > NE [maɪt] might

must

OE ‘to be allowed to’

mōtmōstmōt

pl. mōtonpret. mōste

OE mōste > ME mōste > NE mūst, must > [mʌst] must

! mustn’t = obliged to not do sth <‘not to be allowed to’

shall, should

OE sculan ‘to be obliged’

scealscealtsceal

pl. sculonpret. scōlde

OE sceal > ME shal, shaul > NE [ʃæl]

OE scōlde > shōlde > NE [ʃʊd] should

shan’t > shaln’t < shall not

wiil, would

OE: willan ‘want’

willewiltwille

pl. willaþ

pret. wolde

OE wolde > ME wōlde > NE wūld, owu(l)d [wʊd]

NE won’t < woll not < ME wolle = new formation, variant of wille

ought

OE agan ‘have, owe’

āg/āhāhstāg/āh

pl. āgon

pret. āhte

OE āg > ME ǭw > NE [əʊ] owe ‘< have the obligation/grudge’

OE āhte > ME ǭughte > NE [ɔ:t] ought (monophthongized before –ht)

Shakespeare: You ought him a thousand pounds.

own = backformaion of owner or < p.p. own < āgen 17th c.