ENGLISH GRAMMARENGLISH GRAMMAR

Language: the means by which we express our thoughts, either spoken or written

Grammar: treats of the laws of language and the right method of using it

The elements of spoken language are vocal and articulate sounds

The elements of written language are characters or letters

Letters are formed into syllables and words, words into sentences

Grammar is divided into four parts: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody

Orthography treats of letters and syllables

Etymology treats of words

Syntax treats of sentences

And Prosody, of elocution and versification

Class 2 Lectio II

Treats of the different sorts of words, and their various modification, and their derivations

A Word is an articulate sound used by common consent as the sign of an idea

Words, in formation, are either Primitive or Derivative, Simple or Compound

A Primitive word is one that is not derived from another language

e.g. boy, just

A Derivative word is one that is derived from some other word

e.g. boyish, justice

A Simple word is one that is not combined with another word

e.g. man, house, city

A Compound word is one that is made up of two or more simple words

e.g. horseman

Etymology

Words

Words are either inflected or uninflected

An Inflected word is one which undergoes certain changes of form or termination

nouns and pronouns are declined

verbs are conjugated

adjectives and adverbs are compared

In respect of signification and use, words are divided in classes called Parts of Speech

words which are names of objects are classed as nouns

words which qualify nouns are adjectives

words which attribute an action or state to a subject are verbs

Structure of Words

A simple word representing a single idea, whose origin is unknown, is a root

Derivatives are formed from these and also from foreign roots

by changing the vowel or modifying the consonants in the root

by prefixes and suffixes

a prefix is a letter or syllable before the root

a suffix is a letter or syllable after the root

Parsing

Parsing is the act of reducing a sentence into its basic elements

Parsing is classified as etymological and syntactical

A word is parsed etymologically by stating the class of words to which it belongs

These are known as accidents or grammatical properties

Parts of Speech

Noun

Pronoun

Verb

Article

Adjective

Adverb

Preposition

Interjection

Conjunction

Only the noun, pronoun and verb (and some adjectives and adverbs) are inflected

Nouns

A Noun is the name of any person, place, quality or thing

Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Common

A Proper noun is the name applied to an individual only

e.g. Igor, Moscow, Russia

A Common Noun is a name applied to all things of the same sort

e.g. woman, car, computer, test

The names of actions, as running, flying, etc. are called verbal nouns

Accidents of NounsPerson, Number, Gender and Case

Person is the distinction of nouns to denote the speaker, the person or thing spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of

I, Claudius, have …

Professor, you can …

Gaius Julius was a …

Person

Gender

Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex

Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Common

Number

Number is that property of a noun by which it expresses one, or more than one

Nouns have two numbers, the Singular and the Plural

Singular denotes one

Plural denotes more than one

Case

Case is the state or condition of a noun with respect to the other words in a sentence

English has three cases, the Nominative, Possessive and Objective

A noun is in the Nominative case when:

It is used as the subject of a finite verb

When used as a predicate

When used absolutely, or independent of any other word (Vocative)

The Possessive case connects the idea of origin, possession or fitness with a noun

e.g. sun’s rays, Anna’s car, women’s shoes

The Objective case is used to denote:

the object of a transitive verb, e.g. Matthew helps John

the object of a relation expressed by a preposition, e.g. She lives in Provo

time, value, weight or measure without a governing word, e.g. He is ten years old

Articles

An Article is a word put before a noun to indicate the manner in which it is used

There are two articles, indefinite and definite

The indefinite article (a/an) denotes a noun without grammatical distinction

e.g. A man (i.e. any man, some man)

A definite article shows its noun refers to some particular person or thing

e.g. The man (i.e. some man pointed out)

Adjectives

An Adjective is a word used to qualify a noun (substantive)

Nouns, pronouns, adverbs and prepositions can be used as adjectives

sea water, she wolf, well child, above reference

Adjectives are of four types: Quality, Quantity, Circumstantial, and Participial

Sensible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Comparative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Relational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Quality

Quantity

Circumstantial

Participial

Red

Long

Pleasant

Definite numeral

Indefinite

Distributive

Measure

Cardinal . . . . . .

Ordinal . . . . . .

Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Nation (proper adj.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Descriptive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Verbal (compound) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

One

First

Few, many

Each

Much

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Daily

Western

German

Funny

Unwanted

Adjective Types

Comparison of Adjective

Three degrees of comparison: Positive, Comparative, Superlative

Positive expresses a quality

Iron is heavy, precious

Comparative expresses a quality in a higher degree

Gold is heavier, more precious

Superlative expresses a quality in the highest degree

Uranium is heaviest, most precious

Some adjectives cannot (should not) be compared, e.g.

Numerals, adjectives that denote shape, figure or material (circular), definitives (this, that), or adjectives of an absolute or superlative signification (perfect, true)

Pronouns

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun

The noun a pronoun replaces is called the antecedent

Pronouns are divided into Personal, Relative, Interrogative and Adjective

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns are pronouns that distinguish person. They are simple substitutes for the names of persons or things and have the same case, number and gender as the nouns they replace

Personal pronouns are either Simple or Compound

Simple Personal Pronouns

I mine me

thou thine thee

you yours you

he his him

she hers her

it its they

we ours us

you yours you

they theirs them

Compound Personal Pronouns

myself

thyself

yourself

himself

herself

itself

ourselves

yourselves

themselves

Used only in the nominative (emphatic) and the objective (reflexive)

Adjective Pronouns

Four classes

Possessive

Distributive

Demonstrative

Indefinite

Examples

my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their

each, every, either, neither

this, that, these, those

none, any, all, such, whole, both, one, other, another

Denote possession

Represent objects as taken separately

Point out object definitely

Designate object indefinitely

The Verb

A verb is a word used to express the act, being or state of a subject(a subject is that person or thing whose act, being or state the verb expresses)

Classification of Verbs

Meaning or Office

Transitive

Intransitive

Attributive

Form

Regular

Irregular

Defective

In formation of compound tenses

Principle

Auxiliary

Verb Meaning

A Transitive verb expresses an act done by one person or thing to another

Augusta drives the chariot

An Intransitive verb expresses the being or state of its subject

I am. He is very happy

An Attributive verb asserts and connects an attribute with its subject

Grass is green. Man is mortal

Formation of Tenses

A Regular verb is one that forms its past tense in the indicative mood active and it past participle, by adding –ed to the present

present act, past acted, past participle acted

An Irregular verb is one that does not form its past indicative and past participle in this way

present write, past wrote, past participle written

A Defective verb is one in which some of the parts are wanting. This class is comprised chiefly of Auxiliary and Impersonal verbs

e.g. may, can, must

Inflection of Verbs

The accidents of verbs are:

Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, Person

Voice

Voice is a particular form of the verb which shows the relation of the subject to the action expressed by the verb

Transitive verbs have two voices, the Active and the Passive

The Active voice represents the subject as acting

Bernard hits the ball

The Passive voice represents the subject as acted upon

The ball is hit by Bernard

Intransitive verbs have no distinction of voice because they have no object which can be used as the subject in the passive

They run, I stand

Some intransitive verbs can be made transitive and so capable of a passive form

I laugh. I laugh at him. He is laughed at by me

Mood

Mood is the manner or mode of expressing the signification of the verb

There are six moods in English

Indicative: declares the fact expressed by the verb

He loves. He is loved

Subjunctive: represents the action of the verb as conditional

If he works, he will improve. I wish you weren’t my professor.

Imperative: commands, exhorts, entreats or permits

Go away! Listen to his words. Follow the Prophet.

Potential: declares not the fact but the possibility of the verb

The wind may blow. Children should obey their parents.

Infinitive: expresses the meaning of the verb without distinction of person or number

to love

Participial: denotes action or state as continuing/incomplete or complete or finished without regard to time

I saw him walking. The paper is written.

TenseTenses are forms of the verb which serve to point out the distinctions of time

English has either six or twelve tenses, depending on the grammar you follow*

In English there are three classes of tense:

Simple

Perfect

Progressive

Simple

Present: I walk

Past: I walked

Future: I will walk

Perfect

Present perfect: I have walked

Past perfect: I had walked

Future perfect: I will have walked

Progressive*

Present progressive: I am walking

Past progressive: I was walking

Future progressive: I will be walking

Present perfect progressive: I have been walking

Past perfect progressive: I had been walking

Future perfect progressive: I will have been walking

*in some grammars the progressive tense is considered a form created by prefixing the verb “to be” (in all moods and tenses) to the present participle

Number and PersonEach tense of the verb has two Numbers, the Singular and the Plural

In each number, the verb has three Persons, the first, second and third

Conjugation of the VerbConjugation is the regular combination and arrangement of all voices, moods, tenses, numbers and persons

Verbs have four principle parts

Present indicative . . . . . . . write

Present participle . . . . . . . . writing

Past indicative . . . . . . . . . . wrote

Past participle . . . . . . . . . . . written

Irregular Verbs

An irregular verb is a verb that does not form its past and past participle by adding –ed to the present active indicative stem

e.g. cost

Defective VerbsVerbs for which some of the parts are wanting

e.g. to beware [inf. and imp.]

Impersonal Verbs

Verbs that assert the existence of some action, but refer it to no particular subject

e.g. it behooves, it rains

Adverbs

An Adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective or another adverb

Manner………………..bravely

Place…………………..here, there

Time…………………..now, then

Direction………………upward

Affirmation……………yes, certainly

Negation……………….no, not

Interrogation……………how? why?

Comparison…………….more, most, less

Quantity………………..much, some, little

Order ..…………………first, secondly

Classes of Adverbs

PrepostionsAre words which show the relation between the noun (pronoun)

and some other word in the sentence

e.g. The love of God

Place

Time

Agent

Cause

Misc.

Rest in …………………….he is in the house

Motion to or from ……….he went into the house

Rest or motion …………..over

Time and place ………….at the place, at the time

Time only ………………..until evening

Separation ………………without

Inclination ………………for

Aversion ………………. .against

Substitution …………….instead of

Possession ……………..of

Reference ………………..concerning

Opposition ………………against

………..……………………by his authority

……………………………..for our sake

A word used in an exclamation to express an emotion of the mind

e.g. oh, alas

Interjections

CONJUCTIONS

Conjunctions are words which connect words, phrases or sentences

e.g. and, or, nor

Conjunctions are of two classes, Copulative and Disjunctive

A Copulative joins sentences together and unites the meaning

Connective [connects the meaning]

e.g. The sun shines and the sky is clear

Continuative [combine the meaning]

e.g. The sun shines because the sky is clear

A Disjunctive joins two sentences together while disconnecting the meaning

Distributive [disconnect the meaning]

e.g. You can go or you can stay

Adversative [contrast the meaning]

e.g. It is day, but it is not light

The minutest plant or

animal, if it is

examined attentively, affords

a thousand wonders

and obliges us to admire

and to adore that omnipotent hand by which

it was created

Parsing Text

The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Definite article belonging to plant and animal

minutest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Adjective, superlative degree, qualifying plant and animal

plant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Noun, neuter, nominative singular, subject of affords

or. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Disjunctive conjunction, distributive, connecting plant and animal as alternative

animal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Noun, neuter, nominative singular, subject of affords

if. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Copulative conjunction, continuative, connecting the sentences

it. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Third personal pronoun, neuter, nominative singular, standing for plant or animal, and subject of is examined

is examined. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Verb, transitive, regular, present indicative, passive, expressing what is done to its subject it

attentively. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Adverb modifying examined; compared by more and most

affords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Verb, transitive, regular, present indicative active, third person singular, and affirms of plant or animal

a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Indefinite article, showing thousand wonders to be indefinite

thousand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Numeral adjective, used to qualify wonders

wonders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Noun, neuter, objective plural, object of affords

and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Copulative conjunction, connective; connects the predicates affords and obliges

obliges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Verb, transitive, regular, present indicative active, third person singular, and affirms of plant or animal

us. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .First personal pronoun, objective plural, object of obliges and subject of admire, etc.

to admire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Verb, transitive, regular, present infinitive, active, attribute of us, or object of obliges

and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Copulative conjunction, connective, connects to admire and to adore

to adore. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Verb, transitive, regular, present infinitive, active, attribute of us, or object of obliges

that . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Demonstrative adjective pronoun, pointing out hand

omnipotent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Adjective, not compared, qualifying hand

hand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Noun, neuter, objective singular, object of to admire and to adore

by. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Preposition which shows the relation between which and was created

which. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Relative pronoun, related to hand as its antecedent, objective, object of the preposition by

it. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Third personal pronoun, neuter, nominative singular, standing for plant or animal, and subject of was created

was created . . . . . . . . .. . . . .Verb, transitive, regular, past indicative, passive, third person singular, and affirms of it

Parsing Example

A__________________________ N__________________________

B__________________________ O__________________________

C__________________________ P__________________________

D__________________________ Q__________________________

E__________________________ R__________________________

F__________________________ S__________________________

G__________________________ T__________________________

H__________________________ U__________________________

I__________________________ V__________________________

J__________________________ W__________________________

K__________________________ X__________________________

L__________________________ Y__________________________

M__________________________ Z__________________________