England and Constitutionalism

James VI (King of Scotland) becomes James I of England in 1603 (upon Elizabeth I death)Believed in absolute monarchya deo rex, a rege lex:

Kings power restricted due to Magna Carta & ParliamentRestriction important for 3 reasons:the people once rose up in arms to defend their rightsking could not levy taxes w/out consent of peoplerestriction of royal power in administering justice

Tudor monarchs had reigned for 100 yrs. Independent of Parliamentgood economycareful collection of taxesirregular expendituresconfiscation of religious propertytampering w/currencyParliament held irregular meetings (3-4 weeks a year)

Conflict arises: James I extravagant: needs $ but does not empower parliamentParliament refuses $ King requestsTo raise needed $, James I imposed customs dutiesgrants of monopoliesforced loans

Parliament protests: James I imprisons leaders of Parliament1621Commoners entered Protestation against the King; James dissolves Parliament

James I religious tendencies also anger the English

By 1625, majority of Parliament was Puritain

Charles I (1625-1649)He was to marry Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII of France1623: Charles jilted by his Spanish fiancReturns to England; wants war w/SpainCharles I spent all $ and demands more

Charles I dissolved ParliamentExperiences:difficulties in administrationfleet destroyed at CadizDefeated by Huguenots in France

1628, Charles I calls 3rd Parliament:In return for funds, must sign Petition of Right:No taxes w/out Parliaments consentNo quartering of soldiers in private homesNo martial law in time of peaceNo arbitrary imprisonment

Charles agrees: Parliament also demands Buckinghams removalhe was later assassinated

Parliament dissolved again!!For 11 years: Charles I ruled w/out Parliamentrevived old feudal duescourts levied huge finesmonopolies of wine, salt, soap soldship money

Under William Laud: Catholic restrictions relaxed; Puritan restrictions increasedCatholic practices, vestments & dogmas were re-introduced to Anglican ChurchIn Scotland, tried to make Presbyterian church Episcopal1638: Scottish signed Great Covenant defend their religion; deposed bishops and revolted against Charles ICharles I defeated and forced to call Parliament for funds for an army

Short Parliament: only 3 weeks

Nothing resolvedCharles dissolved it, but desperate for $ to put down rebellion, he calls another Parliament

Long Parliament: 1640-1660John PymArchbishop Laud and Thomas Wentworth to Tower of LondonCourt of High Commission and Court of Star Chamber abolishedNo more irregular expenditures King could no longer dissolve Parliament Law required Parliament to meet at least one time every 3 yrs.Granted $ to fight Scots

English Civil War (1642-1649) Charles and nobles, landed gentry, Roman Catholics, most Anglicans: CavaliersParliamentarians: business classes, farmers, Puritan religious sects: Roundheads, led by Oliver Cromwell

Battle of Marston Moor (1644)gave Roundheads control of northern EnglandAfter victory, Parliament abolished office of Bishop; removed altars; communion rails; allowed smashing of crucifixes, images, stained glass windows

New Model Army--Cromwell1645Battle of NasebyNew Model army destroyed Cavalier forces1646Charles surrendered to ScotsScottish Army invaded England to restore Charles I as kingPuritan forces splitsmaller group supported by Cromwells armyCromwells army intimidated Presbyterian Parliament 1648Battle of Preston Cromwell says Charles must die; executed military coup on Parliament

143 Presbyterian members purgedknown as Prides Purge60 menall independents, (Rump Parliament) determined fate of EnglandRump Parliament: sentenced Charles to death as traitor, murderer, public enemy of the peopleCharles beheaded January 30, 1649

Commonwealth 1649-1660Officially England becomes republicno monarchy or House of LordsCromwellcommander in chief of army, ruled as dictatorRump Parliament did not call for new election

1653, Cromwell dissolved Rump ParliamentHe becomes military and religious dictator of England, Scotland, IrelandAppoints new members of Legislative BodyWrote Instrument of Government1st modern constitution

Cromwell becomes Lord Protector for life1655: Cromwell became military dictator; office becomes hereditary.Successful war against Spain (1656-59) gained Jamaica in West Indies & Port of Dunkirk on the Continent for England

Stuart Restoration (1660-1680)Charles II swore to uphold Magna Carta and Petition of RightNobles paid Charles 100,000 Pounds annually Charles wanted more 1670: Secret Treaty of Dover

Charles religious policiesacts passed against PuritansEnglish saw his favoritism of Catholics1672, Prince James (Charles II brother) converted to CatholicismCharles issued Declaration of Indulgence Rumors spread about Dover 1673: Test ActTales of Popish plot 1679 Exclusion Bill

The Exclusion Bill caused much dissent in Parliament, and the two factions split into Whigssupporters of Parliament, Protestantism and merchant classmotto: life, liberty, propertyToriescourt faction motto: the king, the church, and the land

1685-1688 James II James II openly Catholic, wants to make England CatholicTries to create standing army w/Catholic officersKings right to suspend laws and statutes enacted by Parliament1687 Declaration of Indulgence exempting Catholics and dissenters from punishment for infractions of the laws

Appointed Catholics to office in army and civil government1688: second Declaration of Indulgence ordered to be read in all Anglican Churches

Glorious Revolution (1688-89)Whigs and Tories extend invitation to Mary and William to invade England from Holland and take the throne1688Williams armies enter London/James armies desert him/he flees to FranceEarly 1689Parliament offered crown to William III and Mary II jointly,

Declaration of RightsSupremacy of Parliament (rulers denied right to make or suspend laws, levy money, or maintain a standing army w/out consent of Parliament)Free electionsFreedom of debate for members of Parliament, who would meet frequentlyReasonable bail and trial by jury for the people

The Bill of Rights (Dec, 1689)additional provisions, including the barring of a Catholic as ruler1689Toleration Act granted dissenters freedom of conscience, legal right to worship in public, but tightened restrictions on Catholics1690James II forces in Ireland defeated by William III

Other Developments to 1715

Lloyds of London insurance company founded 1688Bank of England (commercial bank) founded 1694London Stock Exchange founded 1698

Mary II dies, 1694William III ruled alone until his death in 1702Queen Anne 1702-1714:last of StuartsAct of Settlement 1702 passed, to ensure succession of crown would pass to German House of Hanover 1707Act of Union combined Scotland and England into Great Britain

Age of Walpole1714: Hanoverian dynasty came to the throneGeorge I faced challenge to his titleStuart James Edward (1688-1766) son of James II landed in Scotland 1715Troops marched southward, but were defeated by George I troops

Robert Walpole (1676-1745)Debt in England controlled by South Sea CompanyGovt bonds traded for stock in companyStock price soared; then crashed in 1720Investors sold holdings; exchanged profitsParliament intervenedUnder Walpole, parliament honored national debt

Saved Englands financial integrityWalpole=Englands 1st prime ministerOriginator of Cabinet system of govtNot chosen by House of CommonsReal source of power: personal support of King

Ability to handle House of CommonsIronfisted control of government patronage:Bought support for himself/his policiesHe supplied people jobs, appointments, favor, govt contracts

Corruption=glue of political loyaltyLet sleeping dogs liepeace abroad; status quo home

Parliament, 1700s: House of Commons: not democratic nor representativeMembers elected from boroughs: only a few were large enough to hold electionsMost had few electorsRotten boroughs: Old SarumPitt family

Supremacy of Parliament=strong unity British monarch & parliament could raise tax revenues and loans to wage warAll Britons paid taxesno exemptionsBank of England secured credit marketStrong finances=cornerstone of British powerFreedom of political beliefsdebate in newspapers flourished; speech/associationNo large standing army

Netherlands:UPled by William of Orange; William III of EnglandGovt was republic: States GeneralProvinces had authorityStates General negotiated w/provincesHolland dominated States General

Dutch religiously tolerantCalvinist Reformed Churchofficial church of nationCatholics and Protestants also lived in UPHaven for JewsAll people lived peacefully togetherUrban Prosperity: enriched themselves and had high standard of living

Urban consolidation; transformation of agriculturedrained & reclaimed much land from seasteady supply of graincheap grain = land for meat and dairy; tulips extensive trade and finance; overseas commercial empire; manufacture; shipbuilding; 1675: More people lived in cities than anywhere else in Europe; 60%Decline: began in 18th centuryUpon William III death in 1702, various local provinces prevented the emergence of another strong Stadtholder

Unified political leadership vanishedNaval supremacy passed to BritishFishing industry declinedDutch lost technological superiority in shipbuildingCountries traded w/each other directly, not using Dutch shipsDisunity in provinces hastened economic declineBUT maintained financial dominance

Emergence of Prussia 1415received Brandenburg (Berlin)1618inherited duchy of Prussia, but size=weaknessgeographical separationLegacy of Frederick William Great Elector of Brandenburg (1640-1688)

1660E. Prussia independent of Polish ruleMonarchy allied w/Junkers 1701: Brandenburg becomes Prussiarecognized in 1713 Treaty of Utrecht

Frederick King in Prussia:Built palacesFounded Halle University 1694Patronized the artsLived luxuriously1701: War of Spanish Succession

King in PrussiaBecomes Frederick I, passed on title to Frederick William I in 1713Frederick William I King of Prussia (r.17131740)EccentricOne of most effective HohenzollernsImposed strict austeritySome jobs abolishedSalaries lowered

Kabinettall lower officials submitted relevant documents to Frederick William IFWI examined papers, made decisions, issued ordersOrganized bureaucracy along military linesAll departments united: General-Ober-Finanz-Kriegs-und-Domanen-Direktorium(General Directory)Imposed taxed on noblesMade remaining feudal dues monetary paymentsAdministrative loyalties=duties to monarch as political institution

Armygrew from 39,000 to 80,000 by 1740Third/fourth largest army in EuropeEach local district (canton) supplied quota of soldiers1725: FWI wore officers uniformOne regiment=tallest soldiers in Europe

Laws, customs, royal attention made officer corps highest social class in stateJunker nobility, army, monarchy=one political unitFWI had best army in Europe; but avoided conflict1740FWI dies; son Frederick II (the Great) inherits the throne

Sweden:Elevated to rank of first class power by Vasa dynastyGustavus I, successfully revolted against Danish rule in 1520Swedish kings, incl. Gustavus Adolphus and Charles XII established absolute rule

Swedens population and resources insufficient to maintain position during many wars; Sweden becomes second-class powerBy disastrous Great Northern War, Swedens supremacy in Baltic ended1720-21Treaties of StockholmSweden lost holdings in Germany (Prussia)1721Treaty of Nystadt w/RussiaSweden lost Estonia, Livonia, Ingria, and part of Finland (including Karelian Isthmus and Viborg)

Ottoman EmpireGreatest empire in Europe at death of Suleiman the Magnificent, 1566, state of tremendous decline since 1585; Corrupt administrationIntrigues among court officials

Many wars w/Austria, Russia, Venetiansstill possessed extensive empireIn Europe, most of the Balkans, most of the Aegean Islands, island of CreteIn Near East: modern Turkey, Mesopotamia, area of Syria and Palestine; part of Persia, part of Arabia; island of Cyprus

In Africa: Egypt and N. African CoastEuropean holdings were coveted by both Austria and Russialed to continuous enmity between the two countries

PolandLate 10th century, Western Slavic tribes united under Piast familyForced to develop a militaristic state to defend against Prussians, Germans, Bohemians, Hungarians, and later RussiansPolish state expanded in all directions: became kingdom by early 11th century

Many wars, both internal and external13th century, Poles came into contact w/Teutonic Knights, who conquered Prussia and blocked Polish access to Baltic Sea1410Battle of Tannenberg: Poland defeated Teutonic Knights1456-66Poles won other battles and gained access to BalticMade Teutonic Order a vassal of Polish king

Poland allied w/Lithuania, which was three times the size of Poland1569Union of Lublin officially merged Poland and Lithuaniait was the strongest state in Eastern EuropeUnder Jagiello dynasty (1386-1572) Poland at its zenith

After 1572, nobility had gained so much power that it was in fact a royal republic, with its king elected by the entire nobilityBy early 18th century, Poland was extremely weak, dominated by RussiaHad fought numerous wars w/Sweden and Russia, capped w/disastrous Great Northern War, fought mainly on Polish territory

Jealous nobility did not allow authority or national army for effective national security

AustriaAbsolute rule of Hapsburgs, held rule over HRE, but authority was really limitedThrough warfare, obtained most of Hungary from Ottomans by 16991703-1711revolt of Hungarians forced Hapsburgs to make concessions to Francis II Rakoczy (of Transylvanian nobility)

Transylvania joined the rest of Hungary as an Austrian possessionAustrian Hapsburgs had acquired Spains holdings in the Netherlands (Union of Arras)and Italy by the Treaty of Rastadt (1714) following the War of Spanish Succession

Vast land holdings and diverse minority groups were source of weakness, but Austria continually sought more territory: at the expense of the Ottoman Empire

RussiaIvan III (1462-1505) ended Mongol domination and laid foundations for Russian StateSucceeded by his son Basil III (1505-33 )1589Russian church becomes independent of Constantinople

Ivan IV (the Terrible) 1533-841549, marries Anastasia Romanova Zakarina1552Conquered Tatars at Kazan 1557-1571Livonian War 1571Tatars sack Moscow1578-79Swedes defeated Ivan in Baltic1582Poles defeated Ivan

Time of Troubles (1604-13)Ivans son Fyodor I (1584-98)Boris Godunov 1591Fyodors brother, Dmitri, age 10, found dead Boris Godunov tsar (1598-1605)

False Dmitri IPoland, and Catholic support 1604Dmitri invades w/force of Cossacks, Polish warriors, peasants1605, victory at hand and Godunov dies Dmitri crowned tsarreigned 13 months

Prince Shuisky elected tsar (1606-1613)1670-71Ivan Bolotnikov, Other Pretenders come to throneSweden and Poland seized territories Russian people rallied together Novgorod

Zemsky Sobor and elected tsar: 16 yr old Michael Romanov Michael not strong tsar, nor was his son Alexis, or grandson Fyodor III;

Society up to Peter I

Serfdom of peasants firmly establishedLocal self-government disappearedNational assembly ceased to meet regularlyRussian adventurers crossed Siberia and reached Pacific in 1637

Vast areas of Ukraine won by war w/Poland (1654-67)Cities of Smolensk and Kiev returnedprimarily due to CossacksBolotnikovs revolt crushedFirst of Russo-Turkish wars over Ukraine fought successfully 1677-81

Peter I (the Great) 1689-17251) Make power of tsar absolutecurbed nobility and enforced state service for all landowners: army, civil service, or courtswhen Alexis, his son, opposed his policies, he was imprisoned and tortured to deathabolished the patriarchate and made Russian church a department of the State

2) To westernize Russia1) made long tour of w. Europe early in his reign2) fascinated by western dress, technology, and customs3) decrees of westernization were only temporarily successfuldid not last after his rule (beard tax, forced western dress)

3)Obtain Window on the West1) successful in Baltic against Sweden (Great Northern War 1700-21)a) 1700: fought Charles XII at NarvaSweden outnumbered 4-byRussians, but Charles XII attacks anyway and winsb) Russia open to invasion; Peter retreats to Moscowc) melts church bells for cannons

2) 1701, Charles XII turns to Poland, defeating Poland and deposing the king and installing his own candidate on the throne3) 1703Peter attacks Swedish forts at Naenskance and wins4) Peter decides to build a city: St. Petersburg, on this land5) all materials imported; all nobles had to build a palace here

6) 1708Charles XII returns; Peter adopts a scorched earth policy as winter takes its toll on Swedes; 7) 1709-armies meet at Poltava; Swedes outnumbered 5-1 Charles becomes wounded in heel; cant lead his troopsPeter wins and Sweden never strong enough to challenge Russia again.

Turks entered war against Russia (Charles sought sanctuary in Turkish territory)From 1710-11;1714, new coalition of England, Hanover, Denmark, Saxony, and Prussia joined Russia against Sweden and shortly after Charles XII was killed in action (1718)Sweden forced to accept defeat

1721Treaty of Nystadt: Russia gained Estonia, Livonia, Ingria, part of Finland (Karelian Isthmus and Viborg) from Sweden

In wars against Ottoman Empire, Peter not successful Russian expeditions captured Azov on the Black Sea in 1696In war of 1710-11, Turks captured Peter I and was forced to ransom himself and return Azov to the Turks

Russian expansion to Amur River, bordering Manchuria and Siberia was halted by Chinese with Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689) forcing Russia to evacuate its occupied territory