•

OcT. 1 r, 1901.] E N G I N E E R I N G. 505

THE TOOLING OF MACHINES. and blame the machine-tool maker for having and then spend money. on hi!fi that he may learn claimed that the machines supplied will do more the sm~rtest ways ~f domg thmgs ; tha~ such know­work than they (the direc~ors) have proved them I ledge, 10 turn, might re~ct upon t~eu· own shop capable of doing. I methods _1 Would they th10k of sendmg such a man

By JoHN A s BFORD, M. Inst. Mech. E. Moon has been written and said of late about

up-to-date machine tools; comparatively littl~, however, has been put forward about the using of these machines. It is all very well for diJ:ectors to see fine m~chines producing certain articles at a great ra.te, within prescribed limits of size, and, becoming infatuated therewith, purchasing them as the right thing to modernise their establishments.

Sometimes the wise man decides that he will to Amenca, to Germany, or even to the Glasgow take a fast hold of the machine-tool maker by sub- Exhibition, that he might. pie~ up new _ideas to mitting a sample of the work to be machined, and introduce int? the producmg std~ of ~heu shops 1 requiring a guarantee as to the rate of output, the No; they might send a ma.nagtng dt~·ector, who maker to supply all tools required. This, on the doubtless would overlook ~he war certa~n tools are outside, looks to be a more sensible proceeding ; made and fitted to a machine to msure 1ts success ; but it must be followed up to do much good. The but a draughtsman or tool-maker, who would be

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It is quite another thing to prepare the tools and to economical director will expect the tools to do theil' get the machines into proper working condition, full amount of work when lubricated with a trickle producing at the speed they should. This part of suds from a drip-can, because a proper pump of the business is more important than all else, yet would cost 4l. or 5l., and he could not countenance it is usually left to the workmen or forEman to such nonsensical extravagance as the use of such a scheme out the tools, and put the machine to work. lubricant as lard oil, costing goodness knows how Probably neither of the men who are thus made many shillings per gallon. It is the old tale : penny­responsible fo1· the working of the machines have wise, pound-foolish. A good lubricant applied to eYer seon one like them before, let alone had cutting tools saves its cost many times over by the experience in the tooling of them. ' Vhen it is increase of output possible by its use. found that the cost of the productions is greater than H ow many directors would think to select a was expected, the directors open their eyes and smart intelligent young fellow, offer him a good wonder how it i9 ; they then open their mouths, I wage to bind himself to them for a. term of years,

keen to see such things-pay his expenses to learn - never !

Much may. ~e. learnt even by a visit to the Glasgow Exh1 h1t10n, or to other people's factories if you look at the right things. ' ~at. a lot of good it.would do bright fellows,

qu1ck to understand a thmg and at retaining what they see, if they could spend a. few hours around the machines on Messrs. Alfred H erbert's stall for example, looking into the tool arrangements ! Few firms have spent more effort, time, and money in the perfecting of small tools for turret lathes and screw machines than they. Quite ~ number of

•

so6 ~ N G t N E E R. 1 N C. turret lathes and automatic screw machines may there be seen at work upon many kinds of jobs.

The tools for producing a little show piece-a small hexagonal button, with a shank like an ordi­nary shirt-stud-are cleverly constructed. The ~ront of the button is tooled out, a hole is drilled 1n each of the fiats, the back is undercut and the firm'~ name is ~m pressed upon the iront. 'A sketch of this bu.tton 1s rep!oduced in Fig. 1. It is rarely that ~o difficult a p1ece of work as this has to be machmed on an automatic lathe; but it, as is in­tended, affords an excellent example of what can b~ done on these machines. Practical tool-makers will a~ree, when they have looked into their con­structiOn~ that .the tools used for making this button are very mgenwus.

in order to l?revent t~e letters getting crossed, it must be posstble to adJUSt the markina tool to and fr~m the centre of t he machine. The tool-shank A (Ftg. 8) has a slide cut transversely across its end to receive the holder B for the letter marked C. The socket which holds the htter is inclined at an angle of 80 deg. to the centre line of the shank This gives the necessary clearance for the letters. so that those upon one side only touch the work: The marker has a groove turned in its stem, so that the end of a grub-screw through the holder may enter it and act as a retainer. A steel washer and set of balls are introduced t o form a ball thrust under the marker, so that it may revolve freely when in con tact with the work.

. Let us now go carefully into the various opera­tiOns and the details of the different tools. The ~tock used is rolled hexagonal brass bar. It is held 1n the p~ll-i? collet chuck illustrated in Fig. 2. The chuck,, 1t w1ll be observed, has a projecting dog upon 1ts front face. The object of this dog will be understood when the other tools have been de­~cribed. Fig. 3 is a detail of the chuck ring, which 1s screwed upon the end of the machine spindle This ring has two internally-coned parts-the on~ t? receive the collets, and the other for the steady r1ng on the front of tool No. 3 (Fig. 4) to fit into. Both the collet and chuck ring are made of cast steel hardened and ground.

The first operation after the bar has been fed fo~ward is to advance tool No. 1 (see Fig. 4), to dnll the central hole and face the end of the button.

The second operation consists in bringing for­ward tool No. 2, which rolls the name upon the part that has been faced.

The tool that is brought forward for the third operation is a splendid example of the tool- maker's o.rt. It carries six drills, which simultaneously drill holes in the centre of each of the fiats of thP. hexagon, and face same, the drills advancing trans­v~rsely to the lathe axis. The drills automatically w1thdraw from the holes when their work is done, and the complete tool recedes with Uie turret. This tool may be called No. 3 for after-reference.

As the holes which are drilled through the sides of the hexagon enter the central cavity, burrs arc left on the interior ; therefore tool No. 4 is brought up to ream them out, finish t he face, and take off the inner edge with a small radius. At the same time, and as part of this OJ?eration (the fourth), a double tool, No. 5 (Fig. 5), on the front part of the cross-slide, is fed forward to form the back of the button, which, it will be noted, is undercut. In order to do the undercutt ing, tool No. 5 is assisted by the adjustable pin No. 6 (Fig. 4), carried in a collar attached to the shank of tool No. 4.

For t he fifth operation, the carrier No. 7 (Fig. 4) is brought into position by the turret, and then tool No. 8 (Fig. 5), held in the re~r holder of the cross-slide, is brought up to the work, to round the back and cut off the button at one motion. As the button drops, the carrier No. 7 catches it, and it therein r emains until the carrier in its progress comes to the position where there is a cam (No. 9), which causes a slide in the bottom of the carrier to be withdrawn, and so allows the button to fall into a tray beneath.

The third tool is one that is somewhat difficult to describe in writing, and no doubt it will require c~reful ~eading to clearly understand the construc­tiOn . . F1gs. 9 t~ 21 a.re drawi.ngs showing the parts of this tool. F1g. 9 IS a sectwn and end view but these !'lone are insufficient to clearly show the' con­structiOn. By carefully examining each detail and no~ing i.ts positio~ in the complete tool, the .;hole ~h1ng will be readily understood. Fi_g. 10, page 508, IS the shan.k, made of cast ~tee], as .are nearly all the parts of th1s tool. A hole of two dtameters is bored thro~gh its centre, and a key way is cut inside through­out Its length. A half-round groove is cut upon the exterior where it fits into the turret. This groove, when in correct position, coincides with the oil-supply hole in the turret from which the oil comes to flush the drills. This detail is well

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So much for the various operations. Now turn to Fig. 7, where we find details of tool No. 1. The holder A is of mild steel, with a parallel shank ! in. in diameter, and a 1

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[OcT. i 1, i 901.

Fi~. 16 there is a hardened and ground shank whiCh acts as a journal, fitting into and runnina in the phosphor-bronze bush as a bearing, in the be~el­wheel spindle (Fig, 13). It will be seen that this shank or journal has a groove turned in it to receive the ~pecia:l hardened steel key ment ioned in con­nec~t?n With the bronze bush. The key is placed in pos1t10n from the outside of the bevel-wheel boss and it is held in place by a screw, half in the key and half in the metal of the boss. When the back part of the drill carrier is put in position, the shank or journal fitting in the bronze bush and the key in place, the possible relative motions are rotary only.

The front half of the drill carrier (Fig. 17) has a projecting part shaped like a helix with one turn only, the two ends of the helix not quite meeting, thu.s leaving a V -shaped depression between them, w h10h acts as a positive clutch, the helical shape facilitating engagement. Looking back at the collet chuck (Fig. 2), it will be seen that projecting from the front there is a V-shaped dog, which is intended to engage this helical clutch.

Turning again to Figs. 16 and 17. The two faces of these pieces which come together have a series of semi-circular depressions milled in them, so shaped that the bevel-wheel drill spindles illustrated in Fig. 18 may fit into them. To insure that these depressions are true to each othe1:, they are fitted together with three dowel pins, and afterwards machined together and reamod. The rear of the back plate (Fig. 16) is machined out to break into

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the bevel portion of the depressions in t.he face. This is so that the bevel-wheel part of Fig. 13 may gear with the bevels in the drill carrier. It will now be understood that if the drill carrier as a whole is,.caused. to r~tate while the bevel-wheel spindle (] 1g. 13) lS stationary, each of the bevel-wheel drill spindles will be caused to rotate about its own axis. The drills illustrated in Fig. 19 fit into the little bevel spindles, and a small spiral spring is placed in the recessed hole under the collar of each drill. These spiral springs always tend t o push the drills away from the work, and thus act as the withdraw­ing agents after the holes have been drilled.

The fore end is increased in diameter, slotted to receive the faciog cutter B, and screwed for the adj usting nut C. The drill D, fitting into the central hole of the tool, has a. shallow groove cut along its length for one edge of the facing cutter B to lie within, to insure a clear facing cut. A slot E is cut in the holder to receive the cutter, which has a small pip at one end for the adjusting nut to engage. The holder is also provided with a set screw to secure the cutter when adj usted, and it has a curved groove cut in its front to free the chips.

i'he details of tool No. 2 are shown in Fig. 8. This t ool is for marking the letters on the face of the button, by impressing them into the metal. The natural way to indent letterB is to stamp them in · but the machine on which these buttons are pr~duced does not lend itself to a stamping process ; consequently there is but one alternative, and that is to roll them in. For this process to be a success, the whole of the pressure on the tool. must be con­centrated upon but one letter at a time; further,

shown in Fig. 6. The driving sleeve, so-called, as it drives the drills into the work-or, in other words, puts on the feed- is detailed in Fig. 11. Upon it there are six prongs, or fingers, tapered down upon the interior, one to each drill. The inside is bored out with an annular chamber, wherein a spiral spring is compressed when in working condition. The driving sleeve is bored out to fit upon the shank, and when in position thereon, a row of balls is placed between the sleeve and the collar of the shank, with retaining ring (Fig. 12) to keep them in place. It may here be remarked that the sleeve above mentioned is free to revolve upon the shank, and when at work it does so revolve.

The next detail to be considered has an im­p01·tant function to perform, inasmuch as it is partly the means of rotating the six little drills. It is called a bevel-wheel spindle, because it is a combinat-ion of both .those details. The spindle part is turned to fit the smallest internal diameter of the shank, and it has a feather key which fits the keyway therein. This spindle may not revolve, because it is keyed to the shank which is fixed in the turret ; there is nothing, however, to prevent it sliding longitudinally. A bevel-wheel with a specially large boss is formed at one end, and the boss is bored out and fitted with a phosphor-bronze bush together with a special hard steel key, the functions of which will soon be noted. A retaining screw (Fig. 14) prevents the spindle, when in position, from bein~ entirely withdrawn, and a bard steel plug (Fig. 15) takes the thrust from the front part of the tool. The piece which actually carries the drills is made in two parts-the back (Fig. 16) and the fron t (Fig. 17). At the b~ck of the piece illustrated in

Let us consider now the means for feeding forward the drills when cutting. Both parts of the drill c~rrier (Figs. 16 and 17) have grooves cut in their peripheries, corresponding to and central with each drill position. When the tool as a whole is built up, the prongs or fingers described as part of the driving sleeve (Fig. 11) lie in these grooves, the drill carrier being free to slide along inside the driving sleeve for a certain distance. When such a sliding action takes place, the tapered ends of the fingers gradually slide over the drills and so push them inwards. Inside the driving sleeve there is a spiral spring which presses against the back of the drill carrier, always tending to push it out, which it proceeds to do as the turret recedes from the work. The thin steel cover (Fig. 20) is put on, and the conical steady plate (Fig. 21) is fixed, with its three screws passing through the front part of the drill carrier and sr.rewed into the back. The use of the conical steady plate is not at first obvious. Refer .. ring to the chuck ring (Fig. 3), it is seen to have a conical depression of a size corresponding to the

I

OcT. I I, I901. j

steady plate ; and when No. 3 tool com es into action, t hese reverse cones fit together and bring everything truly lineable. I~ sh ould be n oted th~J.t the illustrations of this t ool are not all dra wn to the same scale, but dimensions are marked upon each part.

The way in which this t ool works will n ow be understood if its action is traced. The button to be drilled is revolving with the chuck, and con­tinues so to revolve during the whole process of drilling the s ix holes. The tool No. 3, carried in the turret, advances, the button enters, and t h e pl'Oj ect ing dog upon the chuck engages the helical clutch on the front of the tool, the steady plate at the same time entering th e r ecess of th e chuck ring. The pa rt of the tool comprising t he drill carrier, wit;h the drills, the cover and the driving sleeve, revolve togeth er. The bevel spindle (Fig. 13) can­n o~ revolve, so the drills receive a r otary motion. The t urret still advances, and as it does so the d'rill carrier slides into t he driving sleeve, and t he drills advance upon the bulton to drill the h oles and face the flats.

Wit.h a tool of this kind, somewhat complicated in its construction and with many wearing parts , it is essential t hat it should be k ept in good condition, and that metal cuttings should clear th e drills. For this p urpose, and to insure the successful working of t he tools, th ere mus t be a copious supply of lubri­c~nt, the method of supplying which has been already m entioned.

'l'he fourth tool (Fig. 22) is very similar to No. 1 in its construction, with the difference that instead of a drill t here is a doubleD bit r eamer (Fig. 23). I t is here spoken of as double, b ecause the larger part is hollow and r eceives the s maller one. To fix: the inner one in its interior, the larger bit is h alf cut away for a sh ort d istance at the end to be fixed inside the tool shank, so that a set screw may tigh ten upon th e small bit. A second set screw fixes the large one. There is another small difference in the tool from No. 1. A second cutter is inserted on the opposite side tJ the facing cutter, to put a radius on the inside edge of the face.

At the same time as t h e hole is ream ed, tool No. 5 is brought up on the cross-slide from t he front of the machine, to form the b1ck or stem parh of the button. This back, as was previously n oted, is undercut, and t he Wll.Y that i t is turned is as follows : N o. 5 tool is mounted in a spring h older, and i t is fed into i ts cut before the r eamer comes into action. When it has advanced forward as far as is n ecessary, the tool is ready for the under ­cutting to commence. By t hat time t he reamer will have been fed up far enough for t he set scre w N o. 6 to push against t he spring slide, imparting to it a side movement, so caus ing the tool to tur n the undercut portion. When th e reamer withdrll.ws, the spring in the tool-holder causes i t to move back t o its normal p osition, when the tool can draw a. way from the work.

The t ools Nos. 7 and 8 are too simple to need detailed explanations; it will suffice to say that No. 7 is merely a receptacle to catch the button as it fa lls . The lower part is made to slide so that it can be drawn back by t h e cam, thus releasing the button. A spiral spring inside closes the slide after the cam is passed.

• (To be contimud.)

LITERATURE. A Select B ibliography of Chemi&try, 17!l2 to 1897. By

HENRY CABRINGTON BOLTON. Section VIII. Academic Dis<:ertation~. Washington : P ublished by the Smith­sonian Institution.

IN n oticing t his large octavo vqlume of 534 pages, we do not so much desire to d eal with t h e parti­cular subject, as to draw attention to the high value of the miscellaneous collections of th e Smith­sonian Institution, of which this book forms the 1253rd number and forty-first volume. The " Select Bibliog raphy of Chemistry " was published in 1893; the first supplement of 1899 brought the literat ure down to the close of 1897 ; this volume, Section VII I. of the work, is devoted exclusively to academic d isser tations, especially from t h e univer­sities of France, Germany, Russia, and the United States. What is offered in t his h ook is a list of the independent ly printed dissertation~' i.e. , rep?rts on orig inal researches conducted with t~e o~J~ct of obtaining a degree at one of t he universtt~es of t he countries ment ioned, and printed as speCial papers, as a rule, but not n eceesarily so, in

~ N G i N E E R t N C. the respective university. These dissertations generally appear, eith er in extenso or in abstract, in some important p eriodical, such as t he "Berichte der D eutsch en Chemischen Gesellschaft ." The book before us is, however, not an index t o such publications or journals. Since d egrees are not secured in this country in the same way as on t he Continent and in the United S t ates, the U nited Kingdom and its Colonies are not all r epresented in this list. The dissertations are arranged alpha ­betically according to t he authors' names, and the t itles are reproduced in the original language. M ost of the old dissertations were written in L atin. On t he whole, German predominates in the b ook ; a special list of Russia n titles has been contributed by Professor A . Krupsky, of St. Petersburg. A very carefully compiled subject-matter index, com­pris ing almost a hundred pagos, concludes the volume. That some of the titles of the disserta­tions are rather general ca nnot be helped. The work was commenced by th e author- who acknow­ledges his indebtedness to many librarians and fellow scientists-in 1888, and contains so far more t han 25,000 entries. The fourth volume, n ow in pro­gress, will supply omissions. A glance through t his third volume certainly does n ot suggest the idea that this fourth supplement will be large. But completeness is very difficult to realise in such matters, and though there are, of course, a good many dissertations of minor interest among t he number, a. good deal of valuable research is buried in these small or large pamphlets, and Mr. Bolton therefore deserves thanks for having bestowed so much care and painstaking labour on his compila­tion. Some of these dissertations are scarcely pro­curable, and t he addition of the letters G. S. and S. I . , meaning that they are to be found in the l ibraries of the Geological Survey or of t he S mith­sonian Institute respectively, is therefore very wel­come. Most of th e more recent dissertat ions can be consulted in either or b oth of these libraries, and such a search may prove very useful. Young chemists are not rarely, on entering into practical life, prevented from following up the particular line of study which attracted them during their U niver ­s ity time, and thus useful, if not directly promisin g, work is lost sight of. The volume is very well printed, and apparently free of all misprints, thanks to repeated revisions.

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Modern Appliances in Gas Manufacture. By FLETOHER W . STEVENSON, M. Inst. C.E. London: The Fielden Publishing Company, Limited. [Price 5s.]

Elektrische Kraftilbertrag1Vng und Kroftverteilung. Bear­beitet von C. AnLDT. Berlin: J ulius Springer.

First Stage B uilding Const-ruction. By BRYSSON CuN­NINGHAM, B. E., Assoc. M. Inst. C. E . L ondon: W. B. Olive. [Price 2d.]

English T'clvnical D ialogues. being Practical Exercises in the T errninolOflY of Maritime l'Tldustries. W i th I talia!n Note&. B.v P rofessor RAFl!'AELE GA?IfBARO. Genoa: Deaf and Dumb Institute Printting Office.

Cement Users' and Buyers' Guide. By CALOAIBE. L ondon: E. and F. N. Spon, Limited; New York : Spon and Chamberlain. [Price 2s. 6d. net.]

T he Use amd Working of the Watch Calculator and the Slide R ule. Manchester: The Scientific Publishing Company. [Price 1s. net.]

Steam Engincerilng. By W. W. F. P uLLEN, Wh. S:l. , M. Inst. M E. Manchester : The Scientific Publishing Company. [Price 4s. net.]

Physical Deterrninations.: By W. R. K ELSEY, B.Sc. (Lond.). London: Edward Arnold. [Price 4s. 6d. ]

The P revention of S1n0kc combined with the E conornical Combustion of F uet. By W. C. P oPPLEWBLL. M.Sr. L ')ndon : Scott, Green weed, and Co. [Price 7 d. 6d. net.]

THE NEW SUBWAY IN NEW YORK CITY.

By CHABLES P&ELIN I , C.E., New York. (Ccmtinued from page 480.)

THE S ubway line, as finally adopted, runs under­gr ound for a. distance of 16 mile£3, thus interfering with the sewers of the city to such an extent that i t became imperative to re-arrange the whole system before proceeding with the active con­struction of the subway.*

In preparing the plans for this extensive and laborious operation, a thorough study was made of t he city drainage system, and the proposed r e­arrangement was carried out under the direction of Mr. Calvin W. Hendrick, member of the American Society of Civil Engineers.

In pursuing his examinat ion, Mr. Hendr ick found that some of the older sewers were too large, while others were too small for t he area drained, no scientific principle having seemingly been used in determining the size of the sections originally adopted; furtherm ore, some of the ma ins showed evidences of having been built by political contractors, who, for obvious reasons, employed poor materials and worse workmanship.

The drainage p ipes of New York are generally constructed on the perpendicular system, running along the streets and avenues, and discharging into th e mains built along some of the lowest-lying streets of the city. These mains have outlets on the East River or on the Hudson River, according to the topographical conditions of the locality . In t he work of r e-arrangement, the Rapid Transit ~ommiss~on adopted the general plan of building m.terceptmg sewers along the s~bway, connecting wtth all t he house and street drams on one side of the road. Fig. 7 of our two-page plate shows the construction of one of these intercepting sewers built on Broadway, near 54th-street.

Great difficulties were encountered at many points in lowering the mains, especially a t Canal­street and at !lOth-street. The line of the subway crosses Canal-street 6 ft. below the meSln high-water level, and intercepts the main sewer wh~ch ~rai_ns a very ~arge section of the city, afte; whtch It discharges Int o t he Hudson R iver. This difficulty was met by tapping the old main west of the subway line, and building a new one on the east side, discharging into t he East River. The ol~ Ca!la.l-street sewer was built in horseshoe shape, w1th s ide walls 9 ft. apart , and each t hrown across as shown in Fig. 8. 'fhe n ew sewer has different sections in different places. It is circular, 5 f t. 6 in. in diam eter up to L eonard. street ; 6 ft. 6 in. from Leonard-.stre~t t o Madison -street.. I t is box-shaped, 4! ft.. h1gh 1n the centre and 7 ft. wide from Madison-~treet t o South-street, where it passes under old Pier 34 in a double wooden barrel sewer 4 ft. 6 in. in diameter.

Figs. 9 and 10 show the sections of the circular sewer, Figs. 11, 12, and 13 the section plan and longitudinal section of t he box sewer, ~nd Fig. 14 the wooden barrel sewers and their connection wit h the box-sewer.

The circular sewers are built of brick upon a bed

* On page ~80 of our last issue a printer's error <'ccurred. makmg the date of commencing the New Yo1k Sobway HlOl, instead of 1900 .

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so8 E N G I N E E R I N G. [OcT. It, 1901.

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of concrete. The box sewer is a reproduction of opening left on the floor of the sewer, and 2ft. 11 in. the subway in miniature, having side walls resting by 4 ft. 6 in. . on a bed of concrete, which, in treacherous soil, All the work of re-arranging the sewers was is laid on a platform made of planks fixed to the done by open excavation, with the exception of piles which were sunk into the ground; 1-beams that at Chatham-square, where a tunnel had to be are laid acroEs the side walls and brick arches be- driven. The reasons for tunnelling at a depth of tween the beams. It was found necessary to change only 29 ft. below the street surface were the heavy the form of the section from circular to rectan- truck traffic across Chatham-square, the important gular on account of the small distance be- lines of street railways which cross the site, and tween the roof of the sewer and the surface the proximity of the footings of the elevated rail­of the street. The floor is paved with stone, way, all of which are shown in Figs. 24 to 29. The inclined towards the centre, at which point the soil is generally a very fine dry sand, requiring the sewer is, in consequence, 6 in. lower than at careful sheeting of any deep trench, so that tunnel­the side walls. The wooden barrel sewer is made ling in such a busy thoroughfare offered quite a up of 63 strakes of oak plank 4 in. thick, bound number of advantages. together with galvanised iron bands, 2! in. by tin., A shaft was lowered in the middle of Chatham­made in two segments and bolted together; the square, and a tunnel 8 ft. by 8 ft. was begun in bands are from 3 ft. to 4 ft. apart. both directions. Two other shafts were sunk at

Figs.15 to 18 show the construction of the barrel the ends where the trench work was to be resumed, sewer, and details of the connection of these so that the tunnel was attacked at four points two barrels with the box sewer, while Figs. 19 simultaneously. and 20 show the manner in which they are sup- Though the tunnel under Chatham- square is ported by the pier structure. In Figs. 21 to 23 short, and the cross-section of small dimensions, are shown the mouthpiece of the wooden barrel so that it might be considered a heading rather sewer, which is tapped at the end, and which than a tunnel, yet it is marked by a novel method dis ~barges into the river through a rectangular

1 of carrying out the minor details which may, perhaps,

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be usefully employed in the construction of other tunnels. The three new devices used in driving this tunnel are : (1) the use of a single set -of poling boards, or lagging, for the support of the roof, which boards are pushed ahead by means of a ratchet jack working horizontally ; (2) support­ing these boards ahead of the finished masonry by means of a cantilever ; (3) sheeting the front and sides of the heading with horizontal planking laid over canvas, which is rolled down as the side of the excavation descends.

To prevent the running down of the sand from the roof, one edge of each poling board was pro­vided with a lapping plate, 3 in. wide, resting 1! in. on the board, while the other 1 t in. lapped over the other edge of the next poling board, so that by means of this device a continuous roof was obtained. The planks used were 16 ft. long, and extended 4! ft. back over the arch. The roof was advanced continuously, precisely in the same way as the roof shield which was employed in the con­struction of the Boston Subway. Since it wa' not possible to apply the jacks at the rear end of the paling boards, an arrangement was devised which permitted their being driven from the underside at successive intermediate points

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OcT. I I, 1901.] E N G I N E E R I N G.

THE NEW YORK SUBWAY.

FIG. 31. B ELL-YiouTH CoNNECTING SEWERS AT 110Ta-STREET .A N.L> FIFTH-AvENUE.

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Fw. 30. J u NCTION 01~ .!!:WElt CHAMUE tt ON EACH SIDE OF S o nwAY A'l' llOTn -STREET AND L~NOX-AVENUE .

1 ft. apart. At these points holes were bored being intended to receive the jacking bars, in the po1ing boards, and vrovided with steel against which the screw jack operated while plates flush with the side surface, the holes abutting against the masonry already built . The

jacking bars rested on a beam laid across the t unnel and supported at both ends by pillars of masonry, also previously built. The puling boards of the roof were supp0rted by an I -beam resr.ing with its two ends on the masonry of the side walla. The poling boards near the front of t he excavation were supported by a similar ! -beam laid across the section of the tunnel and parallel to the first one. This beam was supported at the centre by a canti­lever beam of I section and similar to the other beams, the cantilever beam being supported by another I -beam laid t ransversely to the tunnel and known as the fulcrum beam. It rested on t he masonry of the side walls . At the rear end of the cantilever beam there was a ratchet jack which caused the front end of the cantilever, and conse­quently the beam that it supported, to press hard against the poling boards, the beam being released by simply reversing the screw of the jack. .All the vertical faces of the excavation were sheeted with short lengths of horizontal boards, covered on the outside with lap-jointed vert ical strips of canvas, from 3 ft. to 9 ft . wide and about 9 ft. long .

The excavation, the concrete footing, the invert, and the arch were all made in unit sections from 1 ft. to 4-t ft. in length. The maximum rate of advance at a single front was 12 ft . in a week.

Important changes were also made in re-arranging the se wers at !lOth-street. The new sewer starts at !16th-street, runs south under the western sidewalk along Lenox-avenue, passing under the subway at llOth-street at s. depth of 22 ft. The section of this sewer is circular, being 5 ft. 5 in. in diameter and built of brick. Since the depth of the subway would not allow of the construction of this circular sewer under its floor, a chamber was built on both sides of the rail way, and communicat ion between these two chambers was established by means of three 42-in. iron pipes, as shown in Fig. 30.

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Starting from the lower chamber, the sewer resumes its circular section, being 6i ft. in di~meter, runs east along !lOth-street, under the sidewalk to Fifth­avenue, at which point it strikes a large 8-ft. by 12-ft. sewer, 2 ft. below mean high-water level. The intersection of the 6~-ft. circular with the 8-ft. by 12-ft. sewer was also- the point of convergency for the sewers coming from the north and from the south of Fifth-avenue. At this point a bell-mouth arch was t hrown across the new and the old sewer. It is a little over 20ft. in length, and is made of brick reinforced with concrete. Fig. 31, page 509, shows the interior of this chamber, vaulted with the bell-mouth arch, and als'J the connection with the intercepting sewers.

At !49th-street and Railroad-avenue, in the Borough of the Broux, the subway crosses in such a manner as to greatly interfere with the flow of any projected sewer. In consequence, it was found necessary to syphon the sewer. For this purpose, the 6i-ft. circular sewer leads into a chamber which is divided into two parts, and which may be opened or closed at will by means of stop-valves. Each of these parts is provided with a 4-ft. iron pipe, having a catch-basin un<;ler the chute, where solid materials can be deposited and afterwards removed by means of the manhole built above. The elbows at the end of the syphon communicate with anoLher cham her similar to the first ; thence on ward the circular form of 6!-ft. brick sewer is resumed, and the flow discharged into the Harlem River.

Besides the sewers, there were other pipes for gas, water, and electric leads, which had also to be re-arranged ; but they did not offer such technical difficulties as the sewers, because they could be dis­placed 'vertically and laterally within considerable limits. Hence their re-arrangement calls for no detailed description. ·

(To be oontinued.)

THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. (Continued from page 477.)

MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CONVECTION CURRENTS. SINCE a galvanic current deflects a magnetic

needle near which it flows, a moving electrostatic charge should have a similar effect. The experi­ment was tried by Rowla.nd in 1872, in Helmholtz's laboratory, with success, and was repeated w~th equal success by R ontgen, Rowla.nd and Hutchln­son and Himstedt. Four years ago Mr. V. Cre'mieu then wishina to take his degree in Paris, tried th~ experiment under different conditio~s­his object was originally not the same- and failed, as Lecher had before him. He devised other ar­rangements to meet ~1~ objections. raised b_y eminent French physicists who w1tnessed his experiments, but never obtained anything ~ike the calculated effect. Thus the famous Cremieu con­troversy arose, which the late Professor Fitzgerald brought up at the _Bradford. meeting last year. This year Dr. Cremi~u '!'as himself.present to de­scribe his apparatus In Its five. chief forms. As everything turns upon the deta1ls. adopted to pre­vent possible sources o~ err.or, a1r currents, w<;>b­bling of the disc, stat1c dtscharges, &c.~ wh10h Reem to multiply as the researches proceed, It ~ould bs useless to indicate more than the broad 1dea.. Row land caused a hard rubber disc, coated with gold, to spin between two glass plates, lik~wise gilt .on their inner surfaces ; he charged the disc by a pmnt or brush earthed the condenser plates , and watched for the deflection of a magnetic needle suspended above the plate and encased in met~l. Cremieu places a coil of 13,000 turn~ of coppe: wtre in series with a. galvanometer outside the dtsc of metal or silvered rubber, which is suddenly charged, and he looks for the induction current in the coil. But no effect could be observed when deflections of nearly 1 in. we~e calcula~ed. He has surrounded t he disc with an uon framtng, and has also _adopted a cylindrical arranaement, charged sand being blown by a current of c:rbon dioxide gas through a funnel and a cylinder-a sort of sand kat~ ode rays. As it was objected that the meta.ll1c fr~me would cut off any external . effect of the ~ovmg charge, he has dispensed with the metallic screens, a.~d returned to the astatic needle system, enca.sed In a box of 0.4 millimetre copper; when a gra.ph1te box was used, an effect was observed due apparently to electrostatic action. . .

Dr. H. A. Wilson, who opened the dtscu~sion, ~s he bad criticised Cremieu's papers ~publtshed _In the Oomptes Rend'ltS) in the Philosophwal Magaztne

E N G I N E E R I N G.

for August, believed that the moving charge drew round with it an equal opposite static charge on the metallic framing, so that no external effect would arise ; he also referred to continuous brush discharges from the disc, and touched upon other points. Dr. Larmor did not admib the cogency of these arguments; Dr. Cremieu's experiments seemed to be well devised and carried out, though they would force us to abandon our notion that electricity is something atomic. Professors Schuster, A. Gray, Hicks, Glazebrook, and S. P. Thompson also made suggestions, generally agree­ing that the question required further experimental investigation. Lord K elvin had no doubt that a current of electrified particles must have an electro­magnetic effect, and suggested further trials with a simple disc charged by friction and an astatic needle. On the whole, the Section seemed to be influenced by Mr. Harold Pander's recent repiti­tion of the experiment under R owland's supervi­sion, just before the latter's death. Pender has shown* that the current induced in the coil

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(Cremieu's arrangement) by reversing a convection current in its vicinity is equal to the current in­duced in this coil by reversing a conduction cur­rent of the same strength as the convection current in a circuit, coinciding with the path of the con vec­tion current; and Eichenwa.ld, t we may add, has just come to the same conclusion. D1·. Oremieu does not admit that his experiment would revolu­tionise our ideas, and he grants that Pander's experiment makes him rather doubtful. One point, probably of no importance, was not touched upon­the comparatively slow speed of the moving charges; discs about 1ft. in diameter, making up to 117 revo­lutions, and charged to several thousands of volts, have been employed.

VrscosrTY oF MAGNETISABLE LIQUIDs AND SoLIDs IN MAGNETIC FIELDS.

Professor A. Gray had two papers dealing with the influence of a. magnetic field on the viscosity of magnetisable solids and liquids. While the viscosity of soft iron was diminished as the magnetic induc­tion increased, that of nickel was augmented ; vertical wires were longitudinally magnetised while under torsional oscillation. The magnetisable liquids were ferrous sulphate and ferric chloride, solutions of which were passed through a capillary tube, placed in the lines of force, or at right angles to them. The viscosity was diminished only in the former case. Professor A. Gray and Dr. W. Stewa.rt also contributed a. paper on a. "New Elec­tromagnet and an Echelon Spectroscope for Mag­neto.Optic Observat ions. "

MAGNETISATION AND ELECTRICAL CoNDUCTIVITY OF IRON .AND NICKEL.

Mr. G. Barlow reported that the electrical resist­ance of the magnetised wire increased noticeably, approximately with the square of the magnetic in­duction, and much more than we should expect from the changes in the volumes of the wires. We may mention with regard to these · papers that Pro­fessor Quincke has tried to study the volumetric changes which ferric chloride undergoes in thermo­meter-like vessels under magnetisation, and h~J.s found his task exceedingly diflicult. Messrs. J. W . Peck and R. A. Houston presented a paper on " Stress and Magnetisation of Nickel and Cobalt."

MAGNETIC WoRK oN BoARD THE "DiscovERY." Three papers dealt wit~ the determination ?f

maanetic force on board ship. Dr. Lees first satd a fe~ words, on behalf of this Committee, concerning the testing at Kew of Captain Creak's. instrum~n.ts, mentioning that the German AntarctiC Exped1t10n had also one of these instruments on board the Gauss. Capbain E . H. Creak, F.R.S., then de· scribed and exhibited his instrument, and Dr. Glaze­brook communicated a note on "Some R e&ults obtained with the Self-Recording Instrument for the Antarctic Expedition."

Captain Creak said that most of the magnetic surveying of the Antarctic Expedition would have to be done on board of the Discovery. No iron was tolerated within 30 ft. of the magnetic hut on the Discovery, even the rigging being all of hemp. Good work had been done on the Erebus and Terror in 1839 to 1843, and on the Challenger in 1872 to 1876, with the R. W . F ox instruments, but very little progress had been made since. The needles could not be reversed, hence they ought to

* Philosophical Magazilne. August, 1901. t Phy3ikalisohe Zeitsohrijt, September 7, 1901.

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[OcT. I I, 1901.

land frequently for making comparisons with ab­solute instruments ; the magnetic movements of the needles were liable to change, and the perma­nent deflecting magnets likewise, and that would not be detected on board. He had experimented on the best way to adapt Lloyd's needles for use on gimbal tables. Needles with cylindrical axles resting on agate planes were unsuitable. His needles had axles terminating in a cone with a rounded-off point; the jewels were sapphires fixed to the bars of the Barrow circle ; he drilled conical cavities in the stones and removed the upper half, thus leaving cups into which the axles of the needles could be lowered. Thus the needles were retained in place, even when the gimbal table rocked. The needle ends came close to the divided arc, so that direct readings were taken by microscopes without the aid of a vernier ; the device could be illuminated. The whole in­strument turned about a divided circle, and could thus be set on the magnetic meridian.

Dr. Glazebrook briefly explained the principle of these instruments, and their use for determining horizontal and vertical forces and declination, men­tioning among other points that at Kew the dip needle was brought back to the horizontal by weight­ing the end, while on the Discovery permanent magnets would be used for this purpose, as tem­perature changes affected the length of the leverage in the former case. Yet the instruments would remain sensitive to temperature changes. Records of earth currents had been obtained at Kew between two earth plates of iron, 220 yards apart; exact work was only possible there in the early morning hours, when the electric tramway cars, half a. mile distant, were stopped. In the discussion, Professor Schuster expressed the conviction that verniers would be unknown fifty years hence. Some amuse­ment was created by his inquiry about the tinned cans store-room ; we might have a. secular change depending upon the appetite of the crew.

NEw FoRM oF PERMEAMETER. The new permeameter, which Professor F. G.

Baily, of Edinburgh, exhibited, seems to be a very ingenious instrument for determining the permeability of metals. A complete magnetic circuit is formed by two lengths of the sample, surrounded with coils and joined by short iron blocks. In one of the blocks is a narrow gap, at right angles to the lines of force ; above it a pair of astatic needles is pi voted, the lower needle being influenced by the difference of magnetic potential between the two sides of the gap ; this force is proportional to B. A small coil, in series with tl1e magnetising coils, is placed round the upper magnet, acting on it with a force propor­tional to H. The coil is rotated until the two forces are balanced ; the instrument thus measures the ratio B:H. F or high permea.bilities only part of the magnetising coil is ut ilised ; the magnetis­ing force is separately determined by an ampere­meter.

GRAVITATION. This paper, by Dr. Cremieu, may appear out of

place here. But it concerns a bala nce, C)nstructed on the Becquerel principle, which has proved an excellent galvanometer and electro-dyna.mometer, and which, the author hoped, might be used to ascertain whether or not the effect of gravitation is instantaneous. A beam of aluminium, weighing 0.8 gramme, rests not on knife edges, but on an aluminium plate, fixed to the middle of a cocoon thread. From the one end of the beam is sus­pended by a. thread a little mass S, from the other a small piece of iron which would be drawn into a. solenoid. Underneath S is a. large mass P . Now, if P is suddenly dropped, S should tend to follow it. Mr. 0 . V . Boys was rather doubtful whether the inertia. of the apparatus and other reasons really fitted it for experimenting on gravitation.

PHOTO-ELECTRIC CELLS. Mr. G. M. Minchin, F.R.S., of Cooper's Hill,

spoke on selenium cells. A little selenium is melted to the end of an aluminium wire; the black mass soc n turns grey, and is then very sensitive to light. The horizontal wire is placed within a gla.~s tub~, out of which only the end projects, and this free end dips into a. larger glass tube, filled with malonic ether : alcohol and lactic acid are also good, mustard oil not. If the cell is brought into the focus of a. telescope, the light from the star V ega. produces ~n electromotive force almost equal to t hat of a paraffin candle at 8 ft. distance, and that candle

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OcT. I I, IgoL]

would give 0.25 volb at 2 fb. distance. The law that the square of the electromotive force was pro­portional to the light intensity held good only for very small intensities or very large distances, however. According to recent experiments by Mr. Shelford Bid well, the action was due to t he formation of a selenium-hydrogen com­pound in the cell. The sensitiveness of the cell decreased rapidly; this might be due to conduc­tivity of the glass, and Mr. Minchin now uses varnish instead of the glass t u be.

R1DIATION OF HEAT AND LtGHT FROM PoLISHED AND DULL SUR.F ACES.

Dr. J. T. Bottomley, F .R.S., of Glasgow, has m\de experiments with bright and with blackened platinum strips heated up to white heat, the t wo strips being placed in parallel glass tubes, and both connected to the same air pump so as to be under identical conditions of pressure. The wires end in copper spirals joined to a battery from which the heating currents are taken. The temperatures were measured with air thermometers, or calculated. The first grey light was noticed about 400 deg. Cent. 'l'he energy losses from the blackened surfaces were much higher than from the polished platinum ; that means that for the production of light a bright surface is much more economical than a dull surface. But with a temperature rising from 425 to 891 deg. Cent ., t he ratio of these two energies went down from 7.86 to 4.06, showing that at higher tempera­tures the state of the surface is less important. There was also a suspicion t hat the two platinum strips were not quite alike. Dr. Bottomley is working with his assistant, Mr. Evans. Professor Bn.ily thought that the results were hardly com­patible with t he experience of incandescence lamp makers, who found no difference in the efficiency of flashed and unflashed filaments. The crux of the matter is vrobably that the temperatures stated are low for incandescent filaments.

GLA sEs FOR S or Et'\ TIFIO P uRPOSEs.

The discussion on this subject was opened by Dr. Glazebrook, F. R.S., who re,•iewed the progress made during t he last twenty-five years and indi­cated the lines for future research. Instead of achromatising a crown and a flint lens for the rays C and F , when the blue would be more dispersed than t he red in the flint, we could combine two glasses, in which, for any given total dispersion, the distribution of the rays would be more uniform in the two spectra. To shorten the blue and lengthen the red of the flint (or to obtain the opposite effect for the crown), we had, afte r Fraunhofer, t he experiments of Harcourt, who tried 166 glass mixtures after 1834 ; there were also Stokes's experiments. Harcourt was on the right t rack; he observed that boron lengthened the red and t itanium the blue, although the latter effect might be due to the presence of phosphates. But he had not the required technical means at his disposal. When Abbe and Schott took the re­search up in 1882- their glass-technical laboratory in J en a was established in 1884-practically only five substances were used by glass makers: silica, s )da potash, lime, and lead oxide. They soon in­trod~ced 28 elements. Boron reduced the ratio of blue to red ; but some borate flints, containing alkalies, needed protection in the air ; phosphates gave satisfactory achromatic combinations with them. Potassium, sodium, and fluorine had the reverse effect ; but the sodium effect was weak, potassium rende~ed th.e glass hygroscopi~, . and tluorine, the best 1ngred1ent, destroyed the sthca.tes of the crucible, so that platinum pots had to be employed. Lithium tended to form crystalline ( mstead of amorphous) silicates, but t hat evil could ha cured by admixing soda. Dr. Glazebrook drew n.ttention to the physical properties of some of the J ena glasses ; Hovestadt's book, from which he partly quoted, counts 76 glasses in addition to 13 specially suited for uHra. violet and ultra red spectra. Dr. Glazebrook further showed how three glasses could be combined with ad vantage for achromatism, touched upon photographic lenses, for which J ena. recommends light barium flints, and finally referred t J the national economical side of the question, the importation of J ena glasses . into this country, which had a. value of 250,000l. m 1898. Mr. A. R. Hinks mentioned that the experience gained at Cam bridge with some slightly alkaline J ena glasses was not quite satisfactory, though he knew of no better alasses. They were sensitive to temperature, which ;.as awkward in autumn nights, and some-

E N G I N E E R I N G.

thing like a peculiar fungus growth made the lenses dim. Dr. Buroh, F.R. S., stated that it was a fungus, and the remedy was simple- aseptic treat­ment and varnish.

DIF"FRACTION GRATI NOS.

Mr. H. S. Alien, M.A., read a paper on the '' Effect of Errors in Ruling on the Appearance of a Diffraction Grating," explaining the dark bands parallel to the rulings of the grating noticeable in monochromatic light.

Dr. J. Kerr, F.R.S., spoke on the "Brush Grating and the Law of its Optical Action; " Dr. G. J. Stoney, F.R.S., read a pnper on the "Light from Different Sources ; " and Professor Everett spoke on the '' Resolving Power in t he Microscope and Telescope."

THE MICHELSON-MORLEY EFFECT.

The presence at the meeting of Professor E . W. Morley, of Cleveland, Ohio, induced Principal H icks, F.R.S., of Sheffield, to contribute a paper on the Michelson-Morley effect. The question dates back to 1887, when Professors A. A.. Michel­son and E. W. Morley fi rst described their experi­ment-often repeated since- in the Philosophical Magazine for December. The problem concerns aberration and the luminiferous ether. The un­dulatory theory does not fully account for the aberration of fixed stars, which Bradley first ex­plained in 1725. If it did, the aberration could not remain unchanged-as it does-when we fill the telescope tube with water instead of air. The point is, whether there is any relative motion between the earth as it rushes through space and the ether ; in other words, whether the ether is carried with the earth or passes t hrough the whole ma~s of the ear th, as it is supposed to pass through transparent bodies, and, though not unobstructed, also through metals. To test the question, Michelson and Morley set up a system of mirrors, some only reflecting, others also transmitting the light, and watched the interference bands of certain rays. The whole system was mounted on a. stone slab, 5 ft. square, floating on a trough of mercury, and sets of four mirrors were arranged at each of the four corners to obbain long ray paths. As the whole system moves with the earth, an erration should produce a certain displacement of the bands, and the displacement should be doubled when the whole system with t he slab is turned through 90 deg. The observed displacements were very feeble, showing that if there be any relat ive movement between the earth and the et her, it can only be very small. Thus a dis­crepancy appeared to exist between observation Rnd the most accepted theories of Fresnel, H. A. Lorentz, S tokes, and others, and this discrepancy has not yet been explained. Professor Hicks now suggested a possible way out of the difficulty, but Professor Morley was not prepared to discuss a paper of which, owing to the pressure of t ime, Professor Hicks could not give more than the merest outline.

• THE N EOESSITY FOR P osTULATING ON ETHER.

Mr. B. H opkinson, of Wimbledon, pointed out in this paper that, so far as the facts of gravitation and of terrestrial light phenomena are concerned, the necessity for an ether was purely metaphysical. But such modes of expressing the facts failed to cover the phenomena of spectroscopic double stars, which, as we conclude from the periodic doubling of the lines, consist of two components moving about one another. When the two components were in the line joining the stars to the earth, there was no doubling, although one component was moving to the right and the other to t he left. The angular amount of separation of the t wo should be equal to twice the orbital velocity divided by the velocity of light, an amount which should be visible. But no such doubling was observed; hence it would appear that aberration could not simp1y be explained in terms of relative motion of t he source and lhe reoei ver, and in this way t he ether was made mani­fest to our eyes as having position ..

ABSOLUTE AMOUNT OF GRA VITA.TIONAL MATTER I N ANY LARGE VoLUME oF INTERSTELLAR S PACE.

By gravitational matter, Lord Kelvin said in introducing his discourse, he did not understand ether. For if the ether extended to all space, it could not be subject to mut ual attractions, as other­wise differences in density would give rise to enormous pressures. This wa.s very critical ground ;

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but we were coming back to the derided impon· derables of sixty years ago. If we co~fine~ our universe- there might be others outstde It-to the widest space from which light reached our telescope that space would have a radius of 3. 09 x 1010 kilometres-for the amusement of ''dull fools" Lord Kelvin wrote the figures out in oenti· metres on the board- and a star at the extreme distance would have a parallax of 0.001 second. Lord K elvin then referred to Green's problem of 73 years ago to demonstrate that, for ?is object, it was immaterial whether this untverse was spherical or irregular in shape. The radial force (acceleration) to which any body on the boundary of that space were subject would be very small compared to terrestrial gravity, and amount only to 1. 37 x 10- 13 kilometre per second per second. The velocity acquired in a year would be 4. 32 x 10- a kilometre per second ; in five million years we should have a velocity of 21 kilometres per second -about two-thirds of the actual velocity of the earth in its orbit-32 kilometres. The average velocity of stars seemed now to lie between 17 and 50 kilo· metres per second; 110 wa,s possibly the extreme, and the maximum observed in our line of sight was 96 kilometres. In 25 mil1ion years the velocity would be 108 kilometres, and the space traversed greater than the assumed radius of the sphere (3. 09 x 10ta), which showed that the rate of acceleration could not remain constant for 25 million years. If we now imagined that this space was studded with 1000 million stars of ~he size of our sun, why was not the whole firmament aglow 1 Estimates as to the number of visible stars differed great1y : N ewcomb had assumed 30 to 50 millions, Young 100 millions (for the Yerkes and Lick telescopes); he would assume 1000 millions, though nine-tenths of these might be dark. If we accepted that number, 1000 million stars of our sun's size, only4 x 10- 13 of our firmament would be dotted with stars ; if we reduced the size of the stars, adhering to the total mass, to 1 centi­metre in diameter, still only 0. 027 of our firma· ment would be set with stars. Lord Kelvin then diminished the stars to molecular dimensions, commenting favourably on the nebular theory. There was, he cont inued, strong evidence to prove that the life of our sun as a. luminary could not be more than 50 million years. The life of many stars would pass before their light could reach our earth, and the earth would never receive any light from more t han a very small portion of all the stars. At some period our universe had probably been a luminous mist ; meteoric stones Lord Kelvin was inclined to regard as remnants of star oolli-

• SlOnS.

The vote of thanks was proposed and seconded by Dr. Larmor and Professor Schuster. The latter alluded to the final problem, the state of the universe at what we might call creation. He could imagine matter which would not at tract, but repel, a kind of negatiye matter.

A STRONO?tH OAL pAPERS.

In taking the chair in the As~ronomical Depart­ment, Professor 1!. H. Turner, F .R .S., of Oxford, regretted that he had not had t ime to prepare any address. Dr. Copeland, the Astronomer Royal for Scotland, who was to have presided, was unfor­tunately ill. Professor Turner contented him­self with commenting upon scientific co - opera­tion, upon the importance of which Major MacMahon had dwelt. Though scientific co-opera­t ion was a great boon, if not a. necessity in zoology, for instance, it had also its disadvantages and weak points. At the end of the eighteenth century a. number of astronomers had divided the sky for a. common search for minor planets ; but the first discovery fell to one not of their number, and not engaged in that work. There was something in the suggestion of a London schoolmaster, that he never knew any good to come of any work where they had not a man looking after it with his hands in his pockets. Splendid work was done on the astrogra.phic chart at Oxford, in conj unction with eighteen other observatories. Major MacMa.hon had referred to the joint work on Eros. Those observations had thrown back much of that very important work, and only a. few of the eighteen observatories had nearly finished their task yet. Astronomical work was, moreover terribly liable to settle down into routine, and of crippling originality and initiative. But when workers found that rules laid down would not work the danger was averted in a natural way. Whe~

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512 E N G I N E E R I N G. [OcT. I I, 1901.

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MESSRS. MATHER AND PLATT'S ELECTRIC EXHIBITS AT GLASGOW . •

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the eo-workers on the astrographic chart met last July, they found that they had arrived at practically the same conclusions by a diversity of routes.

Professor Turner afterwards exhibited a copy of a photograph of the spectrum of a lightning flash­the first ever taken- just received from Professor Pickering; the complicated spectrum of the broad flash showed many brigh t lines. H e also read a paper on an '' Exceptional Case in the Determina­tion of the Constants of a P hotographic Plate from Known Stars."

Mr. A. R. Rinks spok e on the "Essentials of a Machine for the Accurate Measu rement of Celestial Photographs," and on the "Possibil~ty of S.yst~: matic Error in Photographs of a Movmg ObJect negating t his possibility .

AuTOMATIC E cLIPSE 0BSERV ATIONS. Last year Professor D. P. Todd had described a

mechanical device which he had employed at Tripoli for automatically operating the eclipse in-

struments during the eclipse of May 28, 1900. major planet, capturing comets, beyond Neptune. Having the roof of the British Consulate at his Dr. I saac Roberts then failed to find it on his photo­disposal, he could t hen drife the cords from the graphic plates, but the search had now been recom­commutator by gravity. This was an exceptional menced by Mr. W. E. ' ¥ilson, F.R.S. The comet circumstance, and he now described the modifica- of the ye&I'S 1264 and 1556 (if the same) was sup­t ions and general improvements adopted at Singkep, posed to have been lost, as it did not reappear in Dutch India. Instead of a single drum, as between 1830 and 1840, unless it were identical many drums as there are instruments are used. with one of the comets of 1843 and 1844. Professor They are turned by hand to the beats of a pen - Forbes had calculated that that comet would have dulum ; the unwound commutator cords trip the come near the supposed planet, which would pro­escapements, and are returned over pulleys to their bably have a greater mass than Jupiter, and respective drums. might have disturbed the comet. It would be ON THE PosiTION OF A P LANET BEYOND NEPTUNE. most interesting if once more, as in the case of

N eptune- independently calculated by Adams and In this paper Professor G. Forbes, F.R.S., by Le Verrier- a new planet should betray its

returns to a problem on which he worked twenty presence by the disturbances it causes. years ago. From a decided grouping of oometary aphelia at a distance about a hundred times that DRIFT IN LoNOITUDE OF GRours OF SuN F ACUL.JE. of the earth from our sun, similar to the group- This p~per, by the Rev. A. L . Cortie, of Stony­ing at the distances of Jupiter and Neptune, Pro- burst, afforded strong evidence in favour of the feasor Forbes concluded that there might be a . assumption that facuh:e as well as sun spots follow

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the anomalous law of 1·otation discovered by Car­rington, a point of considerable importance.

A LoNG-PERIOD SoLAR VARIATION.

Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer, of the Solar Physical Laboratory, South Kensington, advocated in this paper a thirty-five years' period of su?- spots. That period is not to do away With the well-known eleven years' period. Going back in his researches to 1610, Dr. Wolf, of Ziirich, had suggested a fifty-five years' period. Confin­ing his analyses to the more reliably known records since 1833, Dr. J.Jockyer finds a well-characterised cycle of thirty-five years for both sun spots and

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magnetic phenomena. Such a cycle should be traceable through our meteorological data, and this evidence he found in Briickner's analys£s of water levels, rainfalls, fogs, glacier movements, harvest dates, &c., which point to a climatic period of 34.8 years.

METEOROLOGI CAL ]:> APERS. The Meteorological Department had no special

chairman ; Dr. L~rmor and Professor H. H. Turner presided on different mornings.

SEISMOLOGI CAL INVESTIGATIONS.

The sixth Report of this Committee, which, owing to the pressure of time, was taken as read, is, o ...

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course, full of interest. It comprises several pap~rs by Mr. J. Milne, F.R.S., Secre~ry of the Commit­tee, one by Dr. Chree, on "SeiSmograph Records at Kew," and one by Mr. Horace Darwtn, F.R.S., on '' An At tempt to Measure Earth Movement~ at Ridgeway Fault " (in Dorsetshire ). Of stat10ns fitted out with the Milne seismogr~phs, there are three in England-at Kew, ~idston, and Shide · two in Scotland-at Edinburgh and Paisley; and thirty-six altogether on the eart~ ; Mr. Bernacchi is in charge of one o!l the Dis­covery (Antarctic Expedition). At Shtde, on t~e Isle of Wight, Mr. Milne has two l?hotograph1.c recording pendulums, two other paus of hon­zontal pendulums writing on s~oked ~aper, a spiral spring seismograph for verbcal mott?n, and a balance for showing tilting. The report diScusses the frequency of earthquakes at diffe~ent s~tions, compares the registers fro!ll Kew, S~tde, Btdston, and Edinburgh and ment10ns expenments by Pro­fessor Turner ~nd Mr. Milne on the stiffness of piers. A rope was tied round the top of . the column, a brick pier, 3ft. by. 1.5 ft., 6 ft. htgh; this showed a maximum deflect10n of 0.192 second of arc per pound of pull. At Kew, high winds undoubtedly affect the seismograph standing on the floor, and to a very small extent also that on the cement bed.

THE SEISMOGRAPH AS A SENSITIVE BAROMETER •

Mr. F. Napier Denison, of the Meteorological Office, Victoria, B.O., explained in a long paper, illustrated by charts, that the horizontal pendulums of the British Association (Milne) pattern really indicated vertical movements on the earth's crust in accordance with the variations of the barometer. High-pressure areas were depressed and low-pressure areas raised, and seismographs could and should be employed to give warning of the great Atlantic storms, since these indications preceded by 18 and even 24 hours the variations of the baro­meter. Mr. Denison stated that the pendulum swings towards the area of high pressure. Thus when a storm was approaching from the west, the pendulum moved steadily eastward. On the other hand, the pendulum would swing westward before the position of a high-pressure area in the west could be ascertained from the weather charts. Mr. Milne confirms these conclusions in his report, having found that a gradual but decided movemeLt of the Shide pendulum towards the west precedes stormy weather. He had, moreover, observed a close relationship between pendulum displacements and barometric gradients in Tokio, and commented upon this matter in the Report of 1895. That high atmospheric prassure should depress the earth crust sounds only natural. But the question is very delicate, and the connection between the observed effect and its assigned cause was doubted in the Section. Yet Mr. Denison's observatior.s extend over two years, and he has examined more than 3000 ft. of photographic records, afterwards taking the Victoria tidal curves also into con­sideration. The general easterly swing (on the Pacific Coast) during the winter, and the westerly in summer ; the reversal in the pendulum with a storm which afterwards proves to be followed by a high barometer; the diurnal range of the pen­dulum which has its maximum in the summer months; all these points are in his favour.

UNDERGROUND TEl\IPERATURE •

Pr9fessor J. D. Everett, Chairman of this Com­mittee, whic~ has been dormant for several years, was able thts year to present a very interesting Report. The first point concerns the rate of increase of temperature on the tongue projecting into Lake Superior from Michigan, on which the Calumetand Hecla Company mines and the Tamarack shaft are situated. The latitude is 4 7 deg., the mean annual temperature 39 deg. or 40 deg. Fahr., and below 240 ft. depth (the mean depth is 900 ft.) the yvater temperature was also 39 deg. Fahr. As this !S the temperature of the maximum density of water, it will probably remain constant throughout the year, so that the boundary conditions are as if the water were removed and the air had access to the bottotu. ~rofessor A. Agassiz, president of the first-ment10ned company, announced in 1896 that the increase in temperature was only 1 deg Fahr. in 224 ft. That would be abnormally low: Mr. A. C. Lane, the ~tate Geologist of Michigan, has, however, now arrtved at the conclusion that 1 deg. in 100 ft. or 115 ft. is correct, and Pro­fessor Agassiz has withdrawn his statemant

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The Report further coQ.cerns the deepest bore­hole known, made by the Prussian Govern­ment. It is at Paruschowitz, near Ratibor, in l!pper Silesia. Though finished in 1893, par­tiCulars of the valuable observations made have never been published until now they are supplied by the Prussian Government to the Committee. The t<?tal depth is 2003.34 metres (about 6572 ft. ) ; the diameter decreases from 92 millimetres down to 69 millimetres (3.6 in. to 2. 7 in.). The upper half of the bore is tubed. The hollow tools-diamond drills through which water was forced-were first made of wrought iron, then, with considerable ad­v~ntage, of Mannesmann steel. The ground was difficult ; the marl of the upper strata was inclined to swell and to grip the tubes; lower down followed coal seams alternating with sandstone and shale. Six overflow mercury thermometers were each time enclosed in a steel case, and as there was danger of caving in, observations proceeded from the depth upward at intervals of 31 metres, 64 determinations being taken in all. The curve is satisfactorily r egular, and the average increase in temperature is 1 deg. Cent. in 34.1 metres, or 1 deg. Fahr. in 62.2 ft. There is, however, some doubt about the reading of 12 deg. Cent. (53. 7 deg. F ahr. ) near the surface at 6 metres (20 ft.) depth; this tern perature, the report argues, should be 8 deg. Cent. (46.4 deg. Fahr.) In any case, the general result is almost the same as that resulting from the observations made on the Schladebach borehole, which is near by, and 256 metres (837ft.) less in depth; there the increase was 1 deg. Fahr. i~ 65ft.

The reading of this Report involved Professor Everett in a controversy with Professor Sollas, F.R.S., of Oxford, who last year was President of the Geological Section, on the escape of heat from the earth, geothermic gradients, and the conductivity of rocks. There was no further dis-

• CUSSlOn.

THE BEN' NEVIS COMMITTEE.

In presenting this seventeenth Report, Dr. A. Buchan, F.R.S., stated that the work continued, thanks to donations from Mr. Mackay Bernard and two anonymous friends, and a grant of 250Z. from the Meteorological Council. Dr. Buchan himself had investigated the records from the 65 Scottish light­house stations. Storms and fogs had their cycle, both following the sun, but storms had their maximum in December, and their n1inimum in June, and the reverse applied to fogs. He had further submitted the records for 12 years from 120 rain stations to an elaborate study, and had found the clue to many phenomena in the corresponding records from the high-level station on the top of Ben Nevis, and the low-level station at Fort William. These differences indicated certain types of weather likely to follow. Observations made in the United States showed that the cumulus base was at about 4000 ft. on an average. Ben Nevis, with its 4406 ft., exceeds that height a little, and hence its great importance. Mr. Osmond was engaged in a comparative analysis of the records from the 27 high-level stations of Europe and Algiers. The res~lts o~ all these ve~y laborious and important studtes will come out lll three octavo volumes which t he Royal Societies of Edinburgh and London have undertaken to publish, at a probable cost of 1000Z. ; the first volume would soon be published. It will contain, a~ong other things, a new set of tables for the :educt.wn .of b~ro­metric data to sea level, and an Investtgatwn mto radiation with clear and clouded skies. Mr. A. L. Rotch and Mr. W. N. Shaw testified to the excep­tional value of the work done in the Ben Nevis ob-servatories.

SEASON ABLE T EMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE BRITISH IsLES, AND WIND DIRECTION.

This paper, by Mr. W. ~· Shaw, M.A., F.R.S., director of the MeteorologiCal Office, and Mr. R. W aley Cohen, B. A., was read by the latter. If the twenty·five year me'l.ns <?f t~mperat~re for each day he said at the four pr1nc1pal statwns-Kew, Fal~outh, Aberdeen, and Valenci~-were :pl.otted, the curves showed a number of trregular1t1~s, so that no normal mean temperature could be ass1g~ed to any day. Comparing the ~ctual day means w.1th simple harmonic curves having an annual. penod and a maximum about July 21, a lag of ~prmg and an acceleration of autumn, a:n. ex~ggeratwn of. the summer maximum and a m1ttgat1?n of the wmter minimum, were noticed. T~o sme curves w~re then combined, the first havmg an annual penod

E N G I N E E R I N G.

and, at Kew, an amplitude of 12.04 deg. Falu., and the second a semi-annual period and an amplitude of 1.4 deg. Fahr. The maxin1a of the first-order curve fell at the four stations, between July 20 and August 1 ; the second-order curve had maxima between January 28 and February 3, and again be­tween July 30 and August 5, and minima about the end of October and April. The first-order curve was assumed to represent the primary solar effect, and this paper was to ascertain the nature of the second­order effect. I t was found to be meteorological and not planetary, since matters were quite different at Vienna and at Agra. It was not connected with the frequency of cyclonic and anti­cyclonic weathers, but the influence of the wind direction could be traced. Grouping the winds as cold, from north and east, causing an average divergence of temperature of - 3.5 deg. Fahr., temperate, from north-west and south-east, and warm (divergence about + 2.2 deg. Fahr.), the respective temperature curves of the groups resembled the second-order curve.

EFFECT OF SEA TEMPERATURE ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS.

This paper, by Mr. W. N. Shaw, deals with the influence of the sea t emperature on these features. There was a considerable lag in the occurrence of seasonal variations at coast stations compared with inland stations, and a still greater lag in the sea temperature itself ; and the author showed how this periodic cause of variation could geometrically be compounded with the primary solar effect. Assuming the latter effect, then, to be the same for places in the same latitude, analyses of seasonal temperature variations could be made. The effect of the sea was not, as generally sup­posed, actually to decrease the amplitude of annual temperature oscillations, but to increase it, although to a less extent than a corresponding surrounding area of land. Mr. Cohen had gone so fully into details that Dr. Larmor, who was in the chair, had to limit the time allowance for this latter paper and the discussion. Dr. Buchan did not appear to be convinced of the advantages of these analyses, which did not take account of many modi­fying features.

SYSTEMA.TIO EXPLORATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE AT SEA BY MEANS OF l{ITES.

Mr. A. Laurence Rotch, of the Blue Hill Ob­servatory, Boston, Mass. , this year brought his report on meteorological kite-flying before the Geographical Section, probably with the object of making this promising method of air exploration more widely known. Scientific kite-flying had been practised by Dr. A. Wilson, of Glasgow, 150 years ago, a little before Franklin. Having briefly referred to the revival of this work by Mr. Douglas Archibald, and the work now done in the United States, France, Germany, and here, he made the important communication that he had taken kites out on boats in Massachusetts Bay, and then on his steamer in crossing the Atlantic. The United States Weather Bureau had arranged for regular ascents of kites fitted with the meteorographs of Mr. Ferguson, Mr. Rotch's assistant, at seven­teen stations. Unfortunately, the wind failed often, and that had to be abandoned. On board a steamer, a good wind could almost be depended upon, and they had all the machinery for hauling down the kite at easy command. He had brought his kites up to nearly half a mile on five days out of eight on which he would not have been able to do anything on land. It is to be hoped that the suggestion will find energetic support. We could thus, as Mr. Rotch emphasised, collect infor­mation about the equatorial belt, where we have no observatories, the trade winds, and atmospheric currents over the sea in general. Mr. Dines, Pre­sident of the Royal Meteorological Society, Mr­W. N. Shaw, Mr. Mackinder, who occupied the chair, and Mr. J. Aitken warmly approved of the proposal ; the latter suggested motor cars, which have already been tried in France, for starting the kites. Mr. Mackinder hoped to interest the owners of steam yachts ; sailing vessels, Mr. Rotch had stated, would be less suitable, but Koeppen was going to try one in the equatorial regions. We should think with Mr. Shaw that warships cruising about might interest t hemselves in this question, which the British Association promotes by a grant.

(To be contVn.ued.)

[OcT. II, 1901.

MATHER AND PLATT'S EXHIBIT AT GLASGOW.

WE h.ave &!ready, in preceding issues, referred to ~n~ Illustra~ed some of the more interesting exhibits of. this well-known firm, notably their new bleachmg plant (page 441 amte) and their water filters (page 402 all'l!te ), and we now have pleasure in noticing t he splendid exhibit of t he electrical productions of the firm, the most notable being the immense generator which has been con­structed for the Salford Electric Traction Station, and of which an engraving is given on page 512 (Fig. 1).

This generator is intended to be coupled direct to a 1100 horse-power steam engine by Messrs. Browett, Lindley, and Oo., and is to run at a speed of. 100 revolutions per minute. The Salford Elec­tricity Works has not only to supply current for the Corporation's tramways, but also for the general lighting of the town. It was therefore necessary to design the dynamos so that they could be run as compound machines in the former case, and as shunt machines in the latter ; and, further to make provision for a possible considerable overl~ad. The yoke-ring, the lower part of which will be below the floor·level of the engine-room, is of cast-steel of high magnetic quality, and is made in halves which can be bolted together. The pole-piece; and shoes, of which there are ten, are also of cast­steel, made separate and bolted up to the yoke-ring, after th~ spools containing the field windings have been shpp~d ove~ the!fl ; .they can be readily removed Without d1sturbmg e1ther t he yoke-ring or ar~ature. This latt~r is of the usual drum type, built on a double sp1der ; the core is made up of soft-iron punchings, and the insulated conductors are imbedded in slots in t he periphery. The half­coupling for bolting to the engine flywheel is cast directly on the spider, so that no stress passes through the shaft. The commutator has been built up i~ such a way that the individual plates are read.Ily removed; the brush spindles are carried by a sp1der attached to the outer bearing. T~e total weig~t of. o~e of these dynamos, ex­

clusive of the eng1ne, lB JUSt over 50 tons, of which the armature accounts for half. The normal output as a compound machine is 775 kilowatts at a pres­sure of 525 volts; and as a shunt machine the same at a pressure of 480 volts ; but the dynamo will carry an overload of 25 per cent ., thus bringing the output up to 1000 kilowatts. The results of tests carried out on machines already completed show that t he efficie~cy is slightly over 95 per cent. ; the 5 per cent .loss Is accounted for as follows : hysteresis and eddy current losses 2.27 per cent., Q2R losses 2. 57 per ~~nt., and frictional loss 0.16 per cent .

In add1t10n to the generator we have described there are several electrically-driven fire and feed pumps, elect ric motors, electric drills, and overhead elect ric carrier, &c., all to be seen in operation. Fig. 2 shows one of Messrs. Mather and Platt's patent high-~ift centrifugal pumps, driven direct by an electric motor. The plant was designed for an outputs of 1250 gallons per minute aCYainst a total head of. 96 ft., w ~en running at a ~peed of 700 revolutwns per rotnute. The combined efficiency of the plant is then 66 per cent. the. Il!-otor requiring 55 electrical ho1·se-powe/ Th1s size of pump has a bucket 600 millimetres in diameter, suction and delivery branches being 250 ~illi~etres in diameter, and it is capable of de­hvermg up to 1600 gallons per minute aaa.inst a head of 180 ft. with a single chamber at an in­creased speed, the resultant efficiency of the pump bemg over ?2 per ce~~· The special feature of the pump IS the prov1s1on of guide pas­sages arranged round the vanes. On entering t he latter, the water passes through curved passaaes in the ~anes. themselves, and is. then discharged tan­gentlally mto the above-mentwned guide passages the object of which is to allow the pressur~ due to the velocity of rotation to be transformed easily and without shock into pressure head the lift and efficiency of the pump being mate;ially increased by this means. The pump can be made either with a single chamber, as illustrated or with a series of cham hers, in each of which o~e set of vanes revolves. In the latter case t he water to be pumped is discharged at a certain pressure from the channel surrounding the first set of vanes, and then passes to the second set of vanes, which delivers the water at a pressure double that with which it left the first set, and so on until the final discharge is effected.

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OcT. r r, 1901.]

Thus the output of a pump of the same size as that described above, but made with four chambers, would be 1250 gallons per minute against a total head of 4ft. x 96 ft. = 384 ft. at 700 revolutions per minute. In the case of a single chamber pump the water enters the bucket axially and symmetri. cally on each side thereof, so that all axial thrust is eliminated. In the case of the multiple chamber pump a certain amount of axial thrust occurs, but this is taken by a special thrust ball bearing work­ing in oil. ]'igs. 3 and 4 are diagrams illustrat­ing the efficiency of the pumps.

Fig. 5 illustrates the company's variable stroke pump, which is electrically driven, and is specially suitable for feed purposes in lighting stations. The stroke of the plungers is readily variable by hand while the machine is running, and the output can be at once reduced from 1naximum to zero, or 'Vice ve?·sd, without any wasteful absorption of power by resistances, the speed of the rnotor remaining con­stant. The pump, as shown, consists of three cylinders mounted radially on a. frame at angles of 120 deg. with each other, the plungers being driven from a common crankpin by connecting-rods in the ordinary manner. The crankpin is arranged eccen· trically on a disc fitting into a recess in a toothed wheel, which engages with a pinion on the motor shaft. The rotation of this disc, which causes the desired alteration of the stroke, is obtained by gears situate in the hub of the wheel, and operated by a suitable hand lever conveniently arranged. An indicator is fixed to the stroke-varying attach­ment, which shows the length of stroke, and there­fore the corresponding output of the pump at the time. To change the stroke all that is required is to raise the hand lever until the indicator shows that the desired amount of water is being discharged, whereupon the lever is released.

An electrical-driven pump, although costing more than a steam-driven pump, has a higher efficiency throughout its whole range of working, with a corresponding reduction in stean1 consumption, and to demonstrate t his we give below a Table showing actual tests made with a pump of the type illus­trated, delivering 2500 gallons per minute.

Combined E fficiency.

Duty of Pump.

By Variable Stroke. By Variable Speed.

Full load . . . . Three-quarter load .. Half load . . . . Quarter load . . . .

per cent. 72.6 68.0 60.5 4fi.O

per oent. 72.5 54.0 36.0 18.0

A second Table shows the pounds of steam utilised by four types of pumps when delivering even quan­tities of water at varying loads, and it will be seen the variable stroke pump has a great advantage. The figures for a high-class compound steam-driven pump are the very highest that are guaranteed, and will, in all probability, not be reached with a pump that hag been working some time. The figures in

· the last column are based on Mr. F. Proctor's paper read before the British Association in 1898, from which it will be seen that with a pump of this type, which has been in use for some time, the steam con­sumption is very high.

Output.

Full : t

Three-Throw Electrical­Driven Pump.

---:-----Variable Stroke.

-lb. of steam

400 820 240 160

Variable Speed.

----lb. of steam

400 400 400 400

High-Olass Steam Pump.

-- ---:-----New

Pump. ----1 lb. of steam

'140 560 380 200

After several Years' Work. -----lb. of steam

1100 850 650 450

E N G I N E E R I N G.

crank is double-webbed and balanced, and the overhung dynamo at one end is balanced by the overhung flywheel at the other. The dynamo is bolted direct to the engine case, a heavy bed being unnecessary. These sets require but lit tle in the way of foundations.

The company, by the use of well-made models, designed, decorated, and arranged to simulate farms, illustrate the system of sewage purification adopted ; but as we recently illustrated the main features-the retaining and discharging valve (see vol. lxxi., page 110)- it is only necessary to men­tion that the outstanding aims in the design of the plant is the application of automatic distributing gear to the feeding of bacteria beds ; different modes of spreading the sewage over the surface of the beds; and the mode of holding sewage in contact by means of the valve mentioned. The company's water-softening plant is also exhibited; but this also we have illustrated and fully de· scribed (see ENGINEERING, vol. lxvi., pages 149, 166, 186, 230).

ROI1LING STOCK CONSTRUCTION IN ITALY.

THE Officina Meccaniche of :Milau are probably the best known and best equipped works in Northern Italy, dedicated to the manufacture of all classes of rolling stock; and both the works and their products can be taken as an example of what Italians are capable of industrially. The works were established in 1868 by the firm of Miani Silvestri and Co., for the produc­tion of railway rolling stook. Their present capital is of Si million lire (340,000l. ), and the factory occupies an area of 12 hectares (29.65 acres). A branch of the Milan girdle railway connects them 'with the Alta Italia system, and they are provided with ample sidings to the standard gauge, besides owning a narrow gauge system of their own connecting the various shops. In addition to railway equipment generally, bridgework, passenger coaches, goods wagons for standard gauge, &c, the works produce all classes of light railway and tramway stook and locomotives, signals, turntables, &c. The equipment of the works, which is very much up to date, ho.s been converted from steam and hydraulic, to electric, to utilise the current generated by a waterfall acquired by the company some 21.86 miles from Milan. They employ 1500 workmen, and the output averages 20 locomotives, 200 passenger coaches, 1000 goods wagons, 200 tramway cars, and some 3000 to 4000 tons of bridgework, girders, castings, &c., per annum. Without attempting to review anything like a representative selection of the various products of these works, a few remarks on some recent examples of the rolling stock they turn out will be of interest, and we opine that it will be apparent therefrom that Italy in this branch of industry does not hang behind her competitors, and that relatively she is one of the most progressive nations.

The first example we havd selected for description is a saloon restaurant carriage built for the International Wagon-Lits Company. Outwardly, this carriage resem­bles the type generally affected by this well-known transportation company; but, internally, it presents several points of novel interest. The principal dimen· sions are the following :

Length over buffers ... 19.74 m. (64 fb. 9 in.) , of under frame ... 18.24 , (60 ,. 3 , )

Maximum distance between centres of bogies .. . 13.20 , (43 , 3 , )

Distance bebween axles of same bogie ... .. . 2.50 , { 8 , 2 , )

Total length of body . . . 18 50 , (61 , 1 , ) Maximum width over all 2.864 , ( 9 , 5 , )

,~ height above rails 4.027 , (13 , 2 ,, Internal width ... ... 2.662 , ( 8 , 8 ,

, heighb ... ... 2.80 , ( 9 ., 2 , Weight of carriage . .. 35,500 kilos. (34. 93 tons)

The carriage comprises a pantry and a kitchen, a dining-room, saloon, and a lavatory; it is entered as usual through two vestibules with lateral doors. The interior arrangements have been very

The pounds of steam debited to the electrical carefully thought out to eecure easy service and in­pumps are on the assumption that 1 kilowatt at creased comfort, and in this way the culinary depart­the motor terminals corresponds to 32 lb. of steam. mentis completely hidden, and its odours prevented The capacity of the pumps in the above comparison from pervading the interior of the carriage. The is 6400 gallons per hour, against 160 lb. per square convenience and comfort of the staff is provided for, i h the ventilation recesses being provided with seats. nFigs. 6 and 7 illustrate a combined steam engine The pantry is very completely fitted up with cup-

hi f 1 d h I' ht' boards for bottles, plates, linen, plate, and a and dynamo suita e or louse an s op 1g mg, refrigerator ; this pantry communicates with the pilot lighting in mills, or for use on board ship. kitchen by a trap-door, and opens on to the This set consists of a high-speed single-acting en- passage leading to the dining·room. The latter is closed self-lubricating engine, capable of developing provided with twenty-two seats, and is 6.58 metres 40 brake horse-power at a speed of 470 revolutions (21.69 ft.) by 2.67 metres (8.76 ft.) The decorations per minute, with a steam pressure of from 70 lb. to throughout are of the Louis XV. style, the wall 100 lb. per square inch ; the cylinder is 430 milli- panels are in carved walnut, with frames and mouldings metres in dil;l.meter by 180 millimetres strok{). Th{) m ~bony and cbis~lled and gilt bron~e. Between

the large windows, the panels are of leather embossed with allegorical devices, and surmounted with views of the principal Italian cities on enamel. The ceiling is of; canvas painted in oils, the centre being an artistic representation of an Arcadian sC'ene, sur. rounded by Louis XV. decorative devices. The sides of the ventilating lantern are decorated to match, and the ftoor is covered with a thick Smyrna carpet. The seats are in walnut with embossed leather up· holstering. At the end of the dining-room is a large door formed of a single clear glass panel, through which the drawing-room can be seen and entered. This is in Louis XVI. style and fitted with light coloured wood with carved maple panels, the frames, the mouldings, and ornaments being of chiselled and gilt bronze. In the saloon the panels between the windows and the pivoting arm-chairs are covered with a red silk material specially woven to designs harmonising with the general scheme of decoration, and furnishes the bright note of colour· ing required to set off the general effect. In front of the windows are fixed console tables in " verde ant ico," and two folding movable tables are at the passengers' disposal. The ceiling is tastefully painted with a central medallion. The electric lighting is on the "Stone " aystem, and heating is by the thermosyphon system. The carriage having to work over various railway systems, it is provided with the French alarm signals of the Paris, Lyons, and Medi~ terranean type, as well as those of the Rayl and Kohn or German type, with quick-acting automatic Westing· house, adjustable Henry and vacuum automatic Clay· ton brakes. The carriage as a whole is one of the finest examples we have seen of the saloon bogie type for long journeys in use on the Continent, and reftects the greatest credit on the Officina Meccaniche.

The type of goods wagon specially adopted by these works is furnished with tubular frames-their closed wagons on this principle are well deserving of mention. Before giving the details of these wagons, it is inte· resting to recall that it is largely due to the enterprise of these works that the way to one of the most important transformations currently taking place in the working of Italian rail ways has been prepared. We allude to the replacement of the heavy goods wagon of small capacity, generally in use on English and French and other Continental railways, by wagons of high capacity with a relatively small deadweight. The relative merits of such goods stock, which has long been recognised in the United States, has often been discussed in these columns. The chief outward indications of the change are evinced by the prevalence of bogie trucks to support the underframes and wagon bodies, the general substitution of metal for timber in the former, and the replacing of heavy angular forms and combinations by the lighter and more resisting tubular shapes with which cycle and motor construction have rendered us familiar. The Officina Mecoaniche made a start by building open wagons of the American type (Goodfellow and Cushman), which they extended to the closed wagons for transport of corn in bulk, and finally they evolved the type of wagon which we describe and illustrate. The under· frames are both the most characteristic and interesting portion of these wagons, and are each formed of two superposed tubes connected together by special pieces made of malleable cast iron ; the four longitudina.ls are united at their extremities by the cross-pieces of the frame, which are of U section, the whole being stiffened and made exceptionally strong by under ten· sion ba.rs (Fig. 1, page 520). The tubular longitudinals have an external diameter of 0.073 metre (2.87 in.), and are 5 millimetres (0. 20 in.) in thickness; they are spaced 18 centimetres (7.09 in.) from centre to centre, and, in addition to the malleable cast-iron connectors, there are double concave-sided cast spacers bolted thereto. The tightening up of these bolts puts the entire frame in tension, and insures it behaving as a solid whole. The upper connectors have a bracket cast on their sides to support the planking of the wagon. The two middle connectors of each pair of longitudinals are prolonged downwards by two cast struts, which carry saddles for the longitudinal tension-rods. These struts are strengthened by oblique tie-rods. The transverse frame ends are completed by special cast malleable sleeves fitting between the wings of the U pieces, and provided with sockets for the longitudinal tubes. These ends are provided with the ordinary buffers and coupling hooks, but the tension. rods are arranged in a. very ingenious plan. Under the frame is fitted a central coupling piece by which the tension of all the dra.wbars is adjusted. The under­frame rests on the bogie trucks with two intermediate cross-pieces of oak 2.50 metres (8.20 ft.) by 0.36 metre ( 1.18 ft.) by 0.10 metre (0. 33ft.), which a.re strengthened by two U -irons. The extremities of these cross­pieces are held between two cast plates bolted to· gather. At the centre is fixed the malleable cast­iron pivot which works in a spherical socket carried on the bogie truck- on each side of the pivot are fixed check blocks also of malleable cast iron.

The bogie trucks are of simple construction, as will be seen from Fig. 41 page 516, the longitudinal

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516 : I

fra~ing being a triangular system of flat bs.rs wh1~h f~rm the axlebox frames. Centrally, the two l~ng1tudmal frames a re united by double transverse p1eces of oak scantling. The upper of these is sup­ported at both ends on the lower by coiled springs. The upper tr<~.nsverse pieces carry the eockets and check blocks corresponding to the pivoting pieces on t~e und~rframe of the carriage. The twelve suspen­stot;t sprmge are so arranged that when ~he carriage osc~llates, e~pty or under ~i~ht load, the eight lighter sprmgs, wh1ch are 16 mllhme~res (0. 63 in.) longer tha~ the remainder, alone come into play; all take the~r share a~ fulllo~; ~ut by this arrangemen~ un­des~rab_le sprmg. fattgue 1s avoided, and the spring ac~10n 1s proport10nal to the effects to be neut ralised.

The w~eels are of a special charcoal ca.st iron, with tyres . chtlled ~o a depth of from 22 to 26 millimetres (0. 87 m. to 1 m.). The principal dimensions of the underframe and bogies are t he following :

Under frame: Length over buffer3 ... . .. 11.47 m. (37ft. 8 in.)

. , of frame ... ... ... 10.30 ,, (33 ,, 7 , ) Dtsta.nce between centres of ex- ,

_terior longitudinal~ ... .. . 2.265 ,, ( 7 , 5 , ) D1sta.nce between centres of ex-

t erior l~mgitu?ina.ls ~f bogies ... 7.250 , (23 , 9 , ) Total weight w~th bogtas . ... 7.690 kg. (7.568 ton£:)

, , W1 thou t bogies ... 2. 325 , , ( 2. 283 , )

Bogies : D~stance between axles .. . 1.470 m. (57.88 in.) Dt~meter of wheels .. . . .. 0.840 ,, (33.08 , ) W: td th of treads .. . .. . .. . 0.130 , ( 5.11 , ) Dtameter of axle ends .. . .. . 0.110 , , ( 4. 32 )

DL~ngth ,, ,, ... ... 0.200 ,, ( 7.87 :: ) ~amet~r of axles .. . . .. 0.125 , ( 4. 91 ., )

Dm1ens10ns of upper cro2spiece 0.308 m. by 0.250 m . (t2.3 in. by 9.84 in )

" lower , 0.300 m. by 0.130 m. . (11.81 in. by 5.11 in.)

W etght of bogie ~thoub brakes 2.550 kgs. (2.509 tons) " , Wlth , 2.815 , (2.668 ,, )

The wagon body has not been less carefully thought out than the underframes, and certain features have been added, especially in the direction of automatic unloading, which are unusual in European rolling stock. The. wooden body of the wago~ rests on the decking carrted by the underframe (Ftg. 2, page 520). This body is of the largest dimensions possible with the loading gauge of the lines for which it is designed. The roof is of sheet iron. The internal dimensions are 10.015 metres (32.86 ft.) by 2.74 metres (8.99 ft.) and the average height is 2.28 metres(7.48 ft. ). The in­ternal covered space amounts to 64 cu hie metres (2260.19 cubic feet), and 41 cubic metres (1377.30 bushels) of cereals can be loaded, the wagon having been specially designed for the grain traffic. Four sliding doors for loading have been provided- the lower sides being double. The tare is 13.4 tons, and the gross load 30 tons. To facilitate discharging, four shifting trap-doors are fixed in the floor opening on to iron hoppers, the outlets being below the under­frame, are conveniently worked by means of slides and connecting-rods. When the wagon is used for ordinary goods the trap-doors are shut down upon the hoppers, and the floor presents an unbroken surface. In transporting corn in bulk the trap-doors are removed and are fixed upright in front of the sliding doors, where they are immovably fixed to the frame3 by hinge bolts, screening the opening to the height of 1.36 metres (4.46 ft. ), and leaving the doors free. The wagon can thus be loaded through the space above the bulkheads thus formed, the capacity of the wagon being then 38 cubic metres (1046! bushels); it can be discharged when required through the hoppers by working the slideEJ.

A difficulty presented itself in this form of con­struction in that the body had to be made independent of the underframe. The latter had to be given an upward camber of 25 millimetres (0. 98 in. ), so that it should be horizontal when the wagon is loaded. An elastic play of this amount was necessarily out of the question in the sides of the wagon body, as it would have prevented the sliding doors from working. For this reason the wagon body is made to rest entirely on the end cross frames. At intermediate points t he wagon aides are connected with t he frames by t ies formed of angle-irons, and are held firmly to it by horizontal tie rods, which leave the frame free to A.lter its shape, while at t he same time they prevent t '1e sides from bulging under the act ion of the load.

The advantages of the design need not be insisted upon, for the combined s~rength and lightness of the framing, and the convemences of the hopper system of unloading are self-evident. It will be easily under­stood that a saving of a large proportion of the deadweight is realised.

The drawbar arrangement on stock built by the Officina Meccaniche has already been alluded to ; it is illustrated by Figs. 5 to 8. From these it will be seen that one of the sleeves which the ten­sion screw tra,·erses has a couple of trunnions, which lie in a vertical plane when the carriages are coupled up. This sll3eve is held in another sleeve provided with

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E N G I N E E R I N G. [OcT. I I, 1901. • •

ITALIAN RAII_JW AY ROLLING S T 0 C K.

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A--1- · -- - ----

t g - · -i

..... ...... .........

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CONSTRUCTED BY THE OFFICINE MECCANICHE, MILAN.

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F1o. 3. B ooTE T&uoK FOR 30-ToN CovERED Goons \YAOON.

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--------

Fig 8 .

:Fig. 6 .

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Jc _ -_ --~ i~~ e:~ •

f' ---- --- . ----- ---------- -. ··-----· .... ·------- •

--· --

-DETAILs oF CoUPLING; 30-ToN Goons WAOON.

horizontal trunnions, on to which are jointed the two short connecting-rods attached to the draw hook. This outer sleeve is provided with two hollow semi­circular branches which embrace the vertical trunnions of the inner sleeve in such a. way as not to interfere with its free motion in a horizontal plane. Two small cross-pieces, held by gudgeons, prevent the trunnions from working out of the slots. Fig. 8 shows that by this arrangement the coupling drawbar adjusts itself always to a straight line, without being subjected to transverse strains tending to cripple it, no matter how acute the angle between the axes of the two coaches may be. All the stresses which previously would have tended to deform the drawbar have now no other effect beyond twisting the coupler in the sleeve. The details of the device are simple, and its component

parts do not seem likely to weaken the drawbar in any way.

The same general principles are followed out in all t he rolling stock produced by the Officina Meccaniche­t heir open wagons for coal traffic are specially note­worthy, wi~h their low tare of 10,800 kilogrammes (10. 73 tons) and their loading capaci~y of 30 metre­tons (29.53 tons), the length of body is 10.2 metres (~3.47 ft. ).

The self-propelling tramway cars for summer service on electric tramways built by this company merit some description. In Italy, as elsewhere in the past throughout Europe, summer service cars have been closed with open end platforms. Designers sought, howeTer, to produce self-propelling cars with floors raised as little as possible above the roadway, and

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OcT. I t, I go 1. J EN G I N E ER I N G. '\

GAS ENGINE AT THE GLASGOW EXHIBITION. CONSTRUCTED BY THE FORWARD ENGINEERING COMPANY, LI:MITED, BIRMINGHA11.

Fig .1.

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accessible by a single step, the motors remaining be­neath this floor. Designers have endeavoured also to support t he motors directly from the axles and the underframes so a-s to reduce the vibration to a minimum. The floor of the car is only 0.68 metres (2.23 ft.) above rail level, so that a single step is sufficient. Around the trap­doors through the flooring, which is of iron with wooden laths, giving access to the motors, the flooring is slightly raised to g ive t horn the neces­sary room even when the car springs receive a maxi­mum load. 1'his difference in floor level is unnoticeable. The motors are suspended from a special truck wholly independent of the underframe and body of the car, eo t hat the latter receives and transmits no vibra­tions. When the wheel axles and motors require examination, the car body is slung and the truck is run out. The car has this further peculiarity, that while retaining its open character, it can be barred on either side to prevent passengers ascending or descend­ing on the wrong side by a movable continuous hand­rail made of jointed tubes, one of the jointed pieces forming the horizontal portion, the other being a. ver­tical support. When removed, the handrail is folded up in the shape of a Z, the horizontal arm being applied against the edge of the car roof, carrying with it the vertical support, while the hinged extension folds up against one of the uprights.

This carriage wtighs 4150 kilogrammes (4.08 tons) without the motors, and 6700 (6.59 tons) with them; it has accommodation for twenty-eight passengers seated and twenty standing.

GAS ENGINES AT THE GLASGOW EXHIBITION.

WE illustrate on this page a. gas engine specially designed for dynamo driving, which is being exhibited il.t Gle.egow by the Forward Engineering Company, Limited of the Bloomsbury Works, Birmingham. The engine has a cylinder 7 in. in diameter ~y 15 in. stroke, and is designed to run at 260 revolut10ns per

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I I I I I

I l .. •

l ··-- ·-·------------- - ... ----- ---- ---··---~----·-nu./1 ,

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minute. The indicated horse-power is 18.3, and the brake horse-power 14. 7. The engine has therefore ·a. mechanical efficiency of over 80 per cent. The gas used per brake horse-power at full load is 18.2 cu hie feet per hour. As shown, the engine has two heavy fly­wheels. The crank is balanced and has narrow webs, whilst its bearings are all of large size, and, being self­lubricating, do not require constant attendance. The

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cylinder is a single casting, jacket included, thus avoid­ing joints . The compression is high , a;nd t he ignition is regula•ed by means of a timing valve. The engine is, moreover, provided with an air silencer and exhaust muffi.er, thus rendering it comparatively Eilent in work-• m g.

NOTES FROM THE UNITED STATES. PHILADELPHIA, October 2.

THERE is less business in iron and steel to report for the past week, to which several influences have contributed, among them the oversold condition of most mills and furnaces, the inability of owners to accept early delivery orders, and the strength of prices, which might result in an actual advance were large orders to be precipitated. The general situation is un­changed, however. The enormous consumpt ion con· t inues, and production is almost back to normal requirements. Prices of pig iron have been advanced in the South. Large sales of Bessemer and basic pig have been made in the West. Lower quota­tions are being named on crude steel for next year's dAJivery. The rush of inquiries since the strike has had the effect of hardening prices on bar£~ , hoops, slieets, and rods. Steel rail orders booked for this year foot up 3,000,000 tons, but upwards of 400,000 tons cannot be delivered until next year. Everything points to an enormous demand. Productive capacity is generally estimated at about 4! million tons, count­ing in the latest expansions of capacity. This year'e orders were 650,000 tons more than last year, and next year's orders wiJl be about 1,000,000 tons more than this year. Exports of rails are estimated at 300,000 tons. The requirements from the Texas oil fields are very urgent. There are at present about fifty "gushers," which average from 20,000 to 70,000 barrels daily; and this enormous production has to be distributed by pipe lines, tank cars, and other methods. Hence the activity in material necesary for facilities. The scarcity of material is general as to early de· liveries, and to all appearances there will be an ad­vance in _prices on plates and shapes. The American Bridge Company are booking large orders for next year's delivery, keeping elastic dates in sight. Among the wild rumours is one stating that copper would be cut to 131\ cents. The indications are that there will be a rush"' of orders this autumn that will fill the mills to their greatest capacity by December. Higher prices are unnecessary and undesirable, but the urgency of demand is such that premiums will be paid on many finished mill products.

GLASGOW EXHIBI'.rroN ELROTIUOAL ExHIBITS.-We have received from the proprietors of the Scottish Electrician, 37, Queensferry-street, Edinburgh, an electrical souvenir of the Glasgow Exhibition, which gives a description of the electrical exhibits reprinted from the Scottish Elect1·ician, which is uEeful as a record. The exhibits are not classified, the arrangement being in alphabetical order, according to the name of the firm.

THE LATE CHARLES H. CRAMP, PHILADBLPHIA.-The death has just been announced 0f Charles H. Cramp, J!!Obably the foremost shipbuilder in the United States. He was the elder son of William Cramp, who in 1830

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established the now famous Cramp yard at Kensington, Philadelphia. William Cramp began as a builder of wooden vessels, mostly for the coastwise trade. At the time he launched his first vessel Philadelphia had a dozen shipbuilding yards, but the Cramp yard is the only one wh10h has survived. The pion£ers of the American line were built in the early seventies, when the late Charles H. Cramp was in charge at Kensington, and his career as a shipbuilder may be said to date back to the building of the Indiana, the Illinois, the Pennsylvania, H.nd the Ohio, forming the first fleet of the American line. This en­terprise ultimately failed, nob from any defects in the vessels, but from the keen competition of faster and later built ships of British lines. Failure notwithstanding, t he late Mr. Cramp always took an immense pride in the pioneer vessels of the American line of the seventies; and m one of the shipyard books of the Cramp Company he claimed that these four iron ships had served to tide the name of the American merchant marine over a score of dreary and disheartening year&, '' and now in the dawn of a brighter epoch they remain sturdy links connect­ing the promise of the future with the glories of the pi'St." Tbis was written after the St. Louis and ~he St. Paul bad been launched from the Cramp yard, and when the new movement in America towards shipbuildmg was well begun. Followine- the building of the first vessels of the old American lme there was a period of stagnation, and as late as 1884 there were only three shipyards in the U nited States in which iron vessels were built. Cramp's was one of these. The others, according to an American correspondent of the Glasgow H erald, from whom we quote, were the Roach yard at Chester, and the Harlan and Hollingsworth yard at Wilmingtbn, Delaware. In this period, bow­ever, there was usually some fairly important! work going forward in the Cramp yard. From 1874 to 1883 the double-turreted monitor Terror, a vessel of 4000 tons dis­placement, was in building for the U nited States Govern­ment. From 1877 to 1880 Mr. Cramp built an iron cruiser for the R ussian Government, and also converted three merchant vessels into cruisers for the Russian navy. These, however, were the days of comparatively small things at the Cramp yard, and the yard did not begin to achieve its more recent fame until the United States began to build its present navy. The first of these ships-four in all-went to the Roach yard, and it was not until 1887 that Mr. Cramp entered on the work which brought him his greatest distinction. In 1887-8 he built the protected cruiser Baltimore for the U nited States Government, and since then there has not been a. year in which either cruisers or battle. ships have not been in building for the American navy at Kensington. The Indiana, the Massachusetts, t he low~, the . Alabama, and th~ M.aine (No. 2) are the battleshtps wbtcb have been bmlt m the Cramp yard, which has added more tonnage to the American navy than any other yard either on the Atlantic or the Pacific Coa-sb. It was after the Cramp yard was well started on this Government work that it builb its first steel vessels for the Atlantic trade. Between the middle seventies and 1894 not a single ocean-going merchant vessel was built at Philadelphia. Bob in 1892. when the American line took over the Paris and the New York, and by Act of Congress obtained American registry for them, tb was made a condition that two vessels of equal size should be builb in American shipyards. The connection between the American line and the Oramps has always been close, and as a matter of course the orders for these vessels, the Sb. Louis .and t~e St. Paul. went to the Cramp yard. Both were fintshed m 1894. In 1896 the yard built its first war veSEel for Ja_pan. In 1898 the old connection between the Russian Government and the Cramp yard was renewed, and since then there have been built there the battleship Retvizan and the cruiser V a.riag.

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N0TES FROM THE NORTH. . GLASGOW, Wednesday.

Glasgow Pig-Iron Market.-The market was reported tJo be steady last Thursday forenoon, but quiet, only some 6000 tons being dea.lb in. Scoboh warranbs, after being done at 54s. cash_per boo, left off unchanged a.t 53s. 11d. per ton ; while Cleveland, after opening at 45s. 3~d. per ton cash, improved bo 45s. 4d. per ton, wibh buyers over. Dealing in the afternoon was again restricted to 6000 tons Cleveland, to which business was confined, closed ~d. per ton up on the day a.t 45s. 6d. cash, with buyers over. Scotch warrants were quoted unaltered at 53s. 1ld. per ton cash buyers. At the closA of the market the settle­ment prices were: Scotch, 54s. per ton; Cleveland, 45s. 4~d.; and hema.tite iron, 59a. l~d. per boo. On Friday forenoon a. moderate amount of business was done with prompt delivery, and there was a. rise of 2d. per ton in the case of Cleveland. Scotch was neglected, and losb 2d. per ton. The sales of Scotch were made at 53s. 3d. and 53s. 2d. per ton, with delivery at the end of the year. Cleveland iron changed hands as high as 45s. 8d. per ton cash, and sellers wanted 45s. 8~d. per ton cash. That price was paid in the after­noon, and business was done at the same rate seven days. The sebblemenb prices were: 54s .• 45s. 7~d., and 59s. lO~d. per ton. There wa.s a. dull market on Monday forenoon, the turnover not exceeding 5000 tons. Scotch warrants declined 2d. per ton ab 633. 7d. cash buyers, hub Cleveland was unchanged at 45s. 7id. cash, with buyers. From 6000 to 7000 tons of Cleveland changed hands in the afternoon, the closing quotation being just the turn easier on the day at 45s. 7d. per ton cash. buyers. Scoboh warrants, which were not dealt in, were quoted at · 53s. 9d. per ton cash sellers, a decline from F riday_ of l~d. per ton. The settlement prices were : 53s. 7~., 45s. 7id., and 59a. 9d. per ton. On Tuesday forenoon the pig-iron market was quiet, the turnover amounting to about 7000 tons. Scotch warrants, a.fber being done a.t 53s. 7~d. per ton cash, eased to 53s. 6d., leaving off ld. per ton down a.t 53s. 8d. p er ton sellers. Cleveland wa.s dealb in ld. per ton up ab 453. 8d. cash, and finishing at 45s. 7~d. per ton buyers. At the afternoon meeting about 5000 tons were dealt in, and the close was easier, Scotch finishing 4id. per ton down on the da.y, and Cleveland id. The settlement prices were: 53s. 7~d., 40s. 7~ci ., and 59s. 9d. per ton. The market was steady this forenoon, when about 10,000 tons changed hands, generally around the la.st quotations. Business wa.s confined to Cleveland iron, which opened a.tJ last price, 45s. ~d. per ton cash, and left off a.t 45s. 7d. per ton. Scotch warrants were quoted unchanged ab 53s. S!d. per ton cash. Only 1500 tons changed hands in the ahernoon, and prices improved. The sebtlement prices were: 53s. 4~d., 46s. 7~d., and 59a. 9d. The following are the quobabions for makers' iron No. 1 : Clyde, 66s. 6d. per ton ; Garbsherrie and Calder, 67s. ; Langloa.n, 693. 6d. ; Summerlee, 71s. ; Coltness, 72s. - the foregoing all shipped at Glas­gow; Glengarnock (shipped ab Ardrossa.n), 663.; Shotts (shipped a.b Leith), 70s. ; Carron (shiJ?ped at Grange­mouth), 67s. 6d. per ton. Here are the shipments of Scotch pig iron for last week : To I ndia, 264 tons ; to France, 104 tons; to Italy, 1637 tons; to Germany, 467 tons; to Holland, 862 tons ; smaller quantibtes to other countries; and coastwise, 2511 tons. The total for the week wa.s 6303 tons, as compared with 3914 tons in the correspond­ing week of last year. Up till and including lasb datur­da.y the shipments for the year amounted to 209,485 tons, againsb 264,547 tons in the year 1900. Two or three transaobions in Scotch warrants a.b from 53s. 11d. to 54~. per ton cash, tolerably well covered all the dealings in thab security for the week. Cleveland warrants again claimed most attention, and a fair amount of business was transacted. P rices are being steadily forced upwards, reports say, winh the intention of catching the "bear," which ha-J been impr~denbly increased of late. At any rate, the past closed w1th near cash dates ab a good premium over forward dates. American reports are strong for prompt delivery, bub somewhat indefinite for forward delivery. Continental reports are almost more depressin~ than ever, and home reports are losing some of their bnghbnes!. The number of furnaces in blast is 83, against 80 ab this time last year, and oue has been changed a.t the Da.lmellington Works from ordinary to hematite iron. The stook of pig-iron in Messrs. Connal and Co. 'a public warrant stores stood a.t 58,235 tons yesterday afternoon, as compared with 58 3ll tons yesterday week, thus showing a decrease fo~ the week a.moun bing to 76 tons.

Finished Iron ancl Stcel.-Some of the malleable iron works are very busy, and the furnace hands and hammer­men are quietly adapting themselves to the altered rate of wages. In Wesn Ooast hematibe iron warrants only a few transactions have taken plnce ab between 59d. 7~d. and 59s. 10~d. per ton ; while sales of Scotch hemattte iron are reported at 63s. per ton for the local steel works for prompt delivery. Fmished steel is increasing in demand, and prices are well maintained.

S tdpkate of Ammonia.- The demand keeps very brisk for sulphate of ammonia., and the price ranges from 10l. 12s. 6d. to 10l. 18s. 6d. per ton, according be the port. The la.~t week's shipments at Leith amounted to 1143 tons.

Sale of Coal for Genoa.-It has just been reported on Oha.nge that a. sale of 2000 tons of Scotch coal has been made for delivery in Genoa next year ab 163. 6d. per ton o.i.f., and exclusive of duty.

Craigend!unton Water Works.-When the Corporation of Kilmarnock purchased the town water works some years ago, they soon found that ab least on~ ~ther reser­voir was sadly needed, and they set to app01ntmg & water

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E N G I N E E R I N G. committee, with Bailie James Brown as convener. L and was purchased in the Fenwick Moors, about eight miles from the town, for the construction of a new reservoir, and Messrs. Leslie and Reid, engineers, Edinburgh, were selected to carry out the work{', which were c~m­menced about six years ago. '£hat firm pub the thtng in train and then ceased to have anything further to do with it. Eventually, Bailie Head, who had fallen heir to the oonvenership, arranged that Mr. Niven, engineer, of Glasgow, should be entrusted with the work of seeing the reservoir completed, whioh he did in a most capable manner, and wtbhin the past few days the works were inspected by Provost Maokay and his colleagues of the Town Council and declared open. They consist of a reservoir which is about 800 fb. above sea level, and has an area. of water surface amount­ing to about 30 acres in extent. Its greatest depth is a.bollt 40 fb., and ita capacity is about 135 million gallons, the sources of supply being the Dunton Burn and its tribu­taries. The new works also include three large filters and a. clear-water tank with a capacity of 450,000 gallons a.b Amlaird, a.nd a. 20-in. main has been laid from the reservoir to the filters. By the completion of the new works, ab a. cost of 62,470l., the water supply of the town ha.s been practically doubled, and ought to serve the population for many years to come.

Messr s. John Brown artd Co., Litmited, Olydcbank.­Many of our readers who had business associations with this firm and their predec~sors in the occupancy of the Clydebank Shipbuilding yard, will regret to learn that, owing to continued ill-health, Mr. Arohibald McMillan has been compelled bo retire from the position of secretary to the company at Clydebank, a position he has filled with rare tactfulness and ability for many years. In fact, his association with the worlts dates almost from their commencement. Mr. J. B. Henderaon, formerly assistant, succeeds Mr. MoMillan.

NOTES FROl\i SOUTH YORI{SHIRE. SB&Fb'IELD, Wednesday.

Yorkshire College Engineerin{; Olasses.-ProfessorGood­man delivered on Friday evemng the opening lecture in connection with the evening engineermg classes ab the Yorkshire College, there being a. numerous abtendance. The lecturer announced that the number of students had so largely increased that it had been found absolutely necessary to enlarge the department, and bring it up to date. The Committee, in making the selection for the plant, had determined to have nothing but the best and most modern appliances. In many instances manufacturers had very generously either presented the machinery to the department, or had supplied it ab a. nominal cost. During the evening the prizes and certifi­cates for the work done during the last session were awarded to I\1r. F. Millard and Mr. Rayner for the examination in "Mechanics Applied to Engineering," and to Mr. J. G. Dougill for the examina.tJion in "The Strength of Elasticity of Metals."

Gramts to Yorkshire CoUeges.-The Technical Instruc­tion Committee of the vV est Riding County Council prop~e this year to make ~rants amounting to 1375l. to the Yorkshire College, ab Leeds, and 870l. to tho U ni­versity College, Sheffield. Ab the former institution 250l. IS to be devoted to a course of extension lectures a.nd work in connection with coalmining classes ; 400t. to the supply of technical instruction ; and 200l. to the establishment of a Department of Commerce. The Sheffield University College is to devote 500t. to lectures in ooalmining; 200l. to instruction given in the Technical Department of the College; a.nd 120t. to technical in­strucbion generally.

T he German Tar~tf.-The Dewsbury Chamber of Com­merce has decided to report to the Board of Trade that the proposed increase in the German tariff of 29 per cent. upnn heavy woollen goeds would be entirely prohibitive, and to express the hope that the Government would do all in their power to prevent the increase. The duties on yams are also condemned as seriously prejudicial to the spinning and dyeing trade of the district.

T he Hull Coal Trade.-The exportation of steam coal is still decreasing. The official return of the Hull Chamber of Commerce for last month shows that 284,128 tons of coal reached the port, being over 8!, 000 tons less than in the corresponding month a. year ago, and over 87,000 tons less than were dealt with in August. The ton­nage for the nine months pa.sb has reached 2,383,280 tons, roughly 710,000 tons less than were eent during the three quarters of la~b year. The quantity of coal sent to foreign countries shows a serious deficib. Last month's figures- 13?,652 tons-are 89,420 tons behind the qul;'n­tity sent 10 August. The export trade for the nme months has now exceeded one million tons, whereas last year this figure was reached in ,J ..~Jy. The g.uantity sent coa-stwise last month-31,640 tuns-shows a shght advance over the August figures. The decrease in the export business is of a s-eneral character rather than any par­ticular market bemg affected.

Iron amd Steet.-The departments producing railway material have been running very well on the whole, but new orders would now be welcomed, as the leading home railway companies are distributing their favours somewhat sparingly. There are some good inquiries in the market for parts required by e~ectrioa.l and hydraul.io engineers, and prospects of an tmproved busmess 10

these branches are good. Small and medium castings are only i~ poor ~equest! and some ~rms are experiencing difficulty m keepm~ theu pl~nt .s01ng. T~e d~mand for crucible sbeel of htgh .quahby IS well. mamtamed, and work is consequently fauly steady. F1rms who make a. speciality of labour-saving machines are fully employed.

[OcT. 1 t, 1901.

The file trade is now quieter than ib has been for some time, and work is far from plentiful, a.parb from Govern­ment orders.

South Yorkshire Coal Trade.-The demand for steam qualities maintains a fairly satisfactory level, and some collieries are scarcely able to meet the calls made upon them. The request for common sorts is not so good. There has been during the week a. slight falling-off in the sales of house qualities, but a. season of severe weather would, no donbt, stimulate business, and in all proba­bility stiffen prices. The coke trade is good all round, and the inorea.sed prices that are being obtained for blasb­furnaoe qualbies is helping to lift the oosb of steel coke. In the OJ;_>en market 26s. per ton is being asked for steel coke deh vered by carts in the works, and best washed qualibies of blast-furnace are realising a.t the pit from 13s. to 14s. per ton.

NOTES FROM CLEVELAND AND THE NORTHERN COUNTIES.

MIDDLESBROUGH, Wednesday. The Olevelartd Iron Trade.-Yesterday there was only

a moderate attendance on 'Change, but the market was very strong, and a good deal of business was transacted. Buyers appeared more disposed to do business than did sellers, and quotations had a deoid~d upward tendency. No. 3 g.m.b. Cleveland pig iron was pub at 45s. 6d. for prompt f.o.b. delivery, and certainly transact10ns were recorded a.t that figure, but it was a price at which sellers were in no hurry to do business, a.nd, in fact, makers reported that they experienced no difficulty in obbainin~ a higher rate. In several oases named, brands real a sed 45s. 9d., and even more was asked by some of the_producers. No. 1 Cleveland pig was quoted 47s. 6d. The lower qualities of iron were anything but plentiful, and they were very strong in price. Grey forge was practically uuobta.inable. No. 4 foundry and grey forge were each 44s. 6d. ; mottled, 44.s. ; and white, 43s. 6d. Inquiries for Ea.st Coasb hematite pig were rather numerous, but they led to very little business, the demand being chiefly for early delivery, and few sellers being able to guarantee delivery before the middle of next month. Makers reported that they had sold their outpub for a month to come, and they quoted November delivery of mixed numbers ab 60s. ; No. 1, ab 61s.; and No. 4, ab 55s. Spanish ore was steady and firm, rubio being 15s. 9d. ex-ship Tees. To-day there was no alteration whatever in quotations.

I ron T rade Statistics.- Figures just issued by the Middlesbrough Cha.m ber of Commerce show that ab the end of September, wibhin the porb of Middlesbrough, 54 blast-furnaces were blowing and 34 were damped down, whereas at the same time a year ago 69 furnaces were blowing and 18 were damped down. Of the fur­naces now in operation, 37 were making ordinary Cleveland pig iron, and 17 were produoin~ hema.tite, spiegel, basic, &c. The total output of pig uon for the pa.sb quarter wa.s estimated at 492,000 tons, as against 480,000 tons during the previous three months, and 573,500 tons during the third quarter of 1900. The total value of exports, other than coal and coke, was 888,397l., a.s against 1,440,8G9l. in the corresponding period of last year, and the total for the nine months was 3,173,587l., as against 5,066,213l. in the nine months of last year. Five vessels had been launched from shipbuilding yards during the past quarter, the total gross register tonnage being 15,605, as against 9216 in the corresponding period of last year, and the firsb nine months of 1901, 34,065, a.s com­pared with 33,763.

Blastfurnacernen' s Wages.- The ascertained average net selling price of No. 3 g.m.b. Cleveland pig iron for July, August, and September, 1001, is 46s. 10.9d. per ton. This gives a. reduction in Cleveland blastfurnacemen's wages of 1.5 per cent., a.nd lowers wages from 18.75 per cent . above the standard to 17.25 per cent. above the standard. The ascertained price for the previous quarter was 47s. 0.58d.

Mam:ufactured Iron and Steel.-In mosb branches of these two important industries a. lob of work continues to be turned out, and for some de'!oripbions a fairly good inquiry is reported. Mosb producers have well-tilled order-books, and are not necessitated to make great con­cessions to secure new contracts. Common iron bars are 6l. 5s. ; best bars, 6t. 15s. ; iron ship-plates, 6l. 17s. 6d. ; steel ship-plates, 6l. 5s. ; heavy steel rails, 5l. 10s. ; and cast-iron railway chairs, 3l. 10s.-tbe two last named being net cash a.b works, and the other descriptions less 2! per cent. discount.

Coal and Ooke.-Fuel keeps pretty steady. Bunker coal is, if anything, a little easier. Gas coal is in good request and firm at 12s. 6d. Coke is very strong and in good demand, especially for home consumption. Average blast-furnace qualities are 16s. Gd. delivered here.

NOTES FROM THE SOUTH-WEST. Carc.W;tt:-There has been a moderately good inquiry

at late rates f~r large abeam coal for prompt shipment. For future dehvery, however, the demand has been less active. The best steam coal has made 17s. 3d. to 17s. 6d. per ton, while secondary qualities have brought 16s. 3d. to 16s. 6d. per ton. There has been a good demand for house coal, which ha.s exhibited a better tone; No. 3 Rhondda. large has made 15s. 6d. to 16s. 9d. per ton. Foundry coke has been quoted ab lOa. to 20s. per ton · and furnace ditto a.t 163. 6d. to 17s. 6d. per ton. As regards iron ore, the best rubio has made l4s. 3d. to 148. 6d. per boo, while tafna. has been q noted at 15s. tJo 15s. 6d. per ton.

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OcT. I I, 1901.]

Wate·r Supply of Stoo.nsea.-On Taesda.y the Ma.yor of Swa.nsea. (Mr. W. Watkins) la.id the foundation stone of the masonry da.m for a. new reservoir ab Cray. The original contraob having fallen throu~h, bhe workR ha.ve passed u~der the supervision of Mr. D1x, who acts for the CorporatlOn as ma.nager. The works are ab present in a. backward sta.te. A dam a.cross the valley to impound 1,000,000,000 gallons, or a. water area of 100 acres has still to be constructed. EKtensive excavations ha.ve'been made, however ; and on arriving on the scene the mayor and the consulting engineer (Mr. Hill) ab on~ conducted the company to the rock bottom from which the dam is to rise. The stone having been laid, luncheon was served in a mission-room erected in connection with the works.

Pembroke Dock.-It is understood that the War Depart­ment and the L?rds of bhe Admiralty have come to a.n arrangement w1th regard to Hobbs' Point Pier, Pem­broke Dock. The store-rooms now used by the Admi­ra.lby are to be burned over, and will be used as stores, &c., for ordnance purl?oses, and for making arrangements for embarking and dlSembarking troops.

.Th~ El~ctric Lig~t at Cardi,ff.-A meeting of the elec­tno hghtmg comllllbtee of the Cardiff Town Council was bel~ on Thursday, Mr: Alderman Carey presiding. The engmeer (Mr. A. Elhs) reported that 91,247 units had been generated dur ing September, as against 72,497 in August. The works cost was 1.25d. per unit in August and 1.10d. per unit in September; and the whole cost wa.s reduced from 3.39d. in August to 2.8d. in September.

The Radoli.tfe Line.- Mail advices from New Orleans state that the first s~amer of the new Radcliffe Line, the Llangollen, which is working in connection with the Illinois Central Railroad, has left New Orleans for Rotterdam with a full cargo. The Llangollen is owned by Messrs. Thomas RadcJiffe t~.nd Co., of Cardiff, who have a fleet of twenty-seven vessels; and the following s teamers will be engaged in the new service a-s the necessity arises: The Llanberis, the Llandrindod, the Llandudno, the Llangollen, the Llangorse, the Llanisben, the Llanover, and other vessels of the fleet.

Oardi:O' Corporation Water Works.-A meeting of the water works committee of the Cardiff Town Council was held on Friday, Mr. Alderman J ones presiding. The engineer (Mr. C. H. Pries tley) stated that at the Heath the filter-beds were working above their normal capacity. There were six fi lter-beds, and ib was necessary to keep one empty for purposes of cleansing, &c. A branch bye­pa-ss main was necessary, as it would be impossible to keep up the supply to the town in the case of a burst in the mains ab Llanishen. Ab the same time they were ab present unable to stop the supply for the purpose of cleansing the mains. Many of the mains in the town were old and too small for the requirements which had arisen since they were laid, some of them forty or fifty years t~.go. Many bursts reported recently were in these old maillfl. The following expenditure was required : Rhubina extensions, 13,686l.; Cogan extensions, 6789l. ; new reservoir Leckwith, 8488l.; Cantreff cottages, 434l.; new mainEI, services, and meters (six years ab 4000l. a year), 24,000l.; Heath extensions, 22,398l. ; branch bye-pass main from T aff Fa.wr conduit to the Heath filters, 4500l. ; renewing and relaying old mains and service& (l500l. per annum for six years), 9000l. ; purchase of property, 1000l.; cost of obtaining provis10nal order and contingencies, 500l. ; total, 90, 795l.

More Admiralty Coal Oontraots.-On Tuesday the L ords of the Admiralty placed orders at Cardiff for 60,000 tons of best Welsh smokeless double-screened coal, delivery to be made between now and the end of the year. N ine firms participate in the order, the quantities ranging from 5000 to 10,000 tons. The lowest tender accepted is 16s. 6d. per ton, and the higheso 17s. 6d. per per ton, free on board steamer.

CoAL IN SouTH AFRIOA.-Tbe Cyphergab Coal ~fining Company, Limited, has secured a contract to supply the Cape Government with 18,000 tons of coal at 18s. per ton. The oon t ra.ct is for a year from October 1.

CoAL IN TRE NORTH 0.11' FRANOE.-The combined prod uc­tion of coal in the N ord and the Pa.s-de-Calais last year was 5,669,518 tons. The corresponding output in 1899 was 5,660,430 tons; and in 1828, 5,698,481 tons.

P.ERSONAL.-Mr. H. Alfred Roobling, and his partner, Mr. H. B. Molesworbh, have opened an office ab 39, Victoria-street, S. W.-Messrs . .A. Reyrolle an.d Co., Limited, announce that they have transferred tbe1r head office bo their works at Hebburn-on-Tyne.

WATER SuPPLY Oli' BIRMINGHA~r.-The Water Com­mittee of the Birmingham City Council has determined to propose to the next meeting of the council t?at an application should be mado to Parliament next sess1on for extended powers for the completion of the Elan Valley water works. The time for completion under an Aob of 1892 will expire on June 27 next year ; and as ib will b.e imJ?OSSible oo ~omplete the works by that d~te, ~n applt­catlOn to Parbamenb for an extene10n of t1me 1s neces­sary. Advantage ~11 be taken of the occasion to obta~n the sanction of Parliament to the abandonment of certain works authorised under the old Act, but found to be un­necessary, and the substitution of others in certain oases. None of these variations are of particular importance, but their general effect will be a saving on the entire scheme, which it has been found possible to advantageously alter in certain oases. Tho committee are looking forward to obtaining the water supply in 1903, although the entire completion of the scheme will only be effected at a con­siderably later date.

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E N G I N E E R I N G.

MISCELLAl'{EA. THE Remington Compa.ny have received the Royal

Warrant as typewriter manufacturers.

An exhibition of labour·savin~ machinery is to be opened ab the St. J ames's Hall, Manchester, on March 6 next. Applications for space should be directed to Mr. William A. Carson, 2, Parsonage, Manchester.

Sodium, which a few years back was sold by the ounce, is now manufactured electrolytically to the extent of some hundreds of tons per annum. The product is mainly used for producing cyanide, but a considerable proportion is also converted in the peroxide.

The ninth annual congress of the National Free L abour Association is to be held ab the Memorial Hall, Farring­don-street, E . C., on Monday, October 14, and subsequent days. It is stated bhab the Association have now some 300,000 names registered on their books. The secretary of the Association is Mr. W. Oollinson, 5, Farringdon­streeb, E. C.

By experiments on twenty-one different alloys of coppei and zinc, Mr. T. J. Baker has shown that the heat of formation iA a maximum in the case of the alloy contain­ing 32 per cent. of copper. In this case it is 95 B.T.U per pound of alloy. The experiments were made by determining the beat generated by dissolving in suit­able solven t..'\ equal weights of the alloys tested, and of corresponding mixtures of the metals.

According to the American Machinist, the promoters of the Tripler Liquid Air Company succeeded in obtaining some 50, OOOt. from a credulous public. The company was organised with a capital of 10,000,000 dols., and the stock was sold through the agents, who proved very successful advertisers. There are, of course, no manufacturing profits present, p~b, or prospective, as the whole ~cheme was based on mechanical fallacies which were repeatedly exposed in the technical press.

The Empire Roller Bearings Company have recently fitted the whole of the tramcars for the South port Tram­ways Company with roller bearings, and have also secured the contract for similarly fitting the oars for the Mumbles Railway. A reoentJ examination of bhe bearings fitted to a. steam motor van which has been in..regular service be­tween Maidstone and Ton bridge Wells for upwards of two years shows the bearings to be in a.s good condition as when they were put in two years ago, and the eavings in haulage are stated to have been highly Pabiafactory.

One of the largest single contracts ever awarded for electric ra ilwA.y power plant has just been given by the New York Underground R apid 1'ransit Company to the Westingbouse Electric and Manufacturing Company. This, the "firsb installation," will comprise six alternators of 5000 kilowatts capacity each, three exciters of 250 kilo­watts each, 26 rotary converters of 1500 kilowatts eaob, and 78 transformers, each of 550 kilowatt..q capacity. Ab the present time the work of building the tunnels is in progress. There wiJI be in all some 21 miles of track and 48 stations. The line will be operated by direct­current, fed to the train motors by a third rail. .A detailed and illustrated description of the installation will appear in the November part of TRACTION AND TRANSMISSION.

According to a consular report to the Government of the U nited State~, the artificial building·stone industry has taken a considerable development in Germany. The raw ma.terials are lime, preferably hydraulic, and sand­the cleaner the better. After grinding, the lime is mixed with the sand in the proportion of 4 to 6 J?er oenb. of the total bulk. The mixture is then pressed m to bricks and transferred to a steel drum, where ib is subjected to the action of steam ab & pressure of aboub 120 lb. per square inch for a boat 10 hours. U nder the action of the steam a silicate of lime is formed which acts as binding material. The bricks are ready for use on removal from the drum in question. Mouldings are as easily produced as rectan­gular work. The bricks thus manufactured are said to be both cheaper and stronger than ordinary brick, the crash­ing strength being about 500 tons per square foot. The factory needed is small, as compared with the output, and work can be carried on all the year round.

519 in spite of the ~eat distance. The Sagba.lin mines are not very extens1ve, and the coal is mostly bitumino~a, but it is excellent for steamers. There are abundant m­dications of lignite coal all over Siberia and Manchuria. About 20 miles from Vla.divostok, on the property of the Ussuri Mining Company, a layer of grey coal from 8ft. to 10ft. thick and of excellent quality has been found at .a depth of 75 fb . . Io is described as remark!3'bly clean, 1t contains no foreign substances, and burns wttb great beat and small waste. The la.ck of cheap fuel is one of the drawbacks to the development of t he region, and it is hoped that t he new mines may drive out the Japanese coal. A British firm has lately purchased a larg~ mterest in one of the Siberian mines, and proposes to mtroduce modern machinery and metho~s, and Americans are a:Iso interested in some of the mmes. One of the leadmg officials of the port of Vladivostok estimates bhe annual demand for coal locally ab 81,000 tons, and says that ~he supply of Siberian coal is about 60,000 tons, half of wh1cb comes from Sa.ghalin. The Government us~s <;Jard_iff coal on all i ts vessels ab Porb Arbbur a~ well as m S1bena.

The Delany rapid telegraph is, according to the Rail­road Gazette, to be introduced experimen bally on the P ennsylvania Railroad. This system of rapid ~legrapby is a modification of the Wheatsbone aubomat10 system, but in place of using a Morae recorder printing on tape, the record is effected electrolytically on pap~r impregnated with red prussiate of potash. On a~ arti­ficial line of 1200 ohms resistance and a capa01ty of 12 miorofarads, 1000 words a minute have been trans­mitted, the electromotive force used being 104 volts. With copper wire weighing 400 lb. per mile, it is expected that 2000 words per minute can be sent over a. 1000-mile line. A new type of perforating ma· chine, having but one key, is used for preparing the transmitting tape. Depressing the . key pun<:hes .a bole near one edge of the tape, whilst allowrng It to return again punches a second bole near the other edge. As the tape travels continuously, the distance between the holes varies with the time during which the key is depressed. A long interval corresponds to a dash, and a short one to a. dab, so that the manipulation of the key is precisely the same as in transmitting a message by the ordinary Morae machine. The aotual work of punc~­ing is effected by eleob~ic .magnets, and af~r the tape IS perforated, the punch IS msoa.ntaneously Withdrawn, so that the motion of the tape through the machine is con­tinuous and nob intermittent. In sending, the perforated tape is passed beneath a. couple of spring conta.cts, cor­responding to the two lines of boles. As a sprin.g com­pletes circuit through one hole, the current entenng the line causes a blue mark to appear on the prepared tape a.b the receiving instrument. When the circuit is broken, this electrolysis does nob cease simultaneously, bob is mainta.ined by the capacity current of the line. When, however, bbe other spring makes contaob, a reverse current is sent into the circuit, which discharges it, and breaks off the record sharp, making it into a dot or a dash, as the case may be.

A conference on water supplies and river pollution, organised by the Sanitary Institute, will be held in St. Andrew's Hall, Newman·street, London, W., on Wednes· day, October 16, and on Thursday, October 17, meet· ing on each occasion ab 10 a.m. On the first of the days mentioned, the chair will be occupied by Sir A. R. Bin nit:>, M .I.C.E., and the subjects for discussion will be intro­duced as follows: "Watershed Areas. the Physical Conditions and Standard of Purity to be desired, and the Prevention of Contamination," by Mr. J. Parry, M. Inst. C. E. ''The Protection of Underground Suuroes of Public Wabflr Supply," by Mr. E. C. Seaboo, M.D., F. R. C. P. " Rainfall and Population in Relation to Water Supply," by Mr. H . R. Mill, D.Sc., F.R S.E. "The Desuability for Reports on the Water Suoply of Each County," by Mr. A. Greenwood, M . D., D.P. H. u The Rivers of Glamorganshire, with Remarks on the Rivers of adjBcent Cnunties," by Mr. W. Williams. M. A., M. D., D.P.H. "Water Supply to Isolated Cottages and Sma.ll Groups of Cottages," by Mr. J. C. Thresh, M. D., D.So. "~he Present Inadequate yYater Supply for Villages and V11lage Sohools," by Miss C. Cocbrane. In the afternoon the testing shop of the New River Company at ()lerkenwell will be visited, as also the works of the East London Water Works Compan~, Lea Bridge. On Thursday, October 16, Mr. ,V, Wh1taker, A.M.I.C.E., F.R.S., will preside, and bhe subjects for discussion 'vill be introduced as follows : "Water Supply and River Pollution,'' by Professor H. Robinson, M. Inst. C.E. "The Control of Weirs and Dams on Rivers in Relation to River Pollution," by Mr. A. G. Leigh. "Prevention of Pollution within the Thames Watershed, and Thames Water Supply and Storage,, by Mr. H . W. Russell, Barks County Council. "The Chemical Standard of Purity of Water Supplies/' by Mr. H. R. Kenwood, M. B., D .P.H., F. I. C. "Sterilisation of Water,'' by Mr. S. Rideal, D.So., F.l.C. "The Commercial and Industrial Value of Soft Water," by Mr. Frederick Verney, Bucks County CounoiJ. The afternoon will be devottid bo a visit to the Staines reservoirs, and in the evening the annual dinner of the Institute will be held at the Holborn R estaurant.

In.a report to the United States Department of Agri­culture, Mr. W. R. Bea.tbie describes the plan used for freeing a botanical laboratory from a plague of cook­roaches and other inseob pests. The agent used was hydrocyanic acid gas, liberated by the action of dilute sulphuric a-oi~ on potassium. cyanide, about _1.5 grains of the latte~ be1~g used per oul;>Io foot o~ the bUlld­ing. The sulpbur1c a01d wa-s placed m glass Jars, above each of 'vbich was fixed a pulley. A line passing over this pulley carried the packet of cyanide, ~bich could t~u~ be lowered into the acid from the exter10r of the bulldmg. All outside op~nings were .closed as ~ar as po~il;>le, and the cyanide bemg lowered m to the amd, the bUlldmg was left to itself for three hours, which expetience has shown to be a sufficiently long time. The insects le.ave their biding-places as the fumes reach them and d~e on the floor, where they can be swept up next mormng. Mr. Beattie suggests tha.b the method may prove ueeful elsewhere, and may possibly be adopted in the case of dwelling-houses ; but in view of the exceedingly dangerous nature of the agent used, the method is evidently one for A RECORD MAIDEN ATLANTIO VoYAGE. - The North experts only. Deubsoher Lloyd's Company's stt>amer Kronprinz Wil-

The American commercial agent ab Vladivostok, in a helm, described on pa~es 370 and 458 wnte, arrived ab recent report, abates tha.t the coal.used in East~rn S~beria Plymouth on the 7th lDab., on ~er maiden voyage from is obtained from the Sa.ghalin mtnea, from m mea m the N ~w Y ork, of 5 days 9 hours 4~ mmu bee, her speed average neighbourhood of Vladivostok itself, and from J a.pan. bemg over 23 k~ots. The .daily runs were 480, 536, .634, The Sagbalin mines are worked by cc;mviob labour; thC?se 532, 540, 365 miles. The lmer has made a reoord matden near Vladivostok need modern appliances as well as m- voyage, although the Deubsohland has steamed to Ply. telligent working. Cardiff coal is imported for steamers ' mouth at 23.51 knobs.

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E N G I N E E R I N G.

ITALIAN RAILWAY ROLLING S T 0 C K. CON TRUCTED BY THE OFFICINE ~IECCANICHE, MILAN.

(For Desc"ription, see Page 515 )

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Fw. 1. T uBULAR UNDERFRAME oF 30-T oN G ooDs WAGON •

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I RRIGATION IN J NJHA.-The receipts from irrigation works carried out in British India, and the working ex­penses and other charges attending the same for the last ten yearP, have been as foJlows :

Year.

1890·1 1891·2 1892 8 1893-4 1894·5 189fi·6 1896·7 l fl9i ·8 1898·9 1899·0

Receipts. £

1,448,385 1,514,693 1,612,601 1,680,940 1,559,2 l0 1,533,301 2,100,426 2,879,909 2,308,716 2,399,862

Expenditure. £

1,828,337 1,963,349 1,960,280 1,908,282 1,968,201 1,984,061 2, 167,168 ~ 096,010 2.110,950 2,263,475

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Fw. 2. 30-T oN CovERED Goons "\V AOON.

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The receipts for the 10 yelr3 were accordingly 18,388,043l., while the expenses w~re 20,250,119l. The exp~nses of the 10 yeard acoordmgly exceeded tb.e recetpbs .bY t ,862,076l. Still t he substantial fact rema;ms that. Indtan irrigation works are nearly self.support~ng, w~tle they confer, of course, great benefits upon I.ndtan agn~ulture, and so promote the general prosperity of l~d1a. It should be observed that the charges set aga.m~b e~ch year inolude interest on capital expended for 1mgat10n Fro 4. B oci E T RUCK AND l\IoTORS FOR Sn!E~T RAILWAY CAR. purposes. ·

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ENGINEERING, Oo'l'OBER 11, 1901.

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CROSS St:~TIOH AT A 8 LONOITUOINIIL SECTION

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OcT. It, 1901.]

AGENTS FOR "ENGINEERING." AusTRIA, Vienna: Lehma.nn and Wen~zel, Kii.rntnel'!trasse. CAPE TowN : Oordon and Qotch. EDINBORon : John Menzies and Oo. , 12, n anover-street. FRANCB, Paris : BoyYeau and Ohevillet, Librnirie Etra.ng~re, 22,

Rue do la. Bo.nque ; M. Em. Terquem, 31 bia, Boulevard lla.ussmnn. Also for Advertisements, .Agence Hava.s, 8, Place de la Bourse.

G.BRMANY, Berlin: Messrs . .A . .Asher and Co., 6, Unter den Liuden. Fra.nkfur~am-Main: Messrs. G. L. Daube and Co. (for

Advertisements). Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus. Mulhouse: H . Stuckelberger.

GLASGOW : Willinm Love. InDIA, Co.lcutto.: Thacker, Spink, and Co.

Bombay : Thi\Oker and Co. , Limited. ITALY : U. Hoepli, Milan, and any post office. LtVBRPOOL: Mrs. Taylor, Landing Stage. MANCilESTKR: John lleywood, 143, Deansgate. NORWAY, OhrisLlania: Cammermeyers, Boghandel, Carl Jobans

Onde, 41 and 43. Nsw SoUTn WALES, Sydney: Turner and Henderson, 16 and 18,

Ilunter-street. Oord~n and Ootch, George-street. Q o.&BNBL.AJ(D (SOUTH), Dnsbane : Gordon and Gotch.

(Non.Tu), Townsville : T. Willmett and Oo. ROTTERDAM : 11. A. Kramer and Son. SOUTH AUSTRALIA, Adelaide: W. 0. Rigby. UNITBD STATES, New York: W. ll. Wiley, 43, East 19tb·street.

Chicago: H. V. Holmes, 1267·1268, Monadnock Block.

VtoroRIA Melbourne: Melville, Mullen, o.nd Slo.de, 261/264 Collins­etreet. Gordon and Ootch, Limited, Queen-street.

We beg to announce that American Subscriptions to ENOINEBRINO may now be nddressed either direct to the Publisher, Mr. 0 . R. J <t JJ J!\SON, at the offices of this J ourno.l, Nos. 36 and 3e, Bedford­street, Strand, London, W.C. , or to our accredited Agents for the United States : Mr. W. H. W1ur, 43, East l Oth-street, New York, and Mr. H . V. IIOLMES, 1257-1258, Monadnock Block, Chicago. The prices of subscription (payable in ad vance) for one year are: For thin {foreign) paper edition, ll. 16s. Od. ; for thick (ordinary) paper edition, 2l. Os. 6d.; or, if remitted to Agents, 9 dollars for thin and 10 dollars for thick.

NOTICE TO AMERICAN ADVF.RTISERS. American ftnns desirous of advertising in ENOIN'KERING are

requested to apply to Mr. H. V. liOLAIBS, 1267-1258, Monndnock Block, Chicago, or Mr. WILLARD 0. TvLER, 150, Nassa.u-street, Room 1910, New York City, from whom all particulars and prices can be obtained.

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ADVERTISEMENTS. The charge for o.dvertisements ie lhree shillin~s for the first

four lines or under, and eightpence for each addit10nal llne. The line averages se,·en words. Payment must accoml?any all orders for single ad\•er tisements, otherwise their insert1on cannot be guaranteed. Terms for displayed ndvertisements on the wrapper and on the inside pages may be obtained on application. Serial advertisements will be inserted wiLh all practicable regularity, out a bsolute regularity cannot be ~uaranteed.

Advertisements intended for insertion in the cur· rent week's issue must be delivered not later than 6 p.m. on Thursday. In consequence of the necessity for going to press early with a portion of the edition alterations for standing Advertisements should be received not later than 1 p.m. on Wednesday after· noon in each week.

SUBSCRIPTIONS, HOME AND FOREIGN.

ENOINEERINO can be supplied, direct from th Publisher, post free for twelve months at the following rates, payable in advance:-

For the United Kingdom.... ... . . .... . £1 9 2 , all places abroad :-

Thin paper copies • .. .. .. • • • £1 f 6 0 Thick , .. .. .. .. .. £2 0 6

All accounts are payable to u BNGINRBRING " Limited. Cheques should be crossed " Union Bank, Oharing Oross Branch."

Post Office Ordens payable a t Bedlord-st reet, Strand, W.O. When Foreign Subscriptions are sent by Post Office Orders,

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through newsagents are requested to communicate the fa.ct to the Publisher, together with the agent's name and address.

omces for Publication and Advertisements, Nos. 35 and 36, Bedford Street, Strand, London, W.C.

'h:LzeRAPHIO ADDR&as- ENGINEBRING, LONDON.

TzLZPBONll NUllBBR-8«563 Gerrard.

CONTENTS, PAQB PAGE

Tbe Tooling or Machines The Eleotrifico.Lion of the (lllmtrated) • , • • • • . . . . . • 606 Metropolitan Railways .. 621

Literature . • . . • • • . . . . . . . . . 607 Anglo·Spanieb Ore Combine 623 Books Receivetl •• . .. •. .. . 607 The Tarf Vale Deoieion .... 623 The New Subway in New British Railway Economics 524

York City (lllu~trated) • . 607 Conveyor Bridges .. .. ..•. 626 The British Association.. . . 610 llenry J uliua Smith . . ...... 626 Mather and Platt's Ex· Current Railway Construe·

hi bits at Glasgow ( l llu!· lion ......... . . ..... .... 626 trated) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614 Boiler Explosion near

Rolling Stock Construction Chelmsford . . . . . . . . . . . . 627 in Italy (l lltutratcd) . . . . 615 The Losa of the " Cobra " .. 628

Gas Engine at the Glasgow Foreign Competition in New Exhibition (l llust,rated) . . 617 Zealand ....• • .. . ..... .. 628

Notes from the United The Reconst ruction of ~he States ... . .... .. ......•• 617 Turkish Battleship u Me·

Notes from the North .... 618 sc.udie" (lllU8trated) •. .. 629 Notes from South York· Industrial Notes ........ •• 680

shire .. •. .... . .. . ... ..... 618 Modern Practice in Railway Notes from Cleveland and Signalling (lllmtrated) . . 681

the Northern Counties .. 618 Launohes and Trial Tripe .. 684 Notes from the South-West 619 I" Engineering " Patent Re· MieoeUanea . . . . ...........• 619 cord (l llmtratcd) . ....... 686

With a Two·P(Jgt Eng .. aving of THE NEW YORK SUBW .AY .

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E N G 1 N E E R I N G.

TRACTION and TRANSMISSION. (Publilhtd. on the fint Tuud<liy in each month.)

PART VII. NOW R•BADY. hiOll 28., Net i POST F BBll 28. ~cf.

Publlehect at the Otllcea of ENOINBBRlMO, 85 and 86, Bedford Street, Strand, London, W.O.

CONTENTS OF No. 7. P .A.Oa l .t AGE

'l' hc Legal Rcsponslhlllllca o( Elec· Com nd W. Cooke (Illust.ra.Uons trio 1'mmway Comp:mlcl\. By W. In Text.) ....... . . .• • •• ••... . ... . lOIS V"lentluo &11..... .. ....... .. . . ~ Rnllwr~ya lt1 OuiN~ ................ 110

Klcct rlu blot.ons on Dnttlo!lhlps. Dy I 'l ' ho GrcuolJie·Ohapnrolllnu Elec· ,J. W. Kollogg (J' lntc., XVII. to t.rlc Ra llwn)' (.Pla tes XX VJU. to XX. a.nd l llua tmllona In Text) . . 71 XXXI. a.nd llluatmt.lousln Te xt.) IllS

1~'0110 mica of St reot J\ull wnys. ltlox I blo T nuuuuleslon. Hy Slduoy Uy the Hon. ltoborl. P . Portor Jl.up.sell (llluatm t.lmll! In Text) .. 120 (Pinto XX I.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • 81 Tmct.lou tmd Tnmt~miMion Notes :

Mun icipal Trndlng: The Whitehead Euclo11ed Go· (11) By Dixon H . D.~ vies . • .. .. 00 vornor (Jllu11tmted ) ........ 126 (li} By the llon. Robert P. 1 Aut.omr~Uc Rwlt.ch for 200·Volt

Porter.. .. . .. .. . . .. .. . • . • . 100 CnrretJ t.(lll uRtrnted).. . • . . .. 127 Tho Kubcl Turhlno l nstnlln t.lon. 'fho Sout.hport }; loot.rlc Tmm·

Jly P rof. Pnu:ll , Zurich (Plates ca r ( P II~to XXXU.) ........ 127 XXJI. to X X VU . and Ilhutrn- Tlle l3rltt&h Sohuokor t Com· tlone in Text) . •... . . . •..... . .. 101 pn.ny 'IJ Exhlblt.l! at Glasgow

'l' h o Krlegcr Elcct.romobllc. By • I (Pluto XXX Ul.) . . .. .. ...... 128

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NOTICE~ OF MEETINGS. TuE IZ'STJTU'rlON Ol" bltNI NO AND 1\IBTALI,URGY. - Thursday,

October 17, lOO L, at o o'clocl< p. m., at the rooms of the Geological Society, Burlington House, P10cadilly, London, W., the following papers will be read aod discussed : "Gold·Mioing in Egypt ," by Mr. C. J . Alford (Member of Oouocil) ; " A Method of TesLing CJ anide Solut ions containing Zinc," by 1\Ir. Leonard M. Green (Assoc. R.S.M. ; " Note on a Curious Occurrence of Gold," by by Mr. B. H. Bennetts (Associate).

ENGINEERING. FRIDA Y, OCTOBER 11, 1901.

Of course, such reasons are absurd, but so was t~e plan of spending several thousands of pounds m demonstrating a matter which was perfectly well known. How long the whole affair might have remained under consideration it is impossible to say if Mr. Yerkes had not appeared on the scene, and set to work wit h characteristic American ardour to push matters forward. ~e began by buying up a large amount of the ordmary stock of the District Ra.ilway, so that he was able to control its policy, and then he started a limited company, with a capital of a ~illion sterling, for the pu~~ose of converting the hne from steam to electr1c1ty. If he had had to deal solely with the District Company, he would have had no difficulty in carrying out his scheme, but as, the train~ o~ b?th companies run over each others metals, 1t IS I m ­

perative that one system shall extend all round t he Inner Circle. Mr. Y erkes, therefore, had to come to an agreement with his neighbour, t he stronger member of the partnerdhip, before he could com­mence work. Now the Metropolitan Company had previously en tertained the idea of providing electric power for both companies, as the District was not in a position to raise money except on very onerous terms. But when Mr. Yerkes suggested that his company should undertake the whole work, pro­viding plant, rolling stock and power, at a fixed charge of three farthings per passenger, they declined; the idea of receiving assistance, instead of giving it, was not congenial to them. Mr. Yerkes then amended his offer, practically offering to take over the entire line and work it for the benefit of his company, subJect to the deben­t ure and preference charges, and a dividend of 3a· per cent. on the ordinary stock. This offer, which represented a better state of affairs for the shareholders than they had ever enjoyed, was also refused, on the plea that it was a case of '' Heads I win, tails you lose " for a concern with one million capital to guarantee dividends to another with five millions. When Mr. Yerkes offered to hypothecate all his plant and rolling stock, and double his capital, he did not meet with a more favourable reception .

During t he progress of these negotiations the Metropolitan Company's engineers- Sir W. H .

THE ELECTRI FICATION OF THE Preece and Mr. Thomas Parker- had been asking METROPOLITAN RAI LWAYS. for tenders for the equipment of the line, and had

L AST Monday the H on. Alfred Lyttelton, the received a very favourable one from Messrs. Ganz arbitrator who has to decide what system of electric and Co., of Budapest, which t hey recommended traction shall be employed on the Metropolitan and for acceptance. Unfor tunately, the features of the Metropolitan District Rail ways, held a preliminary scheme were absolutely distinct from those recom­sitting at the Board of Trade. The business, how- mended by Mr. Yerkes's engineers, and as neither ever, made no progress, because Mr. Cripps, the company would give way, the result was a deadlock. counsel for the Metropolitan Company, asked for It is the business of t he arbitrator, who has been delay in order that he might obtain the presence of appointed by the Board of Trade, to decide be­his expert witnesses. The other side, the District tween t he two parties, and select one system for Company, urged that the inquiry should pro- both. The direct-curren t system advocated by ceed at once, but it was ultimately decided Mr. Yerkes is practically that employed on the to open the evidence on the 29th inst. This Central London line, and also generally in the delay is disappointing, after the newspaper discus- United States; it presents no novelty, except in sion which has been carried on between Mr. Yerkes the means for fitting it to t he structural condi­and the Secretary of the Metropolitan Company, tions of the tunnels and covered ways which con­each protesting that the other was seeking to post- stitute the greater par t of the line. The alternate­pone the matter, and professing that his side was current system, advocated by Messrs. Ganz, com­mostanxious for it to be undertaken at once. Now prises features which have never yet been worked three weeks will elapse before a commencement can on any railway, and the usefulness of which re­be made, and no one knows when the decision will mains to be demonstrated. Up to a certain point, be reached. In the meantime both railways are however, both systems are alike, except that suffering from the competition of the Tube, and Mr. Yerkes proposes a periodicity of current of from the unpleasant condition of their tunnels which 25, and Messrs. Ganz of 15. The power plant keeps away many possible passengers. However, in each case generates three-phase cun·ent at high they are quite used to the latter cause of loss; voltage, and distributes this to sub-stations at indeed, from the procrastination they have both intervals along the line. Here it is reduced to the exhibited for years past in the matter of electric pressure at which it is to be employed on the traction, one would imagine that they were proud locomotives. Therefore, if both systems are equally of it . efficient, practically the same power station and

It was in August, 1898, that an Act was obtained feeder mains would do for either. The first diversity for the electrification of the Metropolitan Railway, is found in the sub-stations. Those for direct current so that three years have passed without any- contain statical t ransformers and rotary converters, thing practical being done, even without the producing direct current at 500 or 550 volts, while two companies coming to an agreement as to the Ganz sub-stations are equipped only with the general principles of the scheme. The only statical transformers, reducing the voltage from evidence of activity was the equipment of the short 10,000 to 3000. At this point all resemblance piece of line between Earl's Court and High·street, between the two systems ceases. The direct Kensington. There have been several theories cur rent follows the established lines of a contact put forward to account for this work. One is that rail, geared motors, and series· parallel grouping, all it was laid down to show the directors what an of which are well known. The Ganz system trans· electrically-driven t rain looked like ; another, that mits its three·phase 3000.volt current on to the it was to enable the engineers to educate t.hem- locomotive by means of two trolley wires, and selves in the subject before they undertook the utilises it there by induction motors. It is in expenditure of larger sums than 10,000l.; while a these features that its economy must be sought, third is, that it was to provide a good excuse I if it is to be found at all. for deferring the main work for several years. In the coming contest before the arbit rator,

t~e direct-current system will be in the posi­twn of a man in possession, and the old saw tells us that that counts for much in legal matters. It is in use on hundreds of miles of line, and its capabilities are perfectly well known. One day's sitting should suffice to make clear to the arbit rator what are its capabilities and its limitat10ns, and furnish him with a standard of comparison wit!l which to measure the advantagef!l and disadvan tages of the Ganz system. These are likely to provoke prolonged discussion, for they are in part theoretical, and in part founded on data which lack experimental confirmation. The only instances worthy of being quoted in evidence are the Engleberg and Burgdorf-Thun* lines, the former of 14 miles, and the latter of 25 1niles length , and both worked with three-phase motors at 750 volts. It is a far cry from these Swiss roads, with their leisurely tourist traffic and infrequent stations, to the Inner Circle which girdles the City and the West End of London. Here success lies in rapid despatch, in quick stops, in swift accelera­tion, and in the ability to deal with sudden influxes of traffic. There is very little similarity between the t wo cases. The Lecco-Sondrio Chiavenna line, of 66 miles, is not yet in working order, and lit tle or nothing can be proved by it.

The advant..ages claimed for the Ganz system are that it is cheap to instal and cheap to work. It is stated that as the su b-sta.tions contain no moving machinery, they can be left without supervision, and that not only is the cost of converters saved, together with the loss of efficiency they occasion, but also the continual expense of a staff of atten­dants to look after them. In the matter of contact wires there is the economy which results from using 3000 volts instead of 500, and this alone represents a large sum to the good. These three points may be freely conceded. It is well known that con­verters are expensive apparatus to buy, and that they need attention, and t hat con tact rails to trans­mit hundreds of horse-power at 500 volts have to be of large section. In relation to these, the Ganz system offers distinct advantages; the q uestion remains, Does it entail equivalent, or more than equivalent, defects ~

An alternate-currant system, which contains motors, is subject, as every one knows, to self-in­duction, and this involves the presence of a mag­netising curren t in the generator and mains. This current does not represent power ; but, never­theless, it requires increased size in the gene­rators and conductors, and is j ust as real as the current which transmits energy to the motors. It is assumed that the Ganz system will have a power factor of 0. 7, and this means that practically a quarter of the generating plant will be in service, when all the trains are stationary, in generating the magnetising current. The feeders also will have to be of increased cross­section to t ransmit the current. All this leads to increased expenditure; and to this outlay must be added that required by the enormous rush of current which takes place in starting an induction motor, and which is three to five times that for a direct-current motor. Unless the mn.ins are large enough to supply this, rapid accelerat ion is an im­possibility, for the torque varies as the square of the voltage, and a small drop in pressure means a large loss in t ractive effort. On the other hand, when rotary converters are used, they can be constructed to give a leading current which balances the lagging current of self-induc­t ion, and produces a power fac~or of unit.y, and in that case there is no necesstty to provide for t he circulation of '' wattless amperes."

The use of the rails as the return conductor is also much less efficient wit.h alternate currents than with the direct current. Owing to the skin effect, a steel rail will only t ransmit one­sixth to one-twelfth of i ts normal capacity, and hence it must be assisted by heavy copper cables, or else the transformer sub-stations must be placed very near togeth~r, eit~1er plan being expensive. The Lecco line Is des1gned for a 50-volt drop in the return t rack, or seven times that hitherto allowed in this country ; and unless the Board of Trade is prepared to mod.ify its rules very largel?, the Metropolitan line wlll need to be very dif­ferently equipped. Alte~nate currents ~re, doubt­less, less likely to give r1se to electrolysis than are direct currents but, on the other hand, they are exceedingly tr~ublesome in relation to telegraphs

--* See ENGINEERING, vol. lxx., pages 99 and 133.

E N G I N E E R I N G. and telephones. This point, and also the question whether 3000 volts on naked wires over the tracks of a passenger line will be permitted by the B oard of Trade, seem to require determina­tion before the arbit ration commences, for the cost of the Ganz scheme largely hinges upon them. If the authorities follow the Swiss precedent, and refuse permission for even 1000 volts on a rail way, the possible advantages of the polyphase system dwindle almost to nothing, while the defects re­main of their original magnitude. Surely this matter should be settled before the arbitration commences, or else there will be no solid ground to fight upon, and more wasted time will be added to the years already frittered away in useless talk.

So much for the line equipment. We now come to the locomotive. This has two trucks, with two motors on each, or 600 horse-power in all ; and as t he equipment of t he two trucks is identical, a description of one will serve for both. The two motors, although of equal power, are of very different construction, and together they con­stitute the ''cascade t~ystem," which is the leading feature of the Ganz system, although not invented by them. The first motor has its stator connected up to the 3000-volt circuit; its rotor generates current at 300 volts for delivery to the sta.tor of the second motor. The rotor of the second motor is coupled to a water resistance at starting, and is afterwards shor t-circuited. When the current is switched on to the first motor, a current is generated in its rotor of equal periodi­city, and t his is transmitted to the stator of the second motor , tending to rotate its rotor. As the speed of the train increases, the periodicity in the first rotor diminishes, owing to its more rapid rota­tion in the same direction as the field, and con­seq uently the periodicity in the stator of the second motor does the same. When the train attains half its rated speed, the second motor has reached the limit of its power, for at any higher speed it would absorb mechanical energy instead of emitting it. It is {hen cut out of circuit, and the first motor has to do the remainder of the acceleration up to full speed.* 'l'hus half the motor equipment becomes useless as soon as half speed is gained, and con­sequently a very heavy amount of machinery has to be carried.

It is difficult to get to know what is the efficiency of the Ganz three-phase motors; but it is under­stood that the scheme is based on an expenditure of 72 watt-hours per ton-mile, after crediting the motors with returning 20 per cent. of the energy to the line during the period they are used as brakes. Now, on the Central London Railway, 41.5 watt­hours are expended per ton-mile, and on the City and South London line 38 watt-hours. The Liverpool Overhead Railway shows 70 watt-hours per ton-mile, metered at the station. All these figures are better than the hypothetical figures of Messrs. Ganz, and those of the South London line are almost twice as good, so that the expected economy in working seems hard to realise. Twice the watts means not only twice the coal, but double the amount of boilers, engines, generators, and mains. In tests made on the Sondrio line the Ganz motors consumed from 65 to 85 watt-hours per ton-mile, according to the length of the run, and that with an acceleration of only 0..! ft. per second per second. As on the Metropolitan line the acceleration must be from 1 ft . to 11 ft. per second per second, it would seem that a much greater expenditure of energy would be needed.

We do not know what guarantees Messrs. Ganz have offered to the Metropolitan Company in regard to the working of their plant, but that is not a matter which concerns the arbit rator. He is not sitting to decide whether the companies can obtain penal­t ies from the contractors if the condit ions of the specification are not fulfilled, but to see that a safe and reliable means of traction is pro­vided for the public. Other things being equal, he would naturally give the award to the system which was the cheapest to instal and to work, but the first consideration is efficiency. Not only is that so in the interests of the public, but also in that of the companies themselves. They are each burdened with a capital of more than five millions sterling, and it is only by handling a great traffic that they can pay dividends upon it . The first element of success is the convenience of the people who may use t~e line. ~ith penny omnibuses overhead, and with tube railways run-

* See ENGINEERING, vol. lxxi., page 379.

[OcT. I I, 1901.

ning parallel, every element tending to frighten and annoy possible passengers must be eliminated. What is wanted is a certain, rapid, and safe service, and nothing that detracts from such a service is economical. Supposing that one system works out at 2d. per train-mile less than another- a fairly wide assumption- a loss of t wo third-class passengers would eat up the saving. Between any two systems of electric t raction, the expenses, reckoning wQrking costs, interest and depreciation, cannot differ more than a very few pence per train-mile ; while an inefficient system may easily drive a way possible t raffic worth 1s. per train-mile. The problem before the directors of the Metropolitan rail ways is how to attract t raffic, and not how to deal with it most cheaply. There are plenty of people wanting to t ravel, but they have a choice of means, and have neither the time nor the patience to assist at experiments.

The Ganz system of electric t raction makes no promise of dealing with the traffic more efficiently than the direct-curr~nt method. I t offers nothing to the public, neither higher speed, more rapid acceleration, nor greater safety, than the direct current is already giving. The sole plea that can be advanced in its favour is its economy. That is an excellent plea for certain situations, but it is of very little weight in this particular instance, and it yet remains to be proven. As we have already shown, the system has i ts own special losses to set against its intrinsic economies, and, on the showing of its promoters, its consumption of energy is greater than that of some existing lines. But we know by experience that promises, how­ever honestly made, concerning new systems, do not always turn out to be true, and when they relate to such a difficult subject an multiphase currents, they are really of no value whatever. Until they have been definitely demonstrated, they exist only in the r egion of hypothesis.

There is another view of the matter which needs no electrical knowledge for its appreciation. The two companies have been badly hit by the Central London Railway, and have lost t raffic representing thousands of pounds a week. They are contem­plating the change to electric traction in ord er to recover this traffic, and, if possible, to obtain more from other sources. It is always hard work pulling up a failing enterprise, and it is bad policy to take any unnecessary risks in the matter. In any case an immense sum must be ventured, and, if things go wrong. much of it may be lost. I t is only common prudence to spend enough to ensure a mechanical success. Commercial success can never be guaranteed, and it is quite enough to have one unknown q uan tity to deal with at a time. To add an untried system, about which there is every reason to feel mis­givings, to a problem which is inherently full of difficulties, is voluntarily to put success to the hazard. The British public is hard to deal with. It is utterly unreasonable in mechanical matters, and makes no allowance for breakdowns and delays. One hears passengers denouncing the general manager of a line as perfectly incapable because a train is a q nar ter of an hour late in a run of 200 miles. They take no account of the fact that the train r uns by t he concerted action of at least 100 men, scattered over a long line, and that all these have to be drilled and kept up to their duty. The very same people, who expect such perfect action on a railway, find it impossible to insure their cooks having the dinner ready when they reach home, while a rebellious housemaid puts their domestic aftairs into complete confusion. Use has partly reconciled them to the shortcomings of steam 1ines, but their unreasoning ignor­ance comes all alert to an electric line. If they were obliged to travel, their grumbling would not greatly matter, but it is just those people who can choose other means of conveyance in whose hands lies the success of the new venture, and it is most desirable to avoid giving them cause for dissatisfaction. As we have already said, the dif­ference between the dearest and the cheapest scheme does not represent more than two or three passengers per mile, while the difference between a pleased and a dissatisfied public will probably mean dozens per mile. Even if we grant all that is claimed for the Ganz system, the petty defects which must attend all new enterprises would turn the scale against it in this case. When you must swap horses crossing a stream, it is imperative to choose one that is known to be quiet, or drowning may ensue.

•

OcT. t t, I901.]

ANGLO-SP ANISH IRON COMBINE. I T is interesting to find the combination fever

breaking out in the Bilbao district of Spain. That n.egotiati~ns which promise a satisfactory termina­tiOn are 1n progress for the fusion of some of the leading interests of the district is not denied · but the energetic correspondents are at a lo~s to explain their exact scope and character, and (as is not un~sual at this period of the year) they seem d1sposed to exaggerate. At first we were told that the Viscaya, Altos Hornos, and Mudela foundries were uniting t heir forces for t he strengthening of their hands in the home market, that they would have command of 500,000 tons of metal yearly, and that their joint capital would be increased to 75,000,000 pesetas. Such a fusion as this appeared not unreasonable, and not without a fair chance of success, save t.hat the capitalisation was excessive. From what seemed a reliable source of information, it was learned, however, that the actual capital would be 42,000,000 pesetas, equivalent to about 1,200,000l. sterling. Iron manufacture is carried on in only a small way in S pain, in spite of the country's enor­mous deposits of ore, and the companies named are among the few of any consequence. But the industry is well protected, and although at present fuel is costly, this protection admits of profitable operation, which should be further improved with the adequate development of the country's exten­sive coal measures. And being situated right in the midst of the best ore-producing ground, these works are singularly well located. But between this simple amalgamation and the ambitious project of which we have been told, there is a great difference. According to the latest tales, we are to have an Anglo-Spanish iron and steel combine, comprising the Viscaya, · Iberia, Altos H ornos, a"'d Zota and Azuca.r Companies, together with the Sierra Company, controlled by Messrs . Charles Cammell and Co., and the Orconera, in which the Consett Iron Company is interested. In order that there may be no mistake, we quote the rest of the details as the Madrid correspon­dent sends them along :

'' Seilor Martinez Rodas and Sefior Zota, repre­senting the Spanish interest, are now in Lond~:m negotiating with the British concerns. Definite papers of amalgamation will not be signed until assurances of support are given by English iron­masters. Conferences are now being held to fix a fair cont ract price, and when this is determined and aareed to by English dealers, there will be no furth:r delay. Present prices charged by the American Steel Corporation in the English market are taken as a working basis, and the Combine is offering a s ubstantial reduction below these. The capital is fixed at 6,000,000l., and the output during the first yea.r will be 3,~00,00~ tons of metal, but t his can be mcreased Indefinitely, the Zota and Azucar Company alone being in a position to place 100,000 tons a week on t~e market. ~he arrangements between the .Spanish and ~nglish concerns provide that the VIscaya, the Iberia, and the Altos Hornos Companies bet ween them shall provide l,OOO,OOOl. of the joint capital, and shall put 500 000 tons of metal on the market ; the Zota and Az~car Company shall provide 2,000,000l., and produce 1,000,000 tons, and th~ Eng~ish companies shall furnish 3,000,000l., and provide 1,500,000 tons."

Quantity in Jl.feflric-Tons.

Steel. • -

• CD ~ CD • •

Foundry. lt) Cl) CIS ~ ~ • ~ 8 ~ 0 '0

Cl) ~ ..... Cl) • Cl) Cl)

~ 1-4 '0 - Cl)

8 CD '0 - ~ m 0 b.O ::s 0 0 Cl) Cl) t. ·- ll4 ~ 0 ·- lXI ll-4 m -Ll\ Vizoa.ya .. 24,232 28,235 96,135 3317 62,457 101,696

•• 5296 66,143 29,627 Altos Hornos . L3,360 62,305 • • 101,320

San Francisco .. I 22,ooo • • • • 24,000 • • • • ••

These figures are on the face of them. wrong. A little examination of the actual accomplishtne~~ of the various companies shows that they are rtdiCu­lous. We turn to the latest Foreign Offi.c~ report on Bilbao district, and we find that. the rron ore consumed in the local iron works 1n 1900 was 614 129 metric-tons of which the Viscaya accounted for' 238,395 tons, the Altos Horn os for 191,722 tons the Fabrica Mudela for 110,602 tons, and the ~maller works 73,410 tons. The work turned out was as given above.

E N G I N E E R I N G. This Table, which we take from the Foreign

Office Report, appears to be incomplete, there being no mention of the production of the Mude]a and other works. But making reasonable allow­ance, it is obvious that the correspondent is all at sea, and that his :figures are in a large degree arbi­trary. The output of manufactured iron for the whole of Spain in 1899 (the last figures we can put our hands upon) was only 885,310 tons. The truth appears to be t hat the gentleman responsible for the paragraph quoted is mixing up iron ore pro­ducers and native manufacturers of raw and finished iron and steel. The Oroonera Company, for example, produced 1,408,469 tons of ore in 1900, but nearly every ton was sent abroad. The Zota and Azucar and Sierra also belong to the category of mines worked for the benefit of smelters abroad. In the face of all this, what assurances of support are wanted from the English ironmasters ~ And where lies the sense of the reference to the Ameri­can Steel Corporation ~ In the absence of autho-· ritati ve inforrr:ation, we are inclined to believe that the English ironmasters who have ore interests in Bilbao and other parts of Spain are making some agreement among themselves as to output, and that the Bilbao ironmasters are endeavouring to insure their own future by the acquisition of desirable mines before they are all snapped up by English­men, and that they are in other ways consolidating their position.

We fail to see any good reason for a close work­ing agreement between English and Spanish iron­founders, and after showing above the insignificance of the Spanish industry, it would be superfluous to argue the matter at length. The domestic market is capable of expansion, but it does not possess such potentialities of growth as would justify the erection of enormous works of the class fore­shadowed in the Bilbao neighbourhood. If it be pointed out that contiguity to the ore counts for a great deal, it may be observed that this advantage is largely neutralised by the costliness of coal. The neighbouring maritime province of Asturias pro­duced 1,425,000 tons last year out of about 2,772,000 tons for the whole country, and with the opening of the new Musel port in Gijon Bay, trans­port to Bilbao should not be costly. .But last year the best screened Asturias coal f.o.b. at Gijon was 24s. 6d. per ton. If it were intended to develop the coal beds of this province and of Leon, and to introduce a class of labour such as Spain itself cannot show, then one might understand the reasonableness of a large Anglo-Spanish combine. Anything short of this is not going to benefit English interests, and the English firms credited with being concerned in the deal are not in business in order that Spain may thrive. At the same time, given the investment of a large amount of capital, modern works on a large scale, and an intelligent and energetic class of worker, the iron industry of this part of the country might make appreciable progress. The richest Bilbao ores are being rapidly exhausted, but there is an inexhaustible supply of medium grade stuff, and Asturias is credited with having about 2,822,000,000 tons of anthracite and 11,767,000,000 tons of bituminous coal, the former contained within an area of 56,000 acres, and the latter within 277,000 acres. Leon is supposed to ~e even better off t han Asturias. In a paper on the mineral possibilities of this province read before the Bristol meeting of the Institute of Mining Engi­neers Mr. J. A. J ones said : '' Ooal promises to beco~e an important branch of mining in the province, in view of the extent of its ~oalfiel~s. It is now being developed on a gradually mcre~sing scale. The railway from La Robla to B1l~ao passes within reach of one run of coalfields whiCh have good seams of coal. Matallana, Sabero and Valderneda are opened by this railway. The work­able seams here vary in thickness from 18 in. to 8 ft. and more, they are heavily pitched, and worked by gallery and modified longwall. The coal from these coalfields is for the most part good coking, and up to the present time what is made in the locality is coked in mounds." The same aentleman is authority for the assertion that Leon possesses an abundance of iron ore, which has not been developed because of the distance from sea­ports and the high railway c~arg~s. Mr. Jot;les instanced three beds of Devon1an uon ore, whiCh run westwardly, with three series of outcrops. The most northevly, beginning at Busdongo, can be followed westwardly throughout the formation. Two of these beds are 10 ft. thick, and the middle one 7 ft., with a heavy

clip (70 deg. ). The ore is coarse, grained with fossils of the pecten order, and includes very small rounded pebbles of an older iron ore. I t assays 42.68 per cent. of iron, 0.98 per cent. of phos­phorus, and 23 per cent. of silica. The second series of outcrops are followed from below Villa­marina to Lanjaron, nearly parallel with the former. The ore was partially worked many years ago near Villamarina, by open cast, for the Mieres Iron Works. It has about the same percentages as those given above, but there is a far greater abundance of fossils, whose lime-casings have been replaced by iron. It is the old story: Spain is rich in minerals, but some of the principal deposits are not readily accessible, and unt il Englishmen provide railways and working capital they will not be made accessible.

THE TAFF VALE DECISION. AT the annual conference of the Miners' F edera­

tion of Great Britain, held on October 2, at Bir­mingham, the President (Mr. B. Pickard, M.P.), in the course of his inaugural address, made some allusion to the Taff Vale decision, which has created such a flutter in the dovecots of every trade union. H e said: "In the opinion which we have obtained from Mr. Atherley Jones, K.O., we are told that in that gentlemen's judgment there has been much exaggeration on this matter. Mr. Atherley J ones does not think things are quite so bad as t hey have been depicted.'' I t seems that Mr. Atherley J ones's opinion may be summed up as follows : (1) It is doubtful whether an unregistered union would be liable equally with one which is registered; (2). although trade unions are in future to be held liable if wrong is done, they cannot be held responsible for any wrong committed by local officials, unless the latter are authorised by the executive to do such wrong ; (3) a civil action may follow the wrongful act of an authorised official of a trade union, but whether the assailants can make out a good cause for compensation is another matter; (4) a trade union can neither sue nor be sued for contributions or pay ; (5) the net result of t he Taff V ale decision is that an action can only be brought where any­body is authorised to attack and intimidate with violence, and by show of force in any strike ; (6) and lastly, Mr. Atherley J ones suggests that the unions must let their rules be so framed that no official, either local or district, can do anything in the way of bringing out the men on strike, so that their funds may be protected.

These opinions expressed by Mr. Atherley Jones give one some food for reflection. His first state­ment that there is some doubt whether an un­registered union can be held liable appears to be of little importance, seeing that all the influential unions-the Miners' Federation included-are registered, and, being so, are in the same boat with the Ama1gamated Society of Rail way Servants, who now have an action for 20,000l. damages pending against them in respect of the damage caused to the Taff Vale Railway Company by the strike which formed the subject of the famous lawsuit.

The next expression of opinion-that a union cannot be held responsible for the wrongful acts of a local official, unless expressly authorised -seems to be a little startling. It might just as well have been argued that the officials who authorised the picketing in the Taff Vale cases were acting of their own responsibility, and that therefore the union which supported them could not be held responsible. We trust, however, that , in accordance with Mr. J ones's suggestion (paragraph 6), responsibility and authority will be taken from the hands of local officials, whose meddling interference is oftener more worrying to employers than temperate communications from the head office. With regard to paragraph (3) S'ttpra, the question whether compensation shall be paid to employers for the disastrous effects of a strike will fortunately be entrusted to a jury for determination. To the judge who presides at the trial may be entrusted the faithful applica­tion of the maxim, Ubi jttS, ibi re.medi'l.um. The statement that a union cannot sue or be sued for contributions or pay is common knowledge to any one who has studied the Trades Unions Acts. We agree with Mr. Atherley J ones that the net result of the Taff V ale case is as stated by him in para­graph (5), but we anticipate that the principle there laid down can be applied either for the pur­pose of restraining, or obtaining damages for,

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other wrongful acts of the unions, wheresoever and w hensoever committed.

The Taff Vale case also formed a subject of dis­cussion at the Railway Servants' Conference at Exeter Hall. The following resolution was unani­mously passed on October 3:

" That in the opinion of this Congress the recent de­cision of the House of Lords, based upon bhe Taff V ale case, rendering the funds of our and all other trade societies liable in damages for the illegal acts of their agents, is, in the opinion of those most conversant with trade union hietory and bhe Acbs of Parliament giving trade organi­sations legal existence, a distinct reading in of the law which did nob previously exist. Further, such decision, directly opposed e.a it is to the high legal authority of the Courb of Appeal, shows a. wide di ver~enoe in the minds of that high profession a.s to the mea.nmg of some of the laws on the statute book. We are fully convinced that the remedy can only be found in electing a.s our la.w makera and administrators those who have a. practical knowledge of industrial work and are in sympathy with the reasonable aspirations for industrial freedom and ad­vancement."

The hope which is here expressed that some future Government m~y remove a barrier to the reasonable aspirations for industrial freedom and ad van cement is not likely to be realised for years to come. In the meantime it is interesting to note that Mr. Edmond Browne, standing counsel to the Trades Union Congress, ex­pressed the opinion at the above meeting that, whether registered or not, trade unions are liable for the illegal acts of their agents, and he went on to say that he was about to advise the Congress to so alter their rules that that portion of their funds set apart for provident and other purposes shall be so tied up that even the society will be prevented from using it for the purpose of strikes. In this recommendation of the learned counsel we recognise the wisdom of a lawyer coupled with a laudable desire to persuade the unions to do what is best in their own interests. Submission to the inevitable, and a revision of the rules which will protect the funds set apart for the fatherless and the widow, is the most prudent course which can be adopted. In recent years tho vigour with which great strikes have been prosecuted on the part of the employed, and the facility with which the coffers of the unions have been opened for the purpose of sustaining strikers and their families in war time, seems to have fostered the idea that the primary and only object to which the funds should be devoted is the humbling of the " tyrannical employer." If it has worked no other blessing, the Taff V ale Rail way case has at least compelled the unions to ear-mark a certain portion of their funds to be devoted to a purpose to which no em­ployer-nay, no Englishman, howsoever bitterlf opposed to trade unionism-c~n take the slightest exception.

BRITISH RAILWAY ECONOMICS. THE steady increase in the expense of working

our railway system, so forcibly established by the recently issued Board of Trade analysis of the balance-sheet of British railways for last year, is a matter of the greatest importance from the indus­trial point of view; the advantage of cheap trans­port is too obvious to require more than a casual mention, and it is equally appreciable that with a diminishing net revenue, notwithstanding great expansion of business, and with Parliamentary and other claims necessitating capital outJay, some of it without direct prospect of earning a return, there are possibilities of higher rates for such transport facilities. It is therefore interesting to investigate the details of this officially drafted balance-sheet, with the view of determining possible directions of economy in the immediate future. In the first place it is satisfactory to note that there has been an increase in the average t rain load ; the train­mileage has not gone up pro ?·ata with the volume or earning value of the traffic. Thus the passenger receipts increased by 3. 8 per cent., and the nu m her of ordinary passengers by 3.2 per oent., yet the pas­senger train-mileage was only 1.6 per cent. greater. In mineral traffic the minerals conveyed made 3.3 per cent. more in weight than in the previous year, the aeneral merchandise 1.3 per cent., the tonnage of all goods traffic being 2. 7 per cent. greater and the receipts 2.6 per cent. ; but the addition to goods train-mileage was 1.4 per cent. This may be a small gain, but it is in the right direction, and we are inclined to think that much advantage would accrue by a further increase in the train load. Un­fortunately, the Board of Trade are not able to

E N G I N E E R I N G. give the ton-1nileage ; the railway companies raise somewhat flimsy excuses against giving such a use­ful basis for comparison. Nor have we here even the engine-mileage, which would assist towards &

determination of the question as to whether the practice of double-heading of trains is on the in­crease, as some urge. This is admittedly an ex­pensive method of dealing with heavy traffic, and we are glad to note the experiments being tried by several companies with locomotives of great tractive power, and with large wagons for minerals capable of taking a load three or four times the '' tare," In both directions there is distinct room for great improvement and also for economy.

It is in this item of traction charges that there is greatest need for serious consideration. The gross receipts per train-mile have not for years, if ever, been greater, the sum earned for passenger trains being 49. 08d., and for goods trains the high rate of 71.06d., the mean for all trains being 59.01d. The goods rate is from lid. to 2d. higher than in previous years, but is still 6d. to 8d. short of the amount got per freight train-mile in the United States, even with their low rates ; but our passenger receipts per train-mile are as high, if not higher, than in the States. These results are nevertheless on satisfactory lines ; but, unfortu­nately, in adding l id. to the revenue per train-mile during the past five years, the expenses have gone up 4!d, which means a reduction of 3d. in the profit realised from each train-mile-now 22.17d. instead of the 2od. to 27d. earned from five to ten years ago. Should this diminution continue, resort may be had to increased rates.

On almost every item of expenditure there is an increase ; but t raction and traffic charges account for the greater part. The train mile­age only increased· by 1. 5 per cent., and the work done was really greater, as represented by the advance of 3.1 per cent. in the gross receipts ; but the locomotive charges are dispro­portionately greater- 4. 7 per cent. In other words, the train mileage increased from 396.2 to 402.1 million miles in one year- a difference of 5. 9 million miles ; but for this increase in work the expenditure on locomotive power rose from 16.53 to 19.31 million sterling, or 2. 78 millions. Of this the greatest part is attributable to the higher price of fuel ; this has been influencing the returns for three years. Up till 1898 the mileage and expenses cost advanced almost on the same gradient, but in that year the increased ex­penditure on coal was 15. 2 per cent., w bile the addition to mileage was only 3.4 per cent. ; in 1899 the cost of fuel went up 22.5 per cent. for 4.2 per cent. more mileage ; and in 1900 the companies had to pay ;19. 9 per cent. for the fuel required for a train mileage only 1. 5 per cent. longer. This is, no doubt, to some extent abnormal ; and the Board of Trade report, usually conservative in prophecy, suggests some decline in the current year ; but reliable and permanent sources of economy must be looked for. The price of coal at the pit's mouth last year averaged 10s. 9td., and it is very doubtful if it will return to the level of five years ago, when it was 5s. lOtd.

We note that the quantity of coal used by the various railway companies of the United Kingdom for locomotive purposes was 11,166,388 tons, as compared with 10,636,172 tons in 1899, the in­crease being equal to 5 per cent., whereas the work done was only 3.1 per cent. greater, as indi­cated by the gross revenue. The caloric value of the coal must be considered before attempting any deduction as to coal consumption per unit of work done; but it is a notable fact that the increase in the amount of coal used is disproportionate to the paying work done; and it is always open to ques­tion whether an inferior coal, assuming such to have been used, leads ultimately to economy. In four years the quantity of coal used has increased 20 per cent., the train-mileage 8! per cent., and the total traffic receipts 12 per cent. The situation will probably encourage the discussion of the possibilities of electric power reducing the tractive charges on the railways.

The item of wages is another serious factor in the increased cost of working the rail ways, and here, unfortunately, there is not much likelihood of any relief in future years: labour-saving appliances can do little; but greater hauls and no double-heading may help. The wages bill of fifteen companies is analysed in the .Board of Trade report, and it is found that in the locomotive department the in­crease in 1900 over 1899 was at t he rate of 4. 7 per

[OcT. I I, 1901.

cent., almost entirely due to the working of engines, although repairs and renewals also involved an addition to the labour bill. In the traffic depart­ment there is an increase of 3. 9 per cent. Of the total increase in the working expenses of 4,652,000l. on all rail ways, it would therefore appear that quite two-thirds is due to the increased cost of labour and 1naterial under the two heads indicated. Even the inflated price of coal is in part attribut­able to appreciation of the rate of miners' wages, and thus a considerable proportion of the increased expenditure is almost certain to be permanent. But there are other items which continue to grow at a disconcerting rate. In ten years, for instance, rates and taxes have gone up from 2! to 3f million sterling, or at the rate of 67 per cent., w bile the gross revenue of the railways has only increased 26 per cent.

With such largely increased items it is not diffi­cult to understand that whereas five or ten years ago the percentage of expenses to gross revenue was fairly constant at 56 per cent., it has since 1896 gone up one unit each year, and 1900 added 3 per cent., the rate becoming 62 per cent. This latest step-up is due partly to abnormal causes ; but the situation, apart altogether from such unusual con­ditions, demands careful consideration and a pro­gressive policy towards economy by improved mechanical means. In this connection, too, it is not without interest to note the wide variations in the several items of expenditure. For maintenance of way the cost per train-mile varies between 4.39d. and 8.29d. Six of the principal lines return a sum less than 5d., two between 5d. and 6d., and five between 6d. and 7d. There is, perhaps, more excuse for wide differences here than in such items as locomotive power, under which the variation is as great, between 9. 27d. and 13.85d., excluding the Ta:ff Vale Com­pany, which, owing to the strike, had to pay 19.64d. per train-mile last year. Four of the lines have kept this item under lOd.-Great North of Scotland, 9.27d. ; Great Southern and Western of Ireland, 9.69d. ; North British, 9.93d. ; and the Midland Great Western of Ireland, 9. 97d. The other companies are : Great Eastern, 10.41d. ; London and South- Western, 10.87d.; Great Northern of Ireland, 11.02d. ; Great Western, 11.07d. ; London and North-Western, 11.16d. ; Great Northern, 11.39d.; Caledonian, 11.40d.; Lancashire and Yorkshire, 11.51d. ; Midland, 11.60d. ; Glasgow and South-Western, 11.86d. ; Great Central, 12.43 ; Furness, 12.57d. ; London, Brighton, and South Coast, 12. 79d.; and North­Eastern, 13.85d. In traffic charges again there has been wide variation, between 8 36d. and 15.09d. It may not be without interest to give a Table showing the lowest cost recorded for each department amongst the twelve principal com­panies compared with the average for the United Kingdom:

Expenditure per Train-Mile. Average for United

Kingdom. d.

Maintenance of wo.ys . . 5.69

Locomotive powt>r . . 11.53 Rolling atock . . • . 3.09 Traffic expenses .. . . 1l.64 General charges . . 1.47 Rates and taxes and} 2 45 Government duty · Miscellaneous . . . . 1.08

Lowest RecordEd among the Twelve Principal Lines.

d. 4.30 (Oreat Northern and

Great Central). 9.93 (Nor th British). 2.66 (L. o.nd S. W.). 9.49 (Great Western). 1.02 (Midland). 1.45 (Nor th British). 0.47 (Midland). --

36.85 29.31

The difference is great, and although no company ~ay achieve t~~ distinction of possessing all the vutues by attammg the "lowest recorded," it is an ideal, not quite unattainable, which should be aimed at. Even if the difference could be reduced by half, there would be a satisfactory gain, bringing the net revenue per train·mile back to the average of five years ago. The item "traffic expenses" seems to offer some opportunity for economy ; it is difficult to understand, for instance, why the London and North-Western required 15.09d. when 9.49d. sufficed for the Great Western, always pre­suming that the method of classification is the same, and the fact that the total rail way expenses per train-mile is 5d. greater in the case of the first­named company than in that of the latter supports the assumption.

It is scarcely necessary to enter into details as to the general results, since full extracts of the Board of Trade report have been published so widely in the daily press. There are satisfac­tory evidences of trade activity, the volume of mineral traffic having increased by 9.8 million

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OcT. 1 r, 1901.]

tons, and the receipts 1,03t>,000l., while the general merchandise conveyed bulked greater by 1! million tons, and the receipts therefrom by 304,000l. But satisfaction at the contemplation of these figures is nullified now by the fact that the imports last month dropped 3 million sterling-equal to 7.3 per cent.- and the exports by 2! million- equal to 10.5 per cent., when compared with the total in the corresponding month of last year, a reduction due in large mea­sure to lower ~rices. This, too, is but a premoni­tion of a condttion which may be e ven more acute in the near future. But to return to our main E>ubject, one more notable fact may be indicated­the continued favour of the second class by railway passengers. We have always contended tho.t on long journeys there are many who, while they de­murred to pay the great difference between first and third class rates, were nevertheless willing to give more than the ''Parliamentary fare" to secure some measure of seclusion and comfort. Since the second-class rates have been re-arranged there has been a steady increase in the numbers and receipts. Last year there was an addition equal to 0. 9 per cent. in the number of second· class passengers (excluding season-ticket holders), but a gain of 6.3 per cent. in receipts, showing that the increase was in long-distance journeys. In five years the receipts from second-class passengers have increased by a million sterling, or 64 per cent.; but after all, the third-class passenger is the main­stay. They constitute over 90 per cent. of the number, and provide 76 per cent. of the income from all passengers.

CONVEYOR BRIDGES. THE firRt conveyor bridge was opened at

Portugalette, Spain, in 1893, the second at Bizerte, and the third at Rouen. In 1898, Mr. .T ohn T. 'Vood, M. Inst. C.E., of Liverpool, conceived the idea that this form of bridge was the solution to the problem for crossing the estuary of the Ribb1e, so as to connect two large divisions of Lancashire, and for this purpose he, together with Mr. St. George Moore, M. Inst. C. E., of Westminster, visited Spain and inspected the conveyor bridge at Portugalette. The result of this visit was that a Liverpool syndicate pro­moted a Bill in Parliament in the Session 1898· 9 for powers to construct a conveyor bridge over the navigable channel of the Ribble with low-level approaches. This Bill met the fate of nearly all pioneers. After about 5000l. had been spent in plans, models, and going to Parliament, the Bill was thrown out ; but the advantages of the system were so clearly demonstrated by the pro­moters, that in the Session 1899-1900 there were no less than three similar schemes in Parliament. It is almost unique in Private Bill legislation in recent times to have three separate schemes following upon an abortive effort to pass one. Of the three projects referred to, one was the revival of the scheme to cross the Ribble with a span of about 600 ft., one to cross the Mersey at Runcorn, about 1000 ft. wide, and another to cross the Usk at Newport, Mon., also of about 600 ft. All these were successful, and received the Royal Assent. Again, in the last Ses­sion, 1900-1901, there was a Bill deposited to sanc­tion the construction of a conveyor bridge across the Tyne at Newcastle; it was, however, thrown out.

The conditions under which a conveyor bridge c1n ad,·antageously be adopted are : Where an ordinary high or low level road or rail way bridge would be too costly. When the headway required under the bridge would render the approaches either too extensive or impossible. Where it is desirable from any cause not to haul heavy loads up long and steep approaches. Where a steam chain ferry, such as plies between Portsmouth and Gosport, or a steamboat ferry, is impossible owing to the tidal waters receding too far, such as in sandy estuaries-the Ribble, for instance. Where the height of the banks or the rise and fall of the t ide is so great that the access for the road vehicle to the steam ferry is attended with difficulty and expense. Where a steamboat ferry is liable to be impeded by heavy fogs. Where greater speed is desired than is possible either by a steam chain ferry or a steamboat ferry.

The principal reasons why these conveyor bridges can compare so favourably as regards cost with ordinary bridges are three in number: the approaches for a high-level bridge already mentioned ; the small live load which the bridge

E N G I N E E R I N G.

has to be constructed to carry; and the live load can by no means be unduly concentrated, even in the case of a. heavy-road locomotive. The first reason is obvious, the second can best be explained by a comparison. A conveyor bridge of 600 ft. span would only have to support a total live load of 60 tons, whereas an ordinary road bridge of the same span, and 30 ft. wide, would have to be built strong enough to support a live load of 900 tons at 1 cwt. per square foot of road area, as laid down in the Board of Trade require­ment. The third is governed by the length of the wheelbase of the trolley on which the suspended car travels. In the case of the Portugalette bridge the conveyor is capable of taking over a road loco­motive weighing 20 tons. This, on an ordinary bridge, would be concentrated on a wheelbase of, say, 8 ft., or 2. 5 tons per foot run, whereas in the conveyor bridge this load plas the moving bar would be 30 tons, distributed over 60 ft., or 0. 5 tons per foot run.

The conveyor bridge could not, of course, com­pare either with the steam chain ferry or the steam­boat ferry in the question of cost; its claim for con­sideration in competition with these is entirely due to the improved facilities offered. Up to the present no attempt has been made to adapt the conveyor bridge to rail way work, but there seems to be no reason why they should not be used as the pioneer of ordinary bridges in new countries, as they would require no transhipment of goods or passengers.

' NOTES.

THE PROPOSED ELECTRIC ExPRESS RAILWAY TO BRIGHTON.

MucH attention has lately been called by the daily press to a proposed electric express rail way to Brighton. It is stated that the London terminus will be on the site of the block of buildings between Ranelagh-street and Claverton-street, Pimlico, that the line will be carried across the river by a bridge and that there will be a viaduct to Croydon. It is further stated that the route chosen is such that not a single public building or public-house is interfered with. Whether or not this is considered to be a triumph of engineering skill we do not know. Public buildings are not so thickly scattered over the counh·y between London and Brighton as to render their avoidance a matter of serious difficulty, while public-houses, although possibly more numerous, are still sufficiently far apart to allow a line to pass between them if so desired. We are further in­formed that the line is perfectly straight to Red Hill, where there will be a curve of over 3 miles radius; and there will be another curve of over 6 miles radius at Hayward's Heath. A map has been issued by the promoters in which the pro­posed railway is indicated by a broad gently waving line, keeping very close to the existing Brighton Rail way through the greater part of its course. It is not difficult to draw such a line on paper, but a railway engineer would desire to know more about the features of the country traversed before ex­pressing an opinion on the route. At Brighton the terminus is to be at Furze Hill, and will thus be half a mile nearer the sea than the terminus of the exist­ing railway company. The steepest gradient is stat~d to be 1 in 100, but this is for only a very short length. By the route followed the distance be­tween the termini is given as 47 miles, and it is proposed to run this in half an hour. U nfor­tunately, the information available as to the means by which this result is to be obtained is too vague for criticism.

ALCOHOL ENGINES FOR MOTOR-CARS.

In a paper recently read befo1·e the Paris Society of Oivil Engineers, M. Lucien P erisse discussed the question of using alcohol to replace petrol as a working agent for the engines of motor-cars. The experiments made so far show that it can be used thus without much difficulty, but at present is cer­tainly not as easiJy dealt with as petrol. Where more favourable opinions have been exprestied, the oar has usually only employed alcohol for a single trip, whereas, to obtain trustworthy results, runs on consecutive days are neces­sary. In using alcohol it is es9ential that it shall be completely vaporised before it enters the motor cylinder. Much greater dilution with air is necessary than with petrol, and with this air it must be very thoroughly mixed. This mixture should further be at a temperature of about 100 deg. Cent. as it enters the cylinder. The compression should

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be high, and long-stroke engines work the best. Lubrication is more difficult than with petrol, as the latter has certain lubricating properties in itself, which are absent in the case of alcohol. The best results are obtained with a mixture of 60 per cent. of alcohol with benzine. With this mixture, and an initial compression of 100 lb. to 110 lb. per square inch, the maximum pressure on explosion is about 170 lb. to 215 lb. in the earlier engines, and as much as 284 lb. per square inch in some of the later types. A small percentage of water in the alcohol appears to be a positive advantage, as the expansion curve seems better maintained. Ignition of the charge is less rapid than with petrol. At present prices the 60 per cent. mixture of alcohol and benzine is, in Paris, somewhat less than that of an equivalent amount of petrol. Tho f.rice of the latter is, how­ever, somewhat artificia , and would probably be substantially reduced if the demand fell off owing to the competition of alcohol. At present some 400 tons of petrol are annually used by the auto­mobilists of France.

CE'YLON RAILWAYS.

Although Cey lon has not for six years added to the length of her railways, there is every indication in the official records of rail way administration of a developing internal trade and of economical management. The tonnage of goods traffic has in that period increased from 411,916 to 606,750 tons, equal to about 4 per cent. per annum, the receipts from the same source having advanced almost in the same proportion, from 3,984,276 to 4,942,508 rupees. Rice accounts for a fourth of the tonnage and tea for an eighth ; but rates for the latter being higher, it provides more than a sixth of the revenue from goods ; there has been a steady development in the tea traffic. It is further recorded that the Boer camp at Diyatalawa involved an addition to general goods traffic. As there has been a corre­sponding growth in passenger traffic, the gross receipts have mounted up to 8,272,351 rupees, or about two millions moro than six years ago. This, on a mileage of 297! miles, gives an income of 27,841 rupees per mile of railway open, as compared with 22,950 rupees six years ago. Excepting in the early stages of rail way history, when the mileage was limited to urgent necessity, this is the highest result attained, and would seem to justify the extension of the system; in a deve­loping country it is of importance that work should progress steadily, and as only 600,457 rupees were expended on new works last year, there is room for greater enterprise. The heavier traffic over the lines, of course, necessitated an addition to train and locomotive mileage, but this has not gone up in the same rat io as the income. The percentage of expenses to income has de­creased from 55.19 to 62.88 per cent., which, how­ever, is still higher than in some previous years, owing to the higher cost of maintenance, attri­butable to dearer material. Rails of 88 lb. are being substituted for 72 lb. on curves and gradieLts, and cost 143 rupees per ton against 97 rupees in 1897. This, however, is more or less a transitory cause; locomotive charges were much less. Thus, while the receipts per train-mile have in the six years increased from 6 rupees 46 cents to 6.23, the expenses have only gone up from 3.1 to 3.29, so that the net revenue is nearly 3 rupees. In other words, the 297g miles of railway have earned 3,898,041 rupees of profit on a capital cost of 63 million rupees, which means about 7! per cent., apart from the fact that renewals and some new works have been paid for out of revenue.

Low TEl'liPERATURE R EsEARCH.

An interesting contribution has recently been added to the Proceedings of the Royal Institution by Miss Agnes M. Olerke, summing up the work done by the Institution in connection with low temperatures. The funds for carrying out this investigation have largely been provided by an American, Mr. Thomas G. Hodgkins, who in 1896 presented a sum of 100,000 dols. to the Royal Institution for the promotion of research. Much, it is true, had already been acconl­plished, as the work of Profeesors Dewar and Flaming on the resistance of materials at tem­peratures approaching the absolute zero was carried out in 1893, and few of the months of the following two years were unmarked by new developments of Professor Dewar's researches. The axpense was, however, great, and the work done must certainly

have been restricted but for the timely present of Mr. Hodgkins, which has later on been supple­mented on two occasions by the Goldsmiths' Com­pany. Miss Clarke's summary of the work done and the results attained will be welcomed by all who have been unable to follow in detail Professor Dewar's accounts of his work which have appeared from time to time in different publio~tions. The culminating point was reached when In 1898 hydrogen was obtained in a statio liquid condition. It proved to be an extremely light colourless liquid, only one-fourteenth as heavy as water and boiling at a temperature of :- 252.5 deg. Cen~. Somewhat later, hydrogen 10e was also obtamed, having a freezing point of about 15 deg. Cent. absolute. For years hydrogen remained the one so-called permanent gas, but no sooner had its volatility been subdued. than it was found that helium, a gas but newly discovered, had a still lower critical point as it refused to liquefy even at the temperature of - 262 deg. Cent. By its aid, however, it is hoped that before many years a temperature within about 5 deg. of the absolute zero will at last be reached. Expensive as the liquefaction of hydrogen has been that of helium will necessarily be much greater. By means of these low-temperature researches it has been shown that ordinary air contains about 1 part of ~ure hydrogen in 5000. This is undeteotable by o~dmary !Dethods of analysis, but by liquefying the arr contained in a tube by immersing it in liquid hydrogen, spectrum analysis reveals the presence of this gas, as also of helium in the uncondensed re­sidue. It will moreover be remembered that by fractional distillation at low temperatures Professor Ram say and Dr. Tra vers detected the presence of four new gases, besides argon, in the air which but a few years back was supposed to contain nothing but oxygen, nitrogen, a little ca1·bonio acid, a,nd water.

'' RECORD " A CTIVITY IN THE SHIPBUILDING TRADE.

Never has the tonnage of merchant vessels in course of construction been recorded at such a high figure as that notified this week by Lloyd's Regis­ter of Shipping- 1,414,120 tons, t he gross measure­ment of 477 vessels, all, with the exception of 20,655 tons, being steamers. This is 210,000 tons, or 17! per cent., more than at the corresponding date last year, and 105,000 tons higher than re­corded in the return for the quarter ending with June, the increase being almost entirely in British­owned ships, The nearest approach to this record total was in December of 1898, when t he aggregate was 1,401,087 tons. The total now is the more satis­factory as the vessels launched have been as numerous as at any previous period. Thus during the quarter just ended 159 vessels, of 430,425 tons, were floated, making for the past nine months 1, 104,000 tons. It follows, of course, that the number of vessels laid down has greatly exceeded t he experience of pre­ceding months. Thus in the first quarter of the year the tonnage of vessels commenced was only 375,97 4, in the second quarter 350,931 tons ; but during the past three months the vessels laid down mounted up to 496,088 tons. The reason, of course, is the decrease in the cost of material, notably steel and coal, and, to a less extent, cheaper labour ; and it is to be hoped that no precipitate action on the part of the workers, either in shipbuilding, metallurgy, or mining, will affect the satisfactory conditions prevailing at the mon1ent. Nearly all districts are sharing in the improvement recorded. Thus the Ty?e, with 279,426 tons of work on hand, has Improved its position of a year ago to the extent of 51,000 tons; but as compared with three months ago, the addition is only 13,600 tons. The Wear, with 190,509 tons, has gained on the total of a year ago about 28,000 tons, and on the figures of three months ago, 12,000 tons. Hartlepool and Whitby vary little, their quota being 95,2~0 ~ns; while the Tees, with 100,050 tons, IS In a worse position than three months ago, when there were 112,275 tons on hand, but the total a year ago was only 94,778 tons. At Glasgow there are 107 vessels building, of 280,265 tons-53 500 tons more than a year ago and 35,600 to~s in excess of the total in June last ; while at Greenock the 54 vessels, of 168,275 tons, repre­sent an increase of 11,460 tons on the figures of October last year, and of 6000 tons when compared with June last. Belfast shows a record : 26 vessels, of 229,018 tons- 35,000 tons more than a year ago, and 39,000 tons over the total of three months

E N G I N E E R I N G.

ago, and t his brings us to the remark that there are ~ow 18 vessels building of over 10,000 tons, in addi­tiOn to three of over 9000 tons, as against 14 and 2 respectively t hree months ago. Unforhunately, however, the number and tonnage of warships building has decreased, but ere many weeks ar~ over ~e hope to hear of six large British war­shJps bemg ordered from private firms, totalling 65,500 tons, with three ships, of 42,800 tons, for the dockyards. Meanwhile the condition now as com­pared with three months ago is as follows :

October, 1901. July, 1901.

Merchant ships ... . .. British warships (Dock-

yards} . . . . . . . .. British warships (private

works} .. . . .. ... Foreign warships... . ..

tons tons 1, 414,120 1,300,179

171,270

182,400 2L,375

·-·--

172,340

209,3!)0 21,495

Total . . . . . . 1, 789,165 1, 703,404 There is thus an increase over all of 85,761 tons.

HENRY JULIUS SMITH. •

By M. F. O'REILLY, D.So. A DISTINGUISHED American elect rical engineer has

passed away in the person of Mr. Henry Julius Smith, of Pompton Lakes, New Jersey. He did not belong to the class of scientific worthies that quote Maxwell familiarly, and glibly discuss the views of Heaviside, but rather to the small body of men who have a clear per­ception of the subtle workings of the electric current.

Born in 1844, he received his early training in t he schools of Boston; and, as it was conducted on the older lines, he became and always remained a stickler for the classics. However, the thoroughness with which modern languages and their literature are taught nowadays made him less encomiastio about the value of Homer and Virgil in evolving the mental faculties of the tyro, and more willing to admit the strong claims put forward by colleges an cl uni \·ersities in favour of modern subjects and modern methods.

Young Smith was still in his teens when forced to leave the olaes-room for the workshop. His career was carved out for him by oiroumstauces, and accord­ingly he became a mechanical engineer. He took kindly enough to his work, and sought to improve every opportunity that offered in order to become familiar with the scientific principles connected with his manual labour. Books were bought and eagerly conned by the aid of midnight oil. Mechanics, heat, and especially electricity were his favourites. With characteristic firmness he eliminated distrac­tions, and welded himself to study.

In 1870 he gave up mechanical for electrical engi­neering, in the manufacturing department of which profession he rose to eminence and affluence. In 1885 he had charge of the electrical work connected with the removal of Flood Rook reef, which obstructed navigation at Hell Gate, and the memorable blast of October 11 told the thousands of spectators that lined both shores of the East River the efficient way in which he had dealt with the 300,000 lb. of explosives used on the occasion.

A few years later he removed to Pompton Lakes, a picturesque spot in the State of New Jersey, 38 miles from New York. Attracted by the beauty of the scenery, but especially by the facilities which the place offered for the utilisation of water power, he purchased 900 acres of land on both aides the W anaque River. At one point in its course the stream leaps over a ledgE' 16 ft. high, and from this miniature Niagara the sure eye of the engineer saw that be could deriYe all the power necessary for the operation of the extensive electrical plant which be had in con­templation. This was in 1888, when there was so much talk about harnessing Niagara and converting some of its vast mechanical power into the energy of the electric curr~nt.

A dam was built and a slender portion of the stream diverted into the wheel pit 25 ft. below the level of the river. Geared to the vertical shaft of the turbine are two direct-current dynamos, one of which sup­plies 10 horse-power to the works, and the other 20 horse-power to the little borough of Pompton.

In the shops are constructed the igniting dynamos originally patented in 1887, and subsequently in 1895, for blasting and mining purposes, and also the electric fuses of various kinds that are required for such operations.

The portable dynamo has achieved considerable success, having found favour with engineers in all parts of the world. One hundred of them are turned out per month, while 30,000 fuses are made every week. The dynamo-shops and fuse-making huts are distri­buted along the river front for quite a. distance, form­ing together a sort of straggling eleotrica.I hamlet. The genius of the place chose for his residence the crest of a knoll which commands a view of the works and of the country for many a mile round, being limited by the well-timbered slopes of the Wanaque on one side, and

[OcT. I I, I 901. •

by the blue tops of the circling Orange Range on the others.

The mansion itself is an interesting object.lesson on the application of electric energy to the wants and comforts of life, as electricity is used for lighting the apartments and grounds, and for such domestic pur­poses as cooking, ironing, churning, driving fans sewing machines, and coffee-mills. '

Mr. Smith's hobby of late years was the automobile and his only distraction consisted in trips through th~ borough with a congenial friend by his side. He liked on such occasions to watch his ammeter and voltmeter and to discuss with his electrical partner the back electromotive force of the motor, and kindred topics.

The end came rather suddenly; while yet in the full vigour of manhood he was stricken by the hand of death. All Pompton followed his remains to the gra.ve ; for to him the borough was indebted for most of the improvements which make it to·day one of the finest and most thriving in the State of New Jersey. Conspicuous in t he funeral co'rtege was the favourite automobile draped in mourning and laden with the floral tributes of those who appreciated Mr. 1 'mith for his electrical ability, his public services, or domestic virtues.

The distinguishing traits of his character were a strong will and a high energy-potential, both governed by an even and winning serenity. In all his enter­prises and all his dealings with his fellow-men, you were sure to find thejo1·titer in 1·e, but always accom­panied by the sua/uite1• in modo. These are the qualities that beget esteem and command success. Like the philosopher's stone, they change the dross of life into the golden amenities that make it profitable and enjoy­able.

CURRENT RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. WE are now in a position to review the constructive

operations in which the principal rail way companies of the United Kingdom are at present engaged. The financial conditions of the p!l.st half-year were not at all favourable for the prosecution of new works, and several companies have greatly curtailed their expen­diture of additional capital. Among the companies which have adopted this policy is the Belfast and Northern Counties, which only disbursed 10,842l. on capital account in the first half of 1901. The prin­cipal work which the Belfast and Northern Counties has bad on hand of late has been the improvement of the Antrim station. The additional capital expendi­ture of the Great Southern and W ea tern during the past six months was 74, 7lll., the principal item being the Drumcondra link line, which involved a.n out­lay of 13, 606l. This link line has now been opened for traffic to North W e.ll. Sea protection works at Youghal have been completed, and have been attended thus far with satisfactory results. 'J;he outlay involved in these works in the first half of this year was ll09l. The capital expenditure of the Great Northern of Ireland in the first half of this year was 59,253l. The principal item in this expenditure was the Sutton and Howth electric tramway, which has now been opened for traffic. The outlay made upon this tramway (including working stock) in the past half year was 16,377l. The Great Northern of Ireland also expended 8774l. during the past six months in doubling its line from Portaaown toTrew and Moy. The London, Tilbury, and Southend expended 69, 783l. on capital account for the first half of this year, the principal items being a ~ubsoription of il5,000l. to the Whitechapel and Bow Railway, and 13,392l. for sundry work!3 on the company's own main line. The Whitechapel and Bow Railway is mak­ing steady progress, and it is expected that it will be ready for opening by Easter, 1902. The new capital expenditure upon the Metropolitan in the first half of this year was 36,075l., in which sidings and widenings figured for 10,572l. As, of course, is generally known, the great question which presses upon the attention of the directors of the Metropolitan is the electrification of the town lines of the system, so as to enable it to deal more effectively with the competition of the Central London. The Metropolitan District expended 47,742l. of additional capital in the first half of this year, the principal items being 12,239l. paid out in connection with the Ealing and South Harrow line, and a subscription of 35,000l. to the Whiteehapel and Bow Railway. We have already said that the Whitechapel and Bow Railway, which is promoted by the London, Tilbury,andSouthend and the Metropolitan District jointly, is approaching comple­tion ; and the same may be said of the Ealing and South Harrow line. The Metropolitan District is also endea­vouring to attain the best system of electrification, but nothing definite has been at present decided upon. The expenditure of capital by the Midland Great Western is almost at a. standstill. It only amounted in the first half of this year, so far as new works pro­perly so-called are concerned, to 2963l. ; but 21, 793l. was expended for additional working stook, making the whole addition to capital for the half-year 24,7561. As usual, the North Staffordshire is add in~ very

•

OcT. 11, 1901.]

cautiously to its capital account, the additional ex­penditure for the first half of this year having been no mo~e than 23,947f. ; the Leek and District Light Railway figured m this total for 2895l. The new capital exf enditure of the Taff Vale in the first half of this year was 76,357l. The principal item in this total was the outl~y made on the \Vmdsor dock, viz., 23,529l. ; the remamder represented various improve­ments carrh d out upon lines already opened for traffic.

Thus fa r '!e have only dea lt with undertakings of second-rate Importance. The la rger companies have bee~ ~xpending capital more freely, and have had more am~1t10us works o~ band; still, even the larger com­pames have pract101lly completed their construct ion pro~r!lmmes,_ a~d have been pr~nci~ally engaged upon ~dditlOnal stdmgs, further wtdenmgs, and station 1mpr~vements. T he capital expended in the firs t half of thts year by the fourteen larger companies has been as follows :

Company. Expenditure. £

Cii.ledonian .. . . . . . . . . .. . .. 778,880 Glasgow S . Western .. . .. . ... 221,622 Great Central . .. ... ... .. . 216,653

, Eastern ... ... ... .. . 559,114 11 Nor thern .. . .. . .. . .. . 438,678 " W astern . .. .. . .. . .. . 929,733

Lancashire and Y orkshire .. . .. . 554.146 Brighton ... ... ... .. . .. . 702,617 North-W astern .. . .. . . .. . . . 7 46,349 South-Western ... .. . ... ... 579,528 Midland . .. . .. .. . . . . .. . 1. 376,709 North British ... . . . .. . .. . 452,135

, Eastern . . . . . . .. . .. . 596,187 8outb-Eastern and Chatbam ... ... 620,411

The fourteen companies accordingly expended 8! 772, 762l. between them in. the course of the past BJX months. At the compan1es' half-yearly meet ings, however, a good deal of alarm has been expressed as to the constant tendency of capital accounts to in­crease, whether the surrounding conditions are favour­able or not; and it appears probable that the com­panies will have to postpone many new works to a more convfnient season. In the new capital expen­diture of the Caledonian, subscriptions to other rail­wa.ys figured for 127,500l. The Shieldmuir, Wishaw, and Mewmains Jine has been completed, and an ex· tension of the pier at Wemyss Bay has also been finished; while good progress has been made with the new dock at Grangemouth, and the Cathcart and N ewton section of the Lanarkshire and Ayrshire line. The Glasgo w and South-Western has opened five new platforms in connection with its t. Enoch station; the company has also made more or less consider· able progress with its Barrhead line, the Gates­head and Hurlford line, and the Dalry and North J obnstone line. The Catrine branch and the Cairn Valley light line has been commenced. The directors of the Grea~ Central have not yet placed a contract for an authorised line from Neasden to Northolt; but they will probably do so shortly. A cont ract for the Great Western and Great Cen­tral joint line from Northolt to High Wycombe has been let. A further expenditure of 26, 114l. was made in the first half of this year upon the Great Central extension to London. In the cours~ of th9 past half-year the Great Eastern expended 37,385l. in widening works between Ilford and R omford. A further expenditure of 31,000l. was also made upon the Norfolk and Suffolk joint lines ; while 56,774l. was paid out in connection with the construction of the Woodford and Ilford line. Of the more im­portant works which t he Great Western has in hand, the South Wales and Bristol direct line, the Acton and N ortbolt line, the Truro and N ewquay line, t he Roath branch, and the Bristol Harbour lines have been well advanced during the past half-year. The Wrington Vale light line, the East Usk extension, and the Rhos lines near Wrexham, are approaching corn· pletion. The Great Northern has opened for mineral trAffic the Pleasley and Langwith section of its Leen Valley extension. A viaduct over the main line and ~ idiogs at Red Bank, Don caster, has made good progress ; all the brickwork and approaches have been completed, and two of the spans of steel­work have been erected and fixed. The Lancashire and Yorkshire has a new line in hand from South Shore t o Kirk ham; six of seventeen bridges have been completed, and nine are now in progress. About two­t hirds of the earthworks have also been completed. The principal work upon which the London, Brighton, and South Coast was engaged during the past half­year was the enlargement of the Victoria station and the widening of the line between Victoria and Batter· sea. The outlay made under this head during the six months was 384:,4lll., of which 379,896l. related to ]and and compensation payments. The London and North -Western is now working by means of new subways nearly t he whole of the goods traffic at Crewe separately from the passenger traffic; about 46 milett of additional lines and sidings are now avail­able for goods and mineral traffic, and a new shed for dealing with trans-shipped goods has been brought inbo uAe. ['ho London and North-vVestern has heavy

E N G I N E E R I N G.

widening works in hand upon its Trent Valley and Chester and Holyhead lines. The London and South- Western has opened a light line between Basingstoke and Alton, and its Amesbury a,nd :Military Camp light line is approaching comple­tion ; t he works of the Meon V alley line and the Exmouth and Salterton Jine are also making good progress. The Midland materially advanced its New Mills and He a ton Mersey line ; a tunnel at Disley has been completed, with the exception of about 250 yards; the stations are in hand, and the line is expected to be available for goods t raffic by the end of this half-year. Good progress has also been made, by the Midland with its Heysha.m harbour works. A considerable portion of the harbour has been excavated to its full depth; the north quay has been completed for the greater part of its length, and the south quay is also under construction, together with the break­water beads. The North British has made fair pro­gress with its Methil Dock protection works; a large number of 50-ton blocks of concrete have been made, and a travelling crane has been provided to deposit them on the outside of the east pier. The masonry work on tho Leith Walk branch is weJl advanced, but the cuttings and embankment s have been de­layed by a large amount of rock having been found in a deep cutt ing at Lochend. The cutting is now, however, nearly completed. The greater part of the works of the Corstorpbine branch have been fini shed, and the permanent way is being laid. The North-Eas tern expended during the past half.year 59,373l. upon an extension of its Middlesbrough dock, and 49,989l. upon its Seaham and Hartlepool line. The outh-E:1stern and Chatham has bad no important new work in hand; but has been occupied with almost endless widenings, especially in and about the metropolis. In the course of t he past half-year 34,027t. was also paid out in connection with carriage and wagon shops at Ashford.

GRIMSBY ELECTRIC TRAMWAYS.- Mr. Trotter, Board of Trade ele·ctrical inspector, visited Grimsby on Fridav, and tested the electrical appliances of the Grimsby tramways system between that town and Cleethorpes. The inspector expressed his satisfaction at what he had seen.

BELGIAN METALLURGICAL lNDOSTRY.-The number of blas t-furnaces going in the Hainaub last year was 17, while three were out of blast. The number of steam engines in the Hainaut in 1900 was 140, representing an aggregate force of 5883 hors·~-power. The number of wo.rkpeople employed was 1332. The quantity of iron minerala consumed in the Hainaub last year was 926,500 tons, of which 898,000 tons came from abroad. The quan­tity of coke used (all BeJ~ian) during the year was 479,350 tons. The quantity of pig made for refining in the district last year was 165,610 tons, of the estimated value of 574,210l- The quantity of pig made for casting in the Hainaub last year was 2585 tons, of the estimated value of 11,082l. The quantity of steel pig made in the Hainaut last year was 194,440 tons, of the estimated value of 792,544l. The total quantity of pig of all kinds produced in the Hainaut last year was. accordingly, 362,635 tons of the estimated value of 1,377,836. The output of pig in the Hainaut last year showed a falling off of 35,755 tons, as compared with 1899, when an output of 398,390 tons was attained. The average price of the pig made in the Hainant last year was 3l. 15s. 4d. per ton. This was the highest price reached since 1873. Pig was imported into the Hainaut last year to the extent of 305,628 tons, of which 155,833 tons came from Great Britain, 73,283 tons from France, 53.684 tons from Germany, 12,260 tons from the United States, 6770 tons from the Luxembourg, and 3798 tons from other countries. The imports of American pig, which did not commence until 1896, are still small; but it should be ob:Jerved that pig of American origin delivered by British firms to the Hainaub is officially treated as coming from Great Britain- that is, as being made in Great Britain. The number of iron works in activity in the Ha.inaub last year was 24 out of 25 existing. These works employed 74,441 workpeople ab an average remuneration of 33. 5d. per day, and they consumed 472,520 tons of coal, 207.605 tons of Belgian pig, and 81,040 tons of foreign pig. The pro· duction of finished iron last year was 262,995 tons, of the estimated value of 2,000,200l. Last year's production of finished iron showed a falling off of 81,685 tons, or 23 per cent., as compared with 1899. The average price of rails in the Ha.inaut last year was Bl. per ton, as compared with 6l. 19s. 2d. per ton in 1899; 5l. 13s. 5d. per ton in 1898 ; 5l. Ss. 4d. per to~ in 1897; and 5?. 5s. ~1~. p~r ton in 1896. There were nme steel works 1n activity m the Hainaub last year; they employed 3765 workpeople, a.b an average remuneration of 3s. ld. per day, and they consumed 166.240 tons of coaJ, 46,735 tons of Bessemer pig, 197,085 tons of Thomas pig, and 8610 tons of Belgian and foreign pig. They produced 210,165 tons of steel ingotfl, and 12,470 tons of casting steel representing a total value of 1,359,952l. The pro­duction of finished steel last year in tlbe Hainaub was 54,330 tons below that ?f 1899. The prod?ction of steel rails ls.sb year was st1ll moderate, but 1b showed .an increase of 3485 tons, or 61 per cent., as compared w1bh 1899. The average price of the steel rails made in ~he Hainaub last year was 5l. 2s. per ton ; the correspondmg average in 1896 was 4l. lOa. per ton.

BOILER EXPLOSION NEAR CHELMSFORD. A FORMAL investigation has been conducted ab the

Shire Hall, Chelmsford, by the Board of Trade, with regard to the cause of a boiler explosion which occurred on February 5th, ab the Roxwell Corn Mill~, Roxwell, owned by Mr. E. S. Ray. The Commissioners were Mr. Howard Smith, barrister-at-law, and Mr. G. Fuller­ton Bell. Mr. K. E. K . Gougb appeared for the Board of Trade, and Mr. Suthe~:·y, solicitor, for Messrs. Coleman and Morton, engineers, Chelmsford, who were interested in the case, bA.ving made repairs to the boiler.

In opening the yroceedings, Mr. Gough said that the boiler was of the smgle-flued or Cornish type, 12 ft. 2 in. in length by 4 fb. 6 in. in diameter, no information could be obtained as to the name of the maker or the date, hub it was purchased with the Roxwell Mills in 1868, by the father of the present occupier, Mr. E. S. Ray. It was only used occasionally when the adjoining stream was too low to drive the water-wheel. In 1885 the boiler was taken to Messrs. Coleman and Morton's works at Chelms· ford, and a new steel furnace tube was pub into it. The aame firm in July, 1899, cleaned the boiler out and pub in a new fusible plug, afterwards applying the hydra.ulio test to 70 lb. pressure, twice the pressure to which it was presumed the boiler was ordinarily worked. On January 27 last the furnace tube leaked, and M.r. Ray communi­cated with Messrs. Coleman and Morton, who sent over a boiler-maker to effect repairs. The boiler-maker, it was said, then told Mr. Ray that all the brickwork ought to be removed and the boiler thoroughly examined ; but being busy ab the time, Mr. Ray said he wished to run it a little longer, and therefore did so. On Wednesday, February 5bh, the boiler exploded, the bottom plate of the middle ring of the shell ripping longitudinally, and being torn away close to its longitudinal seams and circumferentially ab one side through the solid plate, and at the other side partly through the solid plate and rivet holes at the sea.m, leaving an opening measuring about 7ft. in length by 2 fb. in width. The steam and water rushing from the orifice thus ma.de, wrecked the walls of the engine and boiler­house, and scattered the brickwork of the exterDal flues. The boiler itself was carried 60 fb. into a road, striking the mill in its flight, many of the windows being broken. 1tfr. Ray, the owner, who was attending the boiler ab the time, was severely scalded and otherwise injured. The boiler had been examined by an engineer-surveyor to the Board of Trade, and the cause of the explosion waa found to be wasting of the plates through corrosion.

1tfr. Gough then called a number of witnesses, amon~ them being Mr. South, engineer-surveyor to the Board of Trade, who stated that the plate ab the bottom of the shell where it had rent had thinned away through corrosion, due to dampness arising from the seating. The plate ab that part was only -fri in. in thickness. '£he evidence of the other witnesses need not here be reproduced, inasmuch as the substance of the greater part is included in the lengthy summing up of the proceedings by the presiding Commissioner, Mr. Howard Smith.

Ab the close of the taking of evidence Mr. Gough sub­mitted a list of questions to the Court and requested judgment thereon. The main question was whether the explosion was due to the neglect of the owner of the boiler, Mr. Ray, or to the neglect of the boiler-maker who had examined the boiler, and whether Messrs. Coleman and Morbon, the employers of the boiler-maker, were respon­sible for such neglect.

Mr. Suthery addressed the Court on behalf of Messrs. Coleman and Morton, and contended that when their workman, Charles Potter, told Mr. Ray, as he had done, that he might work the boiler at a. pressure of 20 lb. or 25lb. per square inch, it was merely by way of conversation for which his clients could nob be held responsible. On the two occasions on which Potter had been sent to the boiler he did precisely what be was instructed to do, and if he chose to give voluntary ad vice, sound or unsound, that, Mr. Suthery said, was outside the scope of his authority.

Mr. Ray, addressing the Court in his own defence, said that, knowing very little about the boiler himself, he con. suited Messrs. Coleman and Morton with regard to it, so as to be on the safe side. He felt that when they attended to the boiler in July, 1899, they bad made a thorough examination of it, and so had put him on a firm footing. He sent to them because be wanted to have the boiler safe, and when it stood successfully the test of 70 lb. be thought it was safe enough for anytbmg. In January last he saw a little leakage ab the back of the furnace, and again sent for Messrs. Coleman and Morton, and their man, Potter after doing some repairs, advised him to have the boiler thoroughly examined, as it was corroding a good deal. He {Mr. Ray) said a-s he was very busy ab the time he would like to use it a little longer before doing that, and Potter replied that he must use it for a.s short a time as possible, and ab as low a pressure as possible, mentioning 20 lb. or 30 lb. Apart from the personal injury he had sustained, Mr. Ra.y said be estimated the damage done to his property by the explosion ab 350l.

Messrs. Ooleman and Morton's bill to Mr. Ray for 1899 mentioned "journey and time examining and cleaning boiler," &c., the total amount of the charges being 4l. 10s.

Referring to this account, Mr. Howard Smith commented upon the uee of the word "examining " as applied to the boiler. Mr. Coleman replied that the word was perhaps a wrong one to use in the account. H e denied that his firm bad ever received instructions to really examine the boiler. They could nob make a thorough examination for the amount named, nor could they ha~ done so in this case without taking the brickwork down.

Mr. Gougb, replying on behalf of the Board of Trade, commented upon the action of Messrs. Coleman and Morton's man, Potter, and referred to the test of the boiler be had made in 1889, to a. pressure of 70 lb., as having been mt\.de without sufficiont de,ba. Potter

•

admitted that when he was sent to the boiler the second time he saw that the soot taken from the flues was damp hub be took no steps bo a~oerbain the source of that da~pness. He (Mr. Gougb) did not prof~ss to be an engineer hub he should have thought that 1t would have suggeated a leakage fro~ the b1iler. There ~pp~a.red to be at leas ~ some just.i£cat1on for l\1r. Ray oontmmng to work the boiler, having rega.rd to the faob tha.b the pr~­sure at which ib might be worked had been named to h1m by a. oompetenb man, or ab least by one sent oub by his employers as a competent man.

Mr Ho ward Smith pointed out that Mr. Suthery con­tend~d that Potter was only sent to the mill to do oartain repair3, and that the ad~ice whio~ be afterwards gave was outside the scope of hts authonty.

Mr Gough replied that this was true, but could it be urged tbab when the faob was brought to Mr. Coleman's knowledge that Potter had been to Mr. lt~J.y's and had found the boiler in the bad condition described, no information had been sent to Mr. Ray by Messrs. Cola­man and Morton ?

Mr. Howard Smith said that at present he thought Potter was acting within the scope of his autho~ty, but it was a point of law which he would have to conPider.

Mr. Coleman said that the principal part of the work charged for was nob by a.~y means the exami!lation of the boi1er. There were repaus made and the bo1ler was then tested by hydraulic pressure. He thought the use of the word " examining," in the accounfl, was wrong.

Mr. Howa.rd Smith then gave j udgement. He dealt very ably and at great length with the evidence which had been given, and traced the history of the boiler up to the day of the explosion, together wibh all the vanous details of its construction and working. The owner, Mr. Ray, who had given evidence, had had no mechanical training, but he had seen his father work the boiler and engine, and from what he had eeen he worked them himself. According to his statement, aboub July, 1899, he requested Messrs. ColE:man and Morton to examine the boiler for him. Mr. Colema.n in his evidence had told the Court that he received no instructions to examine the boiler in the sense of seeing that it was in good condition; but that he undersbood his instructions to be to see what repairs were necessary and to effect such repairs. Accord­ingly, Charles Potter, who had had 26 years' experience in boiler repairing, and bad been employed by Messrs. Coleman and Morton for two years, reoei ved instructions from the foreman to go to Roxwell Mills, as ib was thought there was a. leakage ab the flange of the feed pipe. Potter, and others with him, cleaned the boiler outl and pub in a fusible plu~. Potter said the boiler then looked in very fair condit10n, and th~ thickness of the plate where he bored a hole for the inserbion of the plug was h of an inch. No brickwork was taken down from the shell so that he could not make a real examination of the boiler. He subsequently applied a cold water test to a pressure of 70 lb., or twice the presumed ordinary working pres­sure. The account for this work as rendered by Messrs. Coleman and Morton ·read ''journey and time examining and cleaning b:>iler &c." The question was, What would an ordinary person think from the oonduob of Potter ab the boiler, and from the aocounb afterwards sent in ? The Commissioners, Mr. Howa.rd Smith said, had come to the conclusion that such a person would suppose thatl the boiler had been examined in the sense of being thoroughly examined, although of course any one acquainted with such matters would have known that such was nob the case. The Commissioners thought that Mr. R'l.y was justified, considering what he knew of the management and upkeep of bo~ers, in belie.v~ng that ~he boiler was examined and was m safe conditaon, espemally as he had stated in his evidence that his objeob in going to Messrs. Coleman and Morton was to get the boiler examined. In January, 1901, there was a leakage in the furnace tube, and Messrs. Coleman and Morbon, who were again called in sent Potter, who removed the defective rivets, caulked th'e plates that were sprung, and put in a new fusible plug. The boiler had been short of water, and 1\{r. Ray mquired if much d~mage bad been don~, and Pott~r replied in the negat1ve. Potter then noticed damp m the soob taken from the flues. On taking oub some bricks near the blow-off tap where he thought leakage would be found, he ascertained that there was corro­sion going on, and he told Mr. Ray that the boiler was getting into a bad state. and that the soo~er he had ib examined the better. M.r. Ray, however, w1shed to work it a little longer, and Potter informed him that a pressure of 30 lb. to 35 lb., at which it bad been working, was too much, and that it should nob exceed 20 lb. or 25 lb. at the utmost. Potter moved the weight on the lever, thinking the valve would blow-off at 20 lb., and then left. He never inquired from Mr. Rar as to the age of the boiler, a question the Commiss10ners were rather suprised he did not put. On February 5th, the fire was lighted, and soon afterwards the steam gauge registered 28 lb., bub the safeby valve did nob bl~w·off. Sot:ne little time !lfter this the boiler exRloded, w1th the ser1ous resulbs laid before the Court. 1 he boiler was subsequently examined by Mr. South on behalf of the B oard of Trade, and he found thab the explosion was due to the wasting of the bottom plate of the shell for about 2 fb. circumferentially, through external corrosion caused by dampness. The plate born from the shell, and which was found among the debris in two pieces, was about .J, in. thick at the thinnest part, and Mr. South was of ·opinion that it wsts of even less thickness at the original line of fracture. The boiler was unable to stand any useful pressure A.b all, and burst from sheer weakness through the wasting of the shell plates externally.

In answer t0 questions pub by the Board of Trade, Mr. Howard Smith said the Commissioners found that no specific instructions were given by Mr. Ray to Messrs. Coleman and Morton, and that he was justified in thinking

. E N G I N E E R I N G.

that the boiler was thoroughly examined by their man in July, 1899. Bub the boiler wa,g certainly n<?t thorou.gbly examined on that or the subsequent oooa.ston. Ne1ther was it properly te3ted by hydraulic pressure, because Potter, not knowing the working pressure or the age of the boiler had no reliable data tlo go upon. ·He was nob justifi~d in giving assent to the boiler b3ing worke~ ab 25 lb. pressure .. Mr. Ray di4 n~t take pro~er precaub10ns to cause the bmler t o be per10d1~ally ~xa.mme~ by .a cam· patent p erw n. but he was j ust1fied m workmg 1b after the information given him by Potter. Proper mea.sures were nob taken to insure the boiler being worked under safe conditions. The explosion was nob caussd by the noglecb of Mr. Ray, hub by the neglect of Charles Pobter, who had behaved in a most negligent manner. He was sent in January last to see to a leakage in the fu~naoe, and this he remedied, and he then found the holler to be much corroded. As the representative of a oo~petent firm he ouO'hb to have told Mr. Ray that the b01ler was nob 'safe· b~b instead of this, although he advised an early exa~ination, h~ said t.he boil~r could work ab 20 lb. or 25 lb. for a shorb t1me. What nghb bad he to say th!l't, seeing that the boiler was not fib for any pressure ? W1th regard to Mr. Suthery's cont~ntion .• t~e Commissione~S considered that Potter was acblng w1thm the scope of h1s authority when he gave his opini?n as to the cond~tion of the b~iler and that what he d1d was nob outstde bhe ordinary ~ork of an engineer. Therefore, having found him negligent, they mus~ find ~essra. Coleman and Morton responsible for the1r servants neglect. The Com­mis.~ioners did this with reluctance, because they thought Potter had not wittingly been guilby of negligence, and also because Messrs. Coleman and Morton were a firm of engineers of experience and repute.

On this findmg of the Court, Mr. Gough asked that Messrs. Coleman and Morton should be ordered t o pay a. parb of the co~t of the investigation. The total expense would be about 60l.

Mr. Subhery urged thab no such order should be made, as Potter had not done anything which be believed to ~ improper. He ought, of ~ourse, to h~v~ reported to his employers without expressmg any opm10n to Mr. Ray. It was just one of those cases where an unfortunate event had occurred without anyone being particularly re-sponsible. . .

Mr. Coleman, in reply to Mr. Howard Smith, satd thab Potter's wages were 26s. a w~ek., That .showed they never intended him to "exam me the boiler, although wages were very much lower in thab locality than in London.

Mr. Ho ward Smith said that some order must be made, hub ib should be as light as possible. He thought tha.b Messrs. Coleman and Morton should pay to the Board of Trade the sum of 10l. He was sorry to make such an order, but it would be of no use to make any order against Potter.

Mr. Suthery said he a.greed :with the ju~gmenb, the Courb having found Potter guilty of . n~gl•gence, bub, with all deference~ he asked the CommtSSlOners to grant a case on the point as to whether employers were bound by the voluntary advice given by their servants.

Mr. Howard Smith declined to do this, and said he musb leave 1\!Ir. Suthery to obtain a wri t of mandamus if he wanted a case.

The proceedings then terminated.

THE LOSS OF THE ''COBRA." To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.

Sm, - In such reports, &c., as I have happened to see concerning the los3 of the Cobra., nothing whatever has been said about the provision made in the boat for resist· in~ unusual sbresse3 due to the "gyroscopic" effect set up by the rotation of her turbines and screws.

It appears verv surprisin~ that such a matter should be overlooked, but possibly 1t may have been. If so, it is clearly important to call attention bo it.

Ib seems plain that the stresses produced by "gyro· scopic " effect musb have been vastly greater than any­thing of the kind to be met with in a veesel of usual design, thab they must have been added to usual stresses, and that the shape of the boat was such as to afford a great leverage tending to break her back.

N otwibhstlanding all the distaste which one must feel, under present circumstances, for anything tending to call the design of the b~at into question, ib seems but proper to snggest thab this point should be "thrashed out."

Yours respectfully, Enw. W. SERRELL, Jun.

7. Rue Drouot, Paris, October 5, 1901. [The point referred bo by Mr. Serrell was raised by a

correspondent in our last issue.-ED. E .]

To THE E DITOR 01!" E NGINEERING. SIR,-Although my name is nob mentioned by "Igno­

ramus" as one of the "competent readers " who might be able to solve his question, nevertheless, I venture to reply and hope I may put the matter sufficiently plain so that even an ignoramus will be able to understand H.

The two sets of scr~ws that were employed in the Cobra revolved in opposite directions at the same speed. When two gyroscopes are mounted in the same frame, provided that they are of the same weight, and are robated ab the same velocity in opposite directions, they do not offer any real or apparent stability or stiffness to t he frame. On the contrary, the frame will rotate or turn at any angle with the same freedom that it would if the gyro3copes were nob spun at all. However, if one is stopped then there is some apparent stability. Then, again, a. single gyroscope spinnmg in a frame offerd no resistance to being tilted in a vertical direction, providing that the frame is sufficiently rigid to prevent the gyro-

[OcT. I I, I 901.

scope from moving to the right or to the left. It is the freedom of the angle to ohang~ in a hori z~>nta.l direo~ion which gives the stiffness or restStanoe agan~sb a v~rti~l movement; stop either, and the other vaDlBhes wtth 1t. Consequently, m any case, the gyroscopic ~otion ?f the turbines and the screws could nob have conbnbuted m the least degree to the breaking in two of the Cobra.

Yours truly, Lmdon, October 9. 1901. HIRAM S. MAXIM.

FOREIGN COMPETITION IN NEW ZEALAND.

To T:WC EDITOR OF ENGINEERING. Sm,- I have been not only a. reader hub a student of

your excellent p9:per for many years, and. ~nowing the interest you take m the development of Bnblsh trade, I venture to address you shortly on one or two phases­home and Colonial- of the subject. I enclose you one or two newspaper clippings to indicn.be what is taking place here ; these could be multiplied- for instance, there is a. British steamer from New York ab our wharf discharg­ing twenty-five Baldwin . locom~tives. I may sa.y. in passing that these machmes wdl nob bear compa~1son with English locomotives; they are, however, consider­ably cheaper, being like ready-made boots, made to siz~. They are rough, but moderately stron~. and are well suited to the class of driver {as a rule) we have, who seem to be incapable of feeling any sympathy with their engines. and bang them about accordingly.

Our Government have been more than loud in their Imperialistic professions, and have done much to justify them, ab no ex~ense to themselves; indeed, when you consider everythmg, their chief motive seems to encou­rage situations which give a J_>lausible justification for their drawing exorbitant travelhng and other allowanc9:9; how otherwise can you account for the fact that wh1le they were loudest with their professions of devotEd loyalty and were bleeding the peoplE>, to confirm them, they were entering into a. contract with an American firm {Spreckles}, subsidising. its steamers to the excl~s~on of the local Union Steamship Company and the Bntish lines-discriminating against them, in facb, and sending its orders for locomotive3, carriages, and wagons to America. On the other hand, it is only fair to say that, so far as the mercantile community othH than those con­nei'Jted as agents with the London shipping lines is con­cerned, they are unable to understand the position ; these lines will carry from New York and Hamburg vid London to New Zealand, at L ondon to New Zealand rates, and when a loading direct oa.n be obtained at consider­ably lower rates ; and, again, when we see how British railways discriminate against British goods in favour of the foreigner, ib appears to us poor colonia.ls as simply monstrous.

When you further consider all this in the light of the utter absence of interest in, and sympathy with, Bribish trade that seems to us to obtain with your official class; indeed, the reading of official Acts, the replies to qces­tions in the House of Commons, give us the impression that the British merchant and manufacturer is a nuisance to be discouraged, and they are discouraged by the encouragement of the German and American manufac­turer; men of the Lord Lansdowne and Balfour type, and a. large unmber of the Civil Service superior people, should be impossible in the modern properly·equipped 1 State. They are, however, hastening the day when salaries shall be paid •o capable men and pell8ions only to the de· serving. In the struggle which is clearly impending there wHl be no places for such men if Britain is to main. bain her posibion.

Yours faithfully, JOHN RANT\.IN,

Wellington, N.Z., A ugust 26, 1901,

ScoTTISH INDUSTRIES, NATURAL HISTORY, AROHLEO· LOGY, E DUCATION, &o.-In connection with the Glasgow meeting of the British Association there were prepared by a special committee, over which Mr. Roberb Caird, LL.D., presided, t hree hand-books, dealing {1) with the Fauna, Flora, and geology of the Clyde area; (2) with local industries of G lasgow and the \Vest of Scotland ; and (3) with arcbmology, education, medical and charit­able institutions. The treatment of the several subjects is so admirable and complete that ib is s~tisfactory to learn that the books oan now be purchased by any one. The first volume especially is most comprehensive and is the fullest record ever prepared, and will be welcomed by all in terested in natural history. The volume dealing with indus.bries ~ u.seful, altho~gh, perhap~, not so uni<t.ue. It deals with mmmg, quarrymg, metallurgy, mecbantoa.l engineering, marine engineering and shipbuilding, trans· porb, textile industries, chemical industries, &o. ; but in one or two instances the treatment is too suggestive of the catalogue-a result probably of an effort to include the greatest amount of information in limited space. The third volume is, fr om some points of view, even more interesting, for Glasgow, although perhaps not so rich as some other cities in its arobceologioal fe1ture~, has the undoubted merib of J?OSsessing the finest of educational and medical institub1on~, while excellin~ in charity; and a study of the records of such organisat10ns affords a. useful object.lesson which may bring profit. Accompanying the volumes is a s plendid map of the dis­trict, illustrative of the subjects dealt with. Altogether, the series is worthy alike of the city and of t he British Association; and on its high merit those concerned, and notably Dr. Cn.ird, are to be £elicited. Information te­garding the publication of the books may be had from the Glasgow secretary of the British Association, Mr. John S. Samuel, 30, George·square, Glaegow.

•

•

•

THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE TURKISH BATTLESHIP "MESOUDIE.'' •

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A VERY interesting work is just being carried out at Genoa in connection with the reconstruction of the Turkish batt leship Mesoudie. It will be remem­bered that her sister ship the Memdouhiye, which was purchased for the British Navy at the t ime of the R usso-Turkiah war, and re-named the Superb, was re-armed in 1890, and new propelling machinery fit ted i n her , but the single screw was retained.

The Turkish authorities, however, determined at all costs to have the vessel converted for twin screws, and Messrs. Ansaldo, of Genoa, to whom the work of r econstruction was entrusted, have carried out the necessary modifications in a very substantial way.

With a vessel not intended for t win-screws the

attachment of the stern brackets to a stern, not speci­ally strengthened and constructed to receive them, is likely to be a source of weakness, necessitating a stiff covering being fitted to the shafts, carried from the V-brackets to the after ring of t he stern tube, so as to tie them firmly to t he hull, and prevent any fore­and -aft motion. But as will be seen in Figs. 1 and 3, in the case of the Mesoudie ad vantage has been taken of the existing screw opening to bring t he propellers close togE:ther, thus reducing the leverage as much as pos­sible. The stern brackets have an extra breadth of base attachment to the hull, e.nd their weight and that of t he stern shafting being well supported by the flange of the J_ -shaped bar at the bottom of the stern

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• frame, a very rigid structu re is the result, and it was possible to dispense with the covering in of the shafts without fear of any undue vibration, or fore­and-aft movement of the V -frames.

.Bot h the inner and outer bottoms were found to be in most excellent condit ion, and t he vessel was so thoroughly well built (by the Thames Iron Works in 1874), and of such excellent material, that when she is completed she will be a most serviceable ship, and good for many years of service.

The new propelling machinery consists of two sets of triple-expansion four-cylinder inverted engines of 11,000 horse-power, the steam being provided by sixteen water-tube boilers of the Niclausse t ype, arranged in four groups of four boilers each. Both engines and boilers have been constructed by Messrs. G. Ansa.ldo and Co., in their shops at Sampierdarena, near Genoa, and it is noteworthy that this is the first set of machinery constructed in Italy the material of which (with the exception of the large·shafts and the boiler t ube) has been forthcoming in the country itself, the cast e.nd ma.llea.ble steel and the malleable cast

·-·---

iron being furnished by Messrs. Ansaldo's new steel works, and t he special bronzes from their yellow metal works, both situate at Cornigliano. Ligure.

The armament is by Messrs. Vicker s, Sons, and Maxim, Limited, and consists of two 9.2-in, wire guns of 45 calibres, breech-loading; twelve 6-in. wire guns of 45 calibres, breech-loading and quick-firing ; four­teen 3-in. quick-firing guns ; ten quick-firing 6-pounders and two 3·pounders ; besides two light boat guns complete, with their carriages.

The 9.2-in. guns are mounted on a revolving plat­form on t he upper deck, car rying a complete shield of hardened steel armour, 6 in. thick at the front and 3 in. at t he back and sides. The twelve 6-in. guns are placed in t he citadel and mounted on central pivot carriages carrying a semi-circular shield of hardened steel armour, 4-i in. thick, which completely closes the gun aperture.*

The vessel and her machinery are completed.

* This mounting was illustrated in ENGINEERING by Fig. 23, on page 197 a.nte, and described on page 199 atnu.

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530 A further instalment of the vessels to be reconstructed by Messrs. Ansaldo is expected to arrive in a short time. These consist of the Orkanieh, the Osmanieh, and the Azizieh, built at Glasgow, the Mukadem-i­Ha.ir, built at Constantinople, and the Mahmudieh, Feth·i-Bulend, Avni-Illah, and Muin-i- Zaffer, built at Blackwall. These three last - named and the Mukadem -i-Hair are to be refitted throughout and have new engines and boilers, whilst the other four vessels are to have a general overhaul, and be re­armed.

The main armament of the larger vessels will con­sist of one 8-in. wire gnn at the stem, one 6-in. wire gun at the stern, and eight 6-in. guns in the citadel, whilst the auxiliary armament includes eight 3-in.

gultthis projected work is completed, it will certainly make the reconstructed Turkish fleet a force to be reckoned with, should it be properly manned and maintained, as it ought to be if it is to prove of real

• serv1ce.

INDUSTRIAL NOTES. TilE suggested Conference of Friendly Societies on

Old-Age Pensions has taken place, and a committee has been appointed to draw up a scheme. But there is this drawback, the conference did not represent the chief affiliated orders, nor the Hearts of Oak, so that its proceedings and action will not carry very mnch weight. As reported in last week's "Industrial Notes," six of the great affiliated orders and the Hearts of Oak have refused to take part in the preparation of a. scheme. These seven societies represent 2, 782,649 members out of an aggregate of 3,587,513 in the affiliated orders; the importance of their abstention cannot therefore be exaggerated. The composition of the conference was hardly such as to carry weight in friendly society circles. Of the delegates elected to form an executive committ ee to draft the scheme and promote it, five represented ~1iners' ltelief Funds and one the Locomotive Driver's and Firemen's Society. The miners' representatives are quite apart from the various miners' associations. The tontine bodies and t he railway interests are also represented. Old-age pensions may be very desirable, but, as State-endowed institu­tions they cannot be forced by sectional conferences by whomsoever called. The convening body was the Royal Hearts of Oak Dividing Society, with 10,000 mem'Lers, not the Hearts of Oak Society, with its 100,000 members. One can understand that a. dividing society would desire a pension scheme-it suggests .the id e.?' of making the best of both worlds. The N abonal Cen­ference of Friendly Societies was not represented, and yet that body stands to those societies in much the same relation as the Trades Congress does to trade unions. If any body had a right t o take up the quae­and formulate a scheme, it is the National Conference, which holds aloof.

The Amalgamated ~ociety of Rail w_ay Se~·van~s have been holding thetr General Coun01l meetmg m London the proceedings of which lasted throughout last we~k. The London Council welcomed the dele­gates by a ba.nquet at the H olborn Restaurant, with Sir Charles Dilke in the chair. Mr. Lough, ~1.P., Mr. Bell, M. P., Messrs. George Howell, W. C. Steadman, L .C.C., W. M. Thompson, and others responded to the various toasts. Naturally, both at the annual general meeting and at the ba.uquet, .the Taff Vale ca.£e occupied a. good de_a.l of attentt?n. There is still hanging over the soCiety the pendmg law action for damages in connection with that case ; a matter which has yet to be tried. One of the methods proposed to be adopt~d in .order to ave~t. the consequences of the recent lDJ uncttons and dectstons in the House of Lords, is a large increase of Labour M em hers in the House of Commons. One of the speakers at the banquet cautioned the unions agai!lst being too sectional in this respect, the tend~~cy bemg to put forward ~iners to r~present nunmg con­stituencies, and ratlway men m places where they predominate. That is a grav.e d~nger. .The narrow idea of sectional representa.t10n 1s growmg amongst the very class who formerly denounced class repre­sentation; but, after all, the whole is greater ~ban a. put. One speaker said that the. r~cent act10n of employers was in the nature of retahat10n, becau~e. the unions and their leaders went too far. The decisions of this General Council meeting are more or. less of a legisla.ti ve character a.?~ as t? matters of pohcy. T~e executive are an admtmstrattve body, bound to car1r out the conclusions arrived at. Generally, the CounCil considered how best to advance the ~nteres~s. of the railway workers, and imp~ove t~etr pos1t10n, by greater security for life and hm.b? higher rates of pay, shorter hours, and better cond1t1~ns of employme?t· One of the points before the meetmg was the quest~on of the companies ~llowiog t~e ~fficers .of the umon ft1cilities for attendmg the somety s meetmgs.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

judgment of the House of Lords on the Taff Vale case. It is arousing a feeling of more intense interest in the labour world than anything since the passing of the Labour Laws in 1875. The remarks of each of the judges are given without comment. Perhaps the most important contribution in the number is the series of paragraphs dealing with the loss of time question. The general secretary states that be had received a letter from certain works, not mentioned, in which the local secretary explains that '' stopping work is the only means whereby we can make our manager understand that we have a. grievance." The writer of " Gleanings," who is the general secretary, replies that the" manager must be deficient in intellect not to observe that the men have, or think they have, a grievance." He then tells the members that this is not the way to proceed in order to get a. grievance righted. He states that there are men ever ready to throw down their tools and go home for a day, but these are mostly the greatest cowards when a deputation is appointed to wait upon a manager to thresh the question out. He impresses upon the men that it is more clifficulb to arrange a dispute when ill-feeling has been aroused by an illegal stoppage. He then proceeds to deal with the less serious, but still most inconvenient practice of men individua.Uy leaving work without the knowledge of the manager. He insists that members must, in all cases, see the manager, or person in authority, before leaving thair posts. He drives the lesson home in various ways in order to make the members under­stand their duties and responsibilities.

The monthly report of the National Union of Boot and Shoe Operatives states that, with the exception of Bristol and Kingswood, the complaint generally is that the state of trade is "about as bad as it cn.n be." It goes on to say that usually at this time of year orders for winter goods are coming in, but it appears that but few heavy orders have as yet been booked. As a natural consequence there have been more disputes. When trade falls off these are more numerous than in busy t imes, and when there is a. turn for the better they also increase. In the former case they are alleged to be caused by employers, in the latter case by the men. In one case, at Hackney, a. dispute arose, and men were discharged. The matter came before the committee of inquiry, and then before the Conciliation Board; but the employer refused to reinstate the men, and, instead, took on some Jewish hands. Then all the workers struck, union and non­union hands alike. In a few days a settlement was effected, and the men resumed work. This dispute might have been arranged without a strike. Another small dispute over 2d. occurred in the same district, but was settled. In another case, at Desborough, a strike took place over.a.lleged injury to a pair of boots; after about two days the matter was settled. A similar case occurred at Glasgow, but it was arranged. The strike at Ayr, after lasting three months, has been mutually settled by the president of the union and the firm. Some other disputes are recorded, but not of serious consequence. In one case it was thought that the discharges by a firm were a sign of antagonism to the union; but it was shown that they were caused by slackness in trade-the men would be taken on nga.in as soon as the trade became a little more brjsk.

The Ironworkers' Jou1"1'l,O;l for October contn:ins, as so many other trade union reports have conta.med, the

The conference of the National Federation of ~liners just held in Birmingham went over pretty much the same ground as previous confe;ences ~ince the f~de~a.­tion was instituted. The Mmes E tght·Hours Btll, the 1\iines Regulation Acts Amendment Bill, and some cognate matters occupied, as usual, the attention of the delegates. On one point there was a new de· parture, the outcome of which it is difficult to for~see. The federation has been all along pledged to an Etght· Hours' Bill, from bank to bank, and hitherto that body has not attempted to obtain an eight· hours' d~y by the usual trade union means. Whether the act10n of the Scottish miners has stirred the English miners up, or not it is certain t hat efforts will now be made to obt~in the eight hours without comi.ng to Parliam_ent for its sanction. Notices are to be gtven to the mme­owners with a view of bringing about a conference on the subject. It is probable that many, if not most of the coalowners, would prefer mutual a.rr~ngement to the hard and fast lines of an Act of Parhament, the provisions of which would be enforced by legal measures probably by the help of the mines inspectors. This wo~ld be often harassing alike to employers and employed. Another prominent subject before the conference was the determination of the miners to run labour candidates at Parliamentary elections. The miners have already five members- Durham, Northum­berland South vV ales and Yorkshire send repre­sentaLi;es- not including the member for Merthyr. There are doubtless some other constituencies that could return a working miner. In one th~ng the federation is vastly gaining grou~d, namely, ID con­solidating miners' interests under 1ts control. There have been no defections; on the contrary, the federa­tion is extending, and it is well supplied with funde.

[OcT. I 1, I 901.

Another hitch occurred in the Grimsby dispute at the end of last week, when the "sharemen," ship­pers, and mates refused to accept arbitration on the lines suggested by Lord Y arborough and Lord Heneage. The chief ground of refusal appeared to be to the proposal to sign on at the Federation office, the proper office under the Board of Trade being preferred. 1'he engineers and fishermen had agreed to accept arbi tra­tion, and these were much disappointed when they found that further obstacles to a settlement blocked the way. The whole story of this dispute is one of complexity. Those engaged in it appear to be in­capable of arranging matters mutually; and when arbitration is proposed, it is eithH wholly opposed, or accepted with reservations. When all seemed to be going smoothly for arbitration, one section of over 1000 men had stood in the way, and those the most important of all- the skippers and mates. The reports indicate that they were quite rude to LordYarborough, the peacemaker, at the meeting called to consider the q\lestion, his remarks and those of other speakers being impatiently listened to by thoEe present. His overtures at the meeting were rejected by about 1000 to 30. There was therefore another dead-lock in the situation. With trade dislocated and distress general, a feeling of sad discontent was apparent. The Board of Trade appears to have done all it could to promote a. peaceful settlement, but so long as nny powerful section opposed it, nothing of a feasible character could be effected. The dispute has been a stubborn o11e, in its way as bad as that at the Bethesda qu~rries, one side or the other being unbending just at the time when a. little compliance would probably effect a settlement. Happily, at the last moment, the "F5haremen" gave way, and arbitration was agreed upon.

In the Wolverhampton district the iron trade was regarded as favourable last week, though, being on t he eve, as it were, of the quarterly meetings, buying was limited to small lots of finished iron. Agents for shipping houses were supposed to be holding back in the expectation of concessions ; but the higher prices of coal and of raw iron render it unlikely that lower prices will rule. Raw iron advanced in most qualities from Is. 6d. to as high as 10s. for certain q~alities. Finished iron was firm at full quoted rates 10 most cases, and tube strip was in great demand at the higher prices. Black sheets were firm, as were also hoop and rivet iron. Employment has been fairly good in the engineering and allied trades; in some branches there is continued activity, with good prospects ahead. In the hardware industries there are variations, but most of them are ft1irly employed ; in very few is there any serious slackneEs manifest as yet.

In the Birmingham district the iron market was rather flat last week. Buyers were withholding orders, apparently with an expecta tion o_f some changes in current rates. As coal and raw Iron are dea.rer, makers of iron were cautious as to accepting new business at quoted rates. There has been a steady demand for best bars at current rates. Makers of unmarked bars are well supplied with orders at full rates. The meeting of the Unmarked Bar Association to discu~s a revision of prices came to no decision, but adjourned till the present week. The wages of puddlers have been reduced 5. per cent .. under the sliding seal~, other workers 10 proportion. The engineering branches of trade are moderately employed as a whole, though the activity has slackened off somewhat. The other iron, steel, and metal-using industries vary ; but for the most part they are fairly well employed, a few only beiug slack.

The position of the engineering industries through­out Lancashire remains about the ~ame, but the outlook is thought to be less encouraging. The activity so long reported is generally well maintn.in~d. Elec­trical engineers are still busy, and have a fan· amount of work on hand, but it is said that orders are mostly for quick delivery, those of a heavier kind being less plentiful. Machine-tool makers are mostly fairly well engaged, but the orders coming f?rward ~re not .re­garded as satisfactory. The t exttle ma~hme-ma.kmg industry is still ' 'ery slack, no gr~at 1mproven:ent being manifest. Other branches contmue fairly acttve. On the whole the position is not discouraging. In the iron trades business has been slow, transactions being limited. There is, however, a firm tone gener­ally. Makers hold. to th~ full quoted rates, bot.h ~s regards raw. a~d fimshe? Iron. The steel trade 1s m a strong post t10n, both 10 respect of orders and rates.

The Penrhyn di~pute drags its slow length along. There does not seem to be any indication of a real settlement between the parties. Mr. E . A. Young, the manager at the quarries, has replied categorically to the hon. sec. of the Christian Social Reform League as to thc origin of the dispute, and ~he conduct of the management and of the men respecttvely. The letter of ~Ir. Young, and the copies of documents given in

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OcT. 1 r, rgo1.] ~=======================- -the pamphlet, deserve careful attention, not only by the general public, but by t he officers of trade unions and labour leaders. It is useless t'J ignore facts, for they stanu the test of time. s~me of those given reflect badly upon the men, especially the conduct of those which led to the closing of the quarries.

The recent G~rma.n Socialist Congress did little to advance the cause of labour. It showed bow intent socialists can be in the ende.1.vour to prevent freedom of thought and speech in their own ranks, if the difference be only on mattera of policy. Two of the chief leaders were pitted one against the other, and one bad to submit to what was pra.ctica.lly a vote of censure by the Congress. Tyranny is bad in all ca.ses, but it is well known t hat the tyranny of a mob is the most intol~rable.

There is seriou3 unrest among the miners, both in France and Belgium, just now. At Liege, out of 22,883 men employed at 48 co3.l pits, 15,064 were on strike at the close of la.st week. Those who did not come out a.nd join the strike were s ubjected to intimi­dation, and the gendarmerie ha.d to be employed. There were seYera.l violent collisions, and many arrests, but no serious injuries are reported. A general strike is proposed.

The French coa.lminers ha.ve declared in favour of a. general strike, on November 1, for a minimum wage, an eight-hours' da.y, and a. pension of 2 francs per day after twenty-five years o£ service, irreJpective of age. The mineowne rs declare that they ca.nno l:i grant the demands, and the men resolve to strike.

Another dockers' strike has taken pla~e at Havre. Some 200 men employed at the docks suddenly cea.sed work on Friday in last week, and every effort was wade to cause a general strike. Some disturbances arose, the military were called out, and some of the strike leaders were arrested.

The Canadian woollen workera have struck aga.inst a. redllction in wage3. The employers s~ty that it is necessitated in order to compete with British manu­

. facturers, whose goods sell a.t a lower price.

The great stri ke a.t St1.n Francisco, commenoel on July 21, has collapsed, the employers being victorious all along tho line.

n is reported tha.t 1800 miners employed at a col· liery in tbe Swansea Valley have struck against a fore­man who had instituted a. successful prosecution against a man for having a match in his possession while in t he mine. The men clamour for safety a.nd yet resent measures to insure it.

The employers at the steel and t inpla.te ,\l·orks at Morriston have conceded a.n advance of 3d. per ton. The men demanded 6d. advance. Some works have refused to give the advance.

The audit in the South 'V ales coa.l trade has resulted in a. decraase in wages of 3i per cent. from the 1st inst. The rates are now 68! above the wages stat;dard of 1879.

It has been usual for workmen in t he ha.rdwd.re in­dustrie3 in Staffordshire and Worcestershire to keep holiday at the "Uak carnivals." The employers com­plain of loss of time and neglect of work. Last week a number of men were summoned for absenting them­selves from work, and were ordered to pay substantial damages.

A dispute has arisen in connection with the rubber trade a.s to the right of combination. lt is said tha.t some union officials were discharged for belonging to the union. }.fen strike beca.use others will not belong to the union. Where is the difference ? It is a policy which cuts both ways.

Representatives of the Coal Port~rs' Union and of the Coa.l Merchants' Association ha.ve been in confer­ence on the question of wages, and it is said that the employers, while not admitting all the grievances com­plained of, have agreed to some new conditions, which will mean a. substantial advance in wages to carmen, and other concessions to the men generally. The re· suits will be reported to the union for its sanction.

E N G I N E E R I N G. 531 -MODERN PRACTICE IN RA.IL\VAY ·

SIGNALLING.* By M:R. I. A. Tnun.·, ~I. I NsT .. C.E. .

THE chnnges which steam effected when 1t en-rue m to ~se tl. , an aid to more rapid movement o~ pcopl? aud m.atol'lnJ, on land nud wn.ter, cre..'l.ted an ever-moroasmg de~1re and wttn t for more perfect and faster means of etfeotmg that movement. And now that n.nother force of nn,ture, electricity, hns come to the u.id of steam, t he gr~wth of railways has d_eveloped en'?rm<;msly t and the des~ re tmd necoss1ty for mtercommumcat10n, ~u all ~ountr10s, hus not only inorea:~ed, _but must g<? on morensmg.; a..."i a con­sequence the engmeers of ratlways are <?bhged to fit new ~:;ign~lling systems in order to d~al ~Vlth the ~a~·ger stations wi th a greater number of mam hues and s1dmgs and larger ~:;ig-nal cabins, and the increase in number of t rttins and ~1gher spe~ds. ~t has become neces~ary to place the pomts and d1sbmt s1gna.lg at a greater q1~tan~e from the cabins. The result of these altered condt tlOns IS that some other power is required to tal~e the place .of manual. 'fhree new forces have been trted- hydrauhc, pneumatic, n.nd electric.

In th; facing point lock and d~teotor, t? e sliding bar Y works the points a~ sho'"Yn,. a,nd 1ts end 1~ con~ected by suitable cranks to e1t her msiqe Y 1 or outs1de Y lock-bat~ for facing points. Further, 1t not only detects}tnd lo~ks both tongues of the points by p~unge~ .u•, u- entermg the detector bars z, z,. but _the .JMV X 1~ ?f such a shape as to firmly lock the pomts m e1~her p,os1t10n.

2. The Low-P1·essw·~ P?WU!11Utttc (] 1gs. 4 and 5).- The main operating force 1s a~r at a P\essure of about 15 lh., while the controlling is effected by a1r at half that pressure. These pressures can he increa.c;ed.. All t~e levers are interlocked mechanically in the stgnal oabm by tappet

HYDUAULIC YSTEMS Ob' R .\ILWAY IGNALLING.

The experience gained from . ignal work. operated by this force proves that it cannot com.Pe.te wtth t~e pmm­matic and electric sy terns, and so 1t 1s not t\dv1sable to take up time in de.')cribing it.

P NEUMATIC I YSTEl\fS Ob' RAJT,WAY SlON.\Ll,fNG . There aro two systoms that use n.ir n.s an operating

force : 1. The lVestinghouse H igh-P'l·assWI·e.- In the fir~t inRtal­

lations that were fitted in the U nited tates the cont rol­ling power used was water, under pressure, or a combina­tion entitled hydro-pneuma,tic ; but as it was found that electricity was a more convenient power, it was substituted, and the present prnotice is called t he electro-pneumatic system. Th~ opeyatiug- power is high-pt:essure air, which is conveyed m i-m. pipe.~ from the mtun supply tC? the operating cylinders, o.f which there is on~ ~tt each stgt~a l and at each pair of pomts. There are auxthary reservOirs near each ignal and each pair of point , to collect any moisture in the air supply. . . .

To operate a signal : When the lever m the oabm 1s pulled over, an electric cu~rent is sent t? the magnet ~I (. eo Fie-. 1, page 532), and 1ts armature B I S attracted to 1t. 'fhe spmdle F then closes the exhaust t:>Ort and pushes the SJ?inclle P off its sen.t , admitting an· through E above p1stou P, and the sigt1al is put to " Line clear." When the electric current is broken

1 either by a track circuit, if

used, or by the signalman, B 1s raised by the spring round P, the air admission is closed, and exhaust opened at H,

and the signal goes to " Danger " by the counterwei~ht. 1'o operate n, pair of points : The chamber A (]ig. 2)

receives air pressure from the m~tin l>ipe, and the . lide valveS controls the ports C and D aclm1tting the air to the cylinder, whilst •the port E leads to the exhaust. Ou each s1de of the slide valve chamber nre placed small cylinders V N and V R, with pistons K and K•, of which the rods pass through stuffirig-boxes and bear agniust the slide valve. A passage connects the slide-valve chamber A with a passage leading into a piu-valve oham~er, an_d therefore the latter always contnms compressed an·. Th1s chamber surrounds a small spindle valve\ of which the prolongn.tion bears against the spindle of tne armature of the magnet lVI N. Tlle lower end of this armature spindle nets as an exhaust valve.

The magnet lVI R on the left side is of precisely similar construction, but the electric circuits are so arranged that when the one magnet is magt1etised the other is demag­netised.

In the position shown, the magnet M N is magnetised, and consequently air from the chamber has been admitted to push t he p1ston K with the slide valve S into the position shown, and thus admitting: air from the chamber A through por t D into the rig11t cnd of the main cylinder, and placing t he piston T and the points in to their normal po it10n. If now i t were desired to reverse the position of the points, the sigt1nlman in the box has simply to move a lever. This movemeut changes the electric oircui ts, and an opposite set of move­ments are effected. In order to prevent au accidental displncemeut of the slide valve , a looking-pin Q is pro­vided.

Air from the central chamber A finds its way through a small port under the t:>iston ~I, and passes through a small hole in the piston mto the cylinder end

1 thus equn.­

lising the pressure on both sides of the ptston. 'fbe spring W then pushes the piston M down, and brings the locking-pin Q into one of the recesses in the back of the slide valve S. When it is desired to release the slide valve, the magnet M L is excited by an electric current from the signal-box, and an exlutust valve P L is opened. The exhaust port being larger thttn the hole in the piston lVI , the excess of pressure on the underside of the piston will force the latter up, thereby releltsing the slide valve S. As soon as the magnet lV.l: L is demngnetised, the movements are reversed.

looking. · 1 When a pair of points have to be moved, t_he .s1gna man

pulls over his lever, but only part ~vay., agamst ~stop T . A valve in the cabin is opet~ed, winch IS a red':lcmg_valve U, and sends a curren t of air ~lot:tg a con.troll~n&' p1pe P, to the valve R at the points. Th1~ supphes an· fr?m th.e main supply to one end of the cybnd~r, and the p1ston IS pushed over. This operates the mott<?n-plate throug;~ a complete stroke, and th~ work done IS as follows : I he first portion- say one-thud of the movement- unlC?cks the points and olo es any selector ports. Then the pomts are pushed over, and the last third of the move~e~t lo~ks them again, completes and s~ts _anY. elector an: ctrcu1ts. At the same t ime a return mch cat10n current IS sent to the return valve in the cabin, which . remove the stop against the point lever and completes 1ts stroke.

All the valves are now ready for a reve~e movement. It will be seen thn.t there are two reducmg valves and two piston stops for each lever, and two valve n.nd one cylinder and piston and five tubes A, B, C, 1'>, and 0, for each pnir of points, . apart from. selector tubes. In order to lower t\ s1gnal, th~ sign!llmfl:n pulls his levor over to it~ full extent. ~his admits an· from the main . upply mto the reducmg. valve con­nected with the lever, and then n. con~rolling ourre~t is sent to one of the valves R on t~e .s1gnal post ; th.1s may be called the operating valve .. Th1~ op~ns the mam supply into the cylinder A. The piStOl~ lS ra1sed and the signal is lowered to " Line clear," and IS held there. I!l order to return the signal to " Danger, " the lever 1s pushed back and is stopped about half way by I. Then the other co;1trolling pipe conveys a su~RlY. of air. to t~e other controlling valve on the post. Il;us admits an· from main supply to the up,per ~1~d of cyhnder, and _the signal returns to " Danger pos1t10n. At the sam~ time a return indication current is sent through the p1pe to the valve in the cabin, and the stop is removed, and tl~e signal lever completes its stroke. There are two mam valves and one sub idiary one, and one cylinder piston at the signal post, and there is one reducing valve and a cy­linder and piston in connection with the signal lever, and there are four pipes between cabin a.nd signal.

If a track circuit is fitted, the track blocks are insulated with a primary battery in each block circuit, and at any signal that the track circuit may control an electro­magnet, which is in the circuit, controls the air valve, and thus holds the signal nt " Line clear " as long as it is ener,Psed; but when a short ci rcuit is made by a train or vehicle, or the oironit is broken, the magnet is de­energised, the air admission valve is closed, the exhaust is opened, and the signal goes to "Danger., If, how­ever, the track is empty, and lowering electric contacts are closed by a t rain ahead of the block automati0ally or by a signalman in the cabin, the signal is lowered to " Line clear."

ELECTRIC SYS1'ElJS 0 1!' RAILWAY SIGNALLING.

Many systems have been tried, and several have been carefully thought out and worked. One of the fi rst that was fitted in the United tates was by the Union witch and Signal Company. The electric current was supplied from primary batteries, and as their electromotive force is small, and the current generated also small, it was necessary to give special a ttention to the design and construction of the semaphore arm and to the coun tar­weight and general fittings, so as to eliminate friction. As a result1 a light, thin, smooth arm of aluminium Wt\S adopted, w1th the spectacles as a counterweight. A small, low electromotive force motor was fi tted, running over 1500 revolutions per minute, and the revolutions of the motor were as 1080 to 1 of the semaphore hH~ft, or 180 revolutions to clear the signal arm to " Line clear " through GO deg. ; this took six seconds. The motor nl ways runs in one direction. When the signalman pulls over his lever, the elee;tric circuit is closed and a current sent to the motor, and the signal is lowered to " Line clear." This movement swite;hes in an electromagnet which holds t he signal n.t " Line clear," and cuts out the motor. When the electric circui t is broken, an electric slot frees the signal arm at the ame time that the magnet is de-energised, and the signal goes to " Danger " auto­matically ttnd instantly.

Another system fitted in the United tates by the

MERSEY DocK E sTATE.-The statement of tonnage and receipts of the 1'Iersey Dock estate for the past year shows that 12,500,000 tons of shipping paid rates inwards or out­wards, yielding a revenue, including town dues on goods, of 1,190,994l., an increase on the year of 63,000l. The total receipts from all sources exceeded 1,500, OOOl. The expenditure included 600,000l. pa.id in interest on the bonded debt, and 100,000l. carried to the sinking fund, which now amounts to 250,000l. The capital expenditure on he dook system is over 25,000, OOOl. _

As soon as, and not before, the points are in their new position and locked, an electric circuit IN or I R (Fig. 3) 1s completed by the switch in box I , and an indicating cur­rent is sent to the sig-nal-box. As Ion&' as the signalman has not received th1s indication, he 1s prevented by a httch from completing the stroke of his point lever, and therefore he is unable, on accom1t of the mechanical interlocking, to lower any conflicting signal until the points are properly set nnd locked.

* P aper read before the International Engineering Congress, Glasgow, 1901. ection I. : Rnil ways.

Taylor Signal Company is entit·ely electrical, and both tl~e points and signu.l~ are operated by electro-motors With secondary batten es. The whole are mechanically interlocked in the signal cabin; the rails are used as a circuit where advisable. When the signalman has to use a pair of points, he pulls his lever over and closes the circuit to the motor at the points, which revolves twenty t~es while the point driving ~heel is making one revo­lutiOn. The fi rst quarter of 1ts revolution unlocks the points, and, after the points are moved over the last quarter revolution re-locks them. The locking rev~rses the pole-changing mechanism, and reverses the armature connec~ion.s fo.r the. rev~rse movement, and also closes the re~urn md~cat1_on CircUlt .. The p~wer required to effect this reversmg lS from a coiled spnng which is compressed by the locking, but is released at the end of the travel The points are moved in the contrary direction by a set of reverse movements. The return indication current to the cabin releases the point lever, and completes the

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532 E N G I N E E R I N G. [OcT. 1 I, I go 1.

freei!lg of _the. signals that may have to be lowered in con­nectiOn With 1t.

To lower a signal to " Line clear'' the lever is pulled over, and a Cl~rrent is sent to the .:notor (1 to 6 horse­po~er). It w1nds up a chain which raises the counter­weig~,t an? _lo~ers the signal; as it reaches the cc Line clear pos1t10n 1t actuates the pole-changer, switches in

" 1. There . must always_ be · qne or more signals at Danger " m rear of a trnm. 2. It must ~ot be ~ible for the signals in any block

to b~ lo~ered if any v~h1cle of a train is left in thn.t block, or wttht.n reasonable distance ahead of the next cc starter."

'fhe signals are all operated by lon~·pull ~Jectromagnets (F1gs. 24 and 25, page 533) hy the passmg tram. The points,

a!ld 12), which operates a breaking contact BC close to the Signal, and ns the magnet is short-cirouited the armature falls, and the spectacle counterweight sends the signal to cc Danger." Having sent both the signals to " Danger '' and stop~ at the n~xt station, the train goes on to a farther station, and as 1t passes the "starter" it puts it to cc D " Th h · anger. ere are now t ree signals at " Danger " in

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an electromagnet which holds the signal at "Line clear," and cuts out the motor. When tlie magnet ci rcuit is broken, the counterweight sends the signal to ''Danger," and restores the gearing to its normal position.

In this country, the first -practical electrical system was fitted to work autou1atically on the Liverpool Overhead Railway by the anthor. The conditions which were pro­vided for and sanctioned by the Board of Trade were :

which are only u~ed for "cross-over" purposes, &Cl., and, except at the terminal stations, are hardly ever required, are operated by means of manual power, a.nd interlocked me<lhanically and eleP.trically with all signals that either protect or conflict with them (Figs. 6 and 7).

rear of the train. When the train gets over a full train­length ahead of the '' starter, " and it has gone to, and is, at "Danger," the striking bn.r on the rear vehicle closes a pair of contacts MC (Fig. 7), and this Clircuit is completed by the signal just passed being at ' 'Danger" CC. A current goes throngh this circuit to the "starter" and " Home" m the rear block, and each is lowered to " Line clear " by its electromagnet. As the magnet attracts its armature,

As a train leaves a station, the two sie-nals "Starter" and next station "Home" must bo at "Lme clear." The last vehicle of the train hns a striking bn.r S B (Figs. 8

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OcT. r t, 190 1.] • E N G I N E E R I N G . ' 533 a swito~ (Fig. 11) automatically switches in a resist­ance wh10h reduces th~ lo,~ering current of 3 to 5 a.m res ~o 0.3 to 0.5 or 0.1, wh10h 18 amply sufficient for the hold· m~ current.. The cost of electrical energy with a three· mm~e serviCe and for 20 hours l>6r day is 400 x 1 second ~ 5 -

1 ~000 am~re·seconds per s1gnal ; and assuming each

St~a 1s at " Lme clear " 600 minutes per day and taldn 0. of an ampere, the total consumpt10n a.t Sd. per kilo~

Fig. 10.. :rhe " makers" t\~d '' breakers" are on the 1 (Figs. 15 to 19). Suppose we take one cabin containing 300 same prm01ple as those of Ltverpool. 'fhe electric our- levers, or about one-fourth of all the big Crewe system. rent was from small secondary batteries, the special de- There are some 150 cables of 3 in. diameter from the cabin, sign . of. M. L~v~zzari,, the honorary secretary of the and eaoh cable may contain six leads. It is quite clear that lnst1tut10n of C1vil Engmeers of France, who is associated these cables, though they are placed in wooden troughs, with the author in all tiis work in France. could be supported on posts overhead. But if the low-

Another important piece of signal work is on the pressure pneumatic system were fitted to the same 300-W estern Railway of- France, close to Paris. The signals lever cabin, it would neces.<3itate 1200 tubes at least being

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watt-hour for the whole railwn.y is about the cost of one man's wages for one day.

At the Paris Exhibition an automatic system was fitted, covering 2 miles of line (Figs. 8, 9, and 10), on the same broad lines as at Live~ol, but on a reduced scale all round. The signal arms S are light frames covered with red cloth, and pivoted nearly at the centre of gravity. Each arm and its smallruagnet M, resistance, switch, and contacts are enolosed in a weathertight case with a glass in front and a lamp behind, as is clearly shown in

and points are worked from small levers in the cabin, and are all operated by electromasnets. T he points are looked, and all repeating and selectmg work done by one com­plete throw of a point magnet. Drawings of the arrang~­ments are not sliown, as the regulations affecting traffic in France are so widely different to those insisted on by t he Board of 1,rade in this kingdom.

We come now to the most important of all the modern systems of signalling in this kingdom-the Crewe system, fitted at Crewe under the supervision of Mr. W ebb

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taken from the cabin to work the signals and_points ; and .in addition it should be pointed out that at Crewe (as at many other stations) the distant si~als could not be work~ ~y pneumatic power alone, owmg to the distance. ;Ele?tn 01ty wo~ld have to be employed as well, owing to 1ts mherent qmckness .

The working of a pair of facing points is explained by ¥igs. 13a~d14. Theeleo~romotor, designed at Crewe, works m a cast-u on box sunk m the ground, and in an oil bath (Fig. 14). As the motor revolves, it actuates a worm work~ in~ two oom wheels, which engage respectively with the pomts and locking gearing. The points are unlocked by half the throw of one rod ; then th.e complete throw of the other rod moves them over, and the completion of the throw ?f ~he ~rst rod locks the po~nts again and sends a return md1cat10n current to the cabm, wnich allows the comple­tion of the movement of the point lever which was stopped when only half pulled over, and also completes the selector rod movement at the points. The trailing points are actuat~ by long-p~ll electromagnets (Fig. 18). The lever frame IS also t\ pe01al feature of the Crewe system with tappet interlocking. 'rhe signals (Fig. 19) are o~rated by long-pull magnets, in conjunction with resistances and witch~ for automatically reducing the lowering of the

holdi!lg curren~, as .alre9;d y explained. It 1s not ~ss1ble m th1s systen~ t~ lowe~ any signal or to

move any pomts unless the confhctmg pomts are "right , and locked, and all controlling signals are at '• Danger , It will be noted t~at in the lever frarue at Crewe (Fig.17) there are two t1ers of levers, thus reducing the size of the cabin and the work of t he signalman. But

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there nro ' 'ariations which can be uande by taking certain parts of systems that hav~ been fitted, and have stood the test of ttme and hard work, and making n.nother combination. The following is such a one: it i entirely electrical, and can be worked either with or without a track circuit (Figs. 22 and 23).

The description embraces a track circuit by which signals are put automatically to "Danger, by a passing train, but they are lowered to "Line clear, by the signal­man, and not automatically. Automaticity is perfectly easy to arrange if it i desired. All the levers in the cabin tl.re tappet looked. E ach signal is lowered by a long­pull electromagnet, as described above.

The points are worked as follows (Figs. 20 and 21): In the case of facing points, it seems better theo­retically to operate the points by one pair of ma~nets, n.nd the bolt and locking bar by another. PractiCally, however, there are objections to this, the most serious being the almost absolute necessity of having two main current switches at the points ; this rut\y be got over by u ing a separate lever in the cabin, but that entail extra expense, time, &c. I prefer, therefore, to work them by one pair of magnets, of a slightly incren ed power over ~hose for working trailing points. This I do by inorea . mg the stroke to 7 in. (7 in. to 8 in. being the usual travel of a bar), which is divided up as follows : The point lever is pulled over half way; the first 1~ in. of travel of the magnet moves the bar and unlooT{s tho poit?-ts, the middle 4 in. operates the points, and the final 1~ m. completes the travel of the bar and locks the points- total, 7 in. At the same time the selector bar is operated. In addition to the ordinary plunger bolt look­in~ th~ two switch rails, the meohamsm working the pomts ts also locked by the magnets themselves, as will be evident later. The bolt does not look in the St\me notch for the different position of the point , two notches being cut, one top and one bottom, correspond­ing" feathers , forming part of the bolt engaging with them, and making the lock. The whole travel of the magnets is communicated to the bar and bolt . Thus it will be seen that the magnet exerts its force only on the bar and bolt at the commencement, when the bar re~uires most force to lift it. 'Vhen the bn,r is partially hfted, and consequently requires a considerably diminished force, the magnet takes up the movement of the points. . The method of conveymg the movement to the points 1s by means of the well-known tumbler and jaw type. The link connecting the two magnets engages with the tumbler at T (Fjg. 21). The first movement (namely, 1~ in.) of the tumbler unlocks the jaw J . It then moves it over (4 in.}, and finally locks it again. The jaw forms part of a bell­crank, the other arm of which is arranged to give an adju table throw. Thi is very necessary for accurato working, as the slightest wear or movement of the stock rails should at once be provided for i if cranks of set length or motion plates cut out of the solid are used, no adjust­ments can afterwards be easily made. 1'he bolt and bnr are fitted with detectors for conveying the return current to the cabin, and this completes the movement of the lever. By an air cu hion arrangement to the magnets, the blow usually associated with magnet-operated mecha­nism is practically eliminated.

It should be carefully pointed out here that there have been many complaints made in connection with electrical fittings, of leako.~e, short circuits, &c. The reason for these complaints 15 quite olear: improper and insufficient insulation, flimsily-made contacts, and so forth. It has been tated in print that induction currents have a erious effect on electrically-worked signals and points.

But it must be asserted in the plo.inest language that neither induction currents nor tne mo t violent atmo-pheric electrical disturbances affect a current of 50 volts

or over, having a volume in accord with the resistance of

the conducting lead~ = C; and as r~gards the in ulation

and fitting of leads, and the dressing, making, and fitting of contacts and switches, if the ~:~ame care and thought are taken about them that are taken in the makw~ and fixing of hydraulic and pneumatic gearing, there ts less risk with the electric gearing ; and, on the other hand, there is more certainty of its working pro­perly than with hydraulic or pneuD?atic arrange!Ilents.

Then ru:1 to qUlckn~ss. There 1s no force m nature whidh is so in tantaneous in its notion as electricity, or so amenable to the varied wants for which it may be used. Consider the present question of operating signals and points. It takes con iclernbly less tnan a second to lower a signal or to move and lock a pair of points by electromagnets; and the tottll time taken to complete an operation, including the return indication current, is far less than that taken by any other force. This is a known u.nd proved fact. Pneumatically. worked signals at 500 yards distance take nine or ten seconds to complete the return current ; and it is not practicable, even if it i pos­sible, to work signals at 1200 yards (ttnd it is often advisable to increase that distance) by any power except electricity.

F uEL IN RussiA.- The deliveriesofcomhustible upon the outhem Ru ian lines last year amounted to 454,251 ,390

poods, as compared with 3G9,048,280 poods in 1899.

BounN~UOUTH TRA.MWAYs.-At the Bournemouth Town Council on Friday a long and hea.ted discussion took place on a proposal to obtain power to construct an electlic tramway from Lansdowno, along Bath-rond, to the Pier, and from the Pier, along Exoter-road, to the quare. The proposal was defeated hy twelve votes to ten, hut a pro­}>osal to extend the proposed tramway at Pn.rkwoocl-road, Boscombe, was carried. A scheme to construct tramwayH in other parts of the borough at a cost of noarly 250,0001. will be shortly commenced.

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[OcT. I I , I 96 t .

LAUNCHES AND TRIAL TRIPS. ON Saturday, the 28bh ulb., there was launched from

the shipyard of MOSEra. Cochran and Co., at Anoan, a. large steel double-bowed four·sorew steamer named Sea­comhe, constructed to the designs and specifications of Mes3rs. FJannery and Given. L ondon, for the W al­lasey Urban District Council. The principal dimen­sions are: Length, 140 ft. ; beam, 50 fb. ; and moulded depth, 13 h. There are four steam gangways of special design, 12 fb. wide. The machinery consists of two set~ of engines of the triple-expansiOn type, working two propellers-one in the bow and one in the stern, with cyhnders 13 in., 22 in., and 34 in. in diameter, and length of stroke 22! in.

launched on 'l'hursday, the 3rd inst. , the seventh vesse I built by them to the order of the Boulder Line, Limited, of L :mdon. the twin-screw steamer named Dra.yton G range. The dimensions of this vessel are as foJlow: Length between perpendiculars, 450ft. ; breadth, 55 fl'. ; depth moulded, 33 ft. 4 in. ; with a gross tonnage of about 6500 tons. The Drayton Grange has been built to the special requirements of the owners, for their regular trade to Australia, the Cape, and the River Plate, and is designed to suit the many requirements of a vessel en­gaged in a. lare-e cargo and passenger trade. The refri­gerating machmery for freezing the dead meat in insula­ted holds is placed between the tunnels in the after main hold. A cold chamber for carrying the more perish­able provisions, &c , for the passengers' consumption dur­ing the voyage is fitted up convenient to the refrigerating machinery room. All the accommodation for the pas­sengers and officers is provided in a lar~e steel deokhouse built round the engine and boiler casiDgs. The roof of this midship house forma a. very spacious promenade, being practically free from obstruction. Access to this pro­menade from the saloon is had by a. stairway leading to a deck house above the saloon, attached to which is the captain's room and a smoke-room. Her ma.ohinery and boilers are also conatructcd by Messrs. W orkma.n, Olark, and Co., Limibed.

The s.s. Arad, whioh is being constructed by Messrs. Wigbam-Richardson and Co . Limited, Neptune Works, Newca.stle-on-Tyne, for the Royal Hungarian Sea Naviga­tion Company" Adria.," Limited, of Budapesb and F iurue, was successfully launched on Monday afternoon, Septem· ber 30. The steamer is 375ft. in len!{bh by 48 ft . beam. The propelling machinery is of the triple-expansion type.

Oa Monday, the 30th ulb., the e.s. Corinthia wa.a launched by Messrs. Joseph L. Tbompson and SonP, Limited, of the North Sands Shipbuilding Yard, Sunder­land, having been built to the order of the International Line Steamship Company, Limited, of Wbitby, and is the seventh vessel Messrs. Tbompson have bnilb for these owners . She is built to Lloyd's highest class on the three­deck rules, but with only one deck laid, and the prin­cipal dimensions are : Length between perpendioulara, 49 ft. 6 in. ; breadth extreme, 49 fb. 6 in. ; depth moulded, 27 fb. 6 in. The propelling ma.ohinery has been constructed by Meesrs. John Diokinson and Sons, Limited, of Sunderland, the diameter of the cylinders being 34! in., 40 in., and 66 in. by 45 in. stroke. Steam is supplied by threa large multitubular boilers working a t 160 lb. pressure.

On Monday, the 30th ulb., Messrs. R opner and Son, Stookton·on-Tees, launched a steel screw steamer of the following dimensions, viz : L ength, 358 ft. 3 in. ; breadth extreme, 46 fb. 6 in. ; depth moulded, 27 fb. 3 in. The vessel is fitted with the builders' patent trunk deck. The engines will be triple-expansion, supplied by M e&rs. Blair and Co., Limited, of Stockton·on-Tees, having cylinders 24 in., 40 in., and 66 in. in diameter by 45 in. stroke, with two main boilers, each 15 ft. 9 in. in diameter by 10 fb. 6 in. long, the workin~ pressure of same being 160 lb. The vessel has been bmlb to the order of Messrs. R . Ropner and Co., of W est Hartlepool, and is named Tolesby.

The Shirakumo, torpedo-boat destroyer, built for the Japanese Government by Messrs. J ohn I. Thornyoroft and Co., Limited, of Chiswiok, was launched on Tuesday, the 1st inst. The vessel, which is the firsb of two now completing ab Chiswick, ba.s a guaranteed speed of 3l knots carrying a. load of 40 tons. The length is 216ft. 9 in., and the beam 20ft. 9 in. The engines are triP.le-oompound, with four cylinders, and there are four b01lers of the " Thornyoroft-Schuls " type. The arma­ment is the same as that of British war vessels of this class. The keel of this vessel was laid on February 28 last, so that she has been built practically in seven months. Six destroyers have already been built by this firm for the Japanese Government.

The Alexandrian, the latest addition to the Fleet of Messrs. F. Leyland and Co., Limited, Liverpool, com­pleted a successful trial trip off the Tyne on Tuesday, the 1st inst. This steamer has bePn constructed by Messrs. Wigham-Riohardson and Co., Limhed, at their Neptune W orks, Newcasble·on-Tyne. She is of steel, 425 ft. in length, by 46~ ft. breadth, by 30~ ft. in depth. The pro~elling machinery consists of a set of triple-expansion engmes, which, with the boilers, have been built by Messrs. Wigham-Richardson and Co., Limited. During the trial trip they worked without the slightest hitch, giving satisfaction to all concerned.

Messrs. 0. S. Swan and Hunter, Limited, launched on W ednesday, the 2nd inst., a steel screw steamer named Mira, designed for carrying oil in bulk, which has been built to the order of Messrs. Bessler, Waeohter, and Co., of L ondon, for whom Messrs. Stephens, Sutton, and Stephens, Newoa.stle, are the managers. The leading dimensions of the vessel are : Length over all, 355 ft. ; beam extreme, 47 ft. ; and depth moulded. 29 ft. 1 in. She will carry a total dead weight of oil and bunkers of 5600 tons. The machinery has been constructed by Messrs. Blair and Co., Limited, of Stockton·on-Tees, and consists of a seb of triple.expansion engines, having cylinders 25 in., 42 in. , and 68 m. in diameter by 45 in. stroke. steam being supplied by two single.ended boilers, 16 fb. 6 in. in diameter by 11 ft. long, working ab 180 lb. preesure.

There was launched on W ednesday, the 2nd insb. , from the yard of Messrs. Allsup and Co., Limited, P reston, the steamer Scotb, the first of two -powerful twin·screw bugs built! fo·r the L ondon and Indu.t Docks Company. Length between perpendiculars, 90 ft. ; breadth moulded. 2 l ft. ; depth moulded, 12 fb. The vessel is to be fitted with water-tube boilers of modern type, working ab 200 lb. pressure, and two sets of compound Eurface condensing engmes, 19 in. and 40 in. in diameter by 24 in., working ab 120 lb. pressure, and capable of developing 1000 in. dica.ted horse-power.

Meser~. 'Vorkman, OJark, and Co., Limited, Helfast,

Meesrs. Furness, Wibhy, and Co., Limited, Hartlepool, launched the large steel screw steamer Manchester Market, built to the order of Messre. The Manchester LinerP, Limited, for their Manchester Canal, New Orleans, and Canadian service. The vessel is 372 ft. in length, and hag a total capacity of 354,549 cubic feet, and a total ballast capacity of 1350 tons. Tri pie-expansion engines will be supplied and fitted by Messrs. Ricbardsone, Westgarth, and Co., Limited, Hartlepool, with cylinders 25 in., 40 in., and 68 in. in diameter by 48 in. stroke, steam being supplied by three single-ended boilers 14 fb. 6 in. by 11ft. long and 100 lb pressure.

MONTE VIDEo.-Dredging machinery for Monte Video harbour has been contracted for with a Bruges firm. The contract amounts to 200,000l. The machinery is to be deli Vf red on the spot early next year.

CATALOGUE .- Messrs. Kirchner and Co., of 21 to 25, Tabernacle-street, Finsbury-square, L ondon, have senb us a good-sized catalogue, which, we understand, is an extract from a larger catalogue in course of preparation. Th~ present volu~e deals with machines for builders, cabmetmakers, cbam manufacturers, wagon works, agri­cultural implement makers, pianoforte and organ builders, p~rquetry floo~ing w9rks, &c. The .complete catalogue wlll also contam parbtcuJars of maohmery for sa.w-miJh, planing-mills, and cork and brush factories. In the present volume there are illustrations and particulars of several series of machines, together with many views illustrating the varieties of work they will torn oub.­T.be ~inclair comet la~p. manufactured by Messrs. Smclatr and Co, of 19, E ldon-street, London, E. C., is made in many sizes and forms, most of which are illus­trated in the makers' new catalogue. In addition to those for giving light, there are others for blue flames, which can be used with petroleum engines, for melting lead oub of wa.ter-p.ipe joints, for hea~in~ tar, and other purp'?Ses. A Small ltghtJDg. lamp, Wetghmg 8~ lb 1 and elVlDg 100 candle-power~ 1s made for platelayers working m tunnels. For steam boilers petroleum burners are made of 2 to 20 horse-power. Smaller burners are made for cooking, and are extremely bandy for this .purpose.-Tbe Brush Eleo­tri~lEngineeringComp~n~, Ltmited, havesentus a copy of thet~new.cataloguedescnpt1veof the output of their Falcon Engme and Car Works, Loughborough. These include st~m locomotives of all types, from special engines for narrow-gauge plantation lines up to fairly powerful stan­dard gauge freight and passenger eng ines. The com­pany also make steam tramway engines, railway coaches, and tramoe.rs.-The Jones and Lamson Machine Com­~~ny,, of Springfield, Vermont, and Ex?hange BuildingP, Btr.mu~gham, b_ave sent us a o~py of theu new Clitalogue, wh1ch IS a. oap1ta.lly gob up hotle volume describing the flab turret lathe, and illustrating various pieces of work for the production of which it is specially recommended. -The London R:ubber Manuf!-"cturing 9ompany, of De:pt­ford, have pubhshed a new hsb of the1r goods, which m­olu.d~ sheet rubber.r..gland paokin~, and rubber tyres.-Mr. W1lliam Boby, of \:>alisbury House, L ondon Wall, has pub­lis~ed a new li.st of users of the Cbevalet· Boby hea.ber-de­tanse~ fo~ freemg feed waters from scale-forming materiale. The list moludes a number of important electric lighting plants.-Messrs. John Spencer, Limited, of the Globe Tube Works, Walsall, have issued the twenty-first edition of their list of gas pipes, weld less tubing, and fittings of all kinds. The lisb also illustrates patterns of trolley poles as s~pplied to a. number of different towns.-We have rece1ved from Messrs. Robey and Co., Limited of the Gl?be W o.rks, Lincoln, copies of steam engine c~ta­logues m Enghah and French. Measurements are given in. both the English. and the. metric systems, and the R 1ob.ardson automab1o e~pans1on gear is described in detail.-Messrs. Geo. R10hards and Co., Limited of Broadhea.tb, near Manchester, have issued a oata.lo~e of machine tools . The tools of thia firm, it is well known are marked by great originality in design. The ma.ohine; illustrated in this catalogue inolude side-planing machines of various k inds, lathes, millin~ machines, boring milla and pa.tt er~-~aking plant.- The Steel Company of Scotland, L1m1ted, of GlMgow, have published a. souvenir of the G la.egow Exhibi tion. which contains a number of capi.t~l illustrations. ~f the ~uildings and court~ in add1t1on to engravmgs relatmg more directly to the products of the firm •

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OcT. 1 1, 19or.]

"ENGINEERING" ILLUSTRATED PATENT RECORD.

COMPILED BY w. LLOYD WISE. SEI.ECT.IID ABSTRACTS OF RECENT PUBLISHED SPEOIFIOATIONS

UNDER THE ACTS OF 1883- 1888. The num-ber oj views given in the Specification D1·awi'11{Js i8 stated

in each case ; where none are mentioned, the Specification is not illustrated.

Whe·re inventions are communicated jrom abroad, the N ames, &:c., of the Communicators aTe ,qiven in italics.

Copies of Specifications may be obtained at the Patent Otlice Sale Branch, !6, Sot~thamptm Buildi·ngs, Ohamcery-lane, lV.C., at the ttni{orm price of 8d.

The date of the advertistment of the acc.eptance o.f a Complete Svecification i.s, in each case, given aJIM' the abst·m ct, unless the Pattnt ha.s been sealed, when the date of sealing is given.

Any person may, at any time ·within ttco months from the date of the advertU;ement of the acceptance of a Oo1nplete Specijicatio·n, give notice at the Pate-nt Office of opposition to the g1·ant of a Patent on any of the grounds mentioned in the A cts.

AGRICULTURAL APPLIANCES.

17,345. P. J. Parmlter, Salisbury, Wilts. Flat Hoeing Machine. [6 F igs.] OotiOber 1, 1900.-:-Ia t his ma­chine for thinning t urnips and ot~er plants there. IS a whe.e~ or d isc having a series of arms carrymg hoes at theu extremities, and arranged in such a manner and at such an angle with t he g round that the hoes a t one por tion of t he circumference of t be wheel only are in cont.not with the ground at one time. As t he

• implemeLt is caused to travel a rotary motion is imparted to the wheel or disc owing to its contact with the grou nd, t hus giving the hoes a combined rotary and forward cut t hrough the row of plants, substan tially as described. In one arrangement, in addi­t ion to the rotary wheel having peripheral hoes there are flat hoes for working t he ground between the rows to be thinned . (.Accepted Augusl7, 1901.)

ELECTRICAL APPARATUS. •

12,466. Siemens Brothers and Co., Limited. (Siemen-s and B alske Company, Berli·n,. ) Deriving Uni· directional from Alternating Current. (7 Figs]. June 18, 1901.-In apparatus for derivin~ discontinuous pulsatin~ unidirectional currents from an alternat mg current circUit, and of the kind in which a polarised electromagnetic oscillating or vibrating periodic contact-making d evice is used, according to this invent ion, and in order that the electromagnetic coil may be pro­vided with current so much out of phase with the current flowing in t he interrupt ion circuit as to allow of the separation of the

t

• con~acts at the time when no current is passlng through them for the purpose of preventing rapid wear on such contacts by reason of sparking, t he electroma~net is coupled in series with a condenser which effects the desired alteration in the phase of t he actuating current, an adjustable self-induction deVlce being in some oases used to modify the action of the condenser . The vibrating contact-carrier, when the intervals between making and breaking and breakio~ and making contact respectively are to be unequal, may also be m part controlled by a spr ing whose tension is adjustable. (Accepted August 7, 1901.)

12.508. Siemens and Co., Limited, London. (Siemens and Halske Company, Be1·lin.) Deriving Unldi·

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reotiohal from Alternating Current. [5 Figs.] J une 19t 1901.-ln apparatus of the kind described in Paten t Speciflca-

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E: N G 1 N E E R 1 N G. tion No. 12,466 of 1901, when means must be provided for .causlog t he inte" ·als between making and breaking and breakmg and making contact respectively to be unequal, as, for example, when a storage battery has tiO be charged, and when the .make and break of contact in eaoh oase must occur when the potential of the battery and of t be charging current are equal and iJ? opposition, accord!ng to this invention, and with the ob~ect of contmuo?sly c~mpensatmg for variat ions In battery potential, the battery Itself IS ca?sed to determine, in accordance with its potential for the time bem~, the instant of the make and break of contact. The battery may etther be included in the circuit of t he actuating electromagnet, or it may be caused to not indirectly by various means. (Accepted August 7, 1901.)

17,642. W. D. B. Duddell, London. Measuring Electricity. [1 Fig. ] October 4, 1900.-A deli~te .me~ns for indirectly measuri ng current for the purpose of mdicattng current 6ow or potent ial difference, according to this invention comprises a radio·micrometer (for example, as d escribed by V. Doys in Yol. 180, Phil. 1'rans. ), with a preferably non·inductive

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,- " ... ' ,... '

resist..'\nce arranged to beat the thermo·couple of the radio­micrometer. When the resistance, its couplings, and surround · ings are truly non-inductive, a similar expenditure of electrical energy by current of either continuous or alternating kind will, of course, lead to an equal development of heat in each case, and consequent ly like indications from the radio-micrometer . (Ac· cepted A ugttat 7, 1901.)

14,463. P. Schoop, Dozwen, Switzerland. Eleotro· lysing Apparatus. [5 Figs. ) August 13, 1900.- In reference to this invention it is stated in the specification that 11 The effect produced has never been achieved in any other apparatus, and now, for the first time, t he technical production of bleaching liquids is economically attained." The a{>paratus appears to be of t he kind in which a number of eleotrolysmg vessels are coupled in series by means of electrodes which pass through insulat~nlr part itions, the whole uncovered surface of these electrodes bemg utilised for electrolysing. The electrolysing vessels are of small sectional area and considerable length, and the solution to be

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treated passes through them at the •ate of about one metre per minute. The soluUon in t he trough-shaped vessels is ~llucled to as .. liquid filaments." There are two claims, as follow : 1. In apparatus for electrolysis of liquids, electrodes arranged in long narrow parallel channela of inaulat ing and resistant material, in such manner that the liquid continually flowing through each channel is electrolysed while it is in t he form of filaments, sub­stantially as described. 2. In apparatus for electrolysis of liquids such as is referred to in Claim 1, electrodes which are wetted by the liquid to be electrolysed on botb sides, and are thus active on the whole surface, substantia1Jy as described. (Acpepted .A ugmt 7, 1901.) . ~·

GUNS . AND EXPLOSIVES.

18,022. A. Retohwald, London. (Jilried. Krupp, Essen, Ge1:many. ) Cart~idge Case. [6 Figs.] O~tober 10, 1900.­I t IS stated t hat m order to enable a cartridge to be easily inserted into a g un, and to admit of the ready removal of the

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empty CMe after tbe discharge of the weapon, a cer tain- not too small.- amount of clearance space must be allowed between the cartr1dge case and the cartridge chamber. When the gun is fired howeYer, gteater or less quantit ies of gas pass over the front end of the case, and find their way into this intermediate

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535 space, thereby causing loss of gas and _irreg:ularities in . the ini t ial velocities and gas pressures, fo?hng m the oartlldge chamber and possibly in the breech mecbamsm, and, pe~b~ps, de!lts and rents in t he oases themselves. Accord ing to thiS mvention the mouth of the cartridge case is made to act as a gas check, its outer edge being made to project sufficiently far b~yond the rest of the exterior surface to cause it to tit olosely mto t he cart· ridge chamber. In some arrangements illustrated, th.e front end of the case is t hickened or formed with a bead or With an out­wardly bent channel, or ia bent or curved outwardly so as to produce a flaring end which tits t;he barrel. (Accepted .A. ugust 7, 1901.)

11,400. E. Edwards, London. ( W. Kent, Chicago. l ll., U.S.A.) Smokeless Powder. June 4! 1901.-Sr;nokeless powder for firearms according to this inventiC?n compr~ses pre· ferably equal quan t it ies of picrate of a~~oma and mt~~te of barium, with an added 15 per cent. of ptcrio aoi~ wh~n dura­bility " is desired. The substo.no~s are damped, mtxed m a. whee}, mill, and 11 granulate4 by reducmg the pressure of t he wheels. (Accepted .August 7, 1901.)

MINING, METALLURGY, AND METAL WORKING.

1408. L. W. de Grave, Derby, and B. Davis, Duf· field. Coal-Cutting. [7 Figs.] Januarr 22, 19~1.-1. M~nns for securing tools in the holders of coal-cuttm~ or hke machtnes according to this invention comprise sockets m such holders to

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receive t he tools, and a curved opening approximately at right; angles thereto to receive a curved pin which en~ages one of one or more notches or recesses or openings formed In the shanks of the tools, so as secure them in position. (Accepted .August 7, 1901.)

13,653. A G. Grunway, Llandrindod Wells. Purification of Metals. (3 Figs.]} July so, 1900.- Fluid metal at high temperatures, possessing comparatively high electrical re­sistance, the inventor pro{>oses to elimmate phoshorus from iron or steel, and perhaps other Impurities from various metals by passing

an electric current through them when molten. For remov· ing phosphorus from iron in the b&sic process of steel manufac· ture, electrodes are used whose outer surfaces are covered with a mixture of tar, graphite, lime, and magnesia. (Accepted August 7, 1901.)

S'rEAM ENGINES, BOILERS, EVAPORATORS, &o.

12.221. P. 11. Justice, London. (Du Temple Company, Part:S.) Water-Tube Boilers. [8 ~B.] June 14, 1901.­Apparatus according to this invention is b roadly claimed as "a water-t ube steam generator heated by liquid fuel , provided with two collectors, two sets of water-tu bes so arranged as to present a t riple course for the gases through the entire furnaces, and

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cond.uit for supplying air to maintain the combustion at the rear ~r dtstant pomta, s~bstantially as described." In the boiler Illustrated the flame IS produced in the upper flue between fire· olay baffles at the top and bottom, and closely-set tubes at t he side and the ~ase.s then pass at the. back into the lower flue, wber~ combuet10n IS completed by au admitted through passages in the fireclay bamee, the products of combustion finally passing

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536 into and through the general tube sy&tem from the fron t of the lower flue, where the tubes of t he inner row are differently bent. and open out in order to allow the gases to have entry. (Accepted A ugu.st 7, 1901.)

1'1,469. Galloways, Limited, and B. Foster, Man· cheater. Beveraing Gear. [2 Figs. ] In rolling-mill engines and similar engines which require frequent reversal, as they are usually arranged after t he steam supply is out off from t he engine, the steam already in the cylinders and in the lengt h of the steam pipes between the abut-off valve and the cylinders continues to dr1ve the engine until it is exhausted, and this le more especially the oa.ee when the engine exhausts into a condenser . Thus every time that the en~ne has to be reversed time is lost in stopping it. This invention relates to means for removing this difficulty, which

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are as follows : A shut-off valve is placed in the exhaust pipe of the engine, and eo arranged that it is opened and cl?sed by the same action which opens or closes the valve that admtte steam to tbe cylinders. Thus by a t~ingle operation steam is prevented from being admitted to the engine, and simultaneously the flow of the exhaust steam to the atmosphere or to a condenser is stopped. Conversely, by opening the valve to admit steam to the engine, and at the same time t he valve which allows the pent up steam to exhaust from it, starting of the engine is effected. Accepted .Augtut 7, 1901.)

18,1'13. B. B. Armatrong and A. J. Day, South· ampton. Water-Tube Boners. [6 Figs.] September 11, 1900.-In this water-tube steam boiler a number of groups or bundles of water tubes are arranged in inclined positions over and t ransversely to a flregrate and hearth, the adjacent l{roups or bundles being inclined in opposite directions and bavtng their upper and lower ends respectively connected to upper and lower water vessels, the upper water vessels being connected to a

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common steam drum and by downtake:pipes to the adjacent lower water vessels beneath them, and the groups or bundles being so disposed and provided with longitudinal walls, partitions, or baffles as, in conjunction with the boiler casing, to form four lonri· tudinal combustion chambers. In one arrangement each group or bundle of water-tubes is connected to separate upper and lower water ve88els, ~nd forms therewith n. complete steam-generatior section or element. (.Accepted .Augmt 7, 1901.)

14.041. T. Clarkson, Great Dover Street, Surrey. Boner-Water Sup~ly Replation. [2 Figs.] Auguat '· 1900.-According to thts inventtoo, and In order to regulate the supply of water to motor oar or other "flash " boilers in propor· tion to steam used, increase of steam pressure beyond the normal

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E N G I N E E R I N G. the tube. The Bourdon t ube, it is stated, is suitably .bent,, and i 1 closed up in some suitab!e manner by a plug, betng e1t~ated within a suitably shaped casing, and operating .a valve of SUlta~le type controlling the water supply to some suttable pump or m­jector. (.Accepted .August 7, 1901.)

SHIPS AND NAUTICAL APPLIANCES.

16,614. A. w. and c. Bazter, 8~. Leonards. Anchor. [3 Figs. ] September 17, 1900.-This anchor has a divi~ed shank, both parts of which are pivota~y connecte~ to the shackle head and to the fluke base, as ebown 10 the drawmg. It

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is stated that anchors with swin~iog flukes constructed according to this invention are more readily driven into the ground, and have a greater tendency to leave the same than single-shank anchors of similar kind. (.Accepted .Augmt 7, 1901.)

TEXTII.J: MACHINERY.

!13'1. c. L. Jackson, Bolton, Lancs. Embossing Textile Fabrics. [2 .Figs.] January 31, 1901.-Io that kind of embossing machine in. whic~ a ~entral eograYed rolle~ h li.S a oalender bowl on each Side of tt, etther of the bowls betog re­movable away from the engraved roller, according to this inven­tion and in order that when a removed bowl is brought back on

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to the engraved rotating roller it may not damage the surface of the engraved roller owing to iteown inertia, the bowls are elastically geared tol(ether preferably by means of an endless rope or band, against which pre88es a weighted tension pulley, so that either of the bowls continues to rotate at its normal speed should it be re­moved from the surface of the engraved roller. (.Accepted A ugmt 7, 1901.)

18,809. W. G. Beys, Manchester. (Societe Ohaize Fn~res, Pa;ri$.) Loom Dobbles. [6 Figs.] September 21, 1900.- ln dobbies and similar machines used in connection with power looms, according to this invention the motions of the healds are produced

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[OcT. 1 r, 1901.

a puJley in the upper part of the loom, both cords being connected respectively outside the loom to the upper and the lower ends of rectangular tubes or equivalent connected paralle~ pla~s, each of which has pivoted within it, at about the centre of tte length, a flat lever ~vith ita opposite e.nds. adapted to el'lgage the pre- . viously menttoned vert1oally os01Jlating le!ers. T~e r~otangular tubes or their equivalent a re arranged s1de by s1de 10 a fram· iog, which also carries the card cylinder: O~e or other end of the lever within each rectangnlar tube IS or 18 not projeoted beyond the tube, as is determined by the oard and needle~ con­nected therewith. If one end of the lever be protruded, 1t wiJl ue engaged by its contiguous vertically oecilla.tiog leyer, and the corresponding beald will be raised or lowered as reqUired t hrough the aa-enoy of the cords attached to the rectangular tube as al~eady described. The card cylinder is operated by tbtl two v~rttoally oscillating arms or levers. Transverse rods or the like are arranged above and below the series of rectangular tubes, to ensure the assemblage of the levers therein at the. moJ?lent when the card cylinder is pushed by one of the oscdlatmg levers (Accepted Auoust 7, 1901.)

MISCELLANEOUS.

10 925. Viscount de la Vega, Madrid, Spain. Bot' and Cold Tap. [6 Figs.] May 28, 1901. - ~ tap _for supplying two liquids either sepat·ately or together, and 1n varymg

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quantity while of like rela~ive ki.nd or propor t ion, accord~g to t his invention has a plug wtth a smgle taper bole through It, t he p!pes and passage~ for conve~ing the liquid being formed and dtsposed as shown 10 the drawmgs. (.Accepted .Augt~t 7, 1901.)

10,09S. J. J. Meldrum, Timperley, Chester, aDd Meldrum Brothers, Limited, Manchester •. I:!eatr~c· tor Furnaces. [3 Figs.] June 1, 1900.-Thts mvent!on relates to destructor furnaces of the kind used in connectiOn with steam generators in suob a manner that the bot gases from the destructor furnaces are utilised in the production of steam. The destructor furnace unit consists of one or more cells arranged on one or both sides of t he steam generator, and the ~team gen~· rators receive the bot gases from the cells at the stdes of thetr furnaces. According to t his iJ?veotioo, each ?elJ con.taios t'!o sections one being that to which t he refuse 1s supplied and 10 which it is dried and the other that in which the refuse is burnt, and from which' the bot products of combustion pass to the generator. Either the drying or the burning sections of the cells are a rranged in line with the front ends of the steam generators. If the burning sections of the cells are so arranged, the roadway

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is carried above the back ends of the generators sufficiently high to enable the refuse to be delivered through hoppers or open­ings in the to~s or the back walls of the cells. If, on the ot.her hand, t he dry mg sections of the cells are arranged in line with the fronts of t he generators, tbe roadway is carried in front of them at a sufficient height to allow headroom for the attendant& to ba\'e access to the boiler tlttinga and furnaces and to the cella and to permit the refuse to be fed through the tops or the front walls of the cells as may be required. If the refuse is fed through the top of the oell, a supplementary door can be formed in the outer wall of the drying space of each oell, through which the progress of drying and burning m.ay ue observed and through which the refuse may be fed forward. Hoppers or bunkers are arranged in connection with the cell supply openings to receive tbe refuse from tbe oarts1 and from wbiob it may fall or be raked into the cells. (.Acceptea .Augu,st 7, 1901.)

operating upon a Bourdoo tube is made to produce a throttling or stoppage of the waterway b:y means of a .valve to which the tube is from two vertioally oscillating arms or l~vers. The motions are connected. The apparatus ts organised 1n such manner that little conveyed to the healds ttrougb cords wbtoh are secured above and resistance to the movement of t he tube is created by the valve, and below t he bealds, that cord which isseoured to the lower part of the the Bourdon tube is provided with means for adjustment to com- beald p~si~g under a pulley in the lower part of the loom, and pen.sate for wear in the valve or for any permanent bending of . that whtcb 18 secured to the Ppper part of the heald passing over

UNITED STATES PATENTS AND PATENT PRAOTIOE. ~ascriptions with illl!straLions of inventions patented in the

Umted Stat~s of America. from 184J to the present time, and reports of tnn.ls of patent law cases 10 the United States may be consnlted, gratis, at the offices of ENGINEEIUNG, 85 and 86, Bedlot«· street., SLrt:~~nd

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