energy survey (2010)

8/13/2019 Energy Survey (2010)

1/89

1 | P a g e

ME 302: Applied Thermodynamics

Energy Survey of India

(2010 -2011)

By

Swati VermaN.C. Puneeth

Swetava Ganguli

Nitish Ratan

Abhik Patel


2/89

2 | P a g e

PrefaceThis report is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the course ME 302:Applied Thermodynamics offered by Prof. Vedanth Kadambi, Department of MechanicalEngineering, IIT Gandhinagar in the Spring Semester of 2011.

The report consists of a survey of currently available statistics of the energy availability in India. Inorder to be aware of the various challenges that face mankind today, one must be wellacquainted with the orders of magnitude of various numbers associated with the energy industry.Only then one realizes the gravity of the situation and can take steps to address problems.

The report has 5 sections The Fossil Fuels, Hydro Electric Power, Solar Energy, Nuclear EnergyGeothermal Energy and Tidal Energy. These sections have been written by collating data fromvarious publications from organizations across the world. The data presented is authentic andreferences have been given for all cited sources. In some cases appropriate data is presented intabular form in an annexure separately at the end of each section.

Besides satisfying the requirements of the course, the energy survey gives us an insight intovarious Governmental Policies that exist for managing and conserving energy in India. Theexercise was useful in giving us a feel for the numbers associated with Indian energy scenario.

This kind of data, presented lucidly and understandably having authentic data must be madepublic so that general awareness on the energy situation in India is created.


3/89

3 | P a g e

ContentsPreface ....................................................................................................................................................... 2

The Fossil Fuels ........................ ........................... ......................... .......................... .......................... ........... 6

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 7

What are Fossil Fuels? ............................................................................................................................ 7

Types of Fossil Fuels: .............................................................................................................................. 7

References: ............................................................................................................................................ 8

Distribution of Resources ........................................................................................................................... 9

Coal: ....................................................................................................................................................... 9

Petroleum: ........................................................................................................................................... 10

Natural Gas:.......................................................................................................................................... 11

Other Fossil Fuels: ................................................................................................................................ 11

Remarks: .............................................................................................................................................. 12

References: .......................................................................................................................................... 12

Indias Energy Needs ................................................................................................................................ 13

Remarks: .............................................................................................................................................. 14

References: .......................................................................................................................................... 14

Economics of Energy Industry ........................ .......................... .......................... ......................... .............. 15

Understanding Statistics ....................... .......................... .......................... ......................... ....................... 18

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................ 20

Annexure 1 ............................................................................................................................................... 21

Coal, Crude Oil and Natural Gas in India and Relevant Data .............. ......................... .......................... . 21

Petroleum and Natural Gas: ..................................................................................................................... 23

Annexure 2 ............................................................................................................................................... 25

Solar Energy ............................................................................................................................................. 26

Importance of Solar Energy:.................................................................................................................. 27

Overview: ............................................................................................................................................. 28

Current Scenario: .......................... .......................... .......................... ......................... .......................... . 28

National Solar Mission: (Government of India) ......................... .......................... .......................... ......... 30

Government Initiatives to Promote Solar Energy: ............................. ......................... .......................... ..... 30

References: .......................................................................................................................................... 30

Tidal Energy .............................................................................................................................................. 31

Introduction What is Tidal energy? ..................................................................................................... 32


4/89

4 | P a g e

Harnessing Tidal energy: ........................ .......................... ......................... .......................... .................. 33

Tidal power can be largely classified into 3 main generating methods:.................................... .............. 33

Tidal stream generator: ........................................................................................................................ 33

Tidal Barrages: ...................................................................................................................................... 33

Dynamics Tidal Power: ........................... .......................... ......................... .......................... .................. 34

Benefits of Tidal Energy: ....................................................................................................................... 34

Limitations of Tidal Energy: ........................ .......................... .......................... ......................... .............. 34

Potential of tidal energy in India: ........................ ......................... .......................... .......................... ..... 34

Proposed tidal power projects in India: ....................... .......................... ......................... ....................... 35

Tidal Barriers Problems Faced in Exploiting Tidal Energy ........................................ .......................... ..... 36

Refrences: ............................................................................................................................................ 37

Geothermal Energy ....................... .......................... .......................... ......................... ........................... 38

Usage of Geothermal Energy for Electricity Generation Around the World: ......................... ................. 39

Status of geothermal energy usage in India:.............................................. .......................... .................. 40

Potential of geothermal energy survey in India: ....................... .......................... .......................... ......... 40

The Himayala Province: ........................................................................................................................ 41

Cambay Province: ................................................................................................................................. 41

West Coast Province: ........................ .......................... .......................... ......................... ....................... 41

SONATA Province: ................................................................................................................................ 41

Bakreswar Province: ............................................................................................................................. 42Godavari Province: ............................................................................................................................... 42

The Barren Island: ......................... .......................... .......................... ......................... .......................... . 42

Refrences: ............................................................................................................................................ 43

Nuclear Energy ......................................................................................................................................... 44

Nuclear Power .......................................................................................................................................... 45

Uranium Reserves in World: ................................................................................................................. 45

THORIUM RESERVES: ........................ .......................... .......................... ......................... ....................... 47

RESOURCES IN INDIA ............................................................................................................................ 47

Nuclear Plants in World: ....................................................................................................................... 48

Advantages of Nuclear Power: ........................ ......................... .......................... ......................... .......... 52

Disadvantages of Nuclear Power: ........................ ......................... .......................... .......................... ..... 53

References: .......................................................................................................................................... 54

Hydro - Power .......................................................................................................................................... 56


5/89

5 | P a g e

1. INTRODUCTION:................................................................................................................................. 57

Electricity Shortages: ............................................................................................................................ 59

Hydropower and Other Renewables: .......................... .......................... ......................... ....................... 60

2. NEED FOR HYDEL POLICY AND OBJECTIVES: .......................... .......................... .......................... ......... 60

Ensuring targeted capacity addition during 9th Plan: .......... ........................... .......................... ............. 62

Exploitation of vast hydroelectric potential at a faster pace: .......................... ......................... .............. 62

Promoting small and mini hydel projects: ................................ ........................... ......................... ......... 62

Strengthening the role of PSUs/SEBs for taking up new hydel projects: ....................... .......................... 62

Increasing private investment: ........................ ......................... .......................... ......................... .......... 63

3. POLICY INSTRUMENTS: ...................................................................................................................... 63

Funding ................................................................................................................................................ 63

Power Development Fund: ................................................................................................................... 64

Basin-wise Development of Hydro Potential: ....................... .......................... ......................... .............. 65

Advance Action for Capacity Addition in the 10th Plan and beyond: ........................... .......................... 65

Survey & Investigations: ....................................................................................................................... 65

Inter-State Projects: .......................... .......................... .......................... ......................... ....................... 66

Renovation, Modernization & Updating ........................... .......................... ......................... .................. 66

Promoting Small and Mini Hydel Projects: .............. .......................... ......................... ........................... 67

Simplified Procedures for Transfer of Clearances: ..................................... ........................... ................. 67

Rationalization of Hydro Tariff: ........................... ......................... .......................... .......................... ..... 68Estimates on Completion Cost (Geological Risks) ...................................... .......................... .................. 68

Promoting Hydel Projects with Joint Ventures ................. ......................... .......................... .................. 69

Selection of Developer and Techno Economic Clearance of CEA:........................ .......................... ......... 69

Govt. Support for Land Acquisition, Resettlement & Rehabilitation, Catchment Area Development: ..... 70

4. CONCLUSIONS: .................................................................................................................................. 71

5. REFERENCES: ..................................................................................................................................... 71

Sources of data ..................................................................................................................................... 72


6/89

6 | P a g e

The Fossil

Fuels


7/89


8/89

8 | P a g e

4. Other Fossil Fuels: Other forms of fossil fuels are essentially the same in composition asconventional ones, but differ in their origins. One of the well known fuels in this categoryis Shale Gas. It is a form of natural gas produced from shale which is a kind of rock. It isexpected that huge reserves of these resources exist, but they are yet to be found andexploited.

References:1. Composition Of Natural Gas: Background . (n.d.). Retrieved from Composition Of Natural

Gas: http://www.naturalgas.org/overview/background.asp

2. Wikipedia . (n.d.). Retrieved from Petroleum: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum
http://www.naturalgas.org/overview/background.asphttp://www.naturalgas.org/overview/background.asphttp://www.naturalgas.org/overview/background.asphttp://www.naturalgas.org/overview/background.asp


9/89

9 | P a g e

Distribution of Resources

Fossil fuels occur underground in large amounts at various places across the world. Theseresources are being mined continuously to meet the worlds energy requirements. Originally inthe 19 th and 20 th centuries during the industrial revolution, nations like Germany, England etc.underwent exponential growth and development, and used up huge amounts of fuel. Thereserves of fossil fuels that seemed almost infinite then are thinning now, and if proper steps arenot taken to develop alternate sources of energy, it will lead to an Energy Crisis.

The distribution of fossil fuels across the globe is uneven, and countries with large amounts ofnatural resources have become rich on owing to their lucky possession fossil fuel reserves. Thissection presents a brief overview of the distribution of various fossil fuels in the world and inIndia in particular.

Coal:

Distribution of Coal (World):

Of all the fossil fuels, coal has the most widely distributed reserves it is mined in over 100countries, over all continents except Antarctica. According to the statistical report by BritishPetroleum (BP) 1 (British Petroleum, 2010) the total estimated World Reserves of Coal in June 2010 were826.001 billion tons. In an earlier report in 2007, BP had published that estimated TotalEstimated Coal Reserves at the end of 2006 were 909.064 billion tons. This shows us the rate atwhich coal is being consumed in the world. The distribution of the coal resources is shown in themap attached. We can see that North America and Asia Pacific regions have rich coal reserveswhen compared to other parts of the world. Africa and Middle East have small reserves, but mostof it is high grade variety (Anthracite and Bituminous variety).


10/89

10 | P a g e

Distribution of Coal (India):

Coal is the most important and abundant fossil fuel in India, accounting for around 55% of thecountrys energy needs . India has 27 major coal fields, mainly lying in Eastern and South Centralparts of the country. 2 (Government of India, Ministry of Coal)

As a result of exploration carried out by Geological Society of India (GSI), Central Mine Planningand Design Institute Limited (CMPDIL) etc. a cumulative total of 267.21 billion tons of Geologicalresources of Coal have been estimated in the country as on 1/4/2009. Major coal deposits arelocated in Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh andMaharashtra. Lignite reserves in the country have been estimated at 39.07 million tons as on31/3/2009. Major lignite reserves are found at Neyveli (Tamil Nadu). Other lignite reserves arelocated in Gujarat, Kashmir, Kerala, Pondicherry etc. 3

Petroleum:

Distribution of Crude Oil (World):

Global proved oil reserves stood at 1333.1 billion barrels (one barrel is approximately equal to159 liters). Around 56.6 % of petroleum comes from the Middle East countries of Saudi Arabia,Kuwait, Iran, UAE and Iraq. Saudi Arabia had the largest reserves of petroleum (2646 billionbarrels) followed by Venezuela (1723 billion barrels) by the end of 2009. The lowest reserves arefound in Asia Pacific regions which have just 3.6 % of the worlds petroleum resources 4. The mapattached shows the distribution of petroleum resources in the world.

Distribution of Crude Oil (India):

The total estimated reserves (proved and indicated) of crude oil in India are 1201 million tons ofcrude oil. Most of these reserves are located in Eastern India and West Coast of India. Various oilfields are located in Assam (Digboi and Upper Assam), Gujarat (Cambay), Rajasthan (Jodhpur),Andhra Pradesh (K.G. Basin) etc. Various offshore basins are also operational like Cauveryoffshore (Tamil Nadu), Trombay (Maharashtra), Kutch (Gujarat) etc. Gujarat and Assam are thebiggest producers of crude oil for the nation. Various companies work in the Oil extraction andrefining sectors like Oil India Limited, ONGC, and IOC etc. 5


11/89

11 | P a g e

Natural Gas:Distribution of Natural Gas (World):

Global Proved reserves of natural gas stood at around 187.9 Trillion cubic meters at the end ofthe year 2009 5. The distribution of this resource is highly uneven like petroleum, and around 73.3% of natural gas reserves are located in Europe and Middle East. The remaining 26 % indistributed among the rest of the world. South America and North America have very smallreserves of natural gas, together possessing about 8.2 % of the total available natural gas.

Distribution of Natural Gas (India):

Compared to other nations India has very small reserves of natural gas. In an estimate at the end

of 2009 Government of India announced proven deposits in the country as 39.4 Trillion cubic feet(around 1.12 Trillion cubic meters), which is around 0.6% of the worlds total reserves. Of this,around 70% is located at Bombay High and Gujarat off shore reserves. Other reserves are foundin Andhra Pradesh Coast (Krishna and Godavari basin) Tamil Nadu coast (Cauvery basin). Onshorereserves are located in Assam and Tripura 7.

Other Fossil Fuels:

Situation in India:

Fossil Fuels occur in a variety of other forms, especially in Sedimentary Beds across the world,where organic matter has been decomposing an aerobically since centuries. Though thesesources are not used as commonly as the conventional fossil fuels, we must not under estimatethe reserves of such fuels as they will be the only possible alternatives to the use of conventionalfossil fuels, once they become extinct. In the Indian scenario, it is reported that there are largereserves of Shale gas somewhere near Assam in the North East. India has around 26 sedimentarybasins. The exploration in these basins is still being carried out. The places where fuel has beenfound are indicated on the map attached. The total sedimentary area in India is around 3.14million sq kilometers which is more than 4 % of worlds sedimentary area. Only around 20 % ofthis has been extensively explored 8 and that too the drilling depth has not been much; theseresources are generally found deep underground.


12/89

12 | P a g e

As a result of exploration of these sediments some recent discoveries have been made. Theyinclude Gas Hydrates, Coal Bed Methane (CBM) oil shale etc have been discovered in variousparts of the country. Recently an area was found in Assam, where it is expected to find huge

reserves of shale gas though it is not yet being commercially exploited due to logistic problems .

Remarks:India is the worlds 3 rd largest producer of coal, and India has t he worlds 4 th largest reserves ofcoal. Most of the electricity produced in India comes from coal. Even at this tremendous rate ofconsumption, there is so much coal that it will easily last a hundred years. The reserves of naturalgas and petrol in India will be finished in the next 30 years and unless we discover large amountsof other reserves now, coal seems the only fossil fuel which we will continue to use till the end of

the century. So the rate of consumption and production of coal will have to increase tocompensate for the lack of other fuels. Otherwise alternatives to fossil fuels must be found assoon as possible.

References:1. British Petroleum. (2010). Statistical Review of World Energy Resources.

2. Government of India, Ministry of Coal . (n.d.). Retrieved fromhttp://www.coal.nic.in/welcome.html

3. Ministry of Coal, Government of India. (2010). Annual Report 2009 - 2010. Government of India.

4. British Petroleum. (2010). Statistical Review of World Energy Resources. pp. 5-6

5. Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas. (2010). Basic Statistics on Indian Petroleum and NaturalGas. New Delhi: Government of India.

6. British Petroleum. (2010). Statistical Review of World Energy Resources. pp. 22

7. Energy Alternatives India. (2007). India Natural Gas . Retrieved fromhttp://www.eai.in/ref/fe/nag/nag.html

8. Raju, S. V. Oil Shale Occurrences in Assam And Upper India. New Delhi: Directorate General ofHydrocarbons.


13/89

13 | P a g e

Indias Energy Needs The total annual energy consumption for year 2008 was around 474 Exa Joules (474 x 10 18 Joules) 1. The energy consumption is not uniform across the world. There is wide disparity andheterogeneity in the consumption levels of energy across the world.

Fig. 1 Worlds Energy Production Breakdown

(Courtesy: IEA 2009)

Currently India is the worlds sixth largest energy consumer, accounting for 3.4 % of the globalenergy consumption. This is rather low, considering the fact that our population accounts foraround 17% of the worlds population. China is the largest energy consumer, accounting foraround 18% of global consumption.

One of the measures of the level of development of a nation is the per capita energy availablefor consumption. Developed countries like Germany and Japan have a per capita energy ofaround 6000 KW each. America has the highest with per capita available energy of around11,200 KWH . With just 4.59 % of the worlds population the USA is the second largest energyconsumer, second only to China whose population is 3 4 times that of the USA.

In contrast, per capita energy availability in India is just 612 KWH. Insufficiency of powerseverely hampers the process of development and growth in India. By March 2011, totalinstalled power generation capacity of India stood at 171,926 MW 2, of which 70 % comesfrom thermal power stations. This energy is hardly enough to meet Indias power needs.

Around 400 million people lose access to electricity due to blackouts. 80% of the villages areclaimed to have an electricity line, but just 52.5 % of the rural households have access toelectricity. Overall electrified zone in India is 64.5% while the remaining 35.5% of India has noaccess to electricity at all.


14/89

14 | P a g e

Figure shows Installed Capacity Split according to Mode of Generation

(Courtesy: Central Electricity Authority)

Remarks:In order to sustain a Cumulative Annual Growth Rate of around 7.5 % as the Government of Indiaaims to have in the following 5 year plan it is essential to achieve energy sufficiency as well asenergy efficiency. Hence the energy policy of India essentially consists of the following 4 trade -offs:

Rapidly growing economy needs a reliable supply of electricity, petrol and gas. Increasing income households need affordable and adequate electricity cooking gas andpetroleum. Since domestic fossil fuel reserves are limited, there is a need to import vast amounts ofgas and petrol from other countries. Of late there has been a need to import high gradecoal too, as Indian coal is dirty and impure. Concern about environmental impact of the fossil fuels necessitating the promotion andusage of cleaner and greener technologies to produce energy.

References:1. Energy - Consumption "Consumption by fuel, 1965 - 2008" Statistical Review of World Energy

2009, BP. July 31, 2006

2. Central Electricity Authority (CEA). (2011). Monthly Report, February 2011. New Delhi:Government Of India.

3. Indian Energy Scenario. (2009). India Energy .
http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistical_energy_review_2008/STAGING/local_assets/2009_downloads/statistical_review_of_world_energy_full_report_2009.xls#%27Primaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Statistical_Review_of_World_Energy_2009&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Statistical_Review_of_World_Energy_2009&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Statistical_Review_of_World_Energy_2009&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Statistical_Review_of_World_Energy_2009&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Statistical_Review_of_World_Energy_2009&action=edit&redlink=1http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistical_energy_review_2008/STAGING/local_assets/2009_downloads/statistical_review_of_world_energy_full_report_2009.xls#%27Primary


15/89

15 | P a g e

Economics of Energy IndustryOne of the major factors determining the availability, and sufficiency of energy in a country is theprice of various energy resources and power in that country. As such the economics of the energyindustry depends on the prices of various fuels used for power production.

The cost of electricity production (per KWh) f or various fuels is shown in the graph below:

We can see that of various sources of power, Hydro power is the cheapest costing just around Rs.2 perKWh. Nuclear and thermal power come next, costing around Rs. 3.3/- per KWh . Wind energy needs the

establishment of large wind farms and the construction cost is relatively higher. Hence the price is higher around Rs 4.2/-. Natural gas powered stations are cheap to build, but incur high running costs due to thecostly nature of gas used in it. Hence the price is as high as Rs. 5/-. Solar energy is available freely but theequipment that has to be used to tap it is extremely expensive to set up a 1MW plant the setup price isaround 1.6 Billion Rupees. And so solar energy, currently costs about 12 13 Rs. per KWh 1.


16/89

16 | P a g e

The prices of various fuels keep fluctuating and decide various development indices. The variation ofprices of some fuels is shown in the graphs below and we can see how the fluctuations occur during timesof depression.

Coal (Courtesy: Key WorldEnergy Statistics 2010, Page 41)

Prices of Natural Gas

(Courtesy: International Energy Agency, Key World Energy Statistics 2010, Page 41 )

Prices of Crude Oil (Courtesy: International Energy Agency, Key WorldEnergy Statistics 2010, Page 40)


17/89

17 | P a g e

Trade Movements in the World:

Trade Movements of Oil in the World (Courtesy: BP Statistical Review of World Energy Resources)

The map shows that India Imports around 110 million tons of Oil from the Middle East, which forms asensitive trade relationship with the Middle East countries. Should they increase the prices of oil, ourcountrys development will be affected adversely.

References:1. Morgan, J. (2010, April 2). Comparing Energy Costs of Nuclear, Coal, Gas, Wind and Solar.

Retrieved from Nuclear Fissionary: http://nuclearfissionary.com/2010/04/02/comparing-energy-costs-of-nuclear-coal-gas-wind-and-solar/


18/89

18 | P a g e

Understanding StatisticsIn the pages above and in the annexure to follow, a large amount of data has been cited, mostlyfrom available public data resources. But these statistics make sense only after their implicationsand impacts on us are analyzed and understood. As such we must make use of proper tools and

models to interpret the data which has been presented to us by various public as well as privateorganizations. It is also essential to familiarize ourselves with the methods and models employedby these organizations to publish this data, and to verify its authenticity. There is so much data inthe internet and in media that it is hard to identify and interpret the correct facts. The only wayto avoid being fooled by spurious data is by being aware and well informed about the goings onin the current energy scenario.

Some of the main things one must be aware of are briefly discussed in this section:

1. Reporting Data:

Publishing data is a political act and depends on the impression the author wantsto give through the data.OPEC productions are ruled by quotas and since OPEC members were cheating onquotas, the data is unreliable.Oil reserves are confidential in all countries except in UK, Norway other federallands. The terminology associated with publishing such data (like reserves, resources,proved, reasonable, sustainable etc.) is very vaguely defined.

With so much ambiguity, one must be careful before trusting data. For instance nocompetent author would use more than 2 3 significant digits in estimates. But some datashown in the reports of USDOE and EIA have 4 or even 5 significant digits!

Figure shows columns with 4 5 significant digits

2. What are Reserves ?


19/89

19 | P a g e

Reserves represent the cumulative production to be recovered at the end when thefield is to be abandoned. But there is no consensus across the world on how to assessthis.

US reports only PROVED reserves (1P) and the report is auditedOPEC reports PROVED reserves (1P) and the report is not audited

ESU classification uses PROVEN + PROBABLE + POSSIBLE

(3P) systemSWE, and rest of the world uses PORVEN + PROBABLE - (2P) system

One must be aware of the kind of report it is before drawing conclusions on it

3. Updating Data:

The amount of fossil fuel in the world is changing, every minute, every second. Thesurveys are conducted periodically, and new mines are being discovered every day. Due tothis the amount of fossil fuel has been almost constant in the world since 1980. Thismeans either there is a fault in 1980 statistics of the production of energy or the amount

of fuel discovered every year is same as that spent, maintaining the data constant. Forinstance the reserves to production ratio (it is the time in years for which the reserves of acountry will last if production of fuel is continued at the current mean level ofproduction/extraction of the fuel) of US has been published as 10 years since the last 80years! Such statistics are unreliable and cannot be used to make any predictions.

4. Estimation and Extrapolation:

Realistic estimates can be obtained by not by studying instantaneous values (currentvalues) of reserves but by extrapolating the current values to an Ultimate reserve capacityusing a suitable extrapolation model like Creaming Curve. In fact only the ultimatereserves can yield an exact reserve to production ratio. In the current scenario, as theenergy requirement of the world is increasing the rate of consumption of various fuels isalso increasing. Since the reserves are limited the rate of consumption must reach a peakand then fall for every fuel. Thus, all the models used for extrapolation must account forthis. A model that shows strictly increasing growth level is flawed from the aboveexplanation.

There are many other factors that must be borne in mind while interpreting the published

data which one can find out by studying various publications and learning about themethods and models used by them.

References:

1. Laherrre J.H. 2007 Whats wrong with reserves? Petroleum Africa vol.5 issue 2 p24 -28 2. Laherrre J.H. 2006 Fossil Fuels: What is the Future? The Dialogue International Policy Institute


20/89

20 | P a g e

ConclusionFossil Fuels are the primary sources of energy that we use in todays life. At the moment it isdifficult to imagine the world without oil, coal and gas. These fuels are used almost in allapplications requiring large amounts of energy released in a short span of time. The economy of

the nation is based on availability and sufficiency of fuel in the country. At the same time wemust realize that we are heavily reliant on a non renewable source, and one day, sooner or laterits supply will be extinguished. We must be prepared for that day, with adequate advances intechnology so that the world does not come to an economic stand still... and we do not return toour jungle days.

So it is important to take steps to conserve the existing fuels and also try and developtechnologies to make use of alternate energy sources. Conservation of energy can be achievednot by implementing new laws, but by sensitizing industry as well as households on the gravity ofthe situation. Policy makers and economists must realize that haphazard and exponential growthtoday is only temporary; it is not sustainable and hence rather than using excess energy andpumping in high development, it is better to sustain a reasonable rate of growth using energythat is just sufficient to sustain it.


21/89

21 | P a g e

Annexure 1Coal, Crude Oil and Natural Gas in India and Relevant DataTable 1: Allocation of Blocks to various Public and Private Sector Companies in India

Table 2: Distribution of Coal in Various States in India


22/89

22 | P a g e

Table 3: Lignite Resources in India (Source: Geological Survey of India)


23/89

23 | P a g e

Petroleum and Natural Gas:

Table1: Production of Oil and Natural Gas


24/89

24 | P a g e

Table 2: Crude Throughput from Refineries (Source: Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas)


25/89

25 | P a g e

Annexure 2Status of Power Production in India

Table 1: Power Production From various energy sources (Source: Ministry of Power, Govt. of India)

Table 2: Indias Power Scenario: Target vs. Achievement (Source: Ministry of Power, Govt. of India)


26/89

26 | P a g e

Solar Energy


27/89

27 | P a g e

SOL R ENERGY

The Clean and Abundant Energy Source of Today and all the Tomorrows to come

Importance of Solar Energy:

Most parts of India have 300 - 330 sunny days in a year.Indias total land area is 3.29 million sq km (329 Million hectares = 329 x 10 10 m2)Average solar incidence stands at a robust 4 - 7 kWh/sq. meter/day. ~ 5 KWh/sqm/day

This is equivalent to over (350x 5KWh 329M x 10000) ~ 5000 trillion kWh per year - more thanIndias to tal energy consumption per year!!

Figure 1: Solar Radiation India, per day (Source: Teri)


28/89

28 | P a g e

Figure 2: World Annual Solar Radiation (Source: Watersafe).

A comparison of two figures shows the huge potential of the solar energy resource that India hascompared to the leading countries of the world today. No doubt it is among top 5 destinationsworldwide for solar energy development as per Ernst & Youngs renewable energy attractiveness

index.

Overview:India's power sector has a total installed capacity of approximately 1, 46,753 Megawatt (MW) ofwhich 54% is coal-based, 25% hydro, 8% is renewable and the balance is the gas and nuclear-based. Power shortages are estimated at about 11% of total energy and 15% of peak capacityrequirements and are likely to increase in the coming years. In the next 10 years, another 10,000

MW of capacity and investment of about Rs. 24 lakh crore are required.

Current Scenario:

Today the contribution of Solar power with an installed capacity of 9.84 MW, is a fraction (< 0.1percent) of the total renewable energy installed 13, 242.41 MW (as on 31st October 2008 byMNRE, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, India).


29/89

29 | P a g e

India has today only around 33-35 grid interactive solar photovoltaic power plants with aggregatecapacity of around 10 MW, in sharp contrast to the estimated potential of 50,000 MW (assuminga generation of 20 MW per square km for the 2500 sq km are under it).

Already Installed Photo Voltaic plants in India:

Sivaganga Photovoltaic Plant -5 MW, Madurai, Tamil NaduAzure Power - Photovoltaic Plant -2 MW, Privately owned, PunjabJamuria Photovoltaic Plant - 2 MW, West BengalNDPC Photovoltaic Plant -1 MW, North Delhi

Thyagaraj stadium Plant -1 MW, Delhi

Gandhinagar Solar Plant -1 MW, Gujarat

Most of the existing capacity today is off-grid and for standalone applications in lighting,telecommunication, small power requirements, battery charging, water heating, cooking, etc.

Around 14-15 lakh solar PV systems are in operation and around 6 lakh solar cookers in use.About 0.2 sq km collector area has been installed for solar water heating applications.

Solar PV water pumping systems are used for irrigation and supply of drinking water. By30 September, 2006, a total of 7,068 solar PV water pumping systems were installed.

The amount of solar energy produced in India is merely 0.4% compared to other energy

resources. The cost of production ranges from 15 to 30 per unit compared to around 5 to 8per unit for conventional thermal energy. India is heavily dependent on coal and foreign oil aphenomenon likely to continue until non-fossil / renewable energy technology becomeeconomically viable in the country

While the world has progressed substantially in production of basic silicon mono-crystallinephotovoltaic cells, India has fallen short to achieve the worldwide momentum. India is now in 7thplace worldwide in Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Cell production and 9th place in Solar ThermalSystems with nations like Japan, China, and the US currently ranked far ahead.

Tata Power and BP Solar joint venture had been the leading Solar Photovoltaic (PV)manufacturers for the last many years in India. Moser Baer India Limited has entered the solarsector in a big way with both crystalline silicon cell technology and thin-film technology.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupee


30/89

30 | P a g e

National Solar Mission: (Government of India)

The main features of the Mission are:

To make India a global leader in solar energy and the mission envisages an installed solargeneration capacity of 20,000 MW by 2022, 1, 00,000 MW by 2030 and of 2,00,000 MW by 2050.The total expected investment required for the 30-year period is US $ 19- 23 billion (Rs.80,000 Cr).Between 2017 and 2020, the target is to achieve tariff parity with conventional grid powerand achieve an installed capacity of 20 Giga watts (GW) by 2020.4-5GW of installed solar manufacturing capacity by 2017.

Government Initiatives to Promote Solar Energy:

India presents substantial potential for investments in the solar energy segment, particularly inthe manufacture of solar photo-voltaic. The recent Special Incentive Package Scheme (SIPS) forsemi-conductors has attracted the interest of several players. Under this program, the GOI wouldprovide an incentive of 20 % capital expenditure during the first ten years for the units in SEZsand 25 % of the capital expenditure for other units. Any unit can claim incentives in the form of

capital subsidy or equity participation.To help in running of solar projects, the GOI will provide, through IREDA ( Indian RenewableEnergy Development Agency) , a generation-based incentive for solar power of up to INR 12 perkWh for solar photovoltaic power and INR 10 per kWh for solar thermal power that is fed into thegrid, after considering the tariff provided by the SERC (Science and Engineering Research Council)or the utility to attain cost parity with fossil and nuclear energy.

Some large government funded projects have also been proposed, and a 35,000 km 2 area of theThar Desert has been set aside for solar projects, sufficient to generate 700 GW to 2,100 GW.

References:

5th Renewable Energy India 2011 Expo: http://www.renewableenergyindiaexpo.com/solar2011.html Solar India: http://www.solarindiaonline.com/solar-india.html Ministry of Renewable Resources: http://www.mnre.gov.in Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.com
http://www.renewableenergyindiaexpo.com/solar2011.htmlhttp://www.renewableenergyindiaexpo.com/solar2011.htmlhttp://www.renewableenergyindiaexpo.com/solar2011.htmlhttp://www.solarindiaonline.com/solar-india.htmlhttp://www.solarindiaonline.com/solar-india.htmlhttp://www.solarindiaonline.com/solar-india.htmlhttp://www.mnre.gov.in/http://www.mnre.gov.in/http://www.mnre.gov.in/http://www.wikipedia.com/http://www.wikipedia.com/http://www.wikipedia.com/http://www.wikipedia.com/http://www.mnre.gov.in/http://www.solarindiaonline.com/solar-india.htmlhttp://www.renewableenergyindiaexpo.com/solar2011.html


31/89

31 | P a g e

Tidal Energy


32/89

32 | P a g e

Introduction What is Tidal energy?

Tidal energy is energy that could be obtained from the changing sea levels. In other words, tidalenergy is a direct result of tide shifting from low to high.

Tidal energy is considered to be a renewable source of energy since it only uses the energy fromthe changing of the tides instead of burning or consuming any form of energy source. It is alsoconsidered to be inexhaustible because tides always rise and fall due to gravity.

Tidal power is the only form of energy which derives directly from the relative motions of theEarth Moon system, and to a lesser extent from the Earth Sun system. Tidal forces produced bythe Moon and Sun, in combination with Earth's rotation, are responsible for the generation of thetides. Other sources of energy originate directly or indirectly from the Sun, including fossil fuels,conventional hydroelectric, wind, biofuels, wave power and solar. Nuclear energy makes use of

Earth's mineral deposits of fissile elements, while geothermal power uses the Earth's internalheat which comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion (about 20%) andheat produced through radioactive decay (80%).

Tidal energy is extracted from the relative motion of large bodies of water. Periodic changes ofwater levels, and associated tidal currents, are due to the gravitational attraction of the Sun andMoon. Magnitude of the tide at a location is the result of the changing positions of the Moon andSun relative to the Earth, the effects of Earth rotation, and the local geography of the sea floorand coastlines.

Tidal power utilization is also considered to be a very reliable source of energy due to itspredictability. Compared to other sources of energy such as wind or solar energy, tidal changesare easier to predict. Theyre also sure to occur consistently. Unlike solar or wind energy, tidalpower does not depend on the season or the weather type. Instead, tidal energy relies purely onthe orbital kinetic energy that the sun exerts as the earth orbits around it. The same goes withthe moon and earth orbital system. As the moon orbits around the earth, a gravitational force isexperienced by both bodies.

Consequently, all of the forces that work within the orbital systems create an imbalance in theearths wate r levels. Thus, some places have higher water levels while other places havedecreased water levels.


33/89

33 | P a g e

Harnessing Tidal energy:

Tidal power can be largely classified into 3 main generating methods:

Tidal stream generator:

A tidal stream generator, often referred to as a tidal energy converter (TEC) is a machine thatextracts energy from moving masses of water, in particular tides, although the term is often usedin reference to machines designed to extract energy from run of river or tidal estuarine sites.Certain types of these machines function very much like underwater wind turbines, and are thusoften referred to as tidal turbines .

Tidal stream generators draw energy from water currents in much the same way as wind turbinesdraw energy from air currents.

As a relatively new technology, though first conceived in the 1970s during the oil crisis, [2] thepotential for power generation by an individual tidal turbine can be greater than that of similarlyrated wind energy turbine. The higher density of water relative to air (water is about 800 timesthe density of air) means that a single generator can provide significant power at low tidal flowvelocities compared with similar wind speed. [3] Given that power varies with the density ofmedium and the cube of velocity, it is simple to see that water speeds of nearly one-tenth of thespeed of wind provide the same power for the same size of turbine system; however this limitsthe application in practice to places where the tide moves at speeds of at least 2 knots (1 m/s)even close to neap tides. Furthermore, at higher speeds in a flow between 2 to 3 metres persecond in seawater a tidal turbine can typically access four times as much energy per rotor sweptarea as a similarly rated power wind turbine.

Tidal Barrages:

A tidal barrage is a dam-like structure used to capture the energy from masses of water movingin and out of a bay or river due to tidal forces.

Instead of damming water on one side like a conventional dam, a tidal barrage first allows waterto flow into the bay or river during high tide, and releasing the water back during low tide. This isdone by measuring the tidal flow and controlling the sluice gates at key times of the tidal cycle.Turbines are then placed at these sluices to capture the energy as the water flows in and out.

The barrage method of extracting tidal energy involves building a barrage across a bay or riverthat is subject to tidal flow. Turbines installed in the barrage wall generate power as water flowsin and out of the estuary basin, bay, or river. These systems are similar to a hydro dam thatproduces Static Head or pressure head (a height of water pressure). When the water level outsidethe basin or lagoon changes relative to the water level inside, then turbines are able to producepower.


34/89

34 | P a g e

Dynamics Tidal Power:

Dynamic tidal power or DTP is a new and untested method of tidal power generation. It would

involve creating large dam-like structure extending from the coast straight to the ocean, with aperpendicular barrier at the far end, forming a large 'T' shape.

This long T-dam would interfere with coast-parallel oscillating tidal waves which run along thecoasts of continental shelves, containing powerful hydraulic currents (common in e.g. China,Korea, and the UK).

A DTP dam is a long dam of 30 to 60 km which is built perpendicular to the coast, running straightout into the ocean, without enclosing an area. The horizontal acceleration of the tides is blockedby the dam. In many coastal areas the main tidal movement runs parallel to the coast: the entiremass of the ocean water accelerates in one direction, and later in the day back the other way. ADTP dam is long enough to exert an influence on the horizontal tidal movement, which generatesa water level differential (head) over both sides of the dam. The head can be converted intopower using a long series of conventional low-head turbines installed in the dam.

Benefits of Tidal Energy:

The key benefit of tidal power is that once constructed, its free. It does not generate any unsafegreenhouse gases or hazardous waste. It functions without any fuel requirement, only withnatural tidal energy. It is a consistent source of electricity with very little maintenance cost.Offshore turbines and vertical-axis turbines are economical to construct and do not have a bigecological effect.

Limitations of Tidal Energy:

Tidal energy could only be harnessed in places with significant water level changes. Theconversion of the potential energy that the tides will hold shows figures that are more or less80%. This means that 20% of total potential energy is usually lost and only 80% of potentialenergy is typically utilized for electricity generation .

Potential of tidal energy in India:

The most attractive locations are the Gulf of Cambay and the Gulf of Kachchh on the west coastwhere the maximum tidal range is 11 m and 8 m with average tidal range of 6.77 m and 5.23 mrespectively. The Ganges Delta in the Sunderbans in West Bengal also has good locations forsmall scale tidal power development. The maximum tidal range in Sunderbans is approximately 5m with an average tidal range of 2.97 m.


35/89

35 | P a g e

The identified economic tidal power potential in India is of the order of 8000-9000 MW withabout 7000 MW in the Gulf of Cambay about 1200 MW in the Gulf of Kachchh and less than 100MW in Sundarbans.

Proposed tidal power projects in India:

Kachchh Tidal Power Project

In, 1970, the CEA had identified this tidal project in the Gulf of Kachchh in Gujarat. Theinvestigations were formally launched in 1982. Sea bed analysis and studies for preparationof feasibility report were of highly specialized and complex nature without precedence inthe country. More than twelve specialized organizations of Govt. of India and Govt. ofGujarat were involved in the field of investigations. The techno-economic feasibility studyhas been completed in a very scientific and systematic manner and the feasibility reportcompleted in 1988.

The proposed tidal power scheme envisages an installation of 900 MW project biggest inthe world, located in the Hansthal Creek, 25 Kms. from Kandla Port in Distt.. Kachchh ofGujarat State. It comprises of the following:

The main tidal rock fill barrage of 3.25 Km length was proposed to be constructed acrossHansthal Creek which will accommodate the power house, sluice gates and navigationallock.

It envisages installation of 900 MW capacities comprising of 36 geared bulb type turbo-generators units of 25 MW each and 48 sluice gates each of 10 M. x 12 M. size wouldgenerate 1690 GWh of energy annually. Unfortunately, this project execution has not beentaken up so far because of unknown reasons.

Durgaduani Creek

The country's first tidal power generation project is coming up at Durgaduani Creek of theSundarbans. The 3.75 mw capacity Durgaduani Creek tidal energy project is a technologydemonstration project and will span over an area of 4.5 km. (Oct 2008 data).

India, March 8 - A study was undertaken for the assessment of tidal energy potentialin India.

According to the study, there is an estimated potential of tidal energy of the order of 8000MW in the country. This includes about 7000 MW in the Gulf of Cambay and 1200 MW inthe Gulf of Kutch in the State of Gujarat and about 100 MW in the Gangetic Delta in theSunderbans region in the State of West Bengal.

The Ministry sanctioned a demonstration project for setting up 3.75 MW capacity tidalenergy power plants at the Durgaduani Creek in Sunderbans region to West BengalRenewable Energy Development Agency (WBREDA), Kolkata. The project is beingexecuted by NHPC Ltd.


36/89

36 | P a g e

The State Government of Gujarat formed a Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs) with publicprivate partnership and sponsored a study for large scale exploitation of tidal energyacross the coastline of Gujarat. One MoU for commissioning of 50 MW Tidal PowerProject has been signed by M/s. Atlantis Resource Corporation (U.K.) and Gujarat PowerCorporation Ltd., Govt. of Gujarat.

The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy considers providing financial incentives upto

50% of the cost to the State Government implementing Agencies for the development oftidal energy projects on cost sharing basis as technology demonstration projects inaccordance with its R&D; policy guidelines .

Tidal Barriers Problems Faced in Exploiting Tidal Energy Intermittent supply - Cost and environmental problems, particularly barrage systems are

less attractive than some other forms of renewable energy.

Cost - The disadvantages of using tidal and wave energy must be considered before jumping to conclusion that this renewable, clean resource is the answer to all ourproblems. The main detriment is the cost of those plants.

The altering of the ecosystem at the bay - Damages like reduced flushing, winter icing anderosion can change the vegetation of the area and disrupt the balance. Similar to otherocean energies, tidal energy has several prerequisites that make it only available in a smallnumber of regions. For a tidal power plant to produce electricity effectively (about 85%efficiency), it requires a basin or a gulf that has a mean tidal amplitude (the differencesbetween spring and neap tide) of 7 meters or above. It is also desirable to have semi-diurnal tides where there are two high and low tides every day. A barrage across anestuary is very expensive to build, and affects a very wide area - the environment ischanged for many miles upstream and downstream. Many birds rely on the tideuncovering the mud flats so that they can feed. There are few suitable sites for tidalbarrages.

Only provides power for around 10 hours each day, when the tide is actually moving in orout.

Present designs do not produce a lot of electricity, and barrages across river estuaries canchange the flow of water and, consequently, the habitat for birds and other wildlife

Expensive to construct

Power is often generated when there is little demand for electricity Limited construction locations

Barrages may block outlets to open water. Although locks can be installed, this is often a

slow and expensive process. Barrages affect fish migration and other wildlife- many fish like salmon swim up to the

barrages and are killed by the spinning turbines.

Fish ladders may be used to allow passage for the fish, but these are never 100% effective.

Barrages may also destroy the habitat of the wildlife living near it

Barrages may affect the tidal level - the change in tidal level may affect navigation,recreation, cause flooding of the shoreline and affect local marine life [v]


37/89

37 | P a g e

Tidal plants are expensive to build

They can only be built on ocean coastlines, which mean that for communities which are faraway from the sea, it's useless.[vi]

Refrences:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_power

http://www.tech-faq.com/tidal-energy.html

http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/india-set-to-get-asia%5Cs-first-tidal-power-plant/421859/

http://www.eai.in/ref/ae/oce/oce.html

http://www.eco-business.com/news/2011/mar/08/study-shows-8000-mw-potential-tidal-energy-india/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_stream_generator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_barrage

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_tidal_power
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_powerhttp://www.tech-faq.com/tidal-energy.htmlhttp://www.tech-faq.com/tidal-energy.htmlhttp://www.business-standard.com/india/news/india-set-to-get-asia%5Cs-first-tidal-power-plant/421859/http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/india-set-to-get-asia%5Cs-first-tidal-power-plant/421859/http://www.eai.in/ref/ae/oce/oce.htmlhttp://www.eai.in/ref/ae/oce/oce.htmlhttp://www.eco-business.com/news/2011/mar/08/study-shows-8000-mw-potential-tidal-energy-india/http://www.eco-business.com/news/2011/mar/08/study-shows-8000-mw-potential-tidal-energy-india/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_stream_generatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_stream_generatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_barragehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_barragehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_tidal_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_tidal_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_tidal_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_barragehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_stream_generatorhttp://www.eco-business.com/news/2011/mar/08/study-shows-8000-mw-potential-tidal-energy-india/http://www.eai.in/ref/ae/oce/oce.htmlhttp://www.business-standard.com/india/news/india-set-to-get-asia%5Cs-first-tidal-power-plant/421859/http://www.tech-faq.com/tidal-energy.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_power


38/89

38 | P a g e

Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy isenergy that determines the temperature of matter. Earth's geothermal energy originates fromthe original formation of the planet, from radioactive decay of minerals, from volcanic activity,and from solar energy absorbed at the surface. The geothermal gradient, which is the differencein temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction ofthermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface.

From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Palaeolithic times and forspace heating since ancient Roman times, but it is now better known for electricity generation.Worldwide, about 10,715 megawatts (MW) of geothermal power is online in 24 countries. Anadditional 28 Giga Watts of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating,space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications.

Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly, but hashistorically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent technological advanceshave dramatically expanded the range and size of viable resources, especially for applicationssuch as home heating, opening a potential for widespread exploitation. Geothermal wells releasegreenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are much lower per energyunit than those of fossil fuels. As a result, geothermal power has the potential to help mitigateglobal warming if widely deployed in place of fossil fuels.

The Earth's geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply humanity'senergy needs, but only a very small fraction may be profitably exploited. Drilling and explorationfor deep resources is very expensive. Forecasts for the future of geothermal power depend onassumptions about technology, energy prices, subsidies, and interest rates.

Geothermal power is considered to be sustainable because any projected heat extraction is smallcompared to the Earth's heat content. The Earth has an internal heat content of 10 31 joules(310 15 TWhr). About 20% of this is residual heat from planetary accretion, and the remainder isattributed to higher radioactive decay rates that existed in the past. Natural heat flows are not inequilibrium, and the planet is slowly cooling down on geologic timescales. Human extraction tapsa minute fraction of the natural outflow, often without accelerating it.

Indian geothermal provinces have the capacity to produce 10,600 MW of power- a figure which isfive times greater than the combined power being produced from non-conventional energysources such as wind, solar and biomass. Yet geothermal power projects have not seen thesunlight due the availability of 192 billion tones of recoverable coal reserves. With escalatingenvironmental problems with coal based projects, India has to depend on clean, cheap, ruralbased and eco-friendly geothermal power in future. Due to technical and logistic problems withother non-conventional energy sources, present industrialist mood is upbeat and IPPs are


39/89

39 | P a g e

showing keen interest in developing geothermal based power projects. With the existing openeconomic policies of the Govt., and large incentives given to non-conventional energysectors, the future of geothermal energy sector in India appears to be bright.

Usage of Geothermal Energy for Electricity Generation Aroundthe World:

Country Capacity (MW)

2007 Capacity (MW)

2010

Percentageof nationalproduction

USA 2687 3086 0.3%

Philippines 1969.7 1904 27%

Indonesia 992 1197 3.7%

Mexico 953 958 3%

Italy 810.5 843

New Zealand 471.6 628 10%

Iceland 421.2 575 30%

Japan 535.2 536 0.1%

El Salvador 204.2 204 14%

Kenya 128.8 167 11.2%

Costa Rica 162.5 166 14%

Nicaragua 87.4 88 10%

Russia 79 82

Turkey 38 82

Papua-New Guinea 56 56

Guatemala 53 52


40/89

40 | P a g e

Portugal 23 29

China 27.8 24

France 14.7 16

Ethiopia 7.3 7.3

Germany 8.4 6.6

Austria 1.1 1.4

Australia 0.2 1.1

Thailand 0.3 0.3

TOTAL 9,731.9 10,709.7

Status of geothermal energy usage in India:

Several geothermal provinces in India characterized by high heat flow (78-468 mW/m2)and thermal gradients (47-100 o C/km) discharge about 400 thermal springs. The Geological

Survey of India conducted a survey on them in collaboration with UN organization and reportedthe results in several of their records and special publications. Subsequently, detailed geological,geophysical and tectonic studies on several thermal geochemical characteristics of the thermaldischarges and reservoir temperature estimations have been carried out by several workers.These investigations have identified several sites which are suitable for power generations well asfor direct use. These provinces are capable of generating 10,600 MW of power.Though geothermal power production in Asian countries like Indonesia, Philippines has gone upby 1800 MW in 1998, India with its 10,600 MW geothermal power potential yet appears on thegeothermal power map of the world!

Potential of geothermal energy survey in India:Indian has 400 medium to high enthalpy geothermal springs, clustered in seven provinces shownin Figure 1. The most promising provinces are i) The Himalaya, ii) Sohana, iii) Cambay, iv)Son-Narmada-Tapi (SONATA) and v) the Godavari. With the recent volcanic eruption, the BarrenIsland, a part of the Andaman-Nicobar chain of islands, is added to the above list. Most of themare liquid dominated systems with one or two having both liquid and gas dominated systems.


41/89

41 | P a g e

The Himayala Province:

This is one of the most promising provinces in the coldest part of the country and contains about100 thermal springs with surface temperatures as high as 90 o C discharging greater than 190tones /h of thermal water. This province falls in one of the most tectonically active zones- theIndo-Eurasian plate boundary which experiences a large number of earthquakes. The first andthe last pilot binary 5 kW power plant using R 113 binary fluid was successfully operated by theGeological Survey of India at Manikaran which proved the power producing capability of thisprovince.

Cambay Province:

Situated in a failed arm of a rift, this province forms a part of the Cambay basin with greater than500 m of post Cretaceous sedimentary formation overlying the well known Deccan flood basalts More than 15 thermal discharge sites are located in this province with surface temperaturesvarying from 40 to 90 o C. Steam discharge in certain oil wells were recorded with rates exceeding 3000 m 3 /d.

West Coast Province:

This province is located within the world famous Deccan flood basalts of Cretaceous age.Attenuation and foundering of the continental crust prior to the outpouring of the large volumeof lavas along the coast resulted in the development of several faults and graven structures whichare channelling thermal waters. This province enjoys a thin lithosphere of 18 km thicknessthereby rendering this province as one of the most promising sites for exploitation. The thermaldischarges are saline with Chlorine content varying from 800 ppm to little over 1500 PPM. Thereservoir temperatures calculated, after making necessary correction for 1% saline component,are between 102 and 137 o C. One thermal discharge, located at Rajapur, within the Deccanbasalts along the coast is an exception to the other thermal discharges mentioned above. Thethermal reservoir of this discharge is located within the Precambrian formation, like the Putturthermal waters, with reservoir temperatures varying between 120 and 200 o C.

SONATA Province:

This province extending from Cambay in the west to Bakreswar in the east is an area with veryhigh heat flow and geothermal gradient and encloses the well known Tattapani geothermalprovince spreading over an area of about 80, 000 sq.m. The Tattapani province encloses 23thermal discharge sites with surface temperatures varying between 60 and 95 o C and flow rategreater than 4000 l/m.. Nine thermal springs are discharging waters at 90 o C. These waters,compared to those of west coast, are low in Chlorine content (60 - 70 PPM) and the chemicalcomposition of the thermal discharge is controlled by water-rock interaction. Based on thermalgradient and experimental results, estimated reservoir temperatures are as high as 217 o C at 3km depth


42/89

42 | P a g e

Bakreswar Province:

The Bakreswar-Tantloi thermal province falls in Bengal and Bihar districts and marks the junction

between SONATA and Singbhum shear zone. High Helium gas is encountered in all the thermaldischarges (water and gases) and it is proposed to install a pilot plant to recover Helium from thethermal manifestation of this region.

Godavari Province:

Godavari valley in Andhra Pradesh is a northwest-southeast trending Graben filled withGondwana sedimentary formations. The lower Gondwana group of rocks consist of sandstone,shale and clays and are exposed towards the South western part of the Graben and hosts 13thermal discharges with surface temperature varying from 50 to 60 o C. This Graben falls within

zone II (100 - 180 mWm2

) on the heat flow map of India and has a thermal gradient of 60o

C/km.

The Barren Island:

The Barren island forms a part of the Andaman - Nicobar island chain in the Bay of Bengal and islocated 116 km ENE of Port Blair. Recent volcanic activity was recorded in 1991 which resulted inthe appearance of high temperature steaming ground and thermal discharges. Fumarolicdischarge recorded temperatures varying between 100 and 500 o C. Detailed exploration workneeds to be commissioned in this province.

Table 2 summarizes the temperatures, heat flow values and geothermal gradients of the provincesdiscussed above.

Table 2: Potential Geothermal provinces of India

Province Surface T o C Reservoir T o C Heat Flow Thermal gradient

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Himalaya >90 260 468 100

Cambay 40-90 150-175 80-93 70

West coast 46-72 102-137 75-129 47-59

SONATA 60 - 95 105-217 120-290 60-90

Godavari 50-60 175-215 93-104 60


43/89

43 | P a g e

__________________________________________

Heat flow: MW/m 2; Thermal gradient: o C/km

Thus, it is apparent that, with the available technology all the above thermal provinces can beexploited for power generation as well for direct use.

Refrences:

http://www.geos.iitb.ac.in/geothermalindia/pubs/IBC/IBCTALKweb.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_energy#Development_around_the_world


44/89

44 | P a g e

Nuclear

Energy


45/89

45 | P a g e

Nuclear PowerIn Nuclear Power, Mass (of atom) is converted into energy i.e. E = mc 2. E is the energy released, cis the velocity of light and m is loss in mass. Equation shows that energy released by even thesmall amount of fuel will be enormous i.e. 1 kg of mass fully converted will be equivalent to

almost the energy released by burning 3 million tonnes of coal. But mostly in nuclear reaction,~0.1% fraction of mass is converted to energy. Currently, all commercial and utility plants usenuclear fission reactions to heat water which in turn produces steam to generate electricity.Radioactive elements are used in Nuclear Plants. Currently, Uranium is used worldwide.

Uranium Reserves in World:

The above graph shows World Uranium Reserves as per in 2010.

Source: World Nuclear Association


46/89

46 | P a g e

The above data is based on World Nuclear Association as per in 2010

According to WNA, almost 63% of the world production of uranium from mines is fromKazakhstan, Canada and Australia. The forecast production made for 2010 is about 55,000 tons ofUranium Equivalent.


47/89

47 | P a g e

THORIUM RESERVES:

RESOURCES IN INDIA

The statistics above are for Uranium resource in India. Source: Wikipedia

India has Worlds third largest thorium reserves of 360,000 tonnes which can fuel nuclearprojects for 2500 years Indias Uranium reserves are approximately 115,000 tonnes. India has anestimated 1.07 lakh tonnes of identified raw uranium reserves in the form of uranium oxides oryellow cake. This mineral is mostly found in the form of U 3O8 (Tri uranium octaxide). It contains0.1% or less of natural uranium.


48/89

48 | P a g e

In 2007, India was able to extract 229 tonnes of U 3O8 from its soil and it went up to 290 tonnes in2009.

A majority of resources of uranium are found in the province of Singhbhum (Jharkhand),Mahadek (Meghalaya) and Kadapa (Andhra Pradesh).

In Nalgonda district of Andhra Pradesh, 1000 sq.km area is given for uranium mining. RecentDiscoveries of Uranium are found in Domiasiat, Wahkyn and Tyrnai regions of Meghalaya .

According to Uranium Corporation of India Limited (UCIL), they are on the verge of opening newdeposits at Domiasat, Lambapur -Peddagattu in Andhra Pradesh, and Bagjata and Banduburang inJharkhand.

New deposits are found in the icy heights of Ladakh. Exceptionally high concentration of uraniumand thorium is found in Udmaru, situated on a volcanic rock formation in the Nubra Shvok valleyin northern Ladakh. It is found that the uranium content is as high as 5.36% as compared to lessthan 0.1% found anywhere else in the country.

In the Singhbhum uranium province, mining and exploration activities are being carried out inJaduguda, Narwapahar, Turamdih, and Bagjata. The other deposits in this belt are Mohuldih,Nandup, Rajgaon, and Garadih.

The Mahadek province contains the largest and richest sandstone-hosted uranium deposit ofIndia at Domiasiat in the West Khasi Hills district. Another deposit of similar nature is at Wahkynwhere exploration activities are in progress.

The Kadapa province contains the Proterozoic unconformity related uranium deposit at

Lambapur-Peddagattu in Nalgonda district.The region also hosts a unique strata bound uraniumdeposit at Tummalapalle. Uranium reserves found in the Peddur and Kottur villages ofKarimnagar district have a percentage of U 3O8 as high as 1.96% and 0.059% respectively.

Nuclear Plants in World:

As per in 2011, worldwide 20 countries are operating 442 nuclear reactors for electricity

generation and 65 new nuclear plants are under construction in 15 new countries.

In 2009, 14% of the worlds electricity was generated by nuclear power plants while there were16 countries that relied on nuclear power for generating at least a quarter of the countryselectricity.

Top 5 States - Operating Nuclear Power Plants


49/89

49 | P a g e

United States - 104 operating nuclear power plantsFrance - 59 operating nuclear power plantsJapan - 54 operating nuclear power plantsRussia - 30 operating nuclear power plantsUnited Kingdom - 27 operating nuclear power plants

Countries PercentageLithuania 76.2

France 75.2Slovakia 53.5Belgium 51.7Ukraine 48.6Armenia 45.0Hungary 43.0

Switzerland 39.5Slovania 37.8Sweden 37.4Bulgaria 35.9

Korea, Republic 34.8

Data of % of total Electricity generated due to Nuclear Power Plants as per 2009


50/89

50 | P a g e

Nuclear Power is the fourth largest source of electricity in India after thermal, hydraulic andrenewable sources of electricity. As per 2010, India has 20 nuclear reactors which are beingoperated in 6 Nuclear Power Plants generating 4780 MW (2.9% of the total base)while the newnuclear reactors to be establish will generate around 2720 MW. India is planning to increase % ofelectricity generation due to nuclear power plants from 4.2 to 9. In 2009, India ranked 9 th interms of no. of nuclear power reactors while 9 new reactors are being planned. In 20 10, IndiasNuclear Power generation capacity will increase to 6000 MW.


51/89

51 | P a g e

Energy Consumption in India

The chart above shows energy consumption in India as per 2010

India is expected to have 20,000MWe nuclear capacity by 2020 and 63,000MWe by 2032. It isbeing aimed to supply 25% of electricity from nuclear power by 2050.India accounts for 3.4% ofglobal energy consumption but has almost 17% global population. Per Capita energyconsumption is 612 kWh (compared to USAs 13339kWh). Current Power Generati on in India is 1,70,000 MW which must increase to nearly 8, 00, 000 MW by 2032.


52/89

52 | P a g e

DAE estimated that the installed capacity in 2032 will be 648 GW so the electrical consumptionwould be 3485TWh and the per capita electricity consumption would be 2454 kWh.

Advantages of Nuclear Power:


53/89

53 | P a g e

The main advantage of Nuclear power is that it is clean way to produce energy without increasing poisonous gases like carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, etc in atmosphere. Also the nuclear waste is invery small quantity.

According to interdisciplinary MIT group, Fossil fuel-based electricity is projected to account formore than 40% of global greenhouse gas emissions by 2020. Taking nuclear power off the table asa viable alternative will prevent the global community from achieving long-term gains in thecontrol of carbon dioxide emissions."

Disadvantages of Nuclear Power:

Nuclear Power is probably the most unpopular energy form because of its reputation. The biggest problem coming in setting nuclear power is cost. The waste products produced after generatingnuclear power may last for thousands of years and thus is a significant polluting factor. Accidentsare much more destructive than the accidents that can happen in other plants. E.g. Chernobylincident in 1986 and the most recent event in Japan


54/89

54 | P a g e

References:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_uranium http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_mining http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/2006/uranium_resources.html http://www.google.co.in/search?q=world+nuclear+resources&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&aq=t&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&client=firefox-a http://www.americanenergyindependence.com/uranium.aspx http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_reserves http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraniumhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf62.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium

http://www.eoearth.org/article/Thorium http://analysis.nuclearenergyinsider.com/industry-insight/thorium-miracle-cure-new-nuclear-backbone http://www.nei.org/resourcesandstats/nuclear_statistics/worldstatistics/ http://greennature.com/article275.html http://www.suite101.com/content/introduction-to-nuclear-power-a71362 http://books.google.co.in/books?id=YvLum7UFjK8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=intr oduction+to+nuclear+power&source=bl&ots=iHru5wemc0&sig=IvFr5FJtyOrKozsRreDqM7Z2kiw&hl=en&ei=D9OETfeTD4OmvQPD35W_CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CGYQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q&f=false http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_India http://www.indianuclearenergy.net/introduction.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power http://www.wise-uranium.org/upin.html http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/aug/28uranium.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_mining#India http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-s-uranium-reserves-at-115-000-tonnes/Article1-346691.aspx http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_uranium_mines

http://web.mit.edu/nuclearpower/ http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf53.html http://www.buzzle.com/articles/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-nuclear-

power.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_uraniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_uraniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_mininghttp://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/2006/uranium_resources.htmlhttp://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/2006/uranium_resources.htmlhttp://www.google.co.in/search?q=world+nuclear+resources&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&aq=t&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&client=firefox-ahttp://www.google.co.in/search?q=world+nuclear+resources&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&aq=t&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&client=firefox-ahttp://www.google.co.in/search?q=world+nuclear+resources&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&aq=t&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&client=firefox-ahttp://www.americanenergyindependence.com/uranium.aspxhttp://www.americanenergyindependence.com/uranium.aspxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_reserveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_reserveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraniumhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf62.htmlhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf62.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoriumhttp://www.eoearth.org/article/Thoriumhttp://www.eoearth.org/article/Thoriumhttp://analysis.nuclearenergyinsider.com/industry-insight/thorium-miracle-cure-new-nuclear-backbonehttp://analysis.nuclearenergyinsider.com/industry-insight/thorium-miracle-cure-new-nuclear-backbonehttp://analysis.nuclearenergyinsider.com/industry-insight/thorium-miracle-cure-new-nuclear-backbonehttp://www.nei.org/resourcesandstats/nuclear_statistics/worldstatistics/http://www.nei.org/resourcesandstats/nuclear_statistics/worldstatistics/http://greennature.com/article275.htmlhttp://greennature.com/article275.htmlhttp://www.suite101.com/content/introduction-to-nuclear-power-a71362http://www.suite101.com/content/introduction-to-nuclear-power-a71362http://books.google.co.in/books?id=YvLum7UFjK8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=introduction+to+nuclear+power&source=bl&ots=iHru5wemc0&sig=IvFr5FJtyOrKozsRreDqM7Z2kiw&hl=en&ei=D9OETfeTD4OmvQPD35W_CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CGYQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=YvLum7UFjK8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=introduction+to+nuclear+power&source=bl&ots=iHru5wemc0&sig=IvFr5FJtyOrKozsRreDqM7Z2kiw&hl=en&ei=D9OETfeTD4OmvQPD35W_CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CGYQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=YvLum7UFjK8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=introduction+to+nuclear+power&source=bl&ots=iHru5wemc0&sig=IvFr5FJtyOrKozsRreDqM7Z2kiw&hl=en&ei=D9OETfeTD4OmvQPD35W_CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CGYQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=YvLum7UFjK8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=introduction+to+nuclear+power&source=bl&ots=iHru5wemc0&sig=IvFr5FJtyOrKozsRreDqM7Z2kiw&hl=en&ei=D9OETfeTD4OmvQPD35W_CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CGYQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=YvLum7UFjK8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=introduction+to+nuclear+power&source=bl&ots=iHru5wemc0&sig=IvFr5FJtyOrKozsRreDqM7Z2kiw&hl=en&ei=D9OETfeTD4OmvQPD35W_CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CGYQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Indiahttp://www.indianuclearenergy.net/introduction.htmhttp://www.indianuclearenergy.net/introduction.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://www.wise-uranium.org/upin.htmlhttp://www.wise-uranium.org/upin.htmlhttp://www.rediff.com/news/2007/aug/28uranium.htmhttp://www.rediff.com/news/2007/aug/28uranium.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_mining#Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_mining#Indiahttp://www.hindustantimes.com/India-s-uranium-reserves-at-115-000-tonnes/Article1-346691.aspxhttp://www.hindustantimes.com/India-s-uranium-reserves-at-115-000-tonnes/Article1-346691.aspxhttp://www.hindustantimes.com/India-s-uranium-reserves-at-115-000-tonnes/Article1-346691.aspxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_uranium_mineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_uranium_mineshttp://web.mit.edu/nuclearpower/http://web.mit.edu/nuclearpower/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf53.htmlhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf53.htmlhttp://www.buzzle.com/articles/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-nuclear-power.htmlhttp://www.buzzle.com/articles/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-nuclear-power.htmlhttp://www.buzzle.com/articles/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-nuclear-power.htmlhttp://www.buzzle.com/articles/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-nuclear-power.htmlhttp://www.buzzle.com/articles/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-nuclear-power.htmlhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf53.htmlhttp://web.mit.edu/nuclearpower/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_uranium_mineshttp://www.hindustantimes.com/India-s-uranium-reserves-at-115-000-tonnes/Article1-346691.aspxhttp://www.hindustantimes.com/India-s-uranium-reserves-at-115-000-tonnes/Article1-346691.aspxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_mining#Indiahttp://www.rediff.com/news/2007/aug/28uranium.htmhttp://www.wise-uranium.org/upin.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://www.indianuclearenergy.net/introduction.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Indiahttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=YvLum7UFjK8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=introduction+to+nuclear+power&source=bl&ots=iHru5wemc0&sig=IvFr5FJtyOrKozsRreDqM7Z2kiw&hl=en&ei=D9OETfeTD4OmvQPD35W_CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CGYQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=YvLum7UFjK8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=introduction+to+nuclear+power&source=bl&ots=iHru5wemc0&sig=IvFr5FJtyOrKozsRreDqM7Z2kiw&hl=en&ei=D9OETfeTD4OmvQPD35W_CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CGYQ6AEwCQ

energy survey (2010)

Documents