ENDANGEREDANIMALSA Reference Guideto Conflicting lssues

Edited byRichard P. Reading and Brian Miller

Greenwood Press

Westport, Connecticut ' London

Inwho always er

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Endangered animals : a reference guide to conflicting issues

Reading and Brian Miller.p. cm

Includes bibliographical referenccs and index.

ISBN 0-3r3-30816-0 (alk. PaPer)l. Endangered species. 2. Cor-rserwation biology 3'

conser,¡ation. I. Reading, Ricl-rard P. II. Miller, Bnan,

QLB2.E55 2000333.95'42-dc2l 99-049149

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available'

Copyright @ 2000 by Richard P. Reading and Brian Milìer

All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be

reproduced, by any process or technique, withoutthe express written consent of the publisher.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 99-049L49

ISBN: 0-3I3-3081ó-0

Firsr published in 2000

Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 0ó881

A,n imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group' Inc.

www.greenwood.com

Printed in the United States of America

Q9The paper used in this book cornplies with the

Permanent Paper Standard issued by the NationalInformation Standards Organization (239.48-1984)'

1098765432r

/ edited by Richard P.

Râre vertebrates. 4. WildlifeI948-

rimals

target population of 200 individ-; by the year 2000. Also, within a

: eradicated from Hiiumaa Island,:rmit the reintroduction of Euro-rvith efforts to protect Europeanmink in Spain, should guarantee:t characteristic species of the Eu-

rrt from the British qovernment's

Florida Manatee

Galen B. Rathbun and RÍchard L. Wallace

Common Name: Florida manatee

Scientific Name: Irlchechus manatus latirostrisOrder: SireniaFamily: TrichechidaeStatus: Vulnerable on the 1996 IUCN Red List; listed in Appendix I in CITES; Endan-

gered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973; Protected under the U.S.

Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) oÍ 1972, the Florida Endangered and Threat-

ened Species Act of 1 977, and the Florida Manatee Sanctuary Act of 1978.

Threats: Collisions with watercraft contribute to a high rate of mortality. Creation of

artificial warm-water refuges may indirectly cause mortality owing to disruption of

traditional behavior patterns and hypothermia.Habitat: Near-shore coastal areas; estuaries; inland waterways.

Distribution: Florida and southern Georgia. During summer some individuals dis-

perse northward along the Atlantic coast through the Carolinas and along the Culfof Mexico coast as far west as Texas.

DESCRIPTION

The Florida manatee is a subspecies of the West Indian manatee) whichoccurs in coastal areas of northern South America, Central America, the

Caribbean, and the southeastern United States (Lefebvre et al' 1989). Man-

atees are streamlined and adapted to an aquatic existence, and they are un-

able to completely leave water. Their front limbs are modified into flippers,

they have entirely lost their rear limbs, and their tail is modified into a flat,

rounded paddle. Their gray skin is tough, thick, and essentially furless. Ex-

ternal ears are absent, and their eyes are small. Adults reach a total length

of 34 m and weigh about 550 kg (Reynolds & Odell l99f ).

NATURAL H¡STORY

Eating aquatic plants requires unique behaviors not found in most marine

mammals. which must be nimble or fast swimmers in order to catch theirprey. Manatees must remain stationary in the water to gfaze on rooted and

floating plants, and thus they are not accomplished divers or swimmers

(Hartman 1979). Aquatic vegetation is relatively low in calories and nutri-ents) so manatees spend ó to 8 hours a day grazing. To conserve energy)

108 Endangered Animals

they maintain a relatively low basal metabolic rate. They also are relatively

poor producers and conservators of body heat. Physiology restricts manatees

to the warm waters of the tropics and subtropics; in the southeastern UnitedStates they are at the northern edge of their distribution (hvine 1983).

In response to seasonal changes in water temperatures' many manatees inthe United States undertake a north/south migration (Rathbun et al. 1990;

Reid et al. f99t). In addition, many aggregate at sources of warm water toescape the cold. Some of these winter refuges are created by natural springs,

but most have been created by the effluents of power plants and pulp mills(O'Shea Ì9S8). llowever, when the water temperature at these refuges

drops below about 20'C for several days, manatees become hypothermic,or cold stressed, and may die (Ackerman et al. f995). During the summer

manatees are widely dispersed, making them difficult to find and observe

(Rathbun et al. 1990).Florida manatees mate mostly during the summer months and gestate

their single calves (rarely twins) for about L2 months. The cow/calf bondis strong, usually lasting L to 2 years, and males take no parl in raising the

calf. Sexual maturity is usually reached in 3 to 5 years (Rathbun et al. 1995)'Historically, manatees were largely restricted to the southern third of the

Florida peninsula during the winter, but there are no reliable estimates oftheir abundance (O'Shea 1988). Winter aggregations in Florida, however,

are often in clear water, which makes counting them easier. During a 1996winter aerial count of the entire southeastern U.S. populatíon,2,639 animals

were spotted (Ftorida Department of Environmental Protection unpublisheddata). However, it is unclear whether manatee numbers are currendy in-creasing or decreasing (O'Shea & Ackerman L995).

CONFLICTINC ISSUES

Much of the earþ concern surrounding the manatee, including its federal

listing as Endangered, was based on the unsubstantiated belief that it had

almost been extirpated (O'Shea 1988). With the passage of the MMPA and

ESA, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) became the lead federal

agency in developing research and conservation measures for the West In-dian manatee. In 7974 the FWS initiated a research program in Florida thatbecame the Sirenia Proiect (now part of the Biological Resources Diúsionof the U.S. Geological Survey). The Marine Mammal Cornmission (MMC)is a federal agency that evaluates and provides advice on federal actions

under the MMPA. The first manatee recovery team produced a recovery

plan in 1980, and reorganized teams have produced two revised plans, thelatest in 199ó (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serwice 1996). In 1984 the state

bolstered its research and conservation efforts, which are now part of the

Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP).Nongovernmental organizations are also involved in manatee recovery)

including the Save the Mtion. Boating interests arr

of Florida. The utilities in

pany, is also an active PliEarly assumPtions of e:

effort to document the c¿

found in mortalitY over t

were related to human ac

from 198ó to 1992 l,0l28.1% owing to accidenl

Unlike man)¡ conflicts

unintentionallY. TheY d

rhreaten danger-theY jr

than 750,000 registered

annually). The unintentsympathy for its Plight, a

bership of Save the Man

the proliferation of ProtAs regulations have bi

injuries and deaths, co¡in manatee mortalitY riexpanding boat and hthistorical and current r!

swer this question (O'S

munity in Florida has a

eflèctiveness of the nurl

injuries and deaths. Wilthe meantime, boat-reli

The historical distribmigration began to ch

artificial refuges in the

outfalls often are unre]

charges do not Produgsometimes sources are

in manatees' deaths (l

shown that man"t.ts, ]

not be able to change]

that manatees are adal

artiflcial effluents. Sud

learn new behaviors ar

TechnologY can be

regu.late the electric P1

the future, economlcswhen. Although this tl

ìats

lic rate. They also are relativelyrt. Physiology restricrs manareespics; in the southeastern United' distribution (Lvine l9B3).emperatures, many manatees innigration (Rathbun et al. 1990;¡te at sources of warm water tos are created by natural springs,of power plants and pulp mills' temperature at these refugesnanatees become hypothermic,al. 1995). During the summern difficult to find and observe

l summer months and gestate2 montis. The cow/calf bondLales take no part in raising ther 5 years (Rathbun et al. 1995).ed to the southern third of thelre are no reliable estimates ofiregations in Florida, however,ng them easier. During a 1996U.S. population, 2,639 animalsmental Protection unpublishedrtee numbers are currently in-rees).

l manatee) including its federal;ubstantiated belief that it hadthe passage of the MMPA andrWS) became the lead federalion measures for the West In-:search program in Florida thatBiological Resources Division

Mammal Commission (MMC)ides advice on federal actionslry team produced a recovery'oduced two revised plans, t1leice 199ó). In 1984 rhe statets, which are now part of the:tion IFDEP).nvolved in manatee recoverv-

Florida Manatee 109

including the Save the Manaree Club, a grass roots consen¡ation organiza-

don. Boãting interests are repfesented by the Marine Industries Association

of Florida. The utilities industry, especially the Florida Power & Light Com-

pany, is also an active Player.- Early assumptions of excessive manatee mortality in Florida resulted in an

effort io document the causes of all deaths. Not only was an increasing trend

found in mortality over the last 20 years, but nearþ one-third of all deaths

were related to human activities-mostly collisions with boats. For example,

from 198ó to 1992 I,080 manatees were recovered dead in Florida, with

28.Iyo owing to accidents with watercraft (Ackerman et al' f995)'Unlike many conflicts between humans and wildlife, marì.atees are killed

unintentionalþ. They do not compete with people for food or directly

threaten danger-they just get in the way of boats, of which there are more

than 750,000 registered in Florida (plus another 250,000 that visit the state

annually). The unintentional slaughter of this benign creature has created

sympathy for its plight) as demonstrated by the phenomenal growth in mem-

U.rct ip of Save the Manatee Club over the past 15 years (Buffett 199ó) and

the proliferation of protective measures (Reynolds & Odell 1991)'

As regulations have been imposed in an attempt to reduce human-related

injuriesìnd deaths, controversy has escalated. For example, is the increase

in manatee mortality related to an expanding manatee population or an

expanding boat and human populationl The lack of reliable estimates ofhistorical and current manatee numbers in Florida makes it difficult to an-

swer this question (O'Shea 1995; Wright et al. Ì995). The research com-

munity in ilorida has also been slow to initiate studies to demonstrâte the

effectiveness of the numerous regulations instituted to reduce boat-related

iniuries and deaths. Without data, the controversy is bound to continue' Inthe meantime, boat-related manatee injuries and deaths continue.

The historical distribution of manatees in Florida and their north/southmigration began to change when manatees learned to take advantage ofartilficial refuges in the 1950s and l9ó0s (Reid et al. r99r). llowever, these

outfalls often are unreliable. During exceptionally cold weather some dis-

charges do not produce enough warm water to meet manatees' needs, and

Sometimes sources are shut down for economic reasons or repair' resulting

in manarees, dearhs (Ackerman et al. 1995). Packard et al. (1989) have

shown that manatees, faced with an unreliable source of warm water) may

not be able to change their behaviors quicldy enough to suryive' The fact

that manatees are adaptable is obvious-after all, they learned to use the

artificial effluents. Sufficient time, however) may be needed to develop and

learn new behaviors and movement patterns.

Technology can be a fickle friend. There is a growing movement to de-

regulate the electric power industries in marry states, including Florida' Inthã future, economics may determine which power plants are operated and

when. Although this may well serve ratepayers, it also may cause lethal prob-

110 Endangered Animals

lems for manatees when effluents are suddenly shut down or become un-predictable.

Uncertainties over historical and current manatee distribution and pop-ulation numbers, the role of artificial refuges, and suggested solutionsto deregulation are starting to be expressed (e.g., Rose 1997). The FWS,FDEP, and MMC are becoming embroiled in controversy (e.9., Frohlichf 998). The need for discussions, coordination, and leadership among all theinterested and affected parties is obvious, but it has been slow in happening.

FUTURE AND PROGNOSIS

Successful manatee conservation requires teamwork. In 1997 a joint effortamong the lead federal and state agencies resulted in an interagency coor-dinating committee to facilitate and improve coordination in the recoveryprogram. Members include the FWS, FDEP, the Sirenia Project, and MMC.

Teamwork is difficult, particularly when team members are expected togive up some independence in the process of carrying out recovery tasks

(Westrum 1994). One goal of the committee is to manage the lead agencies'

agendas in a cooperative fashion by fine-tuning the recovery plan's research

and management priority scheme and collaborating on priority tasks. llow-ever, the committee has not been effective in accomplishing this goal owingto organizational problems. For example, committee members are hesitantto relinquish individual agency control of data and funding decisions. Thereis some disagreement over which research and management tasls are highestpriority, as individuals tend to feel most strongly about the tasks for whichthey are responsible. Interest in the committee process varies among mem-bers, and some agencies or individuals appear more devoted to succeedingthan others. Because tlÌe manatee recovery program is based on shared re-sponsibility, as opposed to being directed hierarchically by FWS, FWS is

hesitant to direct the work of the other agencies. Perhaps most importantly,there is not a clear, shared goal among the committee members as to howto proceed.

Having a common goal or vision is critical to team success (Westrum1994), as long as the vision is one that promotes the goals of manateerecovery. Although the committee members share the recovery plan as a

common guide, their respective goals might differ based on their individualneeds and interests. '4. common goal developed under these circumstancesmight resemble a "lowest common denominator" that meets everyone's in-dividual needs but fails to adequately promote the overall goal of manateerecovery. Choosing a leader to direct the actions of the committee also mustbe a responsibility shared by all the committee members, who must all be

comfortable with the expertise and abilities of the chosen individual. Thatperson must be someone who can foster communication and cooperationamong the represented agencies (Clark & Cragun 1994).

The committee is in a u

recovery. In terms of regl

agencies rePresented on tflimits, theY can make anY

That they all get along w(is a rarity among domesti

to make it work shouldn']

Several stePs should be

the members in Prioritizilmust comPlement the req

mentation schedule. Thagency's available funds, j

implementing PrioritY taq

ganizations, and develoP

mittee should then meef

committee's work should

If the committee membe

hire and share the costs (

The current recovery Pi

of providing guidance tqstability in research and I

in achieving consenslls al

fresh start based on a ni

manatee conserwation is

Fnats

enly shut down or become un-

manatee distribution and pop-fuges, and suggested solutionsI (e.9., Rose 1997). The FWS,J in controversy (e.g., Frohlichrn, and leadership among all thet it has been slow in happening.

:eamwork. In 1997 a joint efforr'esulted in an interagency coor-øe coordination in the recovery

, the Sirenia Project, and MMC.team members are expected toof carrying out recovery tasks

: is to manage the lead agencies'ing the recovery plan's research

'orating on priority tasks. FIow-r accomplishing this goal owingcmmittee members are hesitantta and funding decisions. Thered management tasks are highestrngly about the tasks for whichtee process varies among mem-ar more devoted to succeedingprogram is based on shared re-hierarchically by FWS, FWS iscies. Perhaps most importantly,committee members as to how

ical to team success (Westrumromotes the goals of manatee's share the recovery plan as adiffer based on their individual,ped under tiese circumstancesLator" that meets everyone's in-)te the overall goal of manateeons of the committee also musttee members, who must all beof the chosen individual. That¡mmunication and coooerationragun 1994).

Florida Manatee

The committee is in a unique position to influence the future of manatee

recovery. In terms of regulatory) research) and management authority, the

agencies represented on the committee hold all the cards. Within statutory

limits, they can make any decision to further any agenda they decide upon.

That they all get along well enough to create this opportunity to coordinate

is a rarity among domestic endangered species programs. The opportunity

to make it work shouldn't be missed.

Several steps should be taken. A leader should be jointly selected to unite

the members in prioritizing and coordinating recovery tasks. Their efforts

must complement the recovery plan but not be limited by the plan's imple-

mentation schedule. Thereafter the committee should determine each

agency's available funds, draft and adopt an agreement to share the costs ofimplementing priority tasks, assign tasl6 to the appropriate agencies or or-ganizations, and develop a strict timetable for implementation. The com-

mittee should then meet regularly to review progress. The results of the

committee's work should become the basis for revising the recovery plan.

If the committee members cannot agree on goals and strategy, they should

hire and share the costs of a facilitator to expedite the process'

The current recovery plan is a satisfactory base document) but it falls short

of providing guidance to achieve interagency coordination, continuity, and

rt"bility in research and management actions. Given the difficulties to date

in achieving consensus among the principal agencies in manatee recovery, a

fresh start based on a ne\M and substantially more aggressive approach tomanatee conservation is needed.

111

I -l

I

I

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Courtesy of C. Sillero/BFF.

an. Courtesy of T. Maran.

Top: Florida Manatee(Trichechøs znîtnø,ttts løtirostris).Photo by G. Rathbun.Courtey of G. Rathbun.

Right Giant Panda(Ailørop o d.ø rne løno leucø ).Photo by R.P. Reading.Courtesy of R.P. Reading.