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Culture and Gender
Culture and Health
Chapter 6, 7
Parallels between impact of gender and culture
on psychology
Psychological research 30-40 years ago
conducted on men which raised questions about
whether it was applicable to women
Women were included as participants
Research on gender differences
Similar for research on cultural differences
Definitions
Sex: biological and physiological differences
between men and women
Sex roles
Sexual identity
Gender: behaviors or patterns of activities that
society or culture deems appropriate for men
and women
Gender roles
Gender identity
Gender stereotypes
The Relationship between Sex and Gender
across Cultures
Differences in sex roles exist universally
Georgas et al. (2006) study on 27 countries found
that women did most of housework
Fathers concerned with finances, expressive
issues, childcare in all countries
Mothers concerned with childcare only in less-
affluent countries
Cultures differ in type and differentiation
encouraged between sexes; gender, gender
roles, gender-role ideologies and gender
stereotypes
Culture and Gender Stereotypes
Williams and Best (1982) study of 30 countries
found high pancultural agreement on
adjectives(형용사) used to describe males and
females
In all countries, adjectives associated with men
were rated as being stronger and more active
Japan and South African rated male
characteristics as more favorable; Italy and Peru
rated female characteristics more favorable
Culture and Gender Stereotypes
Follow up studies by Williams and
colleagues
These studies show gender stereotypes
around the world are stable
Men viewed as active, strong, critical,
conscientious, extraverted, and open
Women viewed passive, weak, nurturing,
adaptive, agreeable, and neurotic
Culture and Gender Stereotypes
Other studies
support William and Best studies
examination of how gender stereotypes develop
Many unanswered questions remain
How congruent(적합한가?) are behavior with
stereotypes and does this congruence differ
across cultures?
Are stereotypes related to important
psychological constructs or behaviors?
Culture, Gender-Role Ideology,
and Self-Concept
Gender-role ideology: judgments about what
males and females ought to be like or ought to
do
Williams and Best (1990) study on 14 countries
Highly egalitarian(평등주의자): Netherlands,
Germany and Finland
Highly traditional: Nigeria, Pakistan and India
Culture, Gender-Role Ideology,
and Self-Concept
Gibbons and colleagues (1990) study on
adolescents
Adolescents from wealthier and more
individualistic countries were less traditional
Gender ideologies may be changing as societies
change
Religion may play a role in keeping with
traditional gender roles
Hofstede’s Study
Masculinity versus Femininity: degree to
which culture will foster, encourage, or maintain
differences between males and females
Highly masculine: Japan, Austria, Venezuela,
Italy
Low masculine: Denmark, Netherlands, Norway,
Sweden
Masculine and feminine cultures differ in
sexuality and attitudes toward religion
Perceptual/Spatial/Cognitive Differences
Common American folklore is that males better
at mathematical and spatial reasoning tasks and
females better at verbal comprehension tasks
This is not necessarily true for other cultures
No gender difference in spatial abilities in Inuit
culture in Canada and Ecuador (women engage
in tasks that require spatial abilities)
Males did better in tight, sedentary(정착된), and
agriculturally based cultures
Females did better in loose, nomadic(유목의),
and hunting and gathering based cultures
Conformity and Obedience
Common gender-role stereotypes is that
females more conforming and obedient than
males
This is not necessarily true for other cultures
In tighter cultures, females more conformists than
males
In looser cultures, less gender difference in
conformity or males more conformists
Aggressiveness
Common gender-role stereotypes is that males more aggressive than females
Support for this stereotype in many cultures
In study of physical aggression between partners in 52 countries
In developed Western cultures, both sexes committed aggression
In individualistic, women empowered cultures, less female victimization(여성희생)
Social role theory
Aggressiveness
Many cultures did not show sex-related
differences in teaching about aggression to
children
Currently the mechanism accounting for gender
differences in aggression unknown
Biology, culture, gender marking behavior
Gender Roles
Androgyny(양성성): gender identity involving
endorsement of both male and female
characteristics
African-American males and females more
androgynous than European males and females
Adolescent girls in US, Israel, and Hong Kong
adopting androgynous identity have higher self
acceptance than feminine or masculine girls; for
boys, masculine identity have highest self
acceptance
Gender Roles
Traditional gender roles for Asian Americans,
Mexican Americans and Native Americans
Loosening of rigid gender roles for Asians and
Mexican Americans
Concept of machismo(남성우월주의) and wider
acceptable roles for Latina women
Gender role differentiation dependent on
patriarchal or matriarchal nature of tribal culture
of origin for Native Americans
Sex and Sexuality
Cultures differ on degree of importance placed
on chastity(순결) for women and sexuality
Attitudes toward sex and sexuality related to
cultural values of honor
Culture affects practice of male
circumcision(남성할례, 포경수술) and female
genital mutilation(여성할례, 음핵제거)
Female genital mutilation is tied with honor and
virtue in some cultures
Mate Selection, Mate Poaching(채가기), and
Jealousy
Gender differences in preferences for mate and
sexual jealousy are universal
Males more jealous of sexual infidelity(부정)
Females more jealous of emotional infidelity
Evolutionary model
Personality
Universally, woman reported higher scores on
Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Warmth, and
Openness to Feelings
Men scored higher on Assertiveness, and
Openness to ideas
Differences between men and women largest in
Europe and US
Changes in culture bring about changes in
gender roles
This has both positive (e.g., women more
economically independent) and negative
consequences (e.g., higher divorce rates and
higher health problems for women)
Health is defined by World Health Organization
as “a state of complete physical, mental, and
social well-being, and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity”
In US, views of health influenced by biomedical
model of health and disease
Disease results from specific, identifiable cause
(pathogens병균) originating from inside the body
Other cultures have different definitions of health
In China and Greece, health is viewed as
absence of negative states AND presence of
positive states
In many Asian cultures, an integral part of health
is balance between self and nature and across
individual’s various roles in life
Chinese concept of ying and yang (음과양)
In US, definition of health changing to include
presence of positive states
Hardiness
Concept of health differ within a pluralistic
culture(다원적문화) like US and Canada
To Native Americans good health is living in
harmony with oneself and environment
Cultures have different metaphors for how human body conceptualized
Balance and imbalance in body
Cultures affect perception and evaluation of body shapes
Social class and preference for thinness in American and European cultures
Ugandans and African Americans’ preference for fuller figures
Psychosocial Determinants of
Healthy and Disease
Relationship between mental and physical
health
Type A personality and cardiovascular(심장혈관)
disease
Relationship between psychosocial factors
and health/diseases states
Unemployment, goal frustration, stress,
bereavement(사별), pessimistic explanatory
styles, hardiness, perception of one’s SES and
perceived racism and discrimination
Psychosocial Determinants of
Healthy and Disease
Perceived racism and discrimination contributes
to poor health outcomes like hypertension(고혈압)
and cardiovascular(심장혈관) disease
African American women more psychologically
stressed because of perceived racism than
European American women
Social Isolation and Mortality(사망)
Relationship between social isolation or
social support and death
Alameda County study showed that individuals
with fewest social ties had highest mortality rate
and those with most social ties had lowest rate
Intimate social contact in US has declined in past
two decades, which has negative implications for
health and well-being
Individualism and Cardiovascular(심혈관)
Disease
Relationship between Individualism and
heart disease (Triandis et al., 1988)
Most individualistic group (European Americans)
had highest rate of heart disease
Social support or isolation explains these results
because collectivistic cultures have stronger and
deeper social ties with others than individualistic
cultures
Culture and Eating Disorders
Cultural differences in attitudes about ideal body weight
Americans have more anti-overweight attitudes than Ghanaians and Mexican-Americans
Cultural differences in attitudes about eating behaviors
European Americans reported greater levels of disordered eating and dieting behaviors than Asian and African Americans
Exposure to Western cultures related to disturbed eating attitudes and eating disorders
Culture and Eating Disorders
US has the highest percentage of obese(비만)
school aged children
Due to consumption of fast food and soft drinks
and lack of exercise
Culture molds attitudes, beliefs, and values
about illness and treatment
Japanese and American women differed in
attribution about cause of osteoporosis(골다공증)
and compliance with invasive treatment(외과치료)
Two tribes in Africa had different attitudes toward
epilepsy(간질), which influenced treatment
approaches
Witchcraft(마법) in Tanzania affected help-
seeking behaviors in regards to malaria
Acculturation of Asian Americans affected views
of health and type of treatment sought
Differences in Health Care and
Medical Delivery Systems
Cultures have different health care systems
Influenced by social and economic development,
technological advances, availability and influence
of neighboring countries and social trends
Type of health care
systems
Countries
Entrepreneurial(기업) US, the Philippines, Ghana
Welfare-oriented(복지지향) France, Brazil, Burma
Comprehensive(종합) Sweden, Costa Rica, Sri
Lanka
Socialist(사회주의) former Soviet Union, Cuba,
China