empowerment in hr

8/10/2019 Empowerment in HR

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The words tr#st, power, potential, s#pport, and reso#rces will be #sed thro#gho#t thismaterial when disc#ssing empowerment. "anagers invest personal and corporate power,tr#st, and reso#rces into individ#als and gro#ps in order to release a greater amo#nt of/wor$/ than the person or gro#p might normally display. The p#rpose of this investmentis to obtain something for, in effect, nothing, i.e. to ma$e an investment that will pay bac$

more than the original sta$e. "ost people do not wor$ to their f#ll potential not thro#ghany form of laziness, b#t beca#se the managers and the organizations that employ themdo not $now how to release that potential. 0nce they do, the difference in apparent abilitycan be enormo#s and well worth the initial investment.

iven that this investment can be so rewarding, why don2t more managers practiceempowerment3 %n part it may be ignorance, b#t for many managers the move from acontrolling environment to an empowering one may be ite threatening. 4o they reallywant empowered employees who may well estion the way wor$ is carried o#t3nfort#nately it is often the case that given #nrealized potential, lower prod#ctivity b#t aieter life over a dynamic organization brimming with ideas, many managers act#ally

prefer the former - how sad for them, for their employees and for their stoc$holders.

Chapter 2: What is Empowerment?

Overview

This chapter considers the following concepts related to empowerment.

(mpowerment is concerned with releasing the potential of employees to ass#me

greater responsibility. (mpowerment is a dynamic, three-way process.

4elegation is not empowerment, b#t a step along the road to empowerment.

(mpowerment is a process rather than an event, altho#gh the latter may be held as

a /rite of passage./

The power available to individ#als derives from a n#mber of so#rces incl#ding

personality, epertise, position, reso#rces, relationships, and physical strength.

#thority is the legitimate #se of power.

4elegation refers to the handing down of the responsibility and reso#rces to carry

o#t a tas$ whilst retaining acco#ntability.

cco#ntability is the obligation to ens#re that something is done, b#t does not

mean that the acco#ntable person has to act#ally do it.

5esponsibility is the obligation to do something as instr#cted or reested.


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6implistically it might be tho#ght that empowerment is simply the act of imb#ingsomebody with the power to do something. %n modern b#siness, however, the sit#ation isfar more comple.

Definitions

"#rrell and "eredith 'see )hapters 7and 9* have defined empowerment in terms of theenabling of someone to ass#me greater responsibility and a#thority thro#gh training, tr#stand emotional s#pport. 5esponsibility and a#thority are covered later in this chapter, b#tit might also be appropriate to add both financial and physical reso#rces to tr#st, trainingand emotional s#pport.

8ill innodo, editor of The Power of Empowerment'199* sees empowerment asemployees and managers solving problems that were traditionally reserved to higherlevels of the organization.

!en 8lanchard, ohn . )arlos and lan 5andolph, writing in 1999 #nder the title The 3Keys to Empowerment, considered that the essence of empowerment lay in the$nowledge, eperience, and motivational power that is already in people, b#t is beingseverely #nder#tilized. %t wo#ld be a poor organization indeed that spent a fort#ne on apiece of eipment and then failed to #se it to its f#ll potential, b#t that is eactly whatmany organizations appear to do with the staff they employ.

)ombining all of the above, a s#itable definition of empowerment is:

/The process of releasing the f#ll potential of employees in order for them to ta$e ongreater responsibility and a#thority in the decision-ma$ing process and providing the

reso#rces for this process to occ#r./

Events and Processes

%t is necessary to disting#ish between an event and a process. %n the early 199


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forgiveness rather then permission./ @e then proceeded to wave his hand, deity-li$e, overthe a#dience and anno#nced that they were /now empoweredA/

The act of telling somebody that they are empowered is nothing if it is not lin$ed to aprocess of empowerment. The training that the s#pervisors mentioned above were

#nderta$ing was part of that process, a process that wo#ld contin#e if they were thens#pported in the decisions they then too$. The actions of the managing director formed arite of passage - a reference point in time that the s#pervisors co#ld refer to when see$ingreso#rces, assistance etc.

Power

%t is also necessary to define what is meant by the term power. ower, as defined in theeveryday world, is the reso#rce that drives things. nything that /gets something done/

possesses this force $nown as power. Th#s money can be a form of power, as canepertise, information and $nowledge. "oney, information, etc. are often referred to inmanagement and b#siness tets as reso#rces, so it follows that power is a reso#rce aswell. Whilst there is often tal$ abo#t the mis#se of power, it m#st remembered thatreso#rces are ne#tral and it is #p to the individ#al to decide how a reso#rce is to be #sed.

(mpowerment, therefore, m#st be something to do with the allocation of reso#rces.%ndeed, #nless reso#rces are provided, then empowerment becomes +#st an empty word.

s @elga 4r#mmond has pointed o#t in her 199> eamination of the s#b+ect, power isdynamic and can never be either absol#te or p#rely one way. hermit may possess

considerable potential power, b#t another person is needed for the power to be eerted.ower is in fact what drives infl#ence, i.e. power is the reso#rce that allows an individ#alor organization to infl#ence another individ#al or organization to do something that thepower so#rce reires. %n any application both parties are changed thro#gh theinteraction, hence power can never be one-way or absol#te.

The power of any individ#al within an organization is #s#ally derived from a n#mber ofso#rces of power as described below, with perhaps one or two being the dominant powerso#rces for that individ#al.

Physical power

Bot perhaps the first thing that comes to mind when considering b#siness iss#es, b#tphysical power may well be a factor in certain law enforcement roles. hysical powerdoes not necessarily mean sheer size, b#t is more a f#nction of personality andconfidence. The writer well remembers seeing a dimin#tive n#rse calm down threehooligans in a hospital waiting room by her assertiveness 'not aggression* and willpower.hysical power is not eerted beca#se is stronger than 8, b#t by the fact that 8 believesthat is physically the stronger.


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Personality power

ll#ded to above, personality power, or charisma as it also called, has been the principalso#rce of power for many well-$nown leaders. 5ichard 8ranson, es#s )hrist,"ohammed, andhi, @itler, !iam 'of 5emington fame* all possessed a certain

something that made them stand o#t. "any others have it to a lesser etent, and theability to #se one2s personality for the good of the organization, of others, and also ofoneself is a most #sef#l trait.

Expertise

%n the modern, technological world epertise carries with it a great deal of power. Theearnings that can be made by those who tr#ly #nderstand modern information andcomm#nication technology '%)T* systems give testimony to this. (pertise #sed to bebased on eperience; today it is eperience pl#s $nowledge that is all-important. (pert$nowledge can confer considerable power on an individ#al, especially if he or she is

wor$ing with those who have considerably less epertise in the partic#lar field. 0ne ofthe problems with epertise as a so#rce of power is that it only reires one wrong callfor credibility to fall ite rapidly. (pertise is also m#ch more than +#st $nowing the+argon - an epert who cannot ma$e good on his or her words is event#ally eposed as acharlatan.

Position power

ower can be gained +#st by a +ob title or even a #niform. %f people believe that somebodyhas the a#thority to act in a certain way 'see later in this chapter*, they will ass#me thathe or she also has had the necessary power conferred on them. @ow often do we estion

a person in a #niform that appears commens#rate with the s#rro#ndings3 8efore theterrorist attac$s of 6eptember 11, >


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governmental levels revolves aro#nd reso#rce power. /%f yo# do or give me this 'which %want*, % will give yo# what yo# want,/ etc. The aim is to try to avoid a sit#ation wherethere is a winClose, loseCwin, or loseClose sit#ation to one that is winCwin, so nobody hasto give away too m#ch witho#t receiving an adeate reso#rce reward in ret#rn.

Relationship power

There is an old saying that is still often tr#e today, /%t2s not what yo# $now b#t who yo#$now./

The importance of networ$ing is stressed in nearly every b#siness and self-developmentboo$. %t is a fact that those close to the people who hold power are often seen as having aportion of that power themselves. s$ yo#rself a estion: who is the second mostpowerf#l person in yo#r organization3 0ften it is not the dep#ty )(0 or dep#ty chair, b#tthe or secretary to the )(0 or chair. ersons who control access to the person withpower often wield considerable power themselves. ate$eepers have always been

powerf#l fig#res.

#st being related to somebody with power may confer a degree of infl#ence that is#nwarranted. %t is pres#med by others that the relative will have etra infl#ence or accessthe power fig#re. 5elationship power is often irrational, b#t it can be a very potent force.

0ther concepts that are important when considering empowerment are:

a#thority

delegation

acco#ntability

responsibility.

Authority

#thority is the o#tward manifestation of power. %t is a sign to others that the person ororganization is sanctioned to act in a partic#lar manner. F#ite rightly, a#thority isnormally given together with limitations on its #se. These may be simple r#les or ascomple as the 6 )onstit#tion, which defines the limits of a#thority of the )ongress, the6#preme )o#rt and the resident.

#thority can be defined as the #se of legitimate power.

s part of the empowerment process, the empowered needs to be provided with thea#thority to act and those who will be affected need to be informed that this person ororganization has the a#thority to do certain things.


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%n the military, a#thority is often easy to spot as the badges of ran$ often signifyincreasing levels of a#thority. Th#s commanders can iss#e orders to ensigns, b#t not tocaptains. There are often occasions, however, when epertise is held by a lower ran$ingindivid#al and it is a wise senior who realizes that /with respect, 6ir, % wo#ld reconsiderthat action/ act#ally means /if yo# do that yo# will be acting very #nwisely - 6irA/ %t is

often the case that the more +#nior person has epertise power, whilst the senior may relyon position power.

art of delegation involves the devolving not only of a tas$, b#t also the a#thority that isheld by the delegator.

Delegation

4elegation is handing down responsibility together with the necessary reso#rces anda#thority to somebody below one in the organization. @owever, #nless the decision-ma$ing process also passes down the line, this is not empowerment, altho#gh it may be a

step along the way to f#ll empowerment - in effect, an interim stage. nder delegation,the delegator still remains acco#ntable 'see below* for the tas$ and its manner ofimplementation. cco#ntability cannot be delegated.

Accountability

cco#ntability is the obligation to ens#re that certain tas$s are carried o#t. Theacco#ntable person does not have to carry o#t the tas$, b#t they will be held to acco#ntfor it. 4elegation, as described above, does not carry acco#ntability with it, onlyresponsibility. cco#ntability still rests with the delegator, who then ma$es the delegateeresponsible.

(mpowered staff carry both responsibility and acco#ntability, or at least a share of thelatter.

Responsibility

5esponsibility is the obligation to act#ally carry o#t a tas$ and th#s can be delegated.There may have been no inp#t into the initial decision-ma$ing process at all.

?rom the above it can be seen that the difference between empowerment and delegationis that the former has decision-ma$ing and acco#ntability components that are lac$ing

from the latter. s will be shown in both )hapters and E, the historical trend has beentowards moving from delegation G control to empowerment G facilitation; approachesthat reire the #se of very different managerial mindsets.

KEY E!"#I#$ POI#%&

(mpowerment is not so m#ch an event as a transition process.
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(mpowered individ#als are involved in decision-ma$ing and acco#ntability to a

far greater etent than those to whom tas$s are delegated.

The aim of empowerment is the release of potential for the benefit of the

organization.

%ndivid#als have a mit#re of power so#rces that they can call #pon.

#thority is the legitimate #se of power and has prescribed bo#ndaries.

cco#ntability cannot be delegated - once acco#ntability is passed down,

empowerment is ta$ing place.

Chapter ': %he Evo(ution of

EmpowermentOverview

This chapter considers the following in relation to the evol#tion of empowerment.

(mpowerment has occ#rred in the social as well as the b#siness environment.

(mpowerment becomes more possible as the general level of ed#cation rises.

@#man organizations have their roots in primate social systems.

0rganizations became larger as comm#nications and transport became easier,

necessitating the need for tighter control systems.

%f a manager believes that nobody li$es wor$ and will shir$ responsibility, Theory

H says they are li$ely to adopt a controlling style. )onversely, if the managerbelieves that wor$ is an innate need and that people see$ responsibility, Theory Isays they are more li$ely to adopt a facilitator style.

chievement, recognition and f#lfilling potential are important motivators.

(mpowerment lies on a contin##m that starts with tr#e slavery.

The history of empowerment mirrors very closely changing social and ed#cational norms.%t is reasonable to ass#me that #nless the wor$force has received an adeate ed#cation,then the analytical s$ills reired for decision-ma$ing may not be present and thatempowerment is virt#ally impossible.


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0nce the wor$force has a level of ed#cation that enables the individ#als to analyzesit#ations in an increasingly wider contet, then if they are not empowered, fr#strationmay well res#lt.

The evol#tion of empowerment is closely lin$ed to the ideas of management that have

been in vog#e since management became an occ#pation and an area for st#dy in its ownright with the growth of large organizations d#ring the ind#strial revol#tion thatcommenced in the early 17


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Deadership is also a $ey role in the way organizations develop and th#s in the way staffare managed. 0ne of "orris2s observations in The Human Zooconcerns the similaritybetween leadership roles within primates incl#ding man. %t appears that, as a species, weneed leaders and leadership and that any organization witho#t a clearly defined leader,even if +#st as a fig#rehead, is doomed to fail#re.

The earliest annals of military history show a command str#ct#re similar to that of today2shighly technical armed forces - commander, senior officers, +#nior officers, B)0s,ordinary soldiers, sailors etc.

8eca#se of the diffic#lties of comm#nications, organizations were forced, in the main, toremain small. Those that did become large, s#ch as the )h#rch, 5oyal Bavy, etc.mentioned earlier, set #p ite comple comm#nications systems for their time anddeveloped etremely detailed operating instr#ctions.

The dmiralty in Dondon sent o#t dispatches to admirals and the captains of the ships

#nder their flag. There was also a set of detailed fighting instr#ctions telling each captainhow a partic#lar set of battle circ#mstances sho#ld be approached, in effect detailing thetactics a captain sho#ld #se. %f, li$e Belson, the captain ignored the instr#ctions andgained a victory, then little was said 'altho#gh the instr#ctions were rarely amended*. %fthe captain ignored the instr#ctions and s#ffered a defeat, then a co#rt martial was thenorm and possibly a severe p#nishment that co#ld - and in the case of dmiral 8yng in1J did - incl#de eec#tionA %t sho#ld also be noted that if the captain obeyed theinstr#ctions to the letter and still lost the fight, they wo#ld also face a co#rt martial andagain severe penalties. s this writer pointed o#t when #sing the dmiralty as an eamplein his >


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terms of tas$s, b#t also of ed#cation. They believed in the necessity for the same form ofdetailed operational instr#ctions as covered earlier when disc#ssing the fightinginstr#ctions of the 5oyal Bavy. They believed that the #ned#cated wor$force reiredtas$s to be bro$en down into simple components. Wor$ers were there to do, not to thin$.?ayol praised the idea of initiative, b#t only when shown by management. %t m#st be

remembered that there were at this time clear class distinctions in (#rope and to a lesserdegree in the 6. "anagers and wor$ers did not tal$ save to give orders and report bac$.6ocial interco#rse between these gro#ps was virt#ally #n$nown.

)learly, as ed#cational standards rose in the Western world thro#gho#t the twentiethcent#ry, it became possible to loosen the span of control by allowing for initiative. Thisbro#ght abo#t a new component to organizational str#ct#re, that of the technicians.Technicians began to bring abo#t their own empowerment thro#gh their technicalepertise - a power so#rce disc#ssed in )hapter >.This gro#p of wor$ers came to the foreas steam engines developed - they were the only people who co#ld b#ild and wor$ thesestrange new contraptions. "anagers were forced to see$ their advice if the organization

was to ma$e the best #se of the potential of new technologies. Technicians also bro#ghtforth a whole new training system, that of technical ed#cation. Whilst the older#niversities of the world, 0ford, )ambridge, @arvard, Iale, the 6orbonne, @eidelberg,etc. have their roots in classical ed#cation for the r#ling classes, the "assach#setts%nstit#te of Technology '"%T*, )DT()@, the niversity of "anchester %nstit#te of6cience and Technology '"%6T*, etc. are prod#cts of the rise of the technical and theneed for specialized ed#cation.

)ana*ement +, Contro(

4o#glas "cregor, a 6 researcher, considered that there were two positions thatmanagers co#ld adopt when considering their wor$force. The first position, which henamed Theory H, held that:

the average h#man being disli$es wor$ and avoids wor$ing if at all possible;

this disli$e of wor$ means that employees need to be controlled, directed and

even threatened if necessary if the organization is to f#lfill its ob+ectives; and

people reire direction, b#t do not want responsibility.

%n contrast, Theory I held that:

wor$ is a nat#ral h#man f#nction;

people relish responsibility;

the rewards people see$ are not only monetary; and

the intellect#al and creative potential of most employees is #nder#tilized.
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"cregor2s point was that if a manager is an adherent to Theory H, he or she willprobably be a controlling, directing, /cop/ type of manager, whilst a manager who holdsthat Theory I is nearer to reality is li$ely to adopt a more facilitating, empoweringapproach.

Theories H and I were not p#t forward as eamples of what is, b#t more as ill#strationsof the two poles of views held by managers in respect of their wor$ers. s ed#cationalopport#nities have increased it appears that Theory I is closer to reality than Theory H.There are lazy individ#als in any society, b#t in the main, wor$ is a fr#itf#l eperienceproviding social interaction, achievement, and recognition in addition to monetaryreward.

%he Importance of !chievement

Two of the most important writers on motivation, braham "aslow and ?rederic$@erzberg, have stressed the importance of achievement recognition, and what "aslow

termed self-act#alization, i.e. f#lfilling one2s own potential, as motivational factors. ll ofthese are Theory I traits and are not partic#larly amenable to management by control.

Catchin* in or Out?

Whilst the concept of management being some form of police f#nction still eists withinsome organizations, many managers have fo#nd that life is act#ally better if instead ofgoing aro#nd trying to catch people o#t, they try to catch them in instead. "ost wor$ers

are doing things correctly for most of the time, b#t in the old system it wo#ld be the fewoccasions when they did something wrong that bro#ght them to the attention ofmanagement. 6#ch an approach leads wor$ers to try to cover #p errors and th#sorganizational learning is st#nted as more is learnt from things that go wrong than thingsthat go right. %n )hapter , as part of the Toyota case st#dy, it will be shown how, if amista$e had been made, the wor$er and s#pervisor wo#ld +ointly see$ a sol#tion thatwo#ld prevent a rec#rrence. 8y allowing an error to be disc#ssed witho#t fear ofp#nishment, learning co#ld occ#r both for the individ#al wor$er and for the organization.

The idea that managers sho#ld move from a policing, controlling f#nction to that of beinga facilitator and coach has been a feat#re of the wor$ of the 6 /management g#r#./ %n

his vario#s wor$s, commencing withIn Searh of E!ellenewritten with 8obWaterman, Tom eters has stressed the need to facilitate the empowerment of thewor$force in order to release the potential reired for competitive advantage. 0ne of the$ey areas that eters has stressed is the role of the manager as a coach. The concept ofcoaching, whether in sport or b#siness, is to achieve the maim#m release of anindivid#al2s potential. %t is a process, often over a long period of time, that reires arelationship of tr#st between the parties. 4avid Dogan and ohn !ing '>


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potential to the benefit of both the individ#al and the organization. They have pointed o#tthat the diversity of having fo#r generations within the wor$place provides anopport#nity for intergenerational learning. bove all, they stress the need for tr#st in thisnew relationship between managers and wor$ers. They also stress the differencesbetween training and coaching. The former is tas$-related whilst coaching centers on the

individ#al and developing his or her potential.

rogressive organizations are now seeing that managers need to be trained and developedinto their new role. %t is no #se +#st telling somebody that they are now a coach. #st asempowerment does not occ#r beca#se of a prono#ncement from senior management,neither will a c#lt#re of coaching. "any traditional managers may be deeply s#spicio#sthat releasing the potential of their s#bordinates may epose their own v#lnerabilities.6ensitivity is reired. erhaps there is potential in the manager that is yet to be released3Who will wor$ with the managers, and how, is an iss#e organizations embar$ing #ponempowerment also need to consider.

"ace- $ender and the $(ass Cei(in*

5acism, seism, ageism, etc. are not +#st immoral and illegal in many +#risdictions, theyare also bad b#siness policy. %t is ite amazing that there are still organizations in thedeveloped world at the start of the twenty-first cent#ry that appear content to allow thepotential of a significant part of their wor$force to remain #ntapped.

rogress is being made, first thro#gh legislation and perhaps more importantly withinorganizations as senior management realize that no reso#rce can remain #nder#tilized.

Writers s#ch as 4avidson, )ooper, 8#r$e, 6tith and Wirth have shown how the glassceiling 'the barrier to progression for certain gro#ps* is being bro$en and how thisbenefits individ#als, the organization and society in general.

That there are c#lt#ral differences between gro#ps and that these may be manifested indifferent wor$ ethics cannot be denied. @owever, as ?ons Trompenaars, @arris and"oran and 5ichard Dewis have demonstrated, those managers who ta$e the time andeffort to #nderstand c#lt#ral differences can #se this $nowledge to #nloc$ potential andempower those who have been previo#sly regarded in a negative light. The growth offemale managers in %ndia is testimony to the economic benefits that can be gained bymoving forward from traditional stereotypes.

"eredith 8elbin in the !, best $nown for his wor$ on team role theory, has lin$ed hisprevio#s wor$ to a consideration of gender. 8elbin post#lates that the technologicalchanges over recent years have favored the f#rther emancipation of women and that onceorganizations and societies recognize this, then tremendo#s potential can be released. Thesame arg#ments apply to different races. @ow m#ch progress co#ld man$ind ma$e ifpeople were seen not as a race, color or creed b#t as a so#rce of potential that can bereleased by empowerment3


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The career of amela Thomas-raham, )B8) president and )(0 'the highest fricanmerican in the cable TL ind#stry*, as profiled by 5obyn 4. )lar$e in the 6eptember>


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KEY E!"#I#$ POI#%&

"anagement styles have been moving from a concern for control to a reirement

to facilitate. "anagers now need to be facilitators and coaches rather then adopt a policing

role.

)atching people in is more fr#itf#l than trying to catch them o#t.

5acism and seism have served to s#ppress potential, a sit#ation that is both

morally and managerially #nacceptable.

(mpowerment is not a point in time, b#t an area along a contin##m of freedom to

ma$e decisions.

"anagers may well not be nat#ral coaches and need g#idance in this role. They

may also feel threatened if as$ed to #nleash the potential of their staff.

Chapter .: Empowerment and the E/

Dimension

Overview

This chapter covers the role of information and comm#nication technology '%)T* inempowerment and incl#des:

%)T as an agent of empowerment;

new technologies as employment opport#nities;

removing the tyrannies of place and distance;

ed#cation;

information handling;

comm#nication;

disabilities;

negative aspects incl#ding privacy and comm#nication overload; and

best practice case st#dy - 6tephen @aw$ing.


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aradoically, developments in %)T have both accelerated and hindered theempowerment process. The ability to be free from physical, location constraints and tohave access to effective comm#nications and the wealth of information contained on the%nternet has been a great boon to the empowerment process. t the same time, however,the ease of monitoring comm#nications, the fact that managers can comm#nicate globally

in real time and the growth of s#rveillance and web cameras has meant that wor$ers canbe very closely controlled. Trac$ing technology can provide an organization with theinstant position of its sales force and engineers, etc.

These developments have been so worrying that there have calls for them to be eaminedin terms of civil liberties and h#man rights legislation. %)T can destroy the right toprivacy.

8oth the positive and negative implications of %)T in respect of empowerment arecovered below.

IC% as an !*ent of Empowerment

%)T, #sed properly, can assist greatly in releasing potential in vario#s areas, namely:

new technologies

removing the tyrannies of place and distance

ed#cation

information

comm#nication

disabilities.

#ew %echno(o*ies

The rapid rise in comp#ter-based technologies and applications from the 197


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(d#cation is a prec#rsor to empowerment. %)T is revol#tionizing the way in whiched#cation can be delivered. 4istance is no longer an iss#e. "any colleges, #niversitiesand training organizations are #sing %)T to deliver ed#cational programs to those whomight otherwise find it diffic#lt to attend reg#lar classes. When the ! governmentinstit#ted the 0pen niversity in the 19E


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rior to the development of railroads and the need for the electric telegraph to controltrain movements, the average speed of comm#nication beyond line of sight was no morethan abo#t 1< miles per ho#r. s soon as electricity began to be #sed for comm#nicationp#rposes, the effective speed of comm#nication +#mped to that of the speed of light.rovided that the parties wishing to comm#nicate possessed the right eipment and were

lin$ed by wire, they co#ld comm#nicate in real time. The empowering nat#re of thesedevelopments is not diffic#lt to see. %nformation that cannot be acted #pon is of no real#se. The ability to comm#nicate empowered those with the necessary eipment.Wireless technology empowered millions more as only the receiving and transmittingapparat#s was reired, as the technology dispensed 'hence the name* with the need for aphysical connection. Bo longer was it necessary to comm#nicate from fied points. Thedevelopment of the mobile comm#nication networ$ that is characterized today by the cellphone had beg#n.

Din$ing telephone and comp#ter technologies means the combination of information-gathering, the means of disseminating that information and the ability to confer for

decision-ma$ing over large distances in real time. %t #sed to be said that p#tting a wallbetween people c#t comm#nication by at least E


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that has been passed in many +#risdictions. @owever, legislation can only go so far andorganizations need to realize that these technologies can release potential for them byassisting those with disabilities to p#t their s$ills at the disposal of the organization.

#e*ative !spects

(mpowerment, as was shown in theprevio#s chapter,is not enco#raged in rigid, control-based management systems. nfort#nately %)T, whilst aiding empowerment as shown intheprevio#s section, can also increase the degree of control managers can eert on staff.

6ome control is always necessary in any sit#ation, b#t too great a level of control cans#ppress initiative and acts as a co#nter-force to empowerment. nfort#nately there arestill many managers who believe that their +ob is to police their staff rather than to coachand empower them.

%)T can be #sed negatively in a n#mber of ways.

Invasion of privacy

(ven as this material is being prepared in >


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access to the position of vehicles. Th#s sales, delivery, and maintenance staff can betrac$ed on a constant basis. %s this intr#sive3 6ome say yes, others claim it aids theefficiency of the organization by allowing ro#tes to be trac$ed and vehicles to bedeployed to meet needs. %t all depends on how the res#lting information is #sed. s longas employers accept that coffee and toilet brea$s are a right, then all well and good.

The sec#rity implications are obvio#s. 6tolen vehicles can be trac$ed and hopef#llyrecovered.

Lario#s co#ntries have eperimented with the electronic tagging of prisoners released onlicense. %n many ways this is a form of empowerment, as it allows the individ#al to beginto achieve his or her potential in the wider world rather than being loc$ed #p.

Unnecessary communication

(lectronic mail is sometimes too easy to #se. The ability to send the same message to a

large n#mber of people sim#ltaneo#sly and with no etra effort than sending to a singleindivid#al often proves too m#ch of a temptation.

Too m#ch electronic mail is li$ely to res#lt in important messages not receiving thepriority they deserve in addition to ca#sing information overload. %t may also be temptingfor control-centered managers to be constantly iss#ing instr#ctions and demanding data tothe detriment of the wor$ that needs to be done.

s in all new developments, responsibility is reired and the lead sho#ld come frommanagement or else bad habits may seem to have some form of official approval.

Di$e all developments, the %nternet and its associated technology are ne#tral. Whether itis #sed as a positive aid to empowerment or as a negative bra$e on releasing staffpotential is in the hands of the managers of an organization. sed wisely, the vastamo#nts of information available and the speed of comm#nication can help releasetremendo#s individ#al potential.

0E&% P"!C%ICE

&tephen awin*

s mentioned earlier in this chapter, 6tephen @aw$ing has become a best-selling a#thornot in the #s#al genres of detective stories, m#rder mysteries, thrillers, romance, orscience fiction b#t in the field of science fact-an area #s#ally dominated by academictets.

@aw$ing has a rare s$ill of ma$ing the deepest mysteries of the #niverse #nderstandableby those with only a high school 'or less* $nowledge of physics. %n 199 this respectedscientist wrote the foreword to The Physis of Star Tre"by Dawrence !ra#ss 'himself


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mbrose 6wasey rofessor of hysics, rofessor of stronomy, and )hair of the4epartment of hysics at )ase Western 5eserve niversity in the 6*, written inresponse to the h#ge interest in science fictionCscience fact that has developed alongsidethe pop#lar 6tar Tre$ series of television programs and movies. That serio#s scientistss#ch as these and science fiction can come together in this way is in part d#e to the role

@aw$ing has played in ma$ing physics and cosmology so #nderstandable.

%n fact whilst @aw$ing has written a n#mber of boo$s for the general mar$et in additionto learned scientific papers, he is not a writer by trade, b#t holds the D#casian )hair of"athematics 'a post once held by %saac Bewton* in the 4epartment of pplied"athematics and hysics at )ambridge niversity, sit#ated in the fenlands of (nglandand one of the world2s most renowned seats of learning.

"arried with three children and one grandchild, @aw$ing wo#ld be an interesting s#b+ectfor a case st#dy p#rely on his ability to p#t forward comple ideas in an #nderstandableformat. @e was one of the main contrib#tors to the demonstration that (instein2s general

theory of relativity pointed towards creation via the 8ig 8ang and the forming of blac$holes. @is academic alifications incl#de his h4, 1> honorary degrees, fellowship ofthe 5oyal 6ociety and membership of the 6 Bational cademy of 6cience. %n 197> hewas made a )ommander of the 0rder of the 8ritish (mpire ')8(* by @er "a+esty theF#een.

What is even more remar$able is that in another age, @aw$ing2s brilliance might neverhave realized its potential. 8orn in 19K>, he went to 0ford niversity and at the age of>1 was diagnosed as s#ffering from motor ne#rone disease '"B4*Canyotropic lateralsclerosis 'D6*.

8y then, @aw$ing was #nderta$ing postgrad#ate research at )ambridge and on theadvice of his doctors he ret#rned to his research, b#t with the $nowledge that he had aninc#rable disease. nda#nted, he gained a fellowship at onville and )ai#s 'prono#nced!eys* )ollege and married ane Wilde. ane @aw$ing, as she is now $nown, is the a#thorofMusi to Move the Stars # a $ife with Stephen, p#blished in 1999.

8y 19K they had three children b#t by 197


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comp#ter epert named Walt Woltosz from the 6 sent @aw$ing a comp#ter programhe had written, called (alizer. The program allowed @aw$ing to choose words from aseries of men#s on the screen, by pressing a switch in his hand. The program co#ld alsobe controlled by a switch, operated by head or eye movement - #nremar$able by today2sstandards, b#t revol#tionary in the 197


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the global mar$etplace;

globalization;

growth and empowerment;

the effect of the empowerment of the global c#stomer;

global ed#cation and empowerment;

the need to ta$e acco#nt of c#lt#ral norms when embar$ing #pon anempowerment process; and

best practice - "arriott @otels.

lobalization is defined by (llwood '>


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Whilst (llwood 'oted earlier* states that it was (#ropeans who began the globalizationprocess, today they have been +oined by organizations from other parts of the world. 6organizations ?ord, eneral "otors, )oca-)ola, %8", Wal-"art, 8oeing, and "icrosoftare +#st some of the larger players and from the ?ar (ast 6ony, @y#ndai, "its#bishi,"its#i, and Toyota have +oined %mperial )hemical %nd#stries '%)%* and P0 from the

!, 5oyal 4#tch 6hell from the Betherlands and irb#s %nd#strie, the pan-(#ropeancommercial aircraft man#fact#rer.

%t is sal#tary to note that according to the 1999 BHuman %evelopment &eport, the totalsales in 199 of eneral "otors, ?ord and "its#i were each greater than the grossdomestic prod#ct '4* of 6a#di rabia - an oil-rich co#ntry 'sales in =6: eneral"otors - =1Ebn, ?ord - =1Kbn, "its#i - =1KJbn; 4 of 6a#di rabia - =1K


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There reaches a point, however, when the organization, li$e most living organisms, is toobig to f#nction as a single entity controlled by one brain. %t can become a /society/coordinated by a central a#thority.

What tends to happen is that the organization grows by either aciring s#bsidiary

operations or developing them from its original core b#sinesses. These s#bsidiaries,whilst being controlled by the parent company, will have their own hierarchies and th#s adegree of organizational empowerment. They are epected to contrib#te financially andreport to the parent whilst coordinating their activities with other members of the gro#p,b#t they are li$ely to have at least some degree of a#tonomy and th#s empowerment. %t isoften the case that the s#bsidiaries are the repositories of local $nowledge and areempowered to #se this $nowledge to the benefit of the gro#p as a whole.

part from size, one of the reasons that organizations have had to empower staff has beenthe advent of a new phenomenon bro#ght on by the %nternet and the ease of transportacross the globe - the empowered global cons#mer.

%he Empowered $(o+a( Consumer

There #sed to be a time, as recently as the 19E


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@e or she will epect local managers to have the power to ma$e s#ch decisions. @enceglobalization leads to empowerment as an almost nat#ral process.

"any global organizations realize that there also needs to be a commonality of alityand service and th#s empowerment is granted, b#t within the overall policy g#idelines of

the company. "c4onald2s, one of the great global fast food brands, has very strictstandardized ality systems b#t serves beer in ermany, tho#gh not in the !. Docalmanagers can introd#ce local variations after cons#ltation with corporate headarters.

The best practice case st#dy at the end of this chapter is on "arriott @otels, a companythat has grown internationally by empowering its staff.

$(o+a( Education and Empowerment

The role of ed#cation as an important facilitator of empowerment has already beenstressed in this material. commitment to ed#cation by the vast ma+ority of the world2s

nations and the development of information and comm#nication technology, especiallythe %nternet, is assisting in the opening #p of ed#cational access across the globe.

The world2s more entreprene#rial colleges and #niversities have been ic$ to realize theetra dimension that the %nternet can bring to distance and open learning in reachinglarger n#mbers of potential st#dents. The technology provides a far greater degree ofinteraction between instit#tion and st#dent and between st#dents than is possible in aprint- and mail-based ed#cation system. These developments have been evol#tionaryrather than revol#tionary. #stralia was a pioneer in #sing the radio to provide elementaryed#cation to remote areas, whilst the 0pen niversity in the ! #sed television, radio,and print media for #ndergrad#ate st#dies from the late 19E


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The glass ceiling that has prevented women and minority gro#ps from attaining the highprofile positions many of them deserve has also been covered earlier. There is still a glassceiling in the 6 and m#ch of the so-called /West/, b#t it is often nothing whencompared to the social and employment position of women in other parts of the world.There are areas where women are denied wor$ and even ed#cation; the Taliban regime in

fghanistan was strongly criticized at the end of the last and the beginning of this cent#ryin this respect.

%n other areas, promotion is less a f#nction of ability as of time served or even age.(mpowered yo#nger employees may be resented in s#ch a system.

Those see$ing to empower employees in another c#lt#re need to ta$e great care they aresensitive to the c#lt#ral norms. Trompenaars, Dewis, and @arris and "oran have writtenat length abo#t the diffic#lties and methods for cond#cting b#siness affairs in otherc#lt#res and are well worth cons#lting before attempting to implement an empowermentprogram. (ven if a c#lt#re is not geared to the empowerment of certain gro#ps, this does

not mean that the stat#s o has to be accepted. )#lt#res are dynamic and do change,albeit slowly. %t does mean, however, that care and sensitivity are needed.

?ons Trompenaars has been one of the foremost writers in considering the implications ofc#lt#ral differences for global operations. s he ma$es clear, there is great potential inempowering wor$ers with different c#lt#ral norms, b#t only if it is done in a sensitivemanner that recognizes both the wor$ers2 c#lt#ral norms and needs and those of theorganization. 8y a caref#l st#dy of how a partic#lar c#lt#re does things, the organizationcan adapt its policies to ma$e the best of the s$ills in that c#lt#re. (very c#lt#re haspartic#lar strengths and empowerment is abo#t b#ilding on strengths.

(mpowerment may not mean the same in different c#lt#res and managers need to ens#rethat they are on the same wavelength as their employees whom they are trying toempower. 6ome c#lt#res are m#ch more hierarchical than others and whilst this mayseem to add etra reporting layers, it may be important for social cohesion. 0ther c#lt#resmay not readily accept the empowerment of minority gro#ps or women. s stated earlierthis does not mean empowerment sho#ld cease - only that it he handled caref#lly andsensitively.

%he Divided Wor(d

)ommentators often refer to the world as being divided between the haves and the have-nots. erhaps a fairer description might be that there are the empowered and the non-empowered. "any of the critics of the growth of globalization claim that the process doeslittle to increase the prosperity of wor$ers in developing co#ntries or empower them, b#tonly serves to increase profits for the global organizations. They point to the rise ofterrorism on a global scale as being a symptom of the lac$ of empowerment and a feelingof helplessness amongst the #nempowered. Bot s#rprisingly, there are those who claim


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that the horrific events of 6eptember 11, > by the >E-year-old, newly married .Willard "arriott. Dater that year, the name @ot 6hoppe was adopted when the standstarted to serve food and again in 19> "arriott opened a drive-in @ot 6hoppe, also inWashington 4).

Whilst the drive-in operation showed "arriott2s flair for grasping opport#nities, in thiscase the beginnings of mass a#tomobile ownership, his net vent#re was even moreentreprene#rial. %n 19 he pioneered in-flight catering for (astern, merican and )apitalirlines. This operation was based on Washington 4)2s original airport - @oover irfield- now the site of the entagon. 8y 199 he was also servicing government cafeterias, aprofitable vent#re given the h#ge epansion of government activities d#ring the waryears.

6taying in the Washington 4) area, "arriott opened his first hotel, the Twin 8ridges"arriott "otor @otel in rlington, L in 19J. ltho#gh this was to be the start of ama+or global hotel chain, "arriott-@ot 6hoppe 'as the company was re-titled in 19EK*contin#ed in the fast food b#siness, b#ying #p other operations and becominginternational in 19EK with the acisition of an airline catering operation in Lenez#ela.

nother name change in 19E saw the @ot 6hoppe title dropped and the companybecoming the "arriott )orporation. 8y the 197


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The 197


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%he Ke, E(ements of Empowerment

%n theprevio#s chapterit was stated that empowerment is part of a triangle with the threesides being:

empowerment; ed#cation; and

organizational commitment.

0n their own, each of the above is meaningless. (mpowered people 'or pse#do-empowered people in this instance* witho#t ed#cation and eperience will not have thes$ills to ma$e effective decisions, however committed the organization is. %f theorganization is not f#lly committed to empowerment then the whole eercise is li$ely tobe +#st rhetoric and have no s#bstance, a state of affairs that leads to fr#stration.

(mpowerment depends #pon:

a committed organization;

committed employees;

clear goals and norms;

facilitating managers;

a c#lt#re of enterprise rather than blame; and

tr#st between all parties.

A committe organi!ation

When Tom eters and 8ob Waterman p#blishedIn Searh of E!ellenein 197>, theyintrod#ced a new way of thin$ing to management. 8#ilding on the wor$ of ?iedler'19EK*, they demonstrated practical eamples of what is $nown as contingency theory.revio#s views of management had so#ght to find a /one right way to manage;/contingency theory states that there is no one way to manage, b#t a series of styles etc.that managers can adopt contingent #pon the sit#ation. Th#s, whilst sho#ting o#t ordersmay not be the #s#al method of managing a highly motivated and well-trained staff, thereare times when it is the right thing to do. fire in the b#ilding is a good eample:managers sho#ld not instigate a disc#ssion at s#ch moments.

"a @astings and 6imon en$ins have recorded the eperience of a 5oyal Bavy warshipcaptain d#ring the 197> ?al$lands conflict between the ! and rgentina. s the captainpointed o#t, whilst disc#ssion and involving everybody in decisions was applicable tonormal peacetime management, it was less s#ited to war conditions. %n a crisis and as the
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bombs began to fall, the captain started sho#ting o#t orders. This was what everybodywanted - an a#thority fig#re to ta$e instant decisions. They did not want to sit aro#nddebating whether a move to starboard or to port was the right answer - they wo#ld havebeen s#n$ long before a decision was reached. fter the action, however, it was right andproper for the captain to gather those involved together regardless of ran$ to disc#ss what

happened and how performance might be improved. 6ome things can never be delegatedand command of a warship is one of them, hence the importance of tr#st, to be coveredlater in this chapter. s one sailor remar$ed in conversation with the writer of thismaterial, /there is no need to li$e yo#r officers, b#t yo# do have to tr#st themA/

Tom eters has gone on to write a large n#mber of boo$s on the s#b+ect of ecellence,ality and getting the most o#t of people 'see)hapter 7*. %nIn Searh of E!ellene,eters and Waterman introd#ced a series of attrib#tes for ecellent companies, three ofwhich are partic#larly appropriate in a consideration of empowerment.

Productivit, throu*h peop(e

%t is people who get things done. 8ehind every #sef#l machine is a h#man beingprogramming or operating it. 0rganizations that do not loo$ after their people may bes#ccessf#l in the short term, b#t will end #p losing good employees to organizations thathave a more people-oriented attit#de. (mpowered people are an asset beca#se they areable to be more effective and are #s#ally better motivated. The more control a person hasover a tas$, the more efficiently they are li$ely to carry it o#t. s the Toyota case st#dy in)hapter points o#t, the best people to carry o#t ality ass#rance are the people act#allyma$ing the prod#ct. %f they are empowered and have pride in their wor$, they have avested interest that goes far beyond wage rem#neration to ens#re ality.

!utonom, and entrepreneurship

eters and Waterman demonstrated that those organizations that provided staff with adegree of a#tonomy within corporate g#idelines appeared more s#ccessf#l than thoseoperating strict controls on staff initiative. )ompanies s#ch as Doc$heed with theirfamo#s /s$#n$ wor$s/ operations and pple with the development of the "acintosh havebeen able to tap into the innate entreprene#rism of employees to prod#ce new prod#ctsthat have asto#nded the world. @owever, controls are necessary, as demonstrated below.

&imu(taneous (oose/ti*ht properties

n interesting term b#t a very important one. Whatever happens within an organizationsho#ld be in accordance with the goals and norms of that organization. eters andWaterman fo#nd that in ecellent organizations, the bo#ndaries on a#tonomy were veryclearly defined - the tennis co#rt principle: when the ball is in, everything is 0!, b#t if itcrosses the line, the point is lost. )#lt#re, ality standards, and financial controls sho#ldbe tight. %nitiative and decision-ma$ing can then be s#b+ect to empowerment within theg#idelines. 0nce the r#les are clearly $nown, staff can then be empowered to act $nowingthat they have the s#pport of the organization.
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Witho#t the commitment of the organization, empowerment cannot happen. s will beshown below, managers have to b#y in to the empowerment principle and employeesneed confidence and sec#rity to accept being empowered. ltimately, m#ch depends ontr#st.

"ommitte employees

iven that recognition and achievement have been shown to be important motivators, itmight be epected that all employees wo#ld welcome empowerment. @owever, this isoften not the case.

iven that the concept of empowering employees is relatively new with manyorganizations only +#st beginning to move away from strict controls, it is not s#rprisingthat employees might be s#spicio#s.

The $ind of otes one obtains when tal$ing to employees abo#t their s#spicions are:

/%t2s management2s +ob to manage, not o#rs./

/% +#st wor$ here, they2re paid to ma$e decisions./

/% s#ppose this means more wor$ for no more pay./

/Who ta$es the blame if it goes wrong3/

/%2m not alified./

0ne cannot blame people who have been s#b+ect to strict controls and a blame c#lt#re

'see later* for thin$ing this way. (mpowerment is more than +#st an administrative ands$ills process, it is also a hearts and minds process. The words of a certain 6 official 'onotapplyA 'The official is rep#ted to have remar$ed, when as$ed abo#t a hearts andminds campaign d#ring the Lietnam War, /when yo#2ve got them by the bQQls, theirhearts and minds will follow./* The opposite is tr#e. 4espite years of oppression, the (asterman people never really too$ comm#nism to their hearts and when the 8erlin Wallcame down, the way the comm#nist philosophy disappeared from the (ast ermanpeople was spectac#lar.

eople cannot be forced to be empowered, nor will +#st telling them that they areempowered be eno#gh. (mpowerment is very m#ch a state of mind and an attit#de. To

assist the process of b#ying in to empowerment, the organization needs to ens#re that thefinal fo#r items in this section are given caref#l attention. 0nce employees feel sec#rewith the commitment of the organization to empowerment as a shared idea and not a wayof imposing on staff, they are li$ely to be m#ch more amenable to its concepts.


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"lear goals an norms

%t is impossible for people to ma$e effective decisions #nless they are very clear abo#t thecontet within which those decisions will be implemented. %f empowerment is to beeffective, the organization m#st ens#re that all concerned #nderstand the goals of the

organization and the norms to which it operates. s covered earlier, these norms act li$ethe bo#ndary lines on a tennis co#rt. They give a clear indication of the scope of decision-ma$ing power and an indication of when it is necessary to see$ higher a#thority.

n #nderstanding of what the organization is see$ing to achieve is an importantmotivational factor and provides the framewor$ aro#nd which empowerment can occ#r. %tis diffic#lt for staff to feel sec#re with empowerment if they are #ns#re of where thebo#ndaries of their a#thority act#ally are.

#acilitating managers

The threat the empowerment of staff can present to managers has already been mentionedand sho#ld never be #nderestimated. Whilst staff may often perceive that their boss issec#re, the tr#th is that many managers worry abo#t their own abilities. %t sho#ld be a tas$of every manager to assist and coach his or her staff, b#t #nfort#nately too many neglectthis area of managerial responsibility.

The manager as a coach is a very important part of empowerment. Dogan and !ing haveaddressed this iss#e in The (oahing &evolution. They ote from eperience at "arriott@otels 'seeprevio#s chapter* of how effective a manager who adopts a coaching role canbe. Di$e many coaches in sport, coachCmanagers may see their protRgRs overta$e them inability. This sho#ld not be a threat, as most people who s#cceed never forget who their

mentors were. 0rganizations appreciate managers who can bring people on.

nother $ey managerial role is to ens#re that the empowered receive not +#st a#thority,b#t have access to all the reso#rces reired to ma$e and implement decisions. manager2s role is to facilitate reso#rces, not to hold them bac$ witho#t very good reason.

Those wishing to introd#ce empowerment will need to ens#re that the managers of theorganization are on board first. (mpowerment that is accepted by senior management andthe wor$force b#t only has lip service paid to it by middle management is doomed tofail#re.

A culture of enterprise rather than blame

blame c#lt#re can rarely be one that enco#rages empowerment. %n a blame c#lt#re,people are far too b#sy covering a certain part of their anatomy ')I* to wish to ma$edecisions for which they may then be p#nished. The whole concept of catching people inrather than o#t is to enco#rage decision-ma$ing. "ista$es will occ#r and it is the role ofthe manager to wor$ in partnership with the responsible persons 'see )hapter >* to findo#t what went wrong, why it went wrong and how can it be avoided in f#t#re.
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%f people feel that mista$es lead to p#nishment, then they will try to cover them #p andthe opport#nity to find a sol#tion will be lost.

The above does not mean that empowerment is a soft action. "ista$es that occ#r bygoing beyond the g#idelines are a different matter. (mpowerment carries with it rights

and responsibilities and one of the ma+or responsibilities is $nowing when to say /no, thatis beyond my a#thority or remit./ This is not infleibility provided that the g#idelines ares#fficiently broad in the first place.

0ne of the benefits of empowerment is that the employees begin to act as their owncontrol mechanism. They are often far harder on themselves than senior managementmight be. This does not ca#se problems, as the employees have ownership of the iss#es.

Trust between all parties

The final reirement in this section is that the parties need to tr#st each other.

(mployees need to $now that empowerment is good both for the organization andthemselves. 8lame c#lt#res 'see above* need to be eliminated and managers sho#ld beassisted to move from facilitation to control. Tr#st is never one-way: it always has to bereciprocated. 0nce there is tr#st, tr#e empowerment can ta$e place and the f#ll potentialof the staff can be employed in f#lfilling the goals of the organization.

ow Empowerin* Or*ani5ations 0ehave

Those organizations that have moved towards empowerment show certain characteristics

that are less evident in control-based organizations. 6preitzer and F#inn '>


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abo#t relaing control as competence grows and not stic$ing rigidly to control systemsthat inhibit potential rather than release it. The management s$ill is $nowing when toeert control and when to release it. %n many ways, this is very m#ch li$e the role of aparent. good parent or manager will ens#re that the offspringCemployee has all the s$illsand $nowledge reired and will then bac$ away to allow potential to be displayed.

The person who matters most, according to 6preitzer and F#inn, is act#ally the persondoing the empowering. This person is going to have to display leadership s$ills and to dothat needs to be empowered him-or herself. 6elf-$nowledge is a $ey to effectiveleadership. !nowing who we are and, importantly, what o#r strengths and limitations areempowers #s. manager who $nows where he or she is going tends to instill confidencein staff. @owever, if he or she does not show that they have concern for the developmentof their staff potential, they may find that those #nder them regard them with s#spicion.There will be an absence of tr#st, as staff perceive that all their hard wor$ is going intosomebody else2s career plan. %n an empowered organization, everybody2s career plan isassisted.

6preitzer and F#inn also stress the need for s#pport and tr#st as covered earlier in thischapter. They also consider the importance of vision. Lision is $ey to any s#ccessf#lorganization. @owever, vision sho#ld not be p#rely confined to senior management.Lision 'i.e. what the organization is and where it is going* needs to permeate the wholeorganization, not as a trite mission statement b#t as a living thing that is not only $nownb#t is #nderstood by everybody. 0nce people #nderstand the vision, they can see theirrole in achieving it.

The final comment to be made on the wor$ of 6preitzer and F#inn is their distinctionbetween mechanistic and organic empowerment. Whilst the vision for the organization

#s#ally comes from the top, a top down approach to other concepts s#ch as delegation,rewards, and tas$-setting is very mechanistic. n organic approach is more concernedwith #nderstanding the needs of the employees 'the writer wo#ld also add #nderstandingthe needs of the c#stomers as well*, prod#cing a model for empowered behavior, #singteam b#ilding to enco#rage cooperation, enco#raging intelligent and considered ris$-ta$ing, and then tr#sting people to perform.

s was shown in the case st#dy on "arriott @otels in the last chapter, standard operatingproced#res '60s* cannot dictate how the #n#s#al is dealt with and it is an organicapproach to empowerment that enables people to ta$e decisions in this area.

"any managers will feel more comfortable with mechanistic empowerment as it showsthat they are doing something to empower the wor$force, b#t on their own terms and withretention of control. 0rganic ris$-ta$ing may be more of a threat, b#t the rewards for allconcerned can be m#ch greater as it is more li$ely to release the potential of the managersin addition to the employees.


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company was formed many years ago by Borman Bormal to man#fact#re the/Bormalator./

The $ey point of the boo$ is that 5alph had potential and yet the company never releasedit, and when he had a good idea nobody wo#ld listen, as it wasn2t their +ob to initiate

change.Zappis well worth reading to see how 5alph becomes empowered #singsomething entitled Sapp. @#moro#s certainly, b#t with a serio#s message,Zappis wellworth st#dying for anybody involved with empowerment who wishes to release h#manenergy.

"any managers are amazed to find that their employees are $nown in their comm#nitiesfor other things. They may be ecellent m#sicians, preachers, mechanics, gardeners,handymen, b#tterfly collectors, model railroaders etc. t wor$ they may appear d#ll and#nmotivated. Their energy is not directed to the organization: they only do as m#ch asthey need to collect their pay. Whose fa#lt is this3 The talent is there, the energy foro#tside activities eist. )o#ld it be that they are empowered o#twith wor$ and receive

more than money - recognition and achievement perhaps3 6ho#ld the organization not bedeflecting some of that energy towards its goals thro#gh empowerment3

KEY E!"#I#$ POI#%&

There is a lin$ between empowerment, ed#cation and organizational commitment.

nless the organization, the managers and the employees are committed to

empowerment, it is #nli$ely to occ#r.

There will be times when strict controls and orders are reired - this is the

contingency approach.

rod#ctivity thro#gh people, a#tonomy and entreprene#rship, and sim#ltaneo#s

loose-tight properties as described by eters and Waterman are importantorganizational considerations when contemplating empowerment.

(mpowerment wor$s best when employees are aware of the organizational vision,

goals, and norms.

nder normal circ#mstances, managers sho#ld facilitate rather than control if

empowerment is to prosper.

8lame c#lt#res inhibit empowerment.

Tr#st is a vital ingredient in empowerment.

Team s#pport and team roles have an important empowering effect.


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many of its independent national sales directors earning career commissions in ecess of=1mn.

llied to the commercial side of the enterprise is the "ary !ay sh )haritable?o#ndation which contrib#tes both to cancer research, partic#larly cancers affecting

women, and to the prevention of violence against women.

%n order to empower women in the 19E


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/inanial opportunity+(ach cons#ltant operates as an independent b#sinessperson

who can choose to operate her b#siness according to a pace and sched#le thatwor$s best for her individ#al life, with no limits on her ability to earn andprogress in her "ary !ay career. Th#s those wor$ing for "ary !ay are reallywor$ing for themselves.

Personal 'evelopment an' fulfillment+Wor$ing in the "ary !ay environment is

abo#t more than money. %t is also abo#t self-confidence, self-esteem and self-respect. "ary !ay wants all women to #se their od-given talent to becomebetter than they are.

The %0 for the company was in 19E7 and by 19> sales had reached the =17mn levelwith the distinctive pin$ tr#c$s becoming a familiar sight on 6 highways. nn#algrowth #p to 197 was an average of >7M and by 197K over half of the employees werewomen, with a third of the cons#ltants combining their "ary !ay activities with other+obs.

downt#rn in 197J led to "ary !ay sh organizing a leveraged b#yo#t in order toreorganize the company.

"ary !ay now operates a worldwide operation with 1991 retail sales being over =1bnand in 199> the company made its ?ort#ne J


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1991: 5etail sales eceed =1bn.

199J: "ary !ay now in >K mar$ets incl#ding )hina and 5#ssia.

199E: "ary !ay sh )haritable ?o#ndation set #p.

1999: "ar$ets now n#mber 1.

>


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the importance of setting bo#ndaries and then empowering people, as disc#ssed in theearlier chapters of this material. ?ate, however, intervened in a dramatic fashion andplaced this writer in a sit#ation where the empowerment of staff became clearly apparent.The E,


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passengers - especially important where h#mor is concerned, as many comedy acts tendto be nationally specific in their material.

6#ch a diverse gro#p m#st be empowered. The entertainment is live and those providingit are living in direct contact with their a#dience. bad performance one night and a

passenger might well tell the performer abo#t it the net day. s the entertainment is anintegral part of the vacation pac$age it is not #n#s#al for members of the a#dience towal$ o#t midway if they are #nhappy abo#t something or thin$ they might be betterentertained elsewhere on the ship. %t is do#btf#l whether those who had paid for a8roadway show wo#ld be as inclined to leave in s#ch a manner.

)r#ise directors s#ch as hil 5aymond have to earn the respect of entertainers and laydown clear g#idelines as to what can and cannot be done and then rely on the entertainerto interpret those g#idelines within the ambience of their act. )ertain comedy s#b+ects are#s#ally taboo - seasic$ness being one of them '#nless referred to obliely*. The age andeperience range of the a#diences can be very large and th#s material needs to be middle

of the road. 6pecial late night cabaret spots provide for more ad#lt entertainment - allother material m#st be clean.

cts are boo$ed by the shore office, b#t advice is ta$en from cr#ise directors who try tosee new acts on land before recommending them for a cr#ise ven#e. erforming at sea inclose contact with the a#dience on a day-to-day basis is not for those entertainers whoval#e their privacy.

hil 5aymond2s approach to empowerment is a c#stomer-foc#sed one. @e enco#rages hisstaff to empathize with the c#stomer and to go the etra mile for them. 5epeat b#siness ishighly important to the P0 rincess operation and the company needs c#stomers who

will remember the etra inp#t from staff and who will tell their friends. @e also believesin a rob#st reporting and appraisal system that allows him to disc#ss what went right andwhat was not so good abo#t a show or event. @is philosophy is learning, not p#nishment'altho#gh he has the sanction of recommending removal from the ship if necessary*. Bewstaff are /b#ddied/ by more eperienced team members. The ! operation is fort#nate inthat many of the staff have been with the fleet for some time and are th#s $nown to therepeat passengers, to whom they can introd#ce newcomers. There is considerable in-ho#se training and a camaraderie that allows staff to disc#ss ideas freely. assengers donot want a standardized prod#ct for their entertainment. amie2s izzes on theAuroraaredifferent from those cond#cted by (mma. 8oth are good b#t it is the individ#als whoma$e the difference and add variety. That an individ#al approach can be ta$en in anoverall standardized ality contet is at the heart of empowerment. 6taff $now wherethe bo#ndaries are and that they are free to wor$ within them. %n a tennis analogy, hil5aymond only has to be a cop when the ball is o#t and even then, the performer etc.$nows that the ball was o#t. %t only when there is a disp#te that the #mpire role comesinto play.

That sho#ld have been the meat of this case st#dy.


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@owever, the >


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were told or ordered to, b#t beca#se they lived and wor$ed in a system that hasempowered its members to ta$e initiative and responsibility.

Watching resident eorge W 8#sh address the nation that evening, the writer was str#c$by the lac$ of visible anger and the steely )h#rchillian resolve shown by the 6 citizens

crowded into a barCdiner not a mile from the White @o#se - another sign that the attac$was really a dismal fail#re. @e remar$ed to a man net to him that it was diffic#lt for aforeigner to $now how to respond 'even if that foreigner has wor$ed in the 6 and servedbriefly with its military*.

0n finding that the writer was from the !, the man made a remar$ that will stay withthis writer for a long time:

/@ell, yo#2re no foreigner - yo# g#ys are family. We $now yo#2ll stand by #s./

6o it proved, as the ! prime minister anno#nced within ho#rs of the attac$ that 8ritain

wo#ld stand sho#lder to sho#lder with the 6 and there were few dry eyes, 8ritish ormerican, in a hotel bar a few days after the attac$ when the g#ard at 8#c$inghamalace played /The 6tar 6pangled 8anner/ on the orders of @er "a+esty the F#een.iven that the words relate to a little #npleasantness between the 6 and the ! in 171>,it was all the more poignant.

%t is at moments of crisis that the tr#e nat#re of empowerment is shown. Telephonecomm#nications between the 6 and the ! were overloaded. TheAurorawas at seaand most of the c#stomers were scattered across the (astern seaboards of the 6 and)anada with some at the very heart of the attac$s.

%t is only since ret#rning to the ! that the efforts p#t in by P0 staff to ascertain thewhereabo#ts and safety of the passengers has become apparent. %n one case the companyprevailed #pon a hotel operator to have a room opened to chec$ if the final two peoplehad act#ally slept in. They were, in fact, on 6taten %sland and #nable to ret#rn to"anhattan. The writer and his partner had not #nderta$en the organized ec#rsion inWashington, 4), that day and ret#rned to the hotel in the afternoon to find an anio#sto#r g#ide stationed in the foyer trying to acco#nt for his last two /charges./

8y 6eptember 1>, the company had ascertained that than$f#lly none of the passengers orcrew on leave had been $illed or in+#red and #sed technology to set #p a ! emergencytelephone call center and information on the corporate Website informing relatives that

their loved ones were safe. 8y 6eptember 1K 'only three days after the attac$* thecompany had p#t into place all of its contingency plans. These affected not +#st theAurora.b#t also the&oyal Priness.which had doc$ed in Bew Ior$ on 6eptember 1


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ret#rn trip might ta$e 1< days, they wo#ld be s#re of reaching home safely. ssistancewas provided in contacting employers as a n#mber of passengers were worried abo#t nott#rning #p for wor$ as planned. Bot s#rprisingly, of all those spo$en to who had thisconcern, not one employer said anything other than /all that matters is that yo#2re safe -+#st get bac$ in one piece./

Aurorasprogram was to have been to leave Bew Ior$ on 6eptember 1J, visitingBewport, 5%, 8oston, " and 8ar @arbor before setting off across the tlantic for a6eptember >J arrival in 6o#thampton.

With the need to pic$ #p stranded passengers in )anada and to embar$ crew andentertainers to replace those who had flown bac$ on 6eptember 9, the program wasamended to a 8oston depart#re on 6eptember 1J followed by a day at sea to alloweverybody some rest with a visit to 8ar @arbor on 6eptember 1 and @alifa, Bova6cotia on the net day in order to pic$ #p the remaining complement. Bew Ior$ harborbeing closed,Aurorahad berthed at 8oston2s rmy terminal to discharge her first charter

'the second being canceled*. These new arrangements were released as a press statementand a note to passengers on 6eptember 1K. "#ch effort had to be p#t into establishingcomm#nications with those traveling independently, b#t the systems appear to havewor$ed.

%t was a long b#s +o#rney for many on 6eptember 1J. The party that had been down as faras 5ichmond had a J


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the passengers had never eperienced s#ch high levels of sec#rity. high sec#rity statecan be threatening in itself. Whilst for some it may give reass#rance, it can also act as areminder of what has and may yet happen. 0ne cannot order staff to appear calm anda#thoritative. 0ne can only train and empower them.

0ne thing remar$ed on by many was of the welcome they received bac$ on board. Thefied smile for the c#stomer is well $nown, b#t the welcome bac$ received on boardAurorawas very gen#ine. 6taff were glad to see their c#stomers bac$ safe and so#nd andfell over themselves to provide etra little $indnesses and service. %t appears that thesewere spontaneo#s and not planned. The company $nows that they can rely on anempowered staff to act as circ#mstances dictate. )ommon sense was shown. "any of thecrew $new the writer well. 0n staggering aboard over 1> ho#rs since leaving a hotel in6o#thern ennsylvania, he was greeted and then as$ed /do yo# need somebody to showyo# #p to yo#r cabin3/ (ven tho#gh there had been a cabin change, he $new the way andwas able to relieve a steward of the chore of escorting him, th#s ma$ing that staffmember available for somebody less familiar with the ship.

The embar$ation and sailing from 8oston after the events of the previo#s wee$ co#ldhave been very #nsettling. Than$s to a staff who $new what to do and when to do it, itwas as pleasant as possible #nder the circ#mstances. The entertainment staff had beenbriefed on the coping cycle and how to react to passengers in distress. The day at sea to#nwind was an ecellent idea, as was the choice of the first n#mber by the singer'act#ally the theater director as the g#est artistes were not able to +oin #ntil @alifa* at theshow that night. @e chose /ive my regards to 8roadway/ as a trib#te to the city andpeople of Bew Ior$. %t was +#st the right to#ch.

With the eception of the tail end of @#rricane abrielle that passed to the Borth, the trip

home was #neventf#l. @owever, when the tip of Dizard oint in the 6o#th West of(ngland emerged o#t of the mist on the afternoon of 6eptember >K this writer, for one,felt a h#ge weight drop away.

s an incidental, 17 ho#rs into her maiden voyage in >


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19J: Wor$ed in cl#bs in (ngland and on television.

19: ppointed by )handris Dines as an artiste on the 66 #stralis. aid off in

#stralia and wor$ed his passage bac$ to ! as an assistant cr#ise director pl#s awee$ly cabaret.

199: 0pened an entertainment agency in ?ol$estone and managed three top

night-cl#bsCdiscos.

1971: ppointed as cr#ise director for ?red 0lsen Dines 8lac$ Watch.

197>: ppointed cr#ise director for P0, wor$ing on )anberra and LictoriaC6ea

rincess.

199: )anberra2s final season, the ship arriving in 6o#thampton to emotional

scenes in 6eptember. oined the rcadia.

1999: ppointed as cr#ise director of P02s new flagship,Aurora.then b#ildingin ermany.

>


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6ept 1: 4ay of mo#rning in 6. "anyAurorapassengers display 6tars and

6tripes and wear national colors.

6ept 1J: 8oo$ed and stranded passengers re+oinAurorain 8oston, " #nder

strict sec#rity. 6hip sails at midnight.

6ept 1E: 4ay spent at sea.

6ept 1:Auroraarrives in 8ar @arbor, "(. Docal pop#lation provides a grand

welcome. 4eparts in the evening.

6ept 17:Auroraarrives @alifa, Bova 6cotia. 5eplacement crew and some

stranded passengers embar$ed. Deaves for 6o#thampton in the evening.

6ept >K: fter trac$ing so#th to avoid @#rricane abrielle,Aurorasights the6o#th coast of (ngland and proceeds #p the (nglish )hannel.

6ept >J:Auroraberths in 6o#thampton.

KEY I#&I$%&

The entertainment ind#stry depends on the empowerment of people, especially for

live performances. erformers need to adapt their material to the a#dience and the corporate

reirements of the ven#e.

%n a crisis, empowered people are able to #se their s$ills and initiative in a freer

manner than those who are strictly controlled.

Tight controls are often diffic#lt in a crisis, hence the need to rely on empowered

staff to ma$e decisions ic$ly.

ob roles can change ic$ly, as happened to #rora2s entertainment staff -

empowered people can deal with s#ch changes.

Case ': %o,otaThe original name of the company was Toyoda, b#t Toyota apparently reires fewerstro$es when writing in apanese.

Toyota is clearly a apanese company, b#t in fact its vehicles are made in many parts ofthe world, begging the estion as to whether a Toyota prod#ced in the 6 is an


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1917: Toyoda 6pinning and Weaving commence operations.

19: #tomobile operation started.

19E: ?irst vehicles prod#ced. Tr#c$s eported to )hina.

19: Toyota "otor )o formed.

19J: (ports to 6 begin.

19J7: ?irst overseas plant in 8razil.

197K: oint vent#re with eneral "otors.

197J: ?irst 6 man#fact#ring plant opened.

199>: ?irst ! man#fact#ring plant opened.

KEY I#&I$%&

%o,ota

Training is a $ey to empowerment.

6#pervisors sho#ld wor$ with and facilitate employees.

Bobody sho#ld be blamed for a mista$e that occ#rs either beca#se they were not

trained or had ins#fficient reso#rces.

(mpowered wor$ers prod#ce ality prod#cts.

Chapter : Ke, Concepts and %hiners

Overview

This chapter consists of the following:

a glossary for empowerment; and

information on $ey thin$ers in the field of empowerment.

! $(ossar, for Empowerment


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!((owa+(e weaness- concept by "eredith 8elbin. The negative side of a positivestrength. %f the wea$ness is corrected there is a danger that the strength will be dil#ted. %nthe same way as a coin cannot have +#st one side, allowable wea$nesses are connected tothe strength and m#st be managed, not eliminated.

!ccounta+i(it,- The obligation to ens#re that certain tas$s are carried o#t.

!uthorit,- The #se of legitimate power.

0(ame cu(ture- n organizational c#lt#re where blame and p#nishment are the mainmeans of control.

C(assica( mana*ement- traditional approach to management that stresses thecontrolling nat#re of management 'see 6cientific management, below*.

Coachin*- The managerial role concerned with wor$ing with members of staff to

develop and empower them, and release their potential.

Contin*enc, theor,- theory of management m#ch #sed in contemporary literat#re toreflect the fact that there is no one right method of organizing and managing modernorganizations, b#t that the methods #sed sho#ld be selected so as to be contingent withthe sit#ation at the partic#lar time and place.

Cu(ture- The val#es, attit#des, and beliefs ascribed to and accepted by a gro#p, nation ororganization. %n effect, /the way we do things aro#nd here.22

De(e*ation- @anding down responsibility together with the necessary reso#rces and

a#thority to somebody below one in the organization.

Empowerment- The process of releasing the f#ll potential of employees in order forthem to ta$e on greater responsibility and a#thority in the decision-ma$ing process andproviding the reso#rces for this process to occ#r.

$(ass cei(in*- The invisible barrier beyond which women and minority gro#ps often failto pass when progressing #p the organizational hierarchy.

$(o+a(i5ation- The integration of the global economy with the dismantling of tradebarriers and the epanding political and economic power of m#ltinational corporations.

Information and communication techno(o*, ;IC%


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Information over(oad- The res#lt of having so m#ch information that it is diffic#lt tosort o#t the important from the trivial and the #rgent from the less #rgent. "oderntechnology has made this a ma+or problem. Whilst comp#ters can store and processinformation very ic$ly, the h#man brain reires more time.

)echanistic empowerment- concept by 6preitzer and F#inn. (mpowerment that isdriven by senior management instit#ting delegation etc. This type of empowerment co#ldalmost be described as pse#do-empowerment as considerable decision-ma$ing andcontrol remains in the hand of management

Or*anic empowerment- concept by 6preitzer and F#inn. This is tr#e empowerment,that is a bottom #p approach which begins with an #nderstanding of employee needs andwhich #ses team b#ilding to enco#rage cooperation and s#pport. %t is a process based ontr#st.

Or*ani5ation- The str#ct#re set #p as a h#man strategy for achieving a desired goal.

Power- The reso#rceCforce that drives infl#ence. The so#rces of power within the wor$sit#ation are: physical power, personality power 'charisma*, epertise, position power,reso#rce power, and relationship power.

"esponsi+i(it,- The obligation to act#ally carry o#t a tas$.

&cientific mana*ement- n early twentieth cent#ry concept proposed by ?.W. Taylor inthe 6 and based on the idea that wor$ co#ld be meas#red and rates set for the +ob. Theconcept ass#mes that money is the main motivator for wor$.

&imu(taneous (oose=ti*ht properties- term coined by eters and Waterman toindicate that there are some f#nctions that need tight control, b#t others where the staffsho#ld be empowered.

&pan of contro(- the n#mber of people it is traditionally ass#med that one person cancontrol '#s#ally believed to be five or si in traditionally managed organizations*. Bewtechnologies may be raising the limit. bove the span of control another hierarchicallayer may be necessary.

&tandard operatin* procedures ;&OPs< / set of laid-down r#les and proced#res fordealing with commonplace events in order to achieve consistency.

&,ner*,- phenomenon where the s#m of the parts is greater than the whole. team offive wor$ing in synergy will prod#ce the o#tp#t of si.

%eam ro(es- person2s tendency to behave in a certain way when wor$ing in a teamsit#ation 'see also team role theory*.


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%eam ro(e theor,- concept pioneered by "eredith 8elbin in the ! proposing that as#ccessf#l team contains individ#als who ta$e #p specific team roles based on personalityin addition to their f#nctional wor$ roles 'see also team roles*.

%heor, >- '"cregor*

The average h#man being disli$es wor$ and avoids wor$ing if at all possible.

This disli$e of wor$ means that employees need to be controlled, directed and

even threatened if necessary if the organization is to f#lfill its ob+ectives.

eople reire direction b#t do not want responsibility.

%heor, Y- '"cregor*

Wor$ is a nat#ral h#man f#nction.

eople relish responsibility.

The rewards people see$ are not only monetary.

The intellect#al and creative potential of most employees is #nder#tilized.

empowerment in hr

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