EMPOWERMENT FOR ACADEMIC EXCELLENCE

AVOIDING OR CLOSING ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT GAPS

From Elementary School to College

By

Diola Bagayoko, Ph.D.

(Bagayoko@aol.com)SU System Distinguished Professor of Physics

Director, the Timbuktu Academy and LS-LAMP

February 12, 2005

2005 National HBCU-UP Conference, Hosted by Southern University in New Orleans (SUNO)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe research that led to some of the findings presented here was funded in part by •(a) the Department of the Navy, Office of Naval Research (ONR), through the Timbuktu Academy (http://www.phys.subr.edu/timbuktu.htm ); •(b) the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Louisiana Board of Regents, through the Louis Stokes Louisiana Alliance for Minority Participation (http://www.LS-LAMP.org); •(c) the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) (http://www.phys.subr.edu/pipelines); and•(d) ExxonMobil Foundation, Hewlett Packard Company, & NIST.

• The Timbuktu Academy enjoys the substantial support of The Honorable Mary Landrieu, US Senator, and of her staff. •This presentation was funded in part by NSF and SUNO.

OUTLINE

•The Power Law and the Law of Performance

•How to Avoid or Close Academic Achievement Gaps (heeding the 10 steps): The good news is that WE (teachers, administrators, parents, and students) can do it!

• Academic Achievement Gaps (for Individuals & Groups)

•Causes (not just correlates) of Academic Achievement Gaps•Explaining ACT Gaps and Others (Just as Examples)

•The “Ways and Means (empowerment) for Academic Excellence and Implications for Effective Academic Leadership

•Conclusion

KINDS OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT GAPS

The “GAPS” are persistent differences • Between Achievement Test Scores of Individuals • Between Average Scores of Socioeconomic Groups • Between Average Scores of Ethnic Groups • Between Average Scores of Females and Males • Between Average Scores of States • Between Average TIMSS Scores of Countrieson standardized achievement (not aptitude or ability) tests: National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS), State mandated tests (LEAP in LA), American College Test (ACT), Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT), TIMSS, PISA, Graduate Record Examination (GRE), Law School Admission Test (LSAT), Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT), etc. The standardization of these tests entailed norm or criterion reference.

Power Law of Performance

• The Power Law of Performance (PLP) states that our “ability,” expertise, proficiency, or related results, in performing a task, increase with the number of times we practice that task.

T = A + B(N+E)-p OR T = A + B/(N+E)p

T= Time to perform the task in question N = Number of practices (rehearsals, exercises, assignments, etc.) A, B, and E are constants that vary with tasks and individuals. P is another constant (generally around 0.50), the learning rate.

991

397

292241 210 188 172 159 149 141 133 127 122 117 113 109 105 102 99 97

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20Number of Practices, N

Tim

e to

Per

form

the

Task

, T

Bar Graph of the Power Law of Practice for a Problem Solving Task (Source: Newel & Rosenbloom, 1981)

The larger the number of practices (horizontal axis), the smaller the time to perform the task correctly—regardless of gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status or hair style! THE TIME ON RELEVANT LEARNING IS THE KEY.

DIMINISHING

Returns

The Power Law of Performance

T= A + B(N+E)^(-p)

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Number of Practices, N

Tim

e to

Per

form

th

e T

ask,

T

A=0, B=991.2, E=0, P=0.51 - Problem Solving Task

Ref. Newel and Rosenbloom (1981)

A GRAPH OF THE POWER LAW OF PERFORMANCE

Power Law of Performance

•This tautology of the realm of sport and of the arts, it turns out, also holds for intellectual or cognitive endeavors!

• Reference: Please see Education, Vol. 115, No.1 pages 31-39, 1994, for details.

•Parents, students, and teachers, please see the web site of the Timbuktu Academy for more:

http://www.phys.subr.edu/timbuktu.htm

A Rosetta Stone

• The “Rosetta Stone,” that had a text in Hieroglyphics and its translation two other languages (including Greek), was utilized by a French, Champollion, to decipher the Egyptian Hieroglyphics in the 19th century. • Competitive education is one that is up-to-standards (that are objective)-- as per the prerequisites for next grade level (or college) or as per the tasks to be performed in a real, competitive environment that is changing!

for Competitive Education

A Rosetta Stone

• The Law of (Human) Performance/Practice (LP) is for competitive education what the Rosetta Stone was for the Egyptian Hieroglyphics--literally.

• Please note that care is required in determining the actual time on learning, research, and related tasks whose scope, depth, and quality are on par with the STANDARDS. Out of class time on learning, assignments, projects, etc., COUNTS.

for Competitive Education

A “Rosetta Stone”for Competitive Education

THE LAW OF PERFORMANCE (LP):

We currently know of no mathematical formula for this law.

THIS LAW ARISES WHEN YOU APPLY THE POWER LAW TO MANY TASKS OVER LONG PERIODS OF TIME (hours, days, months, semesters, school years, etc.)

IT ALSO ARISES WHEN YOU APPLY THE POWER LAW TO COMPLEX TASKS COMPRISING SIMPLE ONES FOR WHICH THE POWER LAW IS FOLLOWED

• Biographies verify the law of performance.

• Every year, from 1990 to 2000, the Timbuktu Academy has verified the Law of Performance by producing quantum leaps in ACT, SAT, and GRE scores and by producing National Achievement and National Merit Scholars: 10 in 2000 & 10 in 2001!

A “Rosetta Stone”

• The relation between course taking and standardized test scores verifies the law of performance (LP) -- if the actual time spent on learning is properly measured or gauged. (R&D)• The correctly interpreted TIMSS achievement results verify the law of performance (R&D)

for Competitive Education

(1)   The law of performance says that all students can learn--at a competitive level . It is the scientific basis for high expectations for all students! It also says that exposure to competitive curricula, over the years, and adequate learning and practice are necessary for high academic achievements by most students. IT BEGINS WITH EXPECTATIONS.

(2)   The law of performance does not suggest that adequate attention is not to be paid to the physical, emotional, and mental health of the learner. Physiology, neuroscience, etc., dictate adequate attention to physical, emotional, and mental health.Basic care, including vaccinations, hygiene, and a comprehensive vision test (the latter for reading issues) are necessary.

(3)   There is no substitute for standard-based subject matter and skills contents of each and every course, from pre-K to graduate school and beyond.

(4)   There is no substitute for the adequacy of the battery of courses taken at every grade level. A national, reference curriculum, from K through college, will inform parents and students of prevailing competitive norms or standards.

(5)   There is no way to circumvent the internal rigidity (i.e., sequential nature of aspects of knowledge). Consequently, the knowledge and skills base of the learner has a great influence on the "acquired ability" to learn. Particular difficulties in many courses are often due to utterly inadequate background as opposed to a lack of "smartness." Writing follows reading. Calculus follows arithmetic, algebra, and basic geometry and trigonometry. Reading is the foundation of formal learning.

Deciphering the Process of Competitive Education: First 5 of the 10 Strands

(6) There is no substitute for the devotion of "adequate" time to learning tasks! So says the law of performance (LP). "Adequate" is to be determined using competitiveness criteria and national norms and standards. In the absence of a reference curriculum, those with the least intellectual, material, and financial means are likely to have the most difficulty in the determination of a competitive curriculum and of the "adequacy" of the time on learning tasks. This holds for parents, teachers, and students.

(7)   There is no substitute for quality teaching, with its inherently closed feedback loop. Such a teaching commands a significant portion of the out-of-class time through graded assignments. These assignments simulate the actual way in which knowledge is applied and research is conducted. They do so better than any test, however comprehensive it may be. Further, they mold study habits over time; these habits are critical aspects of the unwritten curriculum.

(8)   There is no substitute for parents or guardians in ensuring that adequate time is spent on learning tasks during the academic year and in the summer (i.e., reading and report writing). Consequently, they have to limit TV viewing, video playing, and listening to music. These activities and similar ones are privileges that should be earned by young students after doing school work.

(9)   There is no substitute for familiarity with the format and subject/skill content of applicable tests. This tautology applies to all standardized tests, whether they are norm- or criterion-referenced, from K through the Ph.D. degree.

10. There is no substitute for efforts and practice in acquiring and enhancing proficiency in a complex process, from reading to writing, research, and problem-solving, sports, and the arts. So says the law of performance, regardless of claims of "innate" abilities.

Deciphering the Process of Competitive Education: Last 5 of the 10 Strands

THE ABC OF LEARNING OR TRAINING

The preceding 10 strands guide actions at home and at school. For the sake of explaining academic achievement gaps, the content of the ten (10) strands can be summarized into the ABC of Learning or of Training (See Strand 1).

A. Standard-based curriculum at every grade level and standard-based knowledge and skills contents for every course (or subject)

B. Standard-based teaching, that heeds the curriculum, by certified, qualified, and dedicated teachers

C. Standard-based learning, at home and at school, as mediated by adequate homework assignments, tests, etc.

• Every “Academic Achievement Gap” can be traced to the fact that one (or more) of the 10 strands was (were) NOT heeded—from Pre-K to the test date!

EXPLAINING The Academic

Achievement & Other GAPS

• No denial of the role of genes is attempted: Just compare the germination and growth rates of two genetically identical seeds that are planted in vastly different conditions (one an ideal soil and on in steel).

• For any two individuals, differences in the applications of the ten strands explain the difference in academic achievement! This does not mean equal amounts of practice, not necessarily! It means varying amounts of practice depending on collateral effects of other exposures and depending on the subjects at hand (See B, E, and P in the power law)! •The following tables make clear the importance of Strands 3, 4, and 10, among others. (Course taking= time on appropriate tasks; all courses are not equal/equivalent in contents nor are they all taught competitively!)

THE LAW OF PERFORMANCE AND THE ACT (ITBS, LEAP, ETC.)English Course

Sequence Number of

students H.S. English

Grades ACT

English ACT

Composite

English I, II, III, IV, Speech

9,082

3.03

20.4

20.1

English I, II, III, IV

24,433

2.90

19.6

19.5

Less than 4 years of

English

1048

2.65

17.2

17.7

Source: Louisiana ACT Profile, 1999, Table 9, page 9 Similar achievement gaps exist for the Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS), the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), the LEAP, and other test scores of (a) those who took the needed courses and studied, learned the contents and skills and (b) those who did not take the appropriate courses or did not spend adequate time on learning, practicing relevant contents & skills!

THE LP AND THE ACT

Math Course Sequence

Number of

Students

High School Math

ACT Math

ACT Composite

Alg I, II, Geo, Trig, Calc

1170 3.32 23.3 23.5

Alg I, II, Geo, Trig, & Other

1761 3.02 20.4 21.1

Alg I, II, Geom, Trig

2581 2.87 19.3 20.1

Alg I, II, Geom, & Other

4476 2.76 18.5 19.4

Alg I, II, Geom 7018 2.40 16.4 17.4

Course Taking (time on task) and ACT Scores

ACT CONTENT AND FORMAT

Content/Skills

Portion of Test Number of Items

Usage/Mechanics Punctuation Grammar and Usage Sentence Structure

.53 .13 .16 .24

40 10 12 18

Rhetorical Skills Strategy Organization Style

.47 .16 .15 .16

35 12 11 12

TOTAL 100% 75 Items

English: To increase your English score drastically, you have to master punctuation, grammar & usage, etc.

ACT CONTENT AND FORMAT

Content/Skills

Portion of

Test

Number of

Items Pre-Algebra and Elementary Algebra

.4 24

Intermediate Algebra and Coordinate Geom.

.3 18

Plane Geometry .23 14

Trigonometry .07 4

TOTAL

100% 60 items

Mathematics: To increase your math score, you have to know/practice pre-algebra, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry.

ACT CONTENT AND FORMAT

Reading Context

Portion of

Test

Number of

Items Prose/Fiction .25 10 Humanities .25 10 Social Studies .25 10

Natural Sciences

.25 10

TOTAL

100%

40 Items

Reading: Like other things, reading is learned by reading, so says the Power Law of Practice

ACT CONTENT AND FORMAT

Format

Portion of

Test

Number of

Items Data Representation

.38

15

Research Summaries

.45

18

Conflicting Viewpoints

.17

7

TOTAL

100%

40 Items

Science Reasoning: practice makes perfect in science reasoning, so says the law of practice.

American College Test (ACT) Scores of U.S High School Graduating Class of 1999

(Similar results are found from 1996 to 1999, with slightly changing gaps) The law of performance (LP) explains academic achievement gaps. Note the smaller

mathematics gap (mathematics) that widens with course taking! The key of the puzzle is that the scores, as per the LP, are determined (causally so) by the actual learning (practice)--mediated in part by (a) course taking, (b) the topics, their scope, and depth in every course, (c) the actual practice by the students as mediated (or induced) by graded homework assignments, tests, and others. All algebra courses are not equal or equivalent!

Note the large gap, in English, for those taking less than four (4) years of English. It is partly at the root of the large gaps, of similar sizes, in Reading and in Science Reasoning! See exposure (at home, school, etc.) to Standard English and a rich vocabulary environment, from birth to the test date, to explain the gap in English--as per the law of performance or of practice.

English Course Pattern # of Black Students

ACT English

# of White

Students

ACT English

GAPS

E9, E10, E11, E12, Speech 24,586 17.0 250,463 21.8 4.8 E9, E10, E11, E12 69,780 16.4 422,673 21.3 Less Than 4 years of English 5,940 14.8 38,515 19.4 4.6 Course Taking Difference (top-bottom) 2.2 2.4 Mathematics Course Pattern (A = Algebra)

# of Black Students

ACT Math

# of White Students

ACT Math

A 1, A 2, Geom., Trig., Calculus 4,022 19.7 46,643 25.1 5.6 A 1, A 2, Geom., Trig., other Adv. Math 7,085 18.9 75,979 22.6 Other comb. Of 4 or more years of Math 18,538 19.0 170,873 24.6 A 1, A 2, Geom., Trig. 10,442 17.3 75,307 21.1 A 1, A 2, Geom., other Adv. Math 9,518 17.4 83,605 20.9 Other comb. Of 3 or 3.5 years of Math 6,181 16.6 37,278 20.5 A 1, A 2, Geom. 28,288 15.6 144,952 18.2 Less Than 3 years of math 15,967 14.8 75,208 16.8 2.0 Course Taking Difference (top-bottom) 4.9 8.3 Social Science Course Pattern # of

Black Students

ACT Reading

# of White

Students

ACT Reading

US Hist., World Hist., Amer. Govt., other Hist.

2,522 17.8 21,612 22.8 5.0

Less Than 3 years of Social Science 17,899 16.2 104,682 21.1 4.9 Course Taking difference (top-bottom) 1.6 1.7 Natural Science (Sci.) Course Pattern # of

Black Students

ACT Sci. Reasoning

# of White

Students

ACT Sci. Reasoning

Gen. Science, Biology, Chem., Phys. 26,733 18.4 224,723 23.2 4.8 Less Than 3 years of Natural Science 24,921 16.1 152,562 19.5 3.4 Course Taking Difference (top-bottom) 2.3 3.7 SOURCE: ACT Research Services, P. O. Box 168, Iowa City, Iowa 52243. Telephone: (319) 337-1113 Fax: (319) 339-3020. Courtesy of Merine Farmer and ACT.

“Smart” or “not smart,” the above distribution of the contents of the questions on the ACT clearly states that up to standard Algebra I, Geometry, Algebra II, and Trigonometry, at a minimum, are needed to score well on ACT Mathematics.

“Bright” or “not bright,” the above distribution of the contents of the English questions shows that a mastery (as per recitation) of the English grammar, sentence structure, rhetorical skills, etc., is needed to score well.

It is the same situation for scoring well on the ITBS, NAEP, LEAP, PSAT, SAT, GRE, LSAT, MCAT, etc., so says the Law of Performance or Law of Practice.

MORE ON ACT SCORES

GENES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

• It is proven in Physics (See D. Bagayoko) that the effects of “genes” and of the physical environment are INSEPARABLE.

• The effects of diet, food, and medications ESTABLISH that genes (i.e., the genotype) are potentialities to be actualized by proper diet, clean water, safe air, good sleep, exercises, etc., and by socialization, reading, writing, analysis, synthesis, etc.

• Socio-cultural activities (walking, talking, reading, singing, behaving properly, praying, studying, etc.) are learned behaviors whose scope and depth are partly determined by those of the exposure/engagement. They have effects on the genotype. Genotype-phenotype interactions. We tend to teach or to behave the way we have been “taught”!

MORE ON ACHIEVEMENT GAPS?

• Oh, yes, please see the 10-strands and the making of the mathematics gap between African-Americans and Whites by schooling (all algebra courses are not equal or equivalent).

• (3) Please see the consequences of a large B (and tiny E) in English for many socio-economically disadvantaged children (i.e., earlier exposure to improper English—to be overcome) and the benefits for a tiny B and a large E for others! Oh, no, no fatalism here, the 10-strands can close the gap! We recently renamed B and E of the Power Law as the Bill Cosby Factors!

• The achievement gaps between African Americans, Whites, and Asian Americans in Math - contrary to gross statistical confounding in some books – are limpidly explained by courses taking and related time on relevant learning tasks!

APPLICATIONS OF THE LP

• The LP dictates high expectations for every individual (AND EVERY STUDENT). It is not a belief, it is the law. (R&D)

• “READINESS” AND “ABILITY TRACKING,” particularly at lower grade levels, are mostly self-fulfilling prophecies! (R&D)

• As a professor or teacher, I am not ashamed of not knowing certain things. As per the LP, however, I earnestly study, learn, and practice what is needed. (THE LP APPLIES TO ME.)

• The question is one of delivering coherent, focused, standard-based, and reform-imbued curricula and instruction with the appropriate, graded feedback (assignments, quizzes, tests, etc.). Distributed practice is a limited case of the Power Law ( & LP).

APPLICATIONS OF THE LP

• Teachers/professors cannot teach what they do not know. The training and certification of a teacher are just prerequisites: a responsible administrator will see to it that teaching is done up-to-standards, with graded assignments, recognized and rewarded. In many countries, teaching evaluation is a TRUE AUDIT.• Never blame it all on the teachers, see the curriculum: its completeness, up-to-standards nature (in scope and in depth), coherence, and its contemporary nature (i.e., True Tech. Integration). Resources and resourcefulness count.

• No one can play the roles of students (learning) and of parents (supporting, monitoring) for them: The LP dictates the use of a significant portion of the out-of-class time for studying (at home).

For Academic Leaders in Schools/Colleges

CONCLUSION

• Practice partly begets and certainly enhances proficiency! We know so in sports and the arts. It is the same for the intellect!

• The reading, writing, observation, measuring, graphing, data analysis, reporting, presentation, etc. “skills” of the students that are practiced are the very ones that are enhanced (LP).

• The LP is implacable. It applies, whether one likes it or not, for positive and negative outcomes! It explains how academic achievement gaps are formed and how they can be avoided or closed. With the above understanding, we can take the academic achievements of any group to the greatest heights!

Practice enhances ability!

HANDOUTS & RESOURCES

• Handout 2: Making a genius out of oneself (1 page)

• Handout 1: The Power Law and the Law of Performance or of Practice (2 pages, one of narrative and one for graphs)

For further understanding and for ACTION

• Handout 4: A Problem-Solving Paradigm (2 pages): a tool for teaching and for learning effective problem-solving (all grades)• Handout 5: Forest Height Science/Mathematics Magnet lessons in search for academic excellence. • Handout 6: A Rosetta Stone for Competitive Education: An Action Plan for Teachers, Parents, Students, Administrators, and others (8 pages).

• Handout 3: Power-P Writing process (a tool for teaching writing to the level of mastery—elementary grade levels.

[These handouts are Available from bagayoko@aol.com]

FOLLOW-UP ACTIONS

• Applying the 10-strands of Academic Excellence will result in your students/children attaining high academic achievements, over time. Believe it or not, that is the law!

•The last one of the handouts on the previous viewgraph (i.e., A Rosetta Stone...) contains clear action steps to be taken to ensure the adequacy of the time on learning tasks at home.

• The 9/91 (about 1/10) rule indicates that students spend much more time outside the classroom (about 90%) than in the classroom (about 10%) from birth to age 18!

• Regular, graded assignments from standard-based teaching guide the utilization of the time outside the classroom!

WHAT ACTIONS FOR ME?

• (2) Understand your great capabilities and those of your students/children. Have nothing but HIGH expectations for every student/child. So say the Law of Human Performance!• (3) Get more information on the standard-based curriculum (Consult peers, curriculum specialists, school system, state, and national resources!) Great things result from team work. There is not much merit to reinventing the wheel. USE IT PROPERLY! Oh, the law of performance liberates us: no need to pretend knowing what we do not know or having lesson plans we do not have. JUST GET THE RIGTH ONES. This activity planning and updating is a journey, not a destination!

• (1) Follow the law! Read and read the materials up to the point where you can explain the law to others (parents).

WHAT ACTIONS FOR ME? (Cont’d)

• (5) Regularly assign/support graded homework (a) whose subject and skills contents cover the scope and depth of the standard-based course and whose formats (multiple choices, essay, open-ended, etc.) adequately expose students to all formats on their standardized tests (ITBS, NAEP, ACT, ETC.)

• Do not worry about complaints of “too much homework.” Send them to the principal, counselors, specialists, etc., or me! And, use the LP to explain to parents the need for them to create and to support learning conditions (and requirements) at home.

• Read Item II on responsibilities, Pages 2-3 of Handout 6, and follow it. THOROUGHLY DOCUMENT WHAT YOU DO.

• (4) Teach/support standard-based subject contents and skills (See Items 1 and 4, Pages 2 and 3 of Handout 5)

SELECTED “GAP” REFERENCES

• Nation’s Report Card, published by the National Center for Educational Statistics of the US Department of Education

• NAEP 1999 Trends in Academic Progresshttp://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pubs/main1999/2000469.asp and other NAEP publications

• Annual publications of the College Board on the achievements on several standardized test(STA, GRE, etc)

• Annual publications on scores on the American College Test (ACT), the Iowa Test of Basic Skills, etc.

• Annual publications academic achievement data by States.•Annotated publications of the Timbuktu Academy on the web (http://www.phys.subr.edu/timbuktu.htm)