emergency and disaster reports 2015; 2 (4): 4-42 …€¦ · emergency and disaster reports 2015; 2...

EmergencyandDisasterReports2015;2(4):4-42

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EmergencyandDisasterReports

ISSN2340-9932 Vol2,Num4,2015

Monographicissue

DisasterprofileofPeruandinstitutionalapproach

forriskreduction

EmanueleBruni

UniversityofOviedo–DepartmentofMedicineUnitforResearchinEmergencyandDisaster


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Letterfromtheeditors

TheEmergencyandDisasterReportsisajournaleditedbytheUnitforResearchin Emergency andDisaster of theDepartment ofMedicine of theUniversity ofOviedoaimedtointroduceresearchpapers,monographicreviewsandtechnicalreports related to the fields of Medicine and Public Health in the contexts ofemergency and disaster. Both situations are events that can deeply affect thehealth, the economy, the environment and the development of the affectedpopulations.

The topicscoveredby the journal includeawiderangeof issuesrelated to thedifferentdimensionsofthephenomenaofemergencyanddisaster,rangingfromthe study of the risk factors, patterns of frequency and distribution,characteristics, impacts, prevention, preparedness, mitigation, response,humanitarian aid, standards of intervention, operative research, recovery,rehabilitation, resilience and policies, strategies and actions to address thesephenomena from a risk reduction approach. In the last thirty years has beensubstantial progress in the above mentioned areas in part thanks to a betterscientificknowledgeofthesubject.Theaimofthejournalistocontributetothisprogressfacilitatingthedisseminationoftheresultsofresearchinthisfield.

Thislastissueof2015ofEmergencyandDisasterReportsisdedicatedtoPeru.Thehistoryofdisastersinthecountryhasitsrootsintheconnectionbetweenaseriesofelements.Ontheonehand, therearethenaturaleventsrelatedtothecountry’s geographical and geological conformation reported in Peru since thetime of the Incas. The country is located in a high seismic risk area due to itsproximitytotheNazcaPlate’ssubductionareaontheSouthAmericanPlateandit is subject to intensehydro-meteorological eventsmainly associatedwith theNiño and the Niña phenomena that are recurrent in the region. On the otherhand, there is the relation between the structural and the non-structuralvulnerability of thepopulationwith thepolitical structure of disaster planningmanagement,thatnowadaysisexperiencingaphaseoftransition.

AccordingtoaWorldBankstudy,Peruis locatedonthe20thspotoftheworldranking of countries with highest economic risk due to threats caused byextreme events such as earthquakes, floods, frosts, among other. The diversegeography of Peru offers a high potential for natural hazards such as seismicactivity, volcanoes, hydro-meteorological and climate oscillations, as well aslandslides,droughtsandheatandcoldwaves.

Climate change is also becoming an important issue for the country especiallybecauseof the increase in temperatures and inprecipitations.Themainmajor


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threats are earthquakes, tsunamis and the oscillation of El Niño. Although aparticularkindofhazardcanberelatedtoaspecificregionsofthecountry,theexposure to risks is obviously determined also by the demographicalconcentration of thepopulation, especially due to the growingphenomenonofurbanism that affect areas like the Lima region. This particular situationgenerates the possibility of catastrophic events occurring inmost of the areaswith large population concentration in the country, such as Lima, Tacna,Arequipa,andIca,amongothers.InPerudisasterriskmanagement is treatedasahighpriorityatnational level.This is in large part due to the high visibility in terms of media and politicalissues aswell as to the economic impact of recent disasters. For example, thePiscoearthquakein2007andtheChileearthquakein2010havehighlightedthesignificant risk and economic consequences of such events. A recent studyestimatedthatElNiñowouldcost8percentofPeru’sgrossnationalproduct.

However,asformanycountriesintheworld,untillessthantenyearsago,mostoftheresponsibilitywasfallingonthestatewhichwassupposetoprovideaidtothe different affected sectors and assist them in their recovery. In manycountries, tobe able toproperlyhandle an emergency, statesusually resort toestablishing funds for emergency relief, which, on certain occasions, are alsousedforriskreductionandmitigationpriortotheoccurrenceofanevent.Suchfunds are only one of the risk management policy instruments but they aregenerallyamongthefinancialmechanismsmostprominentlyused.InthecaseofPeru, in thepreviousyears thegovernmentprovidedvery limitedresources tohandleemergenciesandriskpreventionorreductionwasminimal.Thatbecameevident during the period of time after the earthquake that affected Pisco andothernearbytownsinAugust2007.To cope with this problem, Peru is experiencing an ongoing process ofinstitutional reformof disaster riskmanagement at any level. This programofreforms, designed around the implementationof theHyogoFrameworkAction(HFA), is mainly focused on five areas of intervention related to the HFA fivepriorityactionsandthisactionsarereviewinthisissue.

Prof.PedroArcos,Prof.RafaelCastroEditors,EmergencyandDisasterReportsUnitforResearchinEmergencyandDisasterDepartmentofMedicine.UniversityofOviedoCampusdelCristo33006Oviedo–Spainwww.uniovi.net/uied


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Monographicissue

DisasterprofileofPeruandinstitutionalapproachforriskreduction

Author:EmanueleBruni

TableofContents INTRODUCTION:GEOGRAPHIC,DEMOGRAPHIC,ECONOMIC,SOCIALANDCULTURALCHARACTERISTICS..................................................................................................8GEOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................................................8ADMINISTRATIVEANDDEMOGRAPHICINFORMATION...........................................................8ECONOMY.........................................................................................................................................................9HEALTH.............................................................................................................................................................9BRIEFHISTORICALREVIEWONPOLITICS.......................................................................................9HISTORYOFDISASTERSINPERUOFTHEPAST50YEARS.....................................11NATURALDISASTERS..............................................................................................................................12GEOPHYSICALDISASTERS.....................................................................................................................12BIOLOGICALDISASTERS/EPIDEMICS..............................................................................................15HYDRO-METEOROLOGICALDISASTERS.........................................................................................15TECHNOLOGICALDISASTERS..............................................................................................................16TRANSPORTSACCIDENTS.....................................................................................................................17INTERNALCONFLICTSANDTERRORISM......................................................................................17MAINRISKFACTORSANDCONTRIBUTIONONDISASTERRISK...........................19GEOLOGICALHAZARDS..........................................................................................................................19SEISMICITY...................................................................................................................................................19TSUNAMI.......................................................................................................................................................20VOLCANOES.................................................................................................................................................21LANDSLIDES................................................................................................................................................21HYDROMETEROLOGICALHAZARDS.................................................................................................21ELNIÑO..........................................................................................................................................................21FLOODS..........................................................................................................................................................22DROUGHTS...................................................................................................................................................22ENVIRONMENTALRISK..........................................................................................................................22CLIMATECHANGEANDGLACIERS...................................................................................................22MAN-MADEDISASTERS,VIOLENCEANDTERRORISM............................................................23TERRORISM:SENDEROLUMINOSO..................................................................................................23ELEMENTSOFVULNERABILITYTOADVERSENATURALDISASTERSINPERU..........23WATERANDSOILCONDITION............................................................................................................23GROWINGANDUNPLANNEDURBANIZATION............................................................................24POVERTYANDEDUCATIONPROBLEMS.........................................................................................24RECENTDEVELOPMENTSOFPERUVIANDRMUNDERTHEHFA..........................26AREASOFINTERVENTIONFORTHEHYOGOFRAMEWORKFORACTION2005-201527HFA1:TOWARDSADECENTRALIZEDSYSTEM..........................................................................27


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HFA2:THENEWLAWANDTHEDISASTERRISKASSESSMENTANDMONITORING30HFA3:TOWARDSACULTUREOFRESILIENCE.THEIMPORTANCEOFTHEEDUCATIONSECTORATANYLEVEL................................................................................................31HFA4:THESTRENGTHENINGOFENVIRONMENTALANDPLANNINGINSTITUTIONSINPERU..........................................................................................................................................................32HFA5:DISASTERPREPAREDNESS,RECONSTRUCTIONANDRECOVERIES.TOWARDANEWSTRATEGYFORURBANPLANNINGINPERU....................................................................34REVIEWOFTRENDSINDRMINPERU.................................................................................36CONCLUSIONSOBTAINEDFROMTHISANALYSIS.........................................................39REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................................40

TableofFigures

· Fig.1MapofPeru.....................................................................................................................................7· Fig.2NaztcaPlate......................................................................¡Error!Marcadornodefinido.· Fig.3ToptendisastersinPerusourceCRED............................................................................12· Fig.4HazardsinPerusourceINDECI...........................................................................................20· Fig.5ThenationalprocessofdecentralisationinDRMofPerusourceINDECI........29


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ListofAcronymsCAPRA CentralAmericanProbabilisticRiskAssessmentCDC CommeteesofCivildefence(Peru)CENEPRED CentroNacionaldeEstimacionPrevencionyReducciondeRiesgode

Desastres.CEPLAN CentronacionaldePleaniamentoestrategicoCIA CentralIntelligenceAgencyCISMID CentroPeruanoJaponésdeInvestigacionesSísmicasyMitigaciónDe

DesastresCMRRD MultisectorialCommissionOnRiskReductionInDevelopmentCRED CentreForResearchOnTheEpidemiologyOfDisastersDIGESA DirecciónGeneraldeSaludAmbientalDIPECHO DisasterPreparednessECHODRM DisasterRiskManagementDRR DisasterRiskReductionECLAC EconomicCommissionforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanEMAPICA EmpresaMunicipaldeAguaeAlcantarilladodeICA(Peru)FORSUR FondodeRecostructiondelaZonasafectasporlossismosde15

agosto2007(Peru)GDP GrossDomesticProductGFDRR GlobalFacilityforDisasterReductionandRecoveryHFA HyogoFrameworkOfActionIGP IstitutoGeofisicoPeruIMARPE InstitutodelMardePeruINDECI InsitutoNationaldeDefensaCivil(Peru)INEI InstitutoNacionalDeEstadísticaEInformáticaINGEMMET InstitutogelogicoMinieroyMetalurgico(Peru)MEF MinisteriodeEconomiayFinanzas(Peru)MRTA RevolutionaryMovementTúpacAmaruNGO NonGovernmentalOrganizationSENAMHI ServicioNacionaldeMeteorologíaeHidrologíadelPerú.SIDERECI SistemaRegionaldeDefensaCivil(Peru)SIGRID SistemadeInformaciónparalaGestióndelRiesgodeDesastresSINADECI SistemaNacionaldeDefensaCivil(Peru)SINAGERD SistemaNacionaldeGestiondelRiesgoeDisastres(Peru)SL SenderoLuminoso(ShiningPath)UN UnitedNationsUNDP UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgrammeUNI UniversitadnaciondeIngnenieria(Peru)UNISDR UnitedNationsOfficeForDisasterRiskReductionUSAID UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopmentUSD UsDollarVRAE ValledelrioApurímacyEne(Perú)WASH Water,SanitationAndHygieneWHO WorldHealthOrganization


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• Fig.1MapofPeru

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• Source:ServicioNacionaldemeterologíaehidrologia(SENAMHI)


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Introduction:Geographic,demographic,economic,socialandculturalcharacteristics

GEOGRAPHYPeru is located in South America, on the Pacific Ocean side. It borders Ecuator andColombiatotheNorth,ChiletotheEastandBrazilandBoliviatotheWest(Map1).Withan area of 1.28million squared kilometers Peru is the third-largest country of SouthAmerica.

Geographically it comprises a wide range of characteristics, since it sits between atropicalzoneandtheAndesMountains.ThesegeographiczonesdividePeruintothreeregions: to the West is the coastline, which is largely arid except for valleys withseasonal rivers (www.geographic.org 2013). The second is the mountain area withpeaks over 22,000 ft. (6,768m), includingMount Huascaran, that has highlands anddeep valleys. Finally, there is the heavily forested (Amazonia) wide expanse of flatterrainregion(ibidem).Thisresultsinabigvarietyintermsofflora,faunaandclimates,with28ofthe32typesofweatherintheworldand84ofthe103lifezonespresentintheplanet(ibidem).Peru'sseasonsarethereverseofthoseinthenorthernhemisphere.SummerinPeruisfromDecembertoFebruaryandwinterfromJulytoSeptember(1).

ADMINISTRATIVEANDDEMOGRAPHICINFORMATIONAdministratively, Lima is the capital of Peru. The country is divided into twenty-fiveadministrativedivisions andaprovince aroundLima (2).The regions are:Amazonas,Ancash, Apurimac, Arequipa, Ayacucho, Cajamarca, Callao, Cusco, Huancavelica,Huanuco,Ica,Junin,LaLibertad,Lambayeque,Lima,Loreto,MadredeDios,Moquegua,Pasco,Piura, Puno, SanMartin, Tacna, Tumbes and Ucayali. The CIAWorld Factbookreports that in July2013Peru'spopulationwasof29,849,303, composedbydifferentethnicgroups(Amerindian45percent,Mestizo37percent,i.e.Amerindianandwhite,white15percent,black,Japanese,Chinese,andother3percent).Accordingtothe2007censusreportedinthesamesource,84.1percentofPeruviansspeak Spanish (official language); another 13 per cent speak Quechua (officiallanguage); 1.7 per cent speak Aymara; 0.3 per cent speak Ashaninka; 0.7 per cent ofPeruviansspeakanativelanguage(whichincludesalargenumberofminorAmazonianlanguages)while0.2percentspeakotherlanguages(ibid.).Thesamecensusindicatedaswelltheliteracyrateat92.2percentfortotalpopulationwith95.4percentformalesand 89.4 per cent for females (ibid), in averagewith the rest of the South Americanregion(ibidem).Mostofthecountry'spopulationisurban(77percent).Theurbanismphenomenon,animportant issue for disaster prevention, can be explainedwith several factorsmostlyrelated to economy, job seeking and transportation (e.g. Lima, the largest citywith apopulation of approximately eight million people). Almost 28 per cent of the Perupopulationisyoungerthan15yearsold,while39.2percentisbetween24and50yearsold. In terms ofmaternalmortality rate Peru occupies the 91st position in theworldrank (67 deaths/100,000 live births, CIA Factbook 2013), an infantmortality rate of


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0.85deaths/1,000livebirths(89positionintheworldrank)withalifeexpectationrateonthetotalpopulationof72.98years(ibid).

ECONOMYIn 2013 the country GDP of Peru was 10,900 USD per person (2012 est. ibidem).Reflectingitsvariegatedgeography,Peruvianeconomyhasbeengrowingbyanaverageof6.4percentperyearsince2002withanappreciatingexchangerateandlowinflation.Theyear2013isexpectedtobebelowtheupperlimitoftheCentralBanktargetrangeof 1 to 3 per cent (ibid.). Despite Peru's strong macroeconomic performance,dependence on minerals and metals exports and imported foodstuffs subjects theeconomy to fluctuations in world prices. This has effects on poverty. In 2009, theNationalStatisticsInstitute(INEI)estimatedthatpovertywasdecreasingbyanaverageof 1.4 per cent per year (34.8 per cent of the population). In 2009 extreme povertyaffected11.4percentofthepopulation.Someresearchersusedvariousnationalsourcesofdataonhouseholdlevelincomeandexpenditurestohelpdetermineratesonpoverty(3).UsingthesedataandbasedontheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP)methodology/format,Altamiranoet.al. (ibid) foundthat in2002,morethanhalf thepopulationwasdesignatedaspoor inabsolute terms, and15per centasextremelypoor.Furtherbreakdown indicates thatnearlyhalfof the latter lived in rural areasof thehighlands (ibid.).However,dataonpovertyarestillacontroversialtopic.Forinstance,in2007GapMinderreports15%ofpoverty,whileINEI11%(2009)andUNDPin201215%(4).

HEALTHThe ambiguous economic status of the country iswell reflected in the general healthindicators.In2013Peruhealthexpendituresamountedto4.8percentofitsGDPwithaphysician density of 0.92 and a hospital bed density of 1.5 respectively every 1000inhabitants (5). Inaveragewithmanymiddle incomecountries, thesedata reflect theprocess of growing developed by Peru in the last decades. However, There are stillsignificant differences in health facilities distribution and quality between urban andruralareas.AccordingtothelatestWHOreportonPeruofMay2013,theexpenditureonhealthasapercentageofgeneralgovernmentexpenditureisregisteringanincreaseoverthelasttenyears(6).

Despiteanimprovement,thegeneralsituationofthewaterandsanitationsystemstillpresentsmanychallenges(ibidem).Forthisreason,Peruisstillconsideredashighriskintermsoffoodandwaterbornediseases(2).Finally,thecountryisalsoimprovinginthepreventionandtreatmentofvector-bornedisease suchasmalaria(7),due to theimplementation of many governmental and international campaign that weredevelopedinthelastdecades.

BRIEFHISTORICALREVIEWONPOLITICSOriginally, Peru was the seat of several Andean civilizations, among them the Incas,defeatedbytheSpanishemperorin1533.Peruvianindependencewasdeclaredin1821


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and finally obtained three years later. After a series of militarized governments thatenduredalmosttheentire20thcentury,Perujoinedademocraticsysteminthe1980s.Nevertheless,thelevelofpovertyremainshighandchallenging.Thiscircumstanceoftenled toa lackof stability thatprovokedviolent insurgenciesandepisodesof terrorismthroughoutthecountry.In1990theelectionofthepresidentFujimoriwasaccompaniedbyadecadeofrelativedevelopmentandimprovementaswellasguerrillacurtailing.Despitethat,thedecadeendedwith a sentiment of dissatisfaction amongst the Peruvians with the president,resultinginhisoustingin2000.In2001Toledowasthefirstpresidentdemocraticallyelectedwhobelonged to theQuechuanethnicity. In June2011,a formerarmyofficer,Humala was elected defeating the daughter of Fujimori. Supported by its, PeruvianNationalist Party, and Peruvian Socialist Party), theHumalamandate is following themarketorientedeconomicmodelandisopentoexternalinvestmentswhilefocusingonsocialinclusioncampaignsinordertodefeatpoverty(2).


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HistoryofdisastersinPeruofthepast50yearsThepurposeofthischapteristoreportonthemajordisastersthataffectedthecountryinthepast50years. It isbasedonthequantitativedisastercriteriausedbytheCREDdatabase (disaster = 10 dead, 100 affected). Thus, the selection is limited by theimposed restrictions toa short listofdisaster cases.Theaim is togivea general andvaried overview. What follows is, therefore, a chronological summary of “extreme”disasters(bothnaturalandtechnological),whichhappenedinPerusince1962.The history of disasters in Peru has its roots in the connection between a series ofelements. On the one hand, there are the natural events related to the country’sgeographicalandgeologicalconformationreportedinPerusincethetimeoftheIncas.The country is located in a high seismic risk area due to its proximity to the NazcaPlate’ssubductionareaontheSouthAmericanPlateanditissubjecttointensehydro-meteorological eventsmainly associatedwith theNiño and theNiñaphenomena thatarerecurrentintheregion(Figure2).Ontheotherhand,thereistherelationbetweenthestructuraland thenon-structuralvulnerabilityof thepopulationwith thepoliticalstructureofdisasterplanningmanagement, thatnowadays is experiencingaphaseoftransition.

Fig.2NaztcaPlateSource:InstitutoNacionalDefensaCivil,Peru(INDECI)2011

ThisisveryevidentfromthetoptendisastersofPeruproposedbytheCREDdatabase,the UNISDR reports and the “preventionweb” website. As shown in the graphs, themajor occurrence of disasters in Peru is related to floods, followed bymasswetlandmovement,andearthquakes.Intermsofnumberofpeoplekilledduringdisastersand


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amountofeconomicdamages,earthquakesstilloccupythefirstplace.Dataonnumbersof affected people are controversial. In both preventionweb and CRED database,drought occupies a leading position in the top ten of disasters in Peru, followed byclimatic events such as extreme temperatures or cold waves. These data need to beinterpretedinthelightoftheclimatologicalvarietythatmakesPerusoparticular.Inthemeantime,otherkindsofhazardsandeventsneedtobeconsideredtounderstandthehistoryofdisasterinthiscountry.For this reason, the structureof thisbriefhistorical reportaims tobecomprehensivewhileacknowledgingPeru’sdisastervariety.Therefore, somedisasterarereported inrelationtotheirtypology,althoughintheCREDstandardstoptentheyoccupypositionsstatistically “less important” (for numbers of killed or affected people and damageestimated inUSD).Hence, the following listeddisasters are divided in categories andthen chronologically ordered into three main components: natural disasters,technologicaldisasters,andman-madedisasters.

Fig.3ToptendisastersinPerusourceCRED

NATURALDISASTERSGEOPHYSICALDISASTERSTheavalancheofHuarascanMountOn10January1962TheeventwasprovokedbythebreakageofthewestfrontofaglacierlocatedatthetopoftheMountHuascaranatanaltitudeof6,300m(8).AccordingtothestudyconductedbyMorales(ibidem),thequantityoficeinvolvedisestimatedtoamountbetween2.5to3millioncubicmeters.Theavalancheinvolvedagreatvolumeofdebrisandblocks. It


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advancedfor16kmanddescendedfor4,000m,destroyinganddemolishingeverythingthat was in its way with an average speed of 60 km/h (ibidem). In the same study,confirmedbytheinterestinganalysisdonebyCareyonglaciersissuesinPeru(9),itisreported that the avalanche killedmore than 4000 people, burring nine small towns(ibidem).ThequalitativedescriptionofferedbyMoralesstressesalsoontheeconomicaldamage,mostlyrelatedtoagriculture,environmentandheritage(8).TechnicallydefinedasadrymassmovementintheCREDdatabase,thedatareportedarediscordantwiththeonesproposed by Morales, with a 2000 killed, non reported affected, and an estimateddamageof200millionofUSdollars.TheearthquakeofHuaco(NorthcoastofPeru)on17October1966

With a number of 120 killed people (CRED database) the earthquake can berememberedalsoforthehighamountofdamagedtolowandhighbuildings(Wikipedia2013)with108,356affectedpeopleandadamageamountingto15millionUSD(CREDdatabase).Atsunamiwasgeneratedbythisearthquake,whichwasrecordedinCallaoandSanJuan.LandslidesandhugegroundcrackswerereportedalongthePanAmericanHighwaynorthofAncón.

TheAncashearthquakeon31May1970

Incombinationwitharesultantlandslide(9),thisearthquakeoccupiesthefirstplaceinthe country’s disaster top ten list proposed by CRED database for number of killedpeople (66,794) and affected people (3,216,240). It takes the third place in terms ofeconomic damage (530 USD est.). With its 7.7 Richter scale power, this event isconsideredtheworstdisasterhappenedinthehistoryofPeruandhasbeenclassifiedasVIIintheMercalliscale.

TheanthropologistOliver-Smithdefinedthequakeasaman-madedisasterwithrootsleading back to its colonial history in 1542, which “resulted in the severeunderdevelopmentoftheentireregion(10,11)”. AccordingtoPlafkeretalii(12),theearthquake struckon a Sunday afternoonof 31May1970 at 15:23:31 local time andlasted for 45 seconds. The quake destabilized the northernwall ofMountHuascarancausinganavalanchecomposedbysnow,iceandrock.The two towns of Yungay and Ranrahirca were completely buried. The avalanchestartedat910mandadvancedabout18kmto thevillageofYungaywithanaveragespeedof300kmperhour.Ithasbeenestimatedthatthefast-movingmassconsistedofabout80millioncubicmeters(80,000,000m³)ofwater,mud,androcksbythetimeitreachedYungay.AccordingtoFrommer(13),despitethegovernment’suseofmilitaryforceandhelpbymanyinternationalaidorganizations,theeconomicalandlivelihoodimpactofthequakewas tremendous. More than 40 years later, the damage of the disaster was still notcompletelyrepaired,especiallyconsideringthe370,00destructedhouses,whichwereyettoberehabilitated.


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TheChungarmasswetlandmovementof19March1971

Althoughtheentityofthisearthquakecanbeconsideredas“small”inRichterscalethedisaster of Chungar will be remembered in the history of Peru for the series ofcalamities, such as landslides, floods, and avalanches, that affected anddestroyed thetown. Chungar was a town erected close to a mining camp located in the AndesMountains.Thetownwasmostlyinhabitedbymineworkersandtheirfamilies.

Thelandslidecausedamassiveamountofdirtandwatertoplungeintoalakethatsatabove Chungar. The settled water from the lake flooded down the hillside towardChungar,causinganavalancheofsnow,mudandrockalongtheway.Inafewsecondswater, snow, rocks, and mud swallowed Chungar and its people. Despite being lessconsidered in thePeruviandisaster literature, the events that affected anddestroyedthecityofChungararematterofinterestintheCREDdatabase,consideringthenumberof victims (600). Unfortunately, there are no quantitative data available on affectedpeopleandonestimateddamage.

ThePiscoearthquakeon15August2007This earthquakewill be remembered in the history of the country for its destructivemagnitude 8.0 on the Richter scale and for the destruction that followed. The quakestruck offshore of southern Peru near the port of Pisco at 6:40 p.m. local time(www.eeri.org).Theepicenterofthequakewasabout45kmwest-northwestofChinchaAltaandabout145kmsouth-southeastofLima(14).Asreportedinsomestudies(15),the event created a strong ground shaking along the Pacific coastline between thecapitalcityLimaandtheParacasPeninsular.Thisgroundshakingprovokedcausalitiesand destruction throughout the coastal regions in southern Peru. According to somereportsavailableontheweb,itisindicatedthatthemajorityofthedamageoccurredinChinchaAlta,Ica,andPiscoand(16).Themost affected infrastructureswere hospitals, schools, and othermedium-to-largepublic facilities (ibidem). According to Fierro et al 2007, these buildings were builtusingreinforcedconcreteframesandinfillbrickmasonryrigidlyattachedtotheframes(14). The CRED database reports that the Pisco earthquake has provoked 593 killedpeople, affecting 658,331 people and had a huge economic impact ofmore than 600millionofUSDindamage(CRED).Despitethestrengthofthequake, it isworthtosaythatthelocalandgovernmentalreactionhadlimitedthedamageincomparisontothehugecatastropheof1970(seeabove).The response to the earthquakehadbeen ruledby theNationalCivilDefense System(InstitutoNacionaldeDefensaCivil–INDECI)andsupportedbythemilitaryaswellastheprivatesector (local,nationaland international).Manycontributionsarrived fromcivil societies and the international community, including governments, internationalNGOs andUN agencies. However, despite the readiness and the immediate and hugeresponse, many critics have raised questions regarding overall preparedness andcoordination(17).Thiscriticism,recognizedas“lessonlearnt”bytheNationalDefenseofPeru(INDECI,2007),hasbeenusedasaplatformforreformthePeruvianDisasterRiskmanagementplan.


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BIOLOGICALDISASTERS/EPIDEMICSThe1991-92CholeraoutbreakinLaLlibertadandrestofPeruInlateJanuary1991anepidemicofcholerabrokeoutinPeru(18).Withinafewweeks,thediseasespreadthroughoutPeruandintoothercountriesinSouth,CentralandNorthAmerica(19).AccordingtotheCREDdatabase, inthefirstyear1,736peoplediedandmorethan283,353wereaffected.Rumorscollectedonthewebattributetheoriginofthe outbreak to the bilge water of a Chinese freighter. Some other interestingobservations, and a possible explanation for the appearance of cholera in this SouthAmericancountryisthattheseacurrentElNiño(ahotcurrentcomingfromthenorthto the south along the South American coast in the Pacific Ocean (ibidem)may havecreated the right kind of conditions along the Peruvian shores for human to becomeinfectedwithcholera(ibidem)1.Ingeneral the reactionof theauthoritiesperformedwellwith1percent case fatalityrate (ibidem). A good awareness campaign and prompt re-hydration treatmentmadethedifference(ibidem).Inthefollowingyear,theCREDdatabasereportedanepidemicthat killed8,000people.Althoughnootherdata are specified, it is apparent that thisincidentisrelatedtotheepidemicofthepreviousyear,especiallyinlightoftheknownhigh contagiousnature of cholera.Other 690 fatalitieswere reportedbyCRED in thebeginningof1992relatedtothischoleraepidemic.

HYDRO-METEOROLOGICALDISASTERSThe1997-98ElNiñoAccordingtoCRED,theperiodofdisasterprovokedbyElNiñoattheendoftheNinetiesinPerucanbegatheredbetweentheendofDecember1997andtheendonMarch1998.Inthesefourmonths,theeffectsprovokedbyElNiñoresultedinfloodingandmudslidesdue to an excessive amount of rainfall and se Niño a surges emanating from strongoceancurrentsandwinds(20).ManycitieswereaffectedsuchasCuzco,Lima,IcaandTumbes.These phenomena provoked a huge number of fatalities, affected people and causedeconomical damages. The CRED reports 518 people killed, a total number of affected580,730peopleandanestimateddamageamountingtoof12millionUSD.Furthermore,itwasreportedthatmorethan114,000hectaresofagriculturallandwereflooded(21),atleast40,500homesweredestroyedorbadlydamaged(22),andalotofinfrastructurewas affected such as schools, roads, bridges (23, 24). In an article published by the1AccordingtoRitaColwelloftheUniversityofMaryland,whenavibrioissubmergedincoldwateritcanshrinktobe300timessmallerthanitsusualsize.Zooplanktonthatinhabitscoldwatersmaycarrylargenumberofcholeravibrioontheirbodies.Zooplanktonfeedbygrazingonphytoplankton,whichbloomwithsunshineandwarmconditions.Thus,aphytoplanktonbloomleadstoanincreaseinthepopulationofzooplankton,whichcarrythevibrio.Zooplanktonlivesinthewaterofpondsandriversthatpeoplemaydrink.Also,fishandshellfisheatzooplanktonandrawfish.Shellfishconsumptionalsoleadstocholeraifitiscontaminatedwiththebacteria(19)


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Peruvian newspaper La Republica (25), the devastation of the infrastructure hadseriouseffectsonharvestanddistributionofagriculturalproductsthroughout1998.

TECHNOLOGICALDISASTERSTheLimaStadiumDisasterOf24May1964

Although mentioned in the CRED database as an important accident in the‘miscellaneous’ category in the top ten, there is lack of academic literature about theLima Stadium disaster. Most information can be found on football or general sportswebsites(26,27).Accordingtothesewebsites,the‘LimaStadiumdisaster’isoneofthemosttragicevents,whichhappenedinsportshowsduringtheformercenturyinPeru.

Thematch,ameetingbetweenPeruandArgentina,wasplayedintheNationalStadiumofLima.ThegamewasthefinalqualificationfortheTokyoOlympicsofthesameyear.Argentinawassuccessfulaccomplishingthegamewithaonetozeroscore,but,atthe88'minute,therefereenegatedagoalbyPeru.Thisdecisionprovokedanuncontrolledreaction in the Peruvian public. Different episodes of violence began betweensupportersandthepolicemenpresentinthestadium.Accordingtosomerumorsontheweb,afamouslocalleaderledsomepeopletochargethefence,whichseparatedtheplayingfieldfromthepublic(ibidem).Thereactionofthepolicewas the use of tear gas canisters in the northern grandstand. The aimwas topreventaninvasionofthefootballfield.Asaconsequence,panicroseamongthegroups.Thisendedwithamassattemptofunplanned,crowdedandconfusedexodustoavoidthegasand theviolence.Manypeoplewhowerenotparticipating to thechargewereinnocentlyinvolved.Unfortunately,thestructureofthestadiumwasnotdesignedforanemergencyassuch.The lack of proper escape exits provoked the squeezing ofmany peoplewho died ofinternalhemorrhagingorasphyxia.Accordingto theCREDdatabasethe finalcountofvictims amounts to 350 killed and 500 affected.Following the incident, the Peruvianauthoritiesreducedtheseatingcapacityofthestadiumfrom53,000to42,000.Thiswasincreasedagainto47,000ontheoccasionoftheAmericanFootballCupof2004.TheMesaRedondacommercialcenterfireinLimaon29December2001

TheMesaRedondashoppingcenter,locatedinthecenterofLima,wasastructuremade“largely ofwood and clay houses lining in narrow streets” (28).During themonth ofDecember,becauseoftheChristmascelebrations,themarketoffireworkswasroughlypresent in the zone. Aware of the possibility of hazard and danger, the municipalgovernmentofLimadeclaredtheareaan‘emergencyzone’.

Despitemanypress articles covering this event, itwas not possible to gather preciseinformation on the beginning of the fire. According to the newswebsite online “PeruThisWeek’(29),anexplosionoccurredinsidetheshoppingcenterintheafternoon.Thearticlereportsaboutwitnessesonthescenewhodeclaredthattheexplosionoccurredduetoelectricalissues.AccordingtoRyanMissy,ajournalistfromTheGuardian,thefire


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began at about 7:30 PM on the night of 29December instead, caused by a fireworksdisplaythatcreatedachainreaction,settingoffthefireworksofothernearbyvendors(30). The aftermath created a "wall of fire" that spread for four blocks and raged forseveralhours(ibidem).

Consideredastheninthworld’sdeadliestfireinthefireworldranking(31),theeventofRedonda is to date amatter of debate in Peru. According to the CRED database, theevent provoked 291 killed, and 139 affected people. Many journalists expressedcriticismonthesocialandpoliticalissuesrelatedtothetragedy.Plentyofpolemicwasraisedabouttheneedforapolicyforfireworks,thenecessityofabiggercontrolandabetterplanninginurbanareasofPeru(32).

TRANSPORTSACCIDENTSTransport accidents do not occupy an important position in the CRED database.However,whenrelatedtoroadsecurity, theyareamatterof interest inthehistoryofthe country.Historically the country counts some important air and sailing accidentsthat had many victims. For example, the Maraon riverboat accident in 1991, thataccording to CRED, has caused the death of 150 people.However, themost dramaticnumber is that related to road accidents, a growing number in the last decade, andpossiblyrelatedtothedevelopmentofthecountry(33).

AccordingtoElComercio,deathscausedbyroadaccidentsfromJanuarytoAugust2013haverisenby36.5percentcomparedtothesameperiodlastyear(34).Thisemergingdataisusedbythepublicandbysomepoliticianstopromoteasensitizationcampaignonroadsecurityandapoliticalactionbasedonsomelegalchange(35).

INTERNALCONFLICTSANDTERRORISM

TerrorismbySenderoLuminosoandMRTAbetween1980–2012Thoughterroristiceventsaredifficulttopindowntoasingleeventorhazard,violenceandinternalconflictscanstillbeconsideredasoneofthemaincausesofdisastersandemergencies inPeru.Two leading internal terroristgroupshave troubled thecountrysince 1980. These are the Sendero Luminoso or "Shining Path" (SL) and theRevolutionary Movement Túpac Amaru (MRTA). In 2003, the Peruvian Truth andReconciliationCommissionreportedanestimated69,280peoplekilled in the internalconflictinPerufrom1980to2000.

AccordingtoGlobalterrorismdatabase(36),thenumberisraisedto70,000inthelastdecade.Astudy(37)reportedthatthemajorityofvictimswerefarmers(56percent),since most attacks occurred in rural settings (79 per cent). Sendero Luminoso wasresponsibleformorethanhalfofthesedeaths.Theactionsofthegovernmentandthemanagementconductedbythepoliceandthemilitaryduringthisperiod,“oftenattheexpenseofbasichumanrights”(ibidem),wereexacerbatingthegrowthofterrorismonPeru.

Inthe1990s,theinfluenceofterroristattackshadoutspreadtourbanareas.Theeventof17December1996isworthtoberememberedas22membersofMRTAtookoverthe


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Japaneseambassador's residence inLima.Thegroupkidnapped72hostagesuntil theintervention of Peruvian Special Forces on 23 April 1997 (ibidem). In 1998, Peru'sauthorities begun to develop an improved emergency response system, with theestablishmentofthecountry'sfirstemergencymedicineresidencytrainingprogrammeandtheconstructionofthefirstdedicatedtraumacenterinLima(ibidem).With thebeginningof the21stcentury, theactivityof the terroristgroupsreemergedwith an attempt per year where many components of the military forces died. InFebruary2012theleaderofthegroupSL,Artemio,wascaptured(38).InMay2012itwas reported that, since 2008, 71 security forces personnel had been killed and 59woundedbyShiningPathambushesintheVRAEregion(39).


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MainriskfactorsandcontributionondisasterriskAccordingtoaWorldBankstudy,Peruislocatedonthe20thspotoftheworldrankingofcountrieswithhighesteconomicriskduetothreatscausedbyextremeeventssuchasearthquakes, floods, frosts, amongother (40). Thediverse geographyofPeruoffers ahigh potential for natural hazards such as seismic activity, volcanoes, hydro-meteorological and climate oscillations, as well as landslides, droughts and heat andcoldwaves(Fig.4).Climatechangeisalsobecominganimportantissueforthecountryespeciallybecauseof the increase in temperatures and in precipitations. The main major threats areearthquakes,tsunamisandtheoscillationofElNiño(41)2.Althoughaparticularkindofhazard can be related to a specific regions of the country, the exposure to risks isobviously determined also by the demographical concentration of the population,especiallyduetothegrowingphenomenonofurbanismthataffectareasliketheLimaregion. This particular situation generates the possibility of catastrophic eventsoccurringinmostoftheareaswithlargepopulationconcentrationinthecountry,suchasLima,Tacna,Arequipa,andIca,amongothers.

As stated above, the most probable events are intense seismic movement, tsunamis,floodsandavalanches,landslidescausedbyrainfallandearthquakesandeventsrelatedto volcanic activity (42). Climatological andoceanographic factors are also twomajorphenomena that interact to produce many of the hazardous atmospheric conditions,which afflict Peru. Under normal conditions, the coastal desert of Peru is one of thedriestregionsoftheworldwithvirtuallynoannualrainfallandonlyslightvariationinannualtemperature(ibidem).Inthiscontextandinconjunctionwithotherstudies,theanthropologist Oliver-Smith (10) notes that the region is extremely sensitive to anyanomaly in the ocean-to-atmosphere energy transfer system with implications forglobalweatherpatterns.

GEOLOGICALHAZARDSSEISMICITYInPeruseismicactivityismostlyoriginatedinthesubductionzonebetweentheNazcaand the South American plates as well as the continental fault system in the AndesMountains. Historical chronicles report (before the CRED database) how the countryhasbeenhitbymorethan30majorearthquakesinthelastfourcenturies.BasedonchronologicalreportsalongthecoastofPeru,therearethreedifferentareasofearthquakes risk.Thecentral regionbounded topographic featureson thesubductionplate,theMendanafracturezonetothenorthandtheNazcaridgetothesouth(43).ThepresenceofthesefeaturesmayexplainwhyseismicactivitiesoccuroncoastalregionsofPerutoo.2basedonDIPECHOsources(http://practicalaction.org/dipecho_about)divedtheriskprofileinsections.


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The highly seismic hazard zones are concentrated mostly along the coastal regionwhere the capital Lima is located, the highest demographic place of the country. Thecombination of the natural factor of seismicity and the social factor of humansettlements and concentrationmakes the risk profile of the area extremely prone todisasters, to the point that, even a perfect disastermanagement planning would notensureacompleterisksecurity.Analternativecouldbeanewpoliticsofsettlingofthemajordemographiczonetoalesspronearea,aswellasanintenseworkanddesignofdisasterreadyinfrastructuresandbuildings.

• Fig.4HazardsinPerusourceINDECI

TSUNAMIA consequence of this high level of seismicity located in the Peru coastal region is aseriesofrecordsoftsunamis.ThemajorityofthetsunamiswhoaffectedSouthAmericainthelastfourcenturieshavehitthecoastofLima.Inareportof2007realizedbytheMarinaofPeru(MarineArmy),morethantenregionsareconsideredashighlypronetotsunamis, these are: Piura, Lambayeque, Lima, Ica and Arequipa, where most ofinfrastructuresarelocated(port,oil,gas).


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VOLCANOESThemostdangerousvolcanoesofPeruarelocalizedinthesouthernpartofthecountry.According to theGFDRRcountrynotesonLatinAmericaandCaribbeanRegion, thereare15activevolcanoesthatcanbeconsideredasamenace.Theseare located in fourregions:Tacna,Moquegua,ArequipaandAyacucho.Arequipa,thesecondlargestcityofthe country fornumberof inhabitants (778,000plus theHinterland addsup tomorethanamillionpeople,44),isofcoursethemostexposedtothepossibilityofadisaster,foritsproximitytotheMistivolcano,andforsomeinfrastructuraldevelopment,closetothevolcano.Accordingto theGFDRRnotes themostrecenteventwastheeruptionoftheSabancayavolcano, located70kmnorthwestofArequipa, from1990to1992.ThepotentialhazardinthiscasewasalsothepossibilityofashfallsintotheColcaValley.

LANDSLIDESIn the traditions of Sierra communities the knowledge on landslides has deep roots,since these are a recurring hazard. Although these have given an intense culture ofresilience in thesecommunities, today, landslidesarealsobiggerproblems in termofinfrastructuraldamage.Themostlandslide-pronezonesaremountainsidesandflanks,thePacificCoast,andtheAndeanvalleys(Huallaga,Marañon,ApurimanandUrubambarivers,etc.).Thebiggestrisk in termsof infrastructure is thedamageonroads. In theGFDDR country notes (cit), with this category flash floods are included, as well asavalanches,andtorrentialdown-slopeflowsofwater-saturatedearthandrock, locallynamed as ‘huyacos’. Particularly, theMachuPicchu is affected by such kind of events(see:45).ThesecatastropheshaveoccurredalsointheAndeanMountains,becauseoftheseismicactivityorduetoheavyrains,whichprovokeddisastersandcasualtieswellknownandreportedamongthecommunitieslivinginthecordillerasofHuaytapallana,Huayhuash,Urubamba,andVilcamba(checkalso46).

HYDROMETEROLOGICALHAZARDSELNIÑOThe north coast of the country is extremely vulnerable to the meteorologicalphenomenonknownasElNiño(lit.“thechild”,inrelationtoJesusChrist).Accordingtotheextensiveliteratureonthesubject,thetermElNiñowasgiventoanannualmodestwarmoceancurrentthatappearsalongthecoastofPeruandEcuadoraroundChristmastimewithaccompanying rains that transform thebarrencoastaldesertof that regionintoagarden(47,48).―ElNiño‖ isaSpanish termfor―theboy‖andrefers toChildJesus (ibidem). The phenomenon has subsequently become associated with theunusually largewarming that occurs every few years and that changes the local andregionalecology(ibidem).Ontheotherhand,theoppositeofElNiño isLaNiña(―thegirl in Spanish) consistingof abasin-wide coolingphenomenonof the tropicalPacific(ibidem).

Ofthetwophenomena,ElNiñoisthemostdangerousanddestructive.Thoughtherainsassociatedwith El Niño turn the Andean desert coastal region into a garden, people


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become―preoccupiedwiththeroads,bridges,andhousesthatarewashedawaybytherains‖ (ibidem). Additionally, heavy rains produced by El Niño have the potential ofcausing floodingandmudslidesduetohighandsteepmountains.ThesehazardshavecometodominateresearchinPeruasthenation‘spopulationgrowth(10).

Typicallycharacterizedbyprolongedtorrentialraintheseoscillationsaffectmostlytheregions of Tumbes, Piura, Lambayesque, La Libertad and Ancash except from theNadeanprovinces(42).AccordingtotheGFDRRreport(ibidem),theeventsof1997-98have devastated the economy of the country with losses of USD 3.569 billionrespectively (ibidem), in terms of damage of buildings, infrastructures, productionequipment, cropland and transportation stock. Following the event, the World BankapprovedaUSD150millionloanforaprojectaimedinhelpingandsupportingpartofPeruviangovernment’sreconstructionefforts.

FLOODSAccordingtoUNDP(49),morethan23percentofPerupopulationlivesinfloodproneareas.DuetothepresenceoftheAndesMountainsandduetothecoast,inPerufloodingismore intense along the rivers that flow towards the coast, that are dry during theyearsandreceiveabigamountofwaterintheSierrarainperiod(betweenNovemberand April). Particularly, floods affect the regions of Puno (Titicacawatershed), Piura,Lambayeque, andUcayali. According to an assessment realized by theMulti-SectorialCommissiononRiskReductioninDevelopment(CMRRD),55provincesofPerucanbeclassifiedashighfloodrisk.

DROUGHTSAccording to the GFDDR report (42) the southern part of the country is prone todrought, frosts,andotherhydro-meteorologicalevents.Particularly, thesouthAndeanregion(Puno,Cuzco,Apurimac,Arequipa,MoqueguaandTacna)isthemostriskyarea.Inthatpartofthecountrymorethan1,3millionpeoplelivebeyond3,500mabovethesea level on farming and cattle raising. Because of their agro-pastoral economy thesepeople are the most vulnerable to drought and other meteorological events. FrostsusuallyoccurfromMaytoAugustandaffectmostlySierraregions,at2,900mabovesealevel.Generally,thecumulativeeffectoftheseeventscanbeconsideredasanimportantfactoronagriculturehavinglong-termimpactonthedevelopmentoflivelihoodoftheselocalpopulations.

ENVIRONMENTALRISKCLIMATECHANGEANDGLACIERSInadditiontoitsshareofextremeeventssuchasearthquakes,avalanchesandElNiñotriggereddisasters,scientistshavealsoexpressedtheir frustrationwiththeadditionalvariables that lead to disaster. For example, another eminent threat to Peru is thepresence of glacier lakes. Scientists have documented that global warming since thelate-19thcenturyhas ledtoglacierretreatworldwide,and inPeru‘sCordilleraBlancamountain ranges, ―retreating glaciers have led to the formation of precariously


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dammed glacial lakes as well as to the thinning and fracturing of glaciers (9).Historically, these new glacial lakes have generated at least 24 outbursts floods thathavekilledabout6,000peopleinthepast150years(ibidem).Additionally, it is reported that the unstable glaciers have produced at least sixavalanches that killed approximately 22,000 people during the 20th century. Sinceresidents livingnear theseglacial lakesdonothave faith in informationcoming fromthePeruviangovernmentandscientists(basedonthehistoricalexperience),theyhaveeveryreasontobescaredofthepotentialglacierdangers(ibidem).Evenwhenhazardslikeglaciallakesarenotactive,thesituationmaybecomedireasPeruviangovernmentkeepscuttingPeruvianglaciologistsandgeologistsworkinginHuaraz(ibidem).

MAN-MADEDISASTERS,VIOLENCEANDTERRORISMTERRORISM:SENDEROLUMINOSOAlthoughPeru isa fledgingdemocraticstate, it is facingenormoussecuritychallengesfromtheShiningPaththatistryingtowrestlethepowerfromtheelectedofficials(50,51,52).Specifically,theorganizationdoesnotwanttofollowthedemocraticprincipleofparticipatingintheelectionsbutisutilizingarmedcampaignsagainstpublicofficials;particularlyintheruralareaswhereitisbasedandisabletorecruitfollowerswhoaredisillusionedwithPeru‘spooreconomy(51).In1982theactivitiesoftheShiningPathwerethoughttobelimitedtoaremotecorneroftheAndes(ibidem).

ELEMENTSOFVULNERABILITYTOADVERSENATURALDISASTERSINPERUNaturalhazards,soilandwaterqualitydegradation,unplannedurbanismandpovertyarethehighestvulnerabilitychallengesforPeru.TheimpactofthesefactorsonPeruisnotonlyphysicallossesandtheneedtoreplaceorrepairthedamagedcomponentsofsaidinfrastructurebutalsoindirectlyderivedeconomicandsociallosses,meaningnotbeingabletoprovidetheservices.

WATERANDSOILCONDITIONFortypercentofthecoastalregionsoilsexhibitsomedegreeofsalinizationfromoverirrigation and poor drainage.Water and wind erosion owning to sparse or no plantcover,overgrazing,andstubbleburningaffects60percentofAndeanfarmlands(42).Pollutioncausedmainlybytheminingandthemetalindustryisgrowinginthelast20years. Moreover, water and sanitation systems coverage (only 68 per cent) and thequalityofthoseservicesareverylimited.Asaresult,severalmillionofpeoplehavenoaccesstosafedrinkingwaterorsewagesystems.

Informalmanagementofpotableandwastewaterisanimportantfactorofdegradation,especiallyonmountainsides.Duetotheabove,itisalsosafetoassumethattherewillbea high social impact that will mainly affect two sectors: the health sector and theresidential sector (the population at large) (57). In the first case, water supply isessential for emergency relief and when there is no proper service provisioning tohospitalsandotherbuildingsthatareessentialtothecommunity,thereisboundtobea


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problem with a high social impact. In the second case, although in the past thecommunityhasproventoberelativelytolerantduringthefirstfewhoursafteranevent,that attitude gradually changes and then there are usually protests, which generateanothersocialproblem.

Environmental impactmustalsobeconsidereda topicworthyofattention,given thatthe occurrence of catastrophic events that produce significant damages to theinfrastructure may also, in particular case of water supply and sanitation systems,generate chemical component spills, mainly at thewater treatment plants. Thatmayhave a considerable impact on nearby populations, water sources, and vegetation.Sometimes industrial fires or fires generatedby gas installations also occur and suchfirefightinggenerallyrequireswater,whichmaynotbeavailable.

GROWINGANDUNPLANNEDURBANIZATIONUnplannedurbandevelopment, especially concerning the cities of Lima andArreuipahaveintensifiedthelevelofvulnerabilitytodisastersofPeru.Inthelastthreedecadesthedevelopmentofthecountry,favoredbytheinstallationofademocraticgovernment,hasbrought to thereachof77percentofurbanization.Thesedata thatcanbeeasilysharedbymoredevelopedcountries,becomeaprobleminPerubecausetheprocessofurbanizationisnotcontrolledandplanned.

AsreportedbyGFDRRcountrynotes(42),citiesaregrowingquicklyandhaphazardly,regardless the level of seismicityorotherhazardsprone factors in the areas.To givejustacoupleofexample, thedatareportedby the InstitutoNacionaldeEstadisticaseInformatica(INEI),canhelptounderstandthephenomenon.Today,thecoastalareaoftheregion,wherethemostseismiczonesarelocated,ishomefor54.6percent(53)ofthetotalpopulation,theAndeanregion32percent,andtheAmazonBasinto13.4percent.Morethanonethirdoftheprovincesofthecountryareatveryhighseismicrisk.

ThecaseofthecityofLimaistheworstone,notonlyforthedemographicalsituationbut also for the level of corruption, and lack of awarenesswho brought the ongoingformation of illegal settlements account for a large share of city growth,with severalconsequences on development and safety. Even if less important in terms ofdemography, other cities are experiencing the same problem. According to HabitatInternational Coalition (42), more than 4,000 human settlements and 900,000households are still in the process of being regularized legally (50 per cent of Limasettlements).Asaconsequence,residentsoftheseareasarelivingoutofthecovertureof essential services in terms of water and sanitation as well as safe housingprogrammes(ibidem).

POVERTYANDEDUCATIONPROBLEMSAccordingtotheInstitutoNationaldeEstadísticaseInformática(53),todaymorethanonethirdofthepopulationofthecountrylivesbelowthelevelofpoverty,and13.7percent live in extreme poverty. This population represents 25.4 per cent of the urbanareas and 64.6 of the rural population. The national information system on disasterprevention and management reports that between 1995 and 2007, the disastersoccurred (i.e. El Niño and the 2007 earthquake) affected the regions of Apurimac,


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Loreto,Cajamanca,Lima,PunoandCuzco,whichpresentthehighestlevelofpovertyofall the country. In themeantime, despite the politics of social inclusion of theHulalagovernment,mostinstitutionsarestillweakintacklingtheproblem,andthereisstillaneed of instruments and tools aimed to respond and solve the problem. Practically,thereisaneedofnewpoliciesaimedatradicalchange.


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RecentdevelopmentsofPeruviandisasterriskmanagementundertheHFA

InPerudisasterriskmanagementistreatedasahighpriorityatnationallevel.Thisisinlargepartduetothehighvisibility intermsofmediaandpolitical issuesaswellastotheeconomicimpactofrecentdisasters.Forexample,thePiscoearthquakein2007andthe Chile earthquake in 2010 have highlighted the significant risk and economicconsequencesof suchevents.A recent studyestimated thatElNiñowould cost8percent of Peru’s gross national product (57). The Pisco earthquake destroyed muchhousing,incurringahighreconstructionandrehabilitationcostforthegovernment,andfutureearthquakes inPeruare likely toaffect thecountry’smosteconomicallystrongregions(ibidem).However,asformanycountriesintheworld,untillessthantenyearsago,mostoftheresponsibilitywasfallingonthestatewhichwassupposetoprovideaidtothedifferentaffected sectors and assist them in their recovery. In many countries, to be able toproperlyhandleanemergency,statesusuallyresorttoestablishingfundsforemergencyrelief,which,oncertainoccasions,arealsousedforriskreductionandmitigationpriorto theoccurrenceofanevent.Such fundsareonlyoneof theriskmanagementpolicyinstrumentsbuttheyaregenerallyamongthefinancialmechanismsmostprominentlyused. In thecaseofPeru, in thepreviousyears thegovernmentprovidedvery limitedresources tohandle emergencies and riskpreventionor reductionwasminimal.ThatbecameevidentduringtheperiodoftimeaftertheearthquakethataffectedPiscoandothernearbytownsinAugust2007.To cope with this problem, Peru is experiencing an ongoing process of institutionalreform of disaster riskmanagement at any level. This program of reforms, designedaroundtheimplementationoftheHyogoFrameworkAction(HFA),ismainlyfocusedonfiveareasofinterventionrelatedtotheHFAfivepriorityactions.

Firstofall,thecountryisworkingonaprocessofdecentralizationaimedtothebuildingofaninstitutionalcapacityandontheimplementationofacomprehensivedisasterriskpolicy.Thiswillmeantograduallyinvolveinthedisasterriskmanagementframeworkall the political actors at three levels, such as regional, provincial and district. ThisprocessbeguninPeruin2002andisstartingtocollectresultsinthelasttwoyearswiththe approval of the law 29664, which converted the approach from disastersmanagementtodisastersriskmanagement.

ThesecondimportanteffortofthePeruvianauthoritiesisaimedtoimprovethequalityof themonitoringsystemandonthe informationtechnologytools inordertosupportthe sub-national government and the interested sectors. This process begun as wellbefore theapprovalof theHFAand isnowadaysexperiencingamomentof transitionrelatedtothechangeduetothemodificationofthelaw29664,citedabove.

In the meantime, the process of improving the monitoring is also involving theeducationsystem.Ononehand, theeducationsystemis involvedatresearch level,onthe other (especially regarding primary and secondary school) in an awarenessprogramonpreparation,mitigationandresponse,focusedonchildhood.


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Inaddition,tocopewithriskmanagementrelatedtoclimaticchangeandpollution,Peruis strengthening its environmental institutions. In 2008, the National EnvironmentMinistrywascreated.Thisreformprocesswillinvolvealsotheemergingneedsindecreasingtheexposuretohazardsof thePeruvian infrastructure aswell as theproductive sectors, especially inrelationtotheriskofearthquakeandtotheoscillationofElNiño.

Finally,theplanwillinvolvepreparednessatstructuralandnon-structurallevel.Ontheonehand,thiswillmeantoimprove,orbettersay,toradicallyregulatetheuncontrolledurban planning. On the other hand, this process will involve the approval ofpreparednessinrebuildingaffectedareasinrelationtoanadequatelevelofresilience.AlltheseelementswillbediscussedindetailandinrelationtothefiveprioritiesofHFAinthefollowing.

AREASOFINTERVENTIONFORTHEHYOGOFRAMEWORKFORACTION2005-2015HFA1:TOWARDSADECENTRALIZEDSYSTEMTo implement and improve the institutional capacity and consensus building fordisasterriskmanagement,Peruisendingaprocessofdecentralizationbegunin2002.The main objective of this process is to boost up the institutional capacity and toimplementpoliciesofdisasterriskmanagementatcomprehensivelevel.Inafirstphase,thisprocessinvolvedregional,provincialanddistrictgovernments.

In Peru, the mandate to respond to disasters belongs to the Sistema Nacional DeDefensaCivilor―SINADECI(NationalSystemofCivilDefense).TheSINADECIispartofthe national defense of the country, and acts in agreementwith the national defensepolicyandplansofthecountry.Thiscentralizedapproachwasusedalsoregardingthestructureofresponseandmitigation.Intothissystem,theresponsibilityofmaintenanceand implementation for the Peruvian national defense belonged only to the InstitutoNacionaldeDefensaCivil,INDECI(NationalInstituteofCivilDefense).

Until a couple of years ago, the structure of thenational civil defense systemof Peruwas:

• PresidencyoftheCabinet–Multi-SectorCommission:PreventionandMitigation

• OfficesofCivilDefense–SectorOfficesofCivilDefense

• INDECI—RegionalCivilDefenseBureauAfteraseriesofevents(earthquake2007,ElNiño,etc.),thenationalauthoritiesrealizedthatthiskindofstructurecouldnotcopewiththehugeamountofhazardrisksalloverthe country, and that there was the necessity to invest more on mitigation andpreventionratherthanonlyinresponse.

ThisnewawarenessreinforcedbytheHFAboostedanongoingdecentralizationprocessofPeruviandisasterriskmanagement.Launchedin2002bytheINDECI,theinitialpartof thedecentralizationwas focusedontransferringpowersandresponsibilities to theregional governments,where regional CivilDefense Systems (SIDERECI)were set up.


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Thecommitteesofcivildefense(CDC)havebeenorganizedinternallyandclassifiedasregional civil defense. But they are also involving provincial and larger regions. Suchcommittees are also organized within the adjoining smaller-region neighborhoodswhere a municipal agent exists and in the central less-populated regions where amunicipalauthorityalreadyhasanoticeablepresence.Thebasicstructureof theregionalcivildefensesystemofPeru(whichcontinuesasasubcategoryofthenationalsystemabove)canbeoutlinedasfollows:

• RegionalGovernment–RegionalCivilDefenseCommittees

• ProvincialMunicipalities–ProvincialCivilDefenseCommittees

• DistrictMunicipalities–DistrictCivilDefenseCommittees

ThelawofnationalcivildefenseinPeruestablishedahierarchicalrelationshipbetweenall the committees of civil defense, in all the activities related to mitigation,preparedness,response,rehabilitation,andrecoveryofemergencymanagement.Inthissystem,theregionalgovernmentswereresponsibleindesigninganddeliveringdisasterprevention following national guidelines. Regional governments and the nationalgovernmentare theones calledupon togenerate the resources that canbeusedasaprotectionandcompensationmechanismforthepooresthouseholds,soastominimizethedropinsocialwellbeing.

However,thiskindofprocessneededalsoareformfromalegalpointofview,inorderto establish institutions and plans that could foster the new approach focused onpreparation,mitigationandriskmanagementpromotedbytheHFA.Afteralongperiodofinstitutionalreform,thePresidencyoftheCouncilofMinisterspromotedtheNationalRiskManagementSystem (SINAGERD).This agencypromoted the lawnumber29664throughwhichtheNationalDisasterRiskManagementSystemwascreated.ThenewNationalDisasterRiskManagement - SINAGERD is aimed to correct risks inplanninganddevelopmentmanagement,andtoimprovemanagementdynamicsofcivildefense. The new law facilitates base the design and implementation of a financialstrategyonabudget setofprograms,whichallowhavinga contingency fund,budgetprogrammevulnerability reductionandemergencydisaster, andmunicipal incentivesforriskmanagementactionsfordisaster.

ThroughthenewPeruvianriskmanagementlaw,theMinistryofEconomyandFinance(MEF)wasempoweredtoestablishfinancialriskmanagementstrategies,whichmeansthat,forthesectorinparticularandingeneral,topicsrelatedtocontractingcontingentloans,establishingreservefunds,takingoutinsuranceandreinsuranceorusingcapitalmarket financial instruments. Financially this means that risk management coversdifferentaspectsthatmustbegraduallycarriedoutafterapolicyhasbeentraced.

Inshort,themaincontributionofthelaw29664wastoshifttheattentionandtheeffortofthegovernmentfromthedisastermanagementandreductiontothedisasterriskandprevention.Thisnewapproachondisaster riskmanagementwasdefinedas “a socialprocesswhoseultimateendistoprevent,reduce,andpermanentlycontroldisasterriskfactors in the society, as well as to properly prepare for and respond to disastersituations,takingintoconsiderationnationalpolicieswithaspecialemphasisonthoserelated to economic, environmental, safety, security, national defense, and territorialissuesinasustainablemanner.”(54)


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Today INDECI is a public body that forms the SINAGERD executor. However, toimplement this new strategy a National Disaster Prevention Center (CENEPRED) hasbeen created. CENEPRED is a public body that makes up the National System forDisasterRiskManagement(SINAGERD).Itsroleistocoordinate,facilitateandoverseethe development and implementation of the national disaster riskmanagement. Thismeanstoprocessestimation,prevention,riskreductionandreconstruction,aswellas,to advice, to develop and to establish technical guidelines and mechanisms for theproper development of those processes by different public and private entities thatmakeupthesystemindicated.

In addition, the institute is responsible to coordinate, facilitate and oversee thedevelopment and implementation of the national policy and the national plan fordisasterriskmanagementintheprocessesofpreparation,responseandrehabilitation.This new plan is being implemented in the country allowing a decentralizedmanagement and a reconstruction planning reconstruction based on the greaterparticipationofthoseaffected.

A policy of capacity building in risk management is being designed. The Plan GRDNational isbeingapproved,alongwithmonitoringandevaluation indicators. Into thisnewsystem,INDECIremainsthepublicbodythat formstheSINAGERDexecutorfromthe technical point of view. The main responsibilities of INDECI are: to coordinate,facilitateandoversee thedevelopmentand implementationof thenationalpolicyandthe national plan for disaster risk management in the processes of preparation,responseandrehabilitation.

Fig. 5 The national process of decentralisation in DRM of Peru sourceINDECI


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Asreported inthewebsiteof the institute,basingonthisnewframeworkthemissionandthevisionoftheINDECIareintegratedintotheNationalSystemforDisasterRisk–SINAGERD. This is defined as an inter-institutional system, synergistic, decentralized,cross and participatory, in order to identify and reduce the risks associated withhazards or minimize their effects, and avoiding the generation of new risks,preparedness and response to disasters by establishing principles, policy guidelines,components,processesandtoolsofdisasterriskmanagement(DRM).

Thecooperationbetweenthetwoinstitutes,theINDECIandtheCENEPRED,isaimedtothe design and the implementation of the Programa Prepustal 068 Reduction de laVulnerabilitad y Atencion de Emergencia de Desastres (programme for vulnerabilityreduction and attention for disaster emergency) - PREVAED, that will be matter ofstrategical action (especially in terms of financial funding) for the next decade. Inconclusion, despite the last report on the implementation of theHFA 1 is still listingmanyproblemsregardingthecoordinationofall theseactors,andthenewchallengesemergedfromthistransitionalmomentduetothechangeofthenationallaw,arelevantprogresscanbeobservedinPeru.

HFA2:THENEWLAWANDTHEDISASTERRISKASSESSMENTANDMONITORINGDespitethetransitionalmomentbroughtbythechangesrelatedtothenewlaw,beforethe establishing of SINACERD the countrymade considerable efforts to produce anddistribute information on hazards at national level. The best example is given by the2004AtlasofNaturalHazardsinPeruproducedbyINDECI,incollaborationwithotherscience and technology institutions. The Atlas contains important data on potentialadverse geological and hydrometer logical hazards as well as on epidemics andenvironmentalpollution.

Before the changes due to the implementation of the new lawmentioned above, sixinstitutions were collaborating in the country risk and hazard assessment. Theseinstitutions were: Instituto Geofísico del Perú (IGP), Instituto del Mar de Perú(IMARPE), Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico de Perú (INGEMMET), ServicioNacional de Meteorología e Hidrología (SENAMHI), Dirección de Hidrografía yNavegación de la Marina de Guerra de Perú (DHN), and Japan-Peru Center forEarthquakeEngineeringandDisasterMitigation(CISMID).In themeantime, also an interestingnumberofuniversity andacademicorganswerecollaboratingtothestrategy.Themainactivitywastoboosttheinstitutionalcapacity,atany level,with technical assistance (42). The initial stepwas therefore related to theimplementationofmonitoringsystemsandinformationtechnologiesaimedtoprovidethesenationalsubgovernmentalactorswithanadequatesupportinallsectorsofriskmanagement.AccordingtotheGFDDRnotes,becauseoflackofresources,in2010thisprocesswasstillachallenge.ThePeruviangovernmentcouldnotensureeasilyalltheseappropriatetools,inordertocreateanetworkaimedatmanagingandaccessinghazardand risk information. A good suggestion given by the same report, and utilized forexampleinastudyonWASHindisastersinPeru(2012), istheimplementationoftheComprehensiveApproachforProbabilisticRiskAssessment(CAPRA)asaplatform.Ifinthecountrynotes(GFDDR)theseeffortswereconsideredasapointofstrength,inthemeantime the same report denounced th lack of a proper coordination, as well


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targeting, in order to fulfill themain priority of the strategy, aswell as the prioritiesrelatedtothecountryneed.

TheroleofthenewinstitutionsuchasCENEPREDisaimedtostrengthentheweakestpart of this collaboration. It was crucial in fact for Peru to ensure to the regionalgovernments some tools, technologiesandmechanism inorder tomanageandaccesshazardandrisk informationpertinent to theirparticularneeds. Inorder to fulfill thismandate, GFDDR notes suggested the approach of the CAPRA platform, for themonitoringsystemsfacinglackoftoolsandtechnologiessufferedbythecountryinthepast years. Adopted for example in theWASH study of 2012, the effects of this newapproachneedtobeevaluated.InthelasttwoyearsanewInformationSystemforDisasterRiskManagement(SIGRID)is available for Peru. This virtual platform is aimed to integrate hazard information,vulnerability and risks of technical institutions, scientific, academic and social geo-referencedscaledetailamongothers.

Peruparticipatesalsoinvariousareasofcoordinationmechanismwithothercountriesof the South American region for the reduction of disaster risks. Among these, forexample, thecountryparticipatestotheIbero-AmericanAssociationofGovernmentalEntities Civil Defense and Protection, serving the post of Secretary General, inpromotingtheadoptionoftheStrategyIberoamericanaforDisasterRiskManagement.In addition, Peru is part of the Standing Commission South Pacific – CPPS for themonitoringoftheElNiñophenomenon.AnotherexampleofboundaryworkondisastermanagementisdoneontheborderbetweenPeru-EcuadorandPeru-Chile.

HFA3:TOWARDSACULTUREOFRESILIENCE.THEIMPORTANCEOFTHEEDUCATIONSECTORATANYLEVELThetransitionalmomentduetochangesimplementedbythenewlaw29664ishavingadeep impactalsoon therelationbetween thedisasterriskmanagementpromotion intheeducationsystem(atanylevel)andthebuildingofacultureofresilienceinallthecountry. However according to the GFDDR country notes, INDECI is promoting thecampaign “learning to prevent” aimed to integrate disaster risk management in theacademiccurriculum.

This program has boosted the grooving of initiatives among public and privateuniversities towardsthetopicofdisasterriskreduction, liketheNationalEngineeringUniversity (UNI), which has created some graduate programs in disaster riskmanagement.Inthemeantime,thissensibilityisgoingtobeextendedalsotoschoolandcommunitybasedprojectmanagementinallPeru.Theseprojectsaresupportedbythegovernmentaswellasby internationalagencies likeUN,EuropeanUnion,USAID,andNGOs, such as COOPI (Italy). The core curriculum that is used by schools includes atheme on environmental education, which is underpinned by three topics – eco-efficiency,healthandriskmanagement.

However,despitetheoutcomeoftheseprogrammeshasarelevantimportanceintermof social resilience and preparation, inmany cases lack of coordination between theinstitutionsinvolvedhasbeennoticedasabigchallenge.Acasestudyondisasterriskeducation in Peru (55) shows how the lack of coordination between the Ministry ofEducation and the INDECI is complicating the institutional structure for educationon


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risk management. According to the study, INDECI has a long history of providingeducationondisastermanagement, althoughdue toMINEDU’s focus on civil defense,thiseducationisconcentratedonearthquakeandtsunamiresponseandisimplementedseparatelyfromtheschoolcurriculum.

By contrast, theMINEDU/DIECAwork on education integrates risk as one part of anenvironmentalcurriculum,usingarights-basedapproach,andassuchisfocusedonthewhole range of risks that may face a community (such as environmental, safety andnatural disasters), using amuchmore integrated approach. EEPCT/DIPECHO fundinghas been key in supporting the development of tools and training in both of theseministries.Toadd to the complexity, thegovernment changedhands in July2011.Alongside theresultingchanges instaff(andhigh levelsofuncertainty forthegovernmentstaff thatremain), new mandates and laws have been issued, and it was clear that mostinstitutions are still trying to navigate and understand these changes and theirconsequencesforinstitutionalresponsibilityineducationanddisasters.

The main focus of the EEPCT/DIPECHO programme in Peru is targeted towardsstrengtheningandbuilding thecapacityaround thenational-level framework forDRRandeducation.Manyoftheactivitieshavebeentargetedatthislevel,andhaveprimarilyfocusedontrainings,developmentoftoolsandothersupporttobuildtheinstitutionalframeworknecessary for furtheringDRRandeducation.While the immediate impactsfor childrenarenotnecessarily evident, it is clear that this structurewillprovide thenational-level ‘infrastructure’ needed to roll out and support an effective curriculumacrossthecountry.

HFA4:THESTRENGTHENINGOFENVIRONMENTALANDPLANNINGINSTITUTIONSINPERUIn awareness of the importance of understanding and promoting environmentalintervention related to disaster risk management, Peru recently strengthened itsinstitutional framework. Despite the sensibility on the relation between disastersmanagementandenvironmentisprettyrecent,thisinstitutionalprocesshasdeeprootsin the country (51). Since 1940, the Government has created several agencies toaddressenvironmentalhealthproblems.Currently,theGeneralDirectorateofEnvironmentalHealth(DIGESA)istheonlyagencywithregulatorypower.In2008,theMinistryoftheEnvironmenthasbeencreated,andenvironmental impact studies are mandatory for approval of economic ventures(ibidem). Into this institutional and operative framework the National Center forStrategicPlanning(CEPLAN)waslaunched.Environmentaldepartmentshavealsobeenestablished in theMinistries of Production, Transport and Communications, Housing,ConstructionandSanitation.AccordingtoBajar(51)despitetheseefforts,thesectoralapproach to environmental management and pollution control is disorganized, weakandhaslimitedinstitutionalcapacity.Newly adopted environmental policies suffer from a lack of overall coordination andclarity.Government action todatehas amounted to little ornothing compared to the


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challengeof ceaseless environmental deterioration and theoverwhelming strengthoftheglobalpowersdestroyingthecountry.However,theeffectofthesenewinstitutionalandpolitical configurationswill contributeatpolicy level to increase the resilienceofthecountryintermsofdisastermanagement.AccordingtotheGFDDRRcountrynotes(42), Peru’s infrastructure as well as productive sectors are still highly exposed tonaturalhazards.AccordingtoaWorldBankstudy,Peruislocatedonthe20thspotoftheworldrankingofcountrieswithhighesteconomicriskduetothreatscausedbyextremeeventssuchasearthquakes, floods, frostsamongstothers (40).Thebasicnecessity is to improve theinfrastructural levelorresilience inall thecountry,ononehandpromotingadisasterbased approach in the new building, on the othermaking the existing infrastructuremore resilient to earthquakes, floods and landslides. The huge amount of economicdamagesofElNiño,reportedintheCREDdatabase,hascreatedawarenessonhowthemostexposedsectorsofthePeruvianproductiontohydro-meteorologicalhazardsaretourism, fishery, agriculture, and oil and gas industry, basically, the most importantproductivesectorsinPeru’sgrowingeconomy.AgoodexampleofthisneweffortcanbegivenbythereportDisasterRiskManagementinWaterandSanitationUtilities,fundedbyWorldBank(40).AspartofthesupportthattheWorldBankofferedthePeruviangovernmentinfacingreconstruction,infrastructureseismicriskevaluationwasdevelopedforSEDAPALandEMAPICA,twoPeruviancompaniesthatprovidedrinkingwaterandsanitationservices.Thestudylookedtoquantifytheprobable lossesthatthesecompaniesareexposedtofordamageson their infrastructuredue to theoccurrenceof future earthquakes.Theresultsofthisevaluationdividedintwovolumesareconstitutedinafundamentalinputforfutureanalysisinthedesignandprioritizationofdisasterriskreductionmeasuresofthesecompanies.The study features some recommendations of risk management policies andemphasizesontheneedtocontinueimprovingtheknowledgeofthreatsandrisks.Duetoitsreachandmethodology(probabilisticriskmodeling,usingtheCAPRAplatform)itisthefirsttobedevelopedinthewaterandsanitationsectorinPeru.Inthissense,thestudy also offers an excellent opportunity to review and learn the usefulness of theprobabilisticapproximationandtopromotenewstudiesinotherregionsofthecountry(ibidem). The main contribution of this study is to boost up a new approach onassessmentininfrastructure,aimedtotheimprovementofthesectorinallPeru.The transition rate between the SINADECI the new SINAGERD, has had a limitedprogress, but there are some experiences of sub-national governments that haveachieved to integrate it into their development plans agreed (PDC) and / or annualoperatingplans(POA)sharesofGRD,especiallythereactivecomponent.

Landmanagementplansarebeingmadeandwithriskmapsbetakenintoaccountforthe upgrade of the PDC. It has been conducting joint bicentennial plan review tointegrate DRM into development planning at all levels of government. This review isallowing tomodify reactivemanagement criteria that were written in the first plan-approvedversionof thebicentennial.Theyear2013isexpectedtohaveacomponentGRDintegratedintothefinaldocument.


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HFA5:DISASTERPREPAREDNESS,RECONSTRUCTIONANDRECOVERIES.TOWARDANEWSTRATEGYFORURBANPLANNINGINPERUThe impactof the last earthquakeof2007hasprovidednumberof lessons about thecountry capacity of managing major disasters and of reconstruction. A researchconductedby INDECI,aimedto theevaluationof thecapacityofself-response inPeru(57), rose up many crucial points and areas of intervention. On the one hand, theevaluationconductedfewmonthsafterthequakerevealedtheneedforimprovementsin coordination and planning, as well as capacity development, communication andlogistics.

On the other hand, from the research emerged the main point of weakness: lack ofstructuralandnon-structuralresilienceforpublicandprivateinfrastructures,aswellashousing and communities. Lima, aswell asmost of Peruvian cities, is at high risk fornatural hazards because of the unplanned urbanization and the lack of resilience-buildingprogramsforhousingandinfrastructure.

Catastrophes provoked by events like earthquakes, aswell as flood, can have a deepimpact, not only on victims in terms of killed and affected but also on the economicgrowofthewholecountry.Tofacethisproblem,Peruiscalledtofixupatpolicylevelthe unplanned urban development. In the meantime, a deep regulation systemregarding occupation of quite-prone areas, especially in relation of building ofinfrastructuralcommunity facilitiessuchasschools,hospitals,orrelatedtohousing iscrucial.Insum,inthefollowingyearsPeruviangovernmenthasthemandatetoworkonresilienceofexistinginfrastructuresandintheplanningofnewones.

As a result of this, the provisional agency of Peru, the FORSUR, started a project ofreconstructionmanagementofaffectedandnewareas.Againthemaintaskofthe lastyearshasbeentheimplementationofplansforimprovingtheconditionofcoordinationintermsoflegalandtechnicalhurdles,especiallyintermsofrelationshipwithlocalandregionalgovernments.Thisnewstrategy,basedonthenewlegalframework,willbringthe possibility of developing new capacities in terms of riskmanagement, aswell asresponse,atanylevel.To thisend, the country isplanninganewcomprehensive financial strategyaimedatimprovingtheconditionofpreparednessandresponseinexistinginfrastructuresandinthemeantimeatmanagingthepostdisastersituations.Fromthefinancialpointofviewthis new awareness has driven the development of the establishment of fundscustomized around the kind of disasters and hazards that can potentially affect thecountry.

The aim is to built capacity in order to prevent and to respond with appropriateinstruments to the different types of emergencies in Peru.As for the other strategiesmentionedabove,thisplanisbasedonthenewlegalandinstitutionalreform,inwhichregulationsonstatesofemergencyareaimedtoensuresolidinstitutionalcoordinationand efficient expending of resources. In practical terms, this plan starts from theimplementationbytheMinistryofEconomyofdifferentmeasuressuchascontingencycredits (one of these is the Corporation Andina de Fomento), and the continuednegotiationwiththeWorldBankforsomeloansaimedtodevelopnewcapabletoolstorespondtocatastrophes.


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According to the last report on the HFA published by the Peruvian authorities(CENEPREDandINDECI),2013istheyearofchangingforstructuralandnon-structuralresilienceinPeru.Newbudgetsareaddressedtotheimprovementatstructuralandonstructurallevel,includingthereconstructionofaffectedareas,andurbanplanning.Thisnewvulnerabilityreductionprogrammeisorganizedthroughthreelinesofaction:(a)strengthening the institutional, regulatory and policies for risk management ; (b)identification of priority areas and needs-based vulnerability reduction; and (c)strengtheningfinancialprotectionmechanismsfordisastersAccording to the last report on HFA (53) its implementation has been occurringprogressivelyandithas increasedfundingduringallof2013.Oneissuetoconsider isthe deployment of financial resources available under the administrative procedures.There is a construction of risk scenarios that include climate change at national andsome regional levels. Some result can be registered already now. For example, inagreementwithUNDPthegovernmentofPerudevelopedthePlanforEarthquakeandTsunamieventsinLimaandCallao.

In addition, a new methodology of rebuilding is being implemented in the country,declared emergency zones, the Cusco and Arequipa regions have been taken asvalidationcaseof thisnewcountryproposal.Thisplanof reconstruction involved thefollowingareas:infrastructurereconstruction(roadsincluded),housingreconstruction,revitalizationoftheeconomy,urbanandruralplanning,andrecoveryoflife.Moreover,there are advances in the incorporation of structural and/or non-structuralpreparedness and response actions at the possibility of occurrence of phenomena ofrecurrentnaturaldisasters.Thisisgettingevidentinthehealthsector.TheMinistryofHealthandSocialSecurity,throughtheNationalCommitteeHospitals,isimplementinganationalhospitalpolicyondisasers.In2013,about130healthfacilitiesaregoingtobeevaluatedtobecertifiedbycivildefense.Finally, this program is promoting awareness and participation towards theimprovementofurbanplanning. In the2013HFA report is stated that inmany casesunplannedurbangrowth,spontaneous(invasionsinmanycases)exceedsthecarryingcapacity of the ecosystem, causing environmental impacts in a dangerous andunsustainable way, and seriously compromising the physical safety of humansettlementupontheoccurrenceofnaturalphenomena.

AccordingtoCENEPRED,itisessentialtomakeacommitmenttofuturegenerationstomake all necessary efforts to ensure preventivemeasures so that the cities are safe,healthy,butalsoattractive,orderlyandefficientintermsofoperationanddevelopment.This strategy, understandably, involves the implementation of plans of medium andlong term, with an emphasis on physical security of cities and, therefore, in theprotectionof life andhealthof the inhabitants.Despite this kindofplan is still on itsembryonicstage,itisrelevantthatanewlevelofawarenessandparticipationhasbeenincorporatedinthenewnationalstrategy(53).


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ReviewoftrendsindisasterriskmanagementinPeruIn the last tenyearsPeru isexperiencinganewphaseofchanges, that is involvingallthesectorsatany level.Oneof thesesectors is thesecurityof thecitizens in termsofdisaster risk management and response. As for many other countries, most of thesechangesfindtheirrootinthelessonslearntfromtheformercatastrophesthataffectedthecountry.Inthiscase,Peruhasreallyaveryinterestingprofile,especiallyinregardstovulnerability.This canbeeasily calculatedconsideringon theonehand thehazardrisk profile of the country, in particular due to the geographical location and theclimatologicalsituationofPeru.Ontheotherhand,thiscanbeunderstoodbasedonthecapacitytopreventandrespondtodisasterinPeru,inotherwordsbythelevelofresilience.Thisisacrosscuttingissuethatpassesthroughmanyfactors,fromthepoliticalone,tothesocio-economic,finallytouchingalsotheculturallevel.Thelevelofvulnerabilityisthemainissuethatmatterindisastermanagementatstructuralandnon-structurallevel.Thisprofilehastriedtoreview vulnerability based on the history of disasters that affected the country since1962,andfocusingonthestrategiesthathavebeenadoptedintheyears,especiallyinreference to the Hyogo Framework of Action. Based on the HFA and on the lessonslearntafterthemany(andsometimepreventable)tragediesandcatastrophesthathaveaffectedthecountry,thePeruviangovernmentistakingactionstowardsareformofthedisastermanagement.Thisreformiscurrentlyinatransitionalphase,therebydelicateandslow,butisbringingresultsthatonlyrecentlyhavebecomefeasible.Alegalchangehasbroughttheapprovalofanewlaw,the29664,changingcompletelythe country’s way of tackling disasters. The approach of this law is in fact aimed tomanagetheriskofdisaster,abandoningtheformerapproach,whichwasfocusedonlyon a centralized response.This kindof approach, of course,wasnot only common inPeru,butinmanyothercountriesofthe“socalled”developinganddevelopedworlds,init has provoked tragedies in any part of the planet. However, as elsewhere, the newmentality brought by the HFA has a deep impact on the Peruvian priority riskmanagement.Inthelastdecade,infact,manyobjectiveshavebeenestablished:(1)Developinglocalgovernment capacity at any level (national, regional, district) through a process ofdecentralization; (2) Improving the levelof resilienceatstructuraland infrastructurallevelwitheducational, urbanplanningand reconstructionprograms; (3) Investingonan approach focused on the prevention, as well as on the improvement of responsethroughanewcoordinationplan.Effectively,accordingtothenationalreports,thesekindofobjectivesarebeingpartofthe government agenda. For example, thanks to the approval of the 29664 law, theongoingprocessofdecentralizationofthedisasterprevention,mitigationandresponsestructure isbecominganewreality.Regional,provincialanddistrictgovernmentsarestarting todevelopan improvedcapacity for risk reductionwith thepolicydesign, aswellasinvolvenewcoordinationstrategies.Thisismostlyaimedatgainingresultsonthree levels: risk diagnosis, technical assistance, and training. It needs also to be


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mentioned that the plan is focused on a community and participative approach,recognizing thestrengthofPeruvianpeople in reachingof this task. In themeantime,thegovernment incollaborationwithbordercountries,aswellas internationalactors(suchasUNandEUagenciesandNGOs)ismakingmanyeffortsinmonitoringhazards,especiallyincaseofextremeweatherdisturbanceslikeElNiño.ThepromotionofthePREVENprogrammeisoneexample.However,monitoringisalsoinvolving the improvement of early warning systems, construction of networks, andeducationplans.Thisispossibleduetothepromotionofapartnershipwiththeprivatesector.Thiscollaborationnotonlywillhelptoconsiderablyreduceexposuretosocio-naturalhazards,butalsowillbethekeyelementintheprioritizationofinterventionontheimprovementofexistingandnewinfrastructuresintermsofresilience,especiallyinrelationtothecountry’sseismic,landslideandfloodprofile.Peru is working hard in improving the construction of a culture of resilience atpopulationlevel.Thisispossiblethankstoplansthatareinsertingdisasterawarenessintothestudycurriculumatanylevel,withanintensiveapproachontheprimaryandsecondaryschoolcurricula.Inthemeantime,thereisagrowingnewacademiccurriculaaimed at the creation of professional experts in disaster management and response.Thisispossibleduetothegovernment’sopennesstointernationalprogrammes,andtoNGOs.However,someweaknessesarestillcreatingmanychallengesinthissystem.Theyarenotonlyattachedtothedisastermanagementsectorbutconcernthecountryatlarge.Itisrelevanttoexplorehowthesecanbestillachallengeincaseofcatastrophessuchasearthquakes,floodsorElNiño.First of all, the economical development experiencedby the country is still battling ahugelevelofpoverty.Thisfactorisespeciallyrelevantaturbanlevelthemainboostofunplannedurbanization,andtherefore,ofdemographicalriskintermsofdisasters.Thisinvolves the infrastructural resilience but also thenon-structural culture of safety. Atthe same time, in rural areas the levelofpoverty is roughlyhigherand this canhaveeffectsonhealthandcapacityofrespondingtodisastersforlackofresources.Second,despiteundergoingapoliticalsituationoftranquilityinthepastyears,theghostofinstabilityisstillpresentinPeru.Thisisduetotherecentpastofthecountry,whichwascharacterizedofpoliticalinstability,reverberatinginthepresent.Thepresenceofterroristgroups,suchasSenderoLuminoso(ShiningPath),isstillanissueaffectingthestability of Peru. The government is focusing a lot of efforts on prevention but thereremainsstillalotofworkinensuringsecurityandpoliticalstability.Third, although the transitional phase under the law29664 is bringing about changewithlargesteps,,decentralizationisstillafar-fetchedgoalinPeru.Thisisevidentinthelackofcoordinationemerginginanyreport,casestudy,andofficialdocumentthathavebeenreviewedfortheassemblingthisprofile.ThegovernmentwithitsinstitutionssuchasINDECIorCENEPREDisworkinghardonchange,butdistrictandlocalaredifficult–thoughnecessary–tofullyinclude.Thiscanbepossibleonlythroughpromotinglocaland communityparticipation inanyactionanddecisionofdisaster riskmanagement.Only through a good level of coordination and management, hazards such as


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earthquakes and El Niño can be limited in casualties and economic damaged at anylevel,frominfrastructuretoproduction.Fourth, the 2013 reports are highlighting the establishing of funds for affectedpopulationsforreconstructionbuttheprocessofrecoveryisstillfarfromachieved.Inareport of 2011 (59), it is stated thatmany people affected by the last earthquake of2007arestill living in tentsandcamps,andotherkindof “temporary”housing.Somewebsitesreportalsorumorsofabandonedpopulationsfrommuchearlierearthquakessuchastheoneof1970.Thiscanaffectpoliticalstabilityaswellaslocalparticipationtothenewplanofriskmanagement.Ultimately, as in the 2013 governmental report, gender unbalance in disaster riskmanagement isstillan important issue,whichremains tobeaddressed if thedisasterriskmanagementplanunderHFAshallbringaboutfinalchange.

On a positive note, in the last decade Peru has reached many objectives set by thenational and international actors inaccordancewith theHFA.Forexample, regardingthelevelofterrorismandviolencethegovernmentistakingseriousactions.Someyearsago President Humala affirmed that it is necessary to have “―a hard line againstterrorism,goingsofarastoproposealawthatwouldmaketerrorismoneof justtwocrimesinPerutomeritthedeathpenalty”(13).

ThemainobjectiveistoactversusthoseterroristgroupssuchasShiningPaththatarespreadingfearinallofPerusincethebeginningofthe1980s.Thisprocessofsafetyandstability is involving collaboration also with other countries of the South Americancontinent. As Taft-Morales (60) contends, this strong cooperation strengthens Peru‘sinstitutions,enhancesdemocracy,promoteshumanrights,and improvestheeconomybetween these countries. It should also be noted that other countries (e.g., Bolivia,Brazil, Colombia, and Ecuador) are also helping Peru to coordinate and improvecounter-narcoticsintheregionalandneighboringareas(ibidem).Forthisreason,inthelast twoyears, thegovernment isdiscussinganewdesignof lawagainst terrorism, inwhichnecessaryactionsareestablished(61).

Ofcoursethisprocessneedspropermonitoring,asstressedbyHumanRightsWatch,inparticular with regards to the fact that the law is still in need of improvement.Otherwisetheoppositecanbecreatedifaimedonlytopunishtheapologyofterrorism.

Conversely, the most important steps related to emergency and disasters riskmanagement are being achieved with the ongoing process of reforms that is rollingacross the country inparticular in institutions.Results reported in the recent reportsareoptimistic.Thisisverifiableespeciallybythehighlevelofexpectationgeneratedbythedecentralizationandthemonitoringcampaigns.Thebiggesthopeisthatthisplanofactionwillbereflectedinthe infrastructuralactivityaswellas inthe improvementoftheexistingandthefutureurbanplanningandmanagement.Lastly,itisimportanttomentionthatthesechangesareinfluencingtheconstructionofacultureofresilienceatlocalandcommunitylevel.Thisseemstobethebiggestaimofthedecentralizationandinstitutionalreform.OnlywhenrelyingonPeru’scitizens,thelevelofvulnerabilityofthecountrycanbeimproved.


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ConclusionsobtainedfromthisanalysisPeruisadevelopingcountrywithadeepandinterestinghistoryintermofdisasters.Itsriskprofileonhazardsandvulnerabilityisstillmatterofdebateforactionstobetakenin order to prevent other tragedies like the onewho have irremediably changed thehistoryofthecountry(56).

As reported above, Peru is experiencing a transitional moment. The economy of thecountry is growing but still a lot has to be done in terms of poverty, security anddisaster management. This transitional moment is well expressed by the ongoingdecentralization reform that is involving the disaster riskmanagement at any sectorandatanygovernmentallevel.

The approval of a new law (29664) allows an institutional and legal framework forthese changes to come. Many weaknesses are still evident in this system, especiallyregarding the level of coordination and the condition of urban and infrastructuralplanningbutthecountryisdiligentlyfollowingthemandateoftheHyogoFrameworkofAction. In addition, it can also be said that many of the project implemented in thecountryarereachingalevelconsideredasgoodpracticesforothercountriesinterestedintheimprovementoftheirdisasterpreparednessandresponse.ItishopedthatafutureofeconomicgrowthandpoliticalstabilitywillhelpinreachingPeru’s important and ambitious objectives of DRM – turning it into a rolemodel forothersonceandforall.


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