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ELT Voices – India Volume 2 Issue 5 | October 2012

ISSN 2230-9136

© Ignite (India) Publishing, Bhavnagar, Gujarat – India

www.eltvoices.in

ELT Research Paper 9

An Investigation into Some Similarities and Differences of Persian and English Head Parameters Based on X-bar Syntax

Zeinolabedin Rahmani, M.A., Islamic Azad University, Sama Branch, Qa’emshahr, Iran Ali Alizadeh, Associate Professor, Birjand University, South Khorasan, Iran

Zeinolabedin Rahmani & Ali Alizadeh: An Investigation into Some Similarities and Differences of Persian and English

Head Parameters Based on X-bar Syntax

129 | E L T V o i c e s – I n d i a ( V o l . 2 I s s u e 5 ) | O c t o b e r 2 0 1 2 | I S S N 2 2 3 0 - 9 1 3 6

Abstract

There is a set of absolute universals, notions and principles existing in UG which

do not vary from one language to another. While certain grammatical principles

and rules may be universal, it is also true that languages differ from one another

in some important ways such as head parameters. This investigation has been

performed descriptively and analytically to see the parametric similarity and

differences of Persian and English in which we came to this conclusion that

English is head-initial in its all lexical phrases of NPs. VPs, PPs and Adj Phrases

and on the other hand Persian is mostly a head-final language because its NPs

are considered as head-initial (like English NPs) due to the fact that more

complements follow their head nouns than those which precede, hence it is

considered head-initial in its NPs; in other words, more NPs are ordered on the

basis of the phrase structure rule of X' → X complement than that of X' →

Complement X.

Key words: parametric directionality- English and Persian-parameters and

principles




Introduction

Persian is a mostly head-final language and English a head-initial language (Radford,

2006; Maleki, 2006; Soheili, 1989; Rahmani, 2010)

“An important aspect of language variation concerns the location of the head in

relationship to other elements of the phrase called dependents. The head of the phrase

can occur on the left of a dependent or on its right. Therefore, Languages differ in

many ways, if knowledge of language consisted solely of invariant parameters, all

languages would be identical, taking the example of the head parameter, it is shown

that different languages have different order of certain elements; so they are either

head-initial or head-final. (Cook & Newson, 2007, p. 41)

Since UG which is stored somewhere within the speakers’ brain, contains a set of

absolute Universals, notions and Principles which do not vary from one language to

the next, languages, then they differ from each other in some Parameters like head

parameters and their analyses can be beneficial for applied linguistics. (Haegeman,

2008; Chomsky, 2005; Cook & Newson, 2007)

“A crucial innovation to the concept of phrase structure that emerged in the early

1970s (Chomsky, 1995) was the claim that all phrases have a central element, known

as a head, around which other elements of the phrase revolve and can minimally stand

for the whole phrases. … An important aspect of language variation concerns the

location of the head in relationship to the other elements of the phrase called

complements. The head of the phrase can occur on the left of a complement or on its

right.” (Cook & Newson, 2007, p. 41)

In head-initial languages like English, the head of a phrase occurs on the left of the

other elements in the phrase. In contrast, in head-final language like Persian, the head

occurs on the right side of the other elements or its complements.

When differences among the parametric directionality of languages increase, it not

only can increase the difficulty of learning the foreign languages, but also can increase

the difficulty of understanding for a machine translation. Hence, when applied




linguistics especially computational linguistics is concerned, it is needed to analyze

the lexical phrases in the languages, so that the machines have the best translations.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the parametric directionality in head

parameters of English and Persian to see their common and different characteristics.

Specifying the position of different heads in NPs, VPs, APs and PPs of different

languages along with their complements and distinguishing the rules among the

phrases may be useful for computational linguistics. (Chomsky, 1995; Jackendoff,

1977 & 1987)

Comparison of the grammatical structure of the foreign language with that of the

native language will have the advantage of discovering the problems of the students in

learning foreign language(s) too, for example the results of such a comparison tell

them that what should and what should not be tested. (Lado, 1957)

This paper wants an attempt to answer the following questions:

1- Is English head-initial in all its lexical phrases of NPs, VPs, PPS and

Adj phrases?

2- Is Persian head-final in all its lexical phrases of NPs, VPs, PPS and

Adj phrases?

3- What's the parametric directionality difference between English and Persian?

Analyses

There are four different syntactic relationships between a head and its dependents

which are shown with examples from English and Persian. (The relevant heads are

given in both bold and italic).




Table 1. Syntactic relationship between heads and dependents (Based on the

definitions and illustration of Tallerman, 1998, p.103)

Example

Language

complement

Head

On the table (preposition)

English

Object NP

Postposition

/preposition

1

Roye miz (preposition)

On table

Persian

Ali loves the girl

English

Arguments of the

verb

verb

2

Ali dokhtare ra dost darad

Ali girl -- loves

Persian

Ali's car

English

Possessor NP

(possessed)

3

Mashine Ali

Car Ali

Persian




English as a head-initial and Persian as a head-final language

In the head-initial languages like English, the head of a phrase occurs on the left of the

other elements in the phrase. In contrast, in the head-final languages like Persian the

head occurs on the right side of its complements. For example the four different

syntactic relationships which exist between heads and their dependents (Tallerman,

1998, p.103) are shown for the languages to see the clear-cut difference between their

heads and complements.

noun

Big house

English

adjective

noun

4

Khaneye bozorg

House big

Persian




Table 2. X-bar structure of heads and dependents

X-bar structure

Example

Language

Complements

&

heads

On the table (preposition)

English

Postposition/pre

position

+

Object NP

Roye miz (preposition)

On table

Persian

P"

Spec P'

P NP

on the table

P"

Spec P'

P NP

roye miz

miz




Ali loves the girl

English

Verb

+

Arguments of

the verb

Ali dokhtare ra dost darad

Ali girl -- loves

Persian

Ali's car

English

(possessed) noun

+

N"

Spec N'

complement N

Ali’s car

V"

V'

V NP

loves the girl

NP

Ali NP

V"

NP V'

NP

dokhtare ra Ali

dost

darad

V




Mashine Ali

Car Ali

Persian

Possessor NP

Big house

English

adjective

+

noun

Khâneye bozorg

House big

Persian

N'

Spec N'

N

khaneye bozorg

N'

Spec N'

Adj N

big house

N"

Spec N'

N complement

mashine Ali




As shown in the above chart, the X-bar structure rule of English and Persian is as

follows which means that their parametric directionality differs:

1- They are common in: X" → specifier X'

2- But different in X' → X complement

English is different in VPs from Persian. In English, the head verb precedes some of

its dependent(s) and follows some others, but it is vise versa in Persian. As far as

internal and external arguments of the verbs are concerned, both internal and external

arguments are positioned before their head verbs in Persian and conversely in English,

the NP of nominative case is positioned before its head verb and the NP of accusative

case is positioned after its head verb. The VP rule which is common in English and

Persian is:

V" → specifier V', and the Spec is filled by the NP in both of them (because the

mentioned languages have at least one external argument), hence the rule is changed

into: V" → NP V'; but they are different in their internal NP argument for example

while in English we can have V' → V NP, in Persian it will be V' → NP V.

Regarding the NPs, a possessed noun can be followed or preceded by a possessor NP

as one of the options of NPs structures in the languages; while in English the

possessor NP precede the possessed noun like Ali’s car but in Persian the possessed

noun precedes its possessor NP, like mashine Ali (Car of Ali). Another option of NPs

structure in the languages can be a noun following or preceding an adjective. While in

English adjectives (attributive adjectives), the most head adjectives precede their head

nouns, it is vise versa in Persian.




Analysis of head parameter directionality in English and Persian

Phrase structure of NPs

NPs in different languages can be followed or preceded by different number(s) of

dependents; these phrases are analyzed in the following paragraphs in order to

recognizing the position(s) of their heads and complements.

Is English head-initial in its NPs?

A phrase in X-bar theory always contains at least a head as well as other constituents.

In NPs, N is the head plus some specifiers and complements as well as adjuncts.

(Haegeman, 2008, p. 99)

There are three complements which precede their head nouns in English NPs such as

Attributive adjectives, Nominal dependents and Specifiers. They are positioned before

head nouns in English and are ordered based on the phrase structure rules of: 1- X" →

Spec X’, 2- X' → Complement X and shown illustratively in the following chart.




Table 3. Complements preceding their head nouns in English

X-bar structure of NPs Head noun complement The complements which precede

their head noun in English:

Politicians

The

specifiers

e.g., The politicians are talking with

each other.

soldiers

careless

attributive adjectives

e.g., The careless soldiers have been

fined.

S

NP VP

Spec N'

N

The politicians

are talking with

each other

NP VP

Spec N'

The

AP

A'

careless

N

soldiers

have been fined

S




Table 4. Complements following their head nouns in English (Based on Marcella,

1972, chapters 3, 5, 6 & 10)

complement Head

noun

The complements which follow their head noun in

English

in a hurry to get

home

Mr. Harris 1- appositive phrases

e.g., Mr. Harris, in a hurry to get home, took a taxi from

the airport.

talking to the

teacher

The girl 2- participial phrases

e.g., The girl talking to the teacher is very intelligent.

the house

everyday

cleaning 3- gerund phrases

e.g., Her cleaning the house everyday is not necessary.

which describes

animals

book 4- adjective clauses

e.g., Here is a book which describes animals.

house

grandmother's

nominal dependents

e.g., My grandmother's house is being

repaired.

S

NP VP

The

Spec N'

complement N

grandmother’s house

is being

repaired




Of the war reason 5- Prepositional phrases

e.g., reason of the war

We see that in English, more NPs, are ordered based on the phrase structure rule of X'

→ X complement and hence, their NPs are considered head-initial.

Is Persian head-initial in its noun phrases?

Complements preceding their head nouns

There are four dependents in Persian which precede their head nouns such as

specifiers, interrogative dependents, numeral dependents, and exclamatory dependents

which are ordered on the basis of the phrase structure rules of: 1- X" → Spec X & 2- X'

→ Complement X shown in the following chart.

Table 5. Complements preceding their head nouns in Persian

Head noun complement The complements which precede their

head noun in Persian:

márd

In

specifiers (determiners):

e.g., In márd doste mán ást.

This man friend my is

ketab

kodam

interrogative dependents:

e.g., kodam ketab mâle tost?

Which book is yours?




márd

se

numeral dependents:

e.g., se márd zakhmi shodand.

Three men injured were

havaee

ájab

exclamatory dependents:

e.g., ájab havaye khobi!

What a weather nice

Complements following their head nouns in Persian (Based on Bateni, 2008, chapter

7 & Gholamalizade, 2007, chapter 4)

There are also five complements which follow their head nouns, such as Attributive

adjectives, nominal dependents, appositive phrases, prepositional phrases, and

adjective clauses (sentential clauses), they are ordered on the basis of X" → Spec X' &

2- X' → X complement.

Table 6. The complements which follow their head noun in Persian

complement Head noun The complements which follow their head

noun in Persian:

khob va sodmand

ketabhaye

1- attributive adjectives:

e.g. ketabhaye khob va sodmand …

books good and fruitful




eslam

payambare

2- nominal dependents:

e.g., payambare eslam farmodand ke …

Prophet Islam said that …

neveshteye Saady

Golestan

3- appositive phrases:

e.g., Golestan, neveshteye saady, ….

Golestan written by Saady …

darbareye naghde tarikh

ketab

4- prepositional phrases:

e.g., ketab darbareye naghde tarikh, ….

Book about critique history

ke Ali nevesht

ketabi

5- adjective clauses (sentential clauses)

e.g., ketabi ke Ali nevesht, …

book which Ali wrote




As we have investigated in Persian, more NPs are ordered on the basis of the phrase

structure rule of X' → X complement than that of X' → Complement X, hence, Persian

NPs is considered head-initial.

The characteristic(s) of the complements of NPs for the languages under study

1- Specifier: As far as specifier is concerned, there is just one option for the

languages under study, the Specifiers precede their head noun in both languages on

the basis of the following formula and diagram: N"→ Spec N'

Attributive adjectives and nominal dependents

As far as attributive adjectives and nominal dependents in English are concerned, the

complement(s) precede their heads as presented in the following diagram:

N"

Spec N'

complement N

(head)

Y

NP

Spec N'

N

head

is being

repaired




The phrase order of attributive adjectives and nominal dependents are different in

Persian, in which their complements do not precede but follow their heads.

Comparison between the specifiers, attributive adjectives and nominal dependents of

the languages shows that in English, not only specifiers but also attributive adjectives

and nominal dependents precede their head nouns but in Persian just Specifiers

precede their head noun.

Appositive phrases and adjective clauses

The dependents of the appositive phrases and adjective clauses in both English and

Persian follow their head nouns.

English: A book which describes animals,…

Persian: Ketabi ke Ali nevesht,…

book which he wrote

For example the X-bar diagram of all the above sentences is the same in which the

complementizer along with the IP, follow their head nouns A book, Ketabi and

mashini.

IP

NP I'

I CP

[ ]

Spec C'

C IP

which (in English)

ke (in Persian)

----

-

-------




Participal phrases and gerund phrases

The complements in the Participal phrases and gerund phrases of English follow their

head nouns as presented in the following diagram. These phrases don’t exist in Persian

which can be considerable.

The characteristics of the complements of VPs

The complements which follow and precede their head verb in English and Persian are

analyzed and compared in the following sections:

In the VPs of English, the head verb appears on the left of the complement but it

seems to be vise versa in Persian.

IP

NP I'

N' Spec

the

Participal P N

girl talking to the boy

I

[ - ]

VP

Spec V'

V AP

is

very smart




According to the above diagram, the head watched precedes one NP, which is an

obligatory part of the verb watched and one PP, adjunct, which is an optional part of

the head, watched.

The head verb in Persian VPs in contrast to the head verb in English VPs follow its

complements, while English NP and PP followed their verb head in the above

example, in Persian they preceded their head verb.

The characteristics of the complements of PPs

The complements which follow or precede their head prepositions are analyzed and

compared in the following sections:

V"

Spec V '

NP V

ást yek naghashe marof

V"

Spec V'

PP V'

V NP

watched TV

with Helen




The head preposition appears on the left of the complement in both English and

Persian.

Regarding the following diagram, In the phrase "in the winter", the word "in" acts as a

preposition which dominates an NP as a complement and precedes the NP of "the

winter". Similarly in Persian, the preposition "az" has preceded its complement "

kohántárin bánâhâye sháhr" like the English preposition.

The characteristics of the complements of APs

In most of the English APs, the head adjectives precede their complements. In other

words, the number of the following complements is more than the preceding ones and

that’s why English adjective phrases are considered as head-initial.

P"

Spec P'

P

az

NP

kohántárin bánâhâye sháhr

P"

Spec P'

P

in

NP

the winter




Some complements which follow or precede the head adjectives in English are: 1-

Prepositional phrases (e.g., envious of someone), 2- enough as an adverb (e.g., warm

enough) and 3- that clauses (e.g., so beautiful that…) which these three complements

follow their head adjectives in English and on the other hand the determiners (e.g.,

rather cold) are the complements which precede their head adjectives in English as in

the following diagram:

Adjective phrases can be followed and preceded by one complement in Persian

language. Quantitative adverbs can precede head adjectives and prepositional phrases

can follow them.

The quantitative adverb kheili in the above diagram precedes the head adjective

dostdashtani and the prepositional phrase as shown in the following diagram namely

az borje Milad follows the head adjective bolandtar.

A"

Spec A'

A PP

bolandtar áz borje Milad

A"

Spec A'

A

kheili dostdashtani




On the basis of the two above diagrams, Persian head adjectives can be followed and

preceded by PP and quantitative adverbs.

Conclusion

English is a head-initial language in all its phrases because of the following reasons:

A) More complements follow its head noun (NP) and head adjective (AdjP) than the

complements which precede the head noun and head adjective, so English is head-

initial in NPs and APs based on the X-bar formula of X' → X Complement.

B) Since there is just one option for English VPs and PPs order based on the formula

of X' → X Complement, English is considered normally head-initial in these two

phrases too.

Persian is a mostly head-final language and is not head-final in its all phrases because

of the following reasons:

A) Persian like English is head-initial in NPs, because more complements follow its

head nouns.

B) Persian is head-final in VPs because there is one option for its order based on the

formula of X' → Complement X.

C) Persian is head-initial in PPs because there is one option which the head

prepositions precede their complements.

D) Regarding Persian APs, the numbers of complements which follow and precede

the head adjectives are equal; one complement precedes the head adjective named

quantity adverb complement and one follow it named prepositional phrase

complement, the reason that Persian is still considered head-final in this regard as

writers think can be due to the frequency of the complements which precede the head

adjectives and are higher than those which follow the head adjectives.

Accordingly Persian is not considered head-final in all its lexical phrases because it is

head initial in NPs and PPs but not in APs and VPs and as far as adverb phrases are




taken into account, Persian is considered as mostly head-final language but English

has been head-initial in all its lexical phrases of NPs, PPs, APs and VPs. These

differences can be considerable as far as teaching or translation is concerned.




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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Zeinolabedin Rahmani received his B.A. in ELT from Mazandaran University and

his M.A. in Applied Linguistics from Birjand University. He has published many

articles on different aspects of linguistics. His interested areas of research are Syntax,

Language Teaching, Language Learning and Discourse Analysis. He is a Part-Time

teacher of Payamnour and Sama Universities in Qaemshahr, Iran and he is also the

director of Zabanpazhouhan English Language Institute.

Dr. Ali Alizadeh is an associate professor of linguistics from the University of

Birjand, South Khorasan, Iran. He has carried out numerous researches, and has

presented numerous papers in different conferences and seminars inside and outside of

the country.

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