elt methods summary
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Elt Methods summaryTRANSCRIPT
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Dang Van Hung, Ph.D.
SEAMEO RETRAC
An overview
Language learning principles
Common Language Teaching
Approaches/Methods
Other Teaching Methods
Methodology
Approach
Method
Curriculum/Syllabus
Technique
Methodology The study of pedagogical practices in general (including
theoretical underpinnings and related research). Whatever
considerations are involved in "how to teach" are
methodological.
Approach Theoretical positions and beliefs about the nature of
language, the nature of language learning, and the
applicability of both to pedagogical settings
MethodA generalized set of classroom specifications for
accomplishing linguistic objectives. Methods tend to be
primarily concerned with teacher and student roles and
behaviors and secondarily with such features as linguistic and
subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials. They
are almost always thought of as being broadly applicable to a
variety of audiences in a variety of contexts.
Curriculum/Syllabus Designs for carrying out a particular language
program. Features include a primary concern with the
specification of linguistic and subject-matter objectives,
sequencing, and materials to meet the needs of a designated
group of learners in a defined context.
TechniqueAny of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or devices used
in the language classroom for realizing lesson objectives.
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Cognitive Principles
Affective Principles
Linguistic Principles
Cognitive Principles
Automaticity
Meaningful Learning
Anticipation of Rewards
Intrinsic Motivation
Strategic Investment
Cognitive Principles Automaticity
Sub-conscious processing of language with peripheral attention tolanguage forms
Meaningful Learning This can be contrasted to Rote Learning, and is thought to lead to better
long term retention
Anticipation of Rewards Learners are driven to act by the anticipation of rewards, tangible or
intangible
Intrinsic Motivation
The most potent learning "rewards" are intrinsically motivated within thelearner
Strategic Investment The time and learning strategies learners invest into the language
learning process.
Affective Principles
Language Ego
Self-Confidence
Risk-Taking
Language-Culture Connection
Affective Principles Language Ego
Learning a new language involves developing a newmode of thinking - a new language "ego"
Self-Confidence Success in learning something can be equated to the
belief in learners that they canlearn it
Risk-Taking Taking risks and experimenting "beyond" what is certain
creates better long-term retention
Language-Culture Connection
Linguistic Principles
Native Language Effect
Interlanguage
Communicative Competence
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Linguistic Principles
Native Language Effect
A learner's native language creates both facilitating andinterfering effects on learning;
Interlanguage
At least some of the learner's development in a new language
can be seen as systematic;
Communicative Competence
Fluency and useare just as important as accuracy andusage
- instruction needs to be aimed at organizational, pragmatic
and strategic competence as well as psychomotor skills.
Grammar Translation Method
Direct Method
The Audio-lingual Method
The Communicative Language Teaching
Approach
Objectives to give learners access to English literature,
To develop their minds "mentally" through foreign
language learning
Key Features
(1) Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with
little active use of the target language.
(2) Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists
of isolated words.
(3) Grammar provides the rules for putting words
together, and instruction often focuses on the
form and inflection of words.
Key Features (4) Reading of difficult classical texts is begun
early.
(5) Little attention is paid to the content of texts,
which are treated as exercises in in grammatical
analysis.
(6) Often the only drills are exercises in
translating disconnected sentences from the
target language into the mother tongue
Typical Techniques (1) Translation of a Literary Passage
(2) Reading Comprehension Questions
(3) Antonyms/Synonyms
(4) Cognates
(5) Deductive Application of Rule
(6) Fill-in-the-blanks
(7) Memorization
(8) Use Words in Sentences
(9) Composition
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Objectives The basic premise of the Direct Method is that
students will learn to communicatein the targetlanguage, partly by learning how to thinkin thatlanguage and by not involving L1 in the languagelearning process whatsoever.
Objectives include teaching the students how touse the language spontaneously and orally,linking meaning with the target language throughthe use of realia, pictures or pantomime (Larsen-Freeman 1986:24).
There is to be a directconnection betweenconcepts and the language to be learned.
Key Features
(1) Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the targetlanguage.
(2) Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught. (3) Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully traded
progression organized around question-and-answer exchangesbetween teachers and students in small, intensive classes.
(4) Grammar is taught inductively.
(5) New teaching points are taught through modeling and practice.
(6) Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects,and pictures; abstract vocabulary is taught by association ofideas.
(7) Both speech and listening comprehension are taught.
(8) Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.
Typical Techniques
(1) Reading Aloud
(2) Question and Answer Exercise
(3) Student Self-Correction
(4) Conversation Practice
(5) Fill-in-the-blank Exercise
(6) Dictation
(7) Paragraph Writing
Objectives To create communicative competence in learners.
The most effective way to do this was for students to"over-learn" the language being studied throughextensive repetition and a variety of elaborate drills.
The idea was to project the linguistic patterns of thelanguage into the minds of the learners in a way thatmade responses automatic and "habitual".
To this end it was held that the language "habits" ofthe first language would constantly interfere, and theonly way to overcome this problem was to facilitate
the learning of a new set of "habits" appropriatelinguistically to the language being studied.
Key Features
(1) New material is presented in dialog form. (2) There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of
set phrases, and over-learning.
(3) Structures are sequenced by means of contrastiveanalysis and taught one at a time.
(4) Structural patterns are taught using repetitivedrills.
(5) There is little or no grammaticalexplanation. Grammar is taught by inductive analogyrather thandeductive explanation.
(6) Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned incontext.
Key Features (Contd) (7) There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual
aids.
(8) Great importance is attached topronunciation.
(9) Very little use of the mother tongue byteachers is permitted.
(10) Successful responses are immediatelyreinforced.
(11) There is great effort to get students toproduce error-free utterances.
(12) There is a tendency to manipulate languageand disregard content.
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Typical Techniques (1) Dialog Memorization
(2) Backward Build-up (Expansion Drill)
(3) Repetition Drill
(4) Chain Drill
(5) Single Slot Substitution Drill
(6) Multiple-slot Substitution Drill
(7) Transformation Drill
(8) Question-and-answer Drill
(9) Use of Minimal Pairs
(10) Complete the Dialog
(11) Grammar Games
Basic Features of CLT (1) An emphasis on learning to communicate through
interaction in the target language.
(2) The introduction of authentic texts into thelearning situation.
(3) The provision of opportunities for learners tofocus, not only on the language but also onthelearning process itself.
(4) An enhancement of the learner's own personalexperiences as important contributingelements toclassroom learning.
(5) An attempt to link classroom language learningwith language activation outside the classroom.
CLT ALM
Meaning is paramount. Attends to structure and formmore than meaning
Dialogs, if used, center around
communicative functions and
are not normally memorized.
Demands more memo rization of
structure-based dialogs
Contextualization is a basicpremise
Language items are not
necessari ly contextual ized.
Language learning is learningto communicate.
Language Learning is learning
structures, sounds or words.
CLT ALM
Effective communication
is sought.
Mastery or "over- learning"
is sought.
Drilling may occur, but
peripherically.
Dri l l ing is a c entral
technique
Comprehensible
pronunciation is sought
Native-speaker-like
pronunc iat ion is sought .
Any device which helps
the learners is accepted -
varying according to their
age, interest, etc.
Grammatical explanat ion
is avoided.
CLT ALM
The target linguistic system will belearned best through the process
of struggling to communicate.
The target linguistic system will belearned through the overt teaching
of the patterns of the system.
Communicative competence is thedesired goal.
Linguistic competence is thedesired goal.
Linguistic variation is a centralconcept in materials and methods.
Varieties of language arerecognized but not emphasized.
Sequencing is determined by anyconsideration of content function,
or meaning which maintains
interest.
The sequence of units isdetermined solely on principles of
linguistic complexity.
CLT ALM
Teachers help learners in any way
that motivates them to work with the
language
The teacher controls the learners
and prevents them from doing
anything that conflicts wit the theory.
Language is created by the individual
often through trial and error.
"Language is habit" so error must be
prevented at all costs.
Fluency and acceptable language is
the primary goal: accuracy is judged
not in the
abstract but in context.
Accuracy, in terms of formal
correctness, is a primary goal.
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CLT ALM
Students are expected to interact
with other people, either in the
flesh, through pair and group work,
or in their writings.
Students are expected to interact
with the language system,
embodied in machines or
controlled materials
The teacher cannot know exactly
what language the students will
use.
The teacher is expected to specify
the language that students are to
use
Intrinsic motivation will spring from
an interest in what is being
communicated by thelanguage
Intrinsic motivation will spring from
an interest in the structure of the
language
Interactive Learning
Learner-centered Learning Learner-centered Learning
Learner-centered Learning
Content-based Learning
Interactive Learning: This concept goes right to the heart of communication itself,
stressing the dual roles of "receiver" and "sender" in any
communicative situation.
Interaction creates the "negotiation between interlocutors"
which in turn produces meaning (semantics).
The concept of interactive learning necessarily entails that
there will be a lot of pair and group work in the classroom, as
well as genuine language input from the "real world" for
meaningful communication.
Learner-centered Learning: This kind of instruction involves the giving over of some
"power" in the language learning process to the learners
themselves.
It also strives to allow for personal creativity and input from
the students, as well as taking into account their learning
needs and objectives.
Cooperative Learning: This concept stresses the "team" like nature of the classroom
and emphasizescooperationas opposed to
competition. Students share information and help, and
achieve their learning goals as a group.
Task-based Learning: This concept equates the idea of a "learning task" to a
language learning technique in itself.
This could be a problem solving activity or a project, but the
task has a clear objective, appropriate content, a
working/application procedure, and a set range of outcomes.
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Content-based Learning: This kind of learning joins language learning to content/subject
matter and engages them both concurrently. Language is seen as a tool or medium for acquiring knowledge
about other things, instantly proving its usefulness.
An important factor in this kind of learning is that the content itself
determines what language items need to be mastered, not the
other way around.
When students study math or science using English as the
medium, they are more intrinsically motivated to learn more of
the language.
Community Language Learning
The Silent Way
Suggestopedia
Total Physical Response
The Natural Approach
Key Features (1) Students are to be considered as "learner-clients" and
the teacher as a "teacher-councelor". (2) A relationship of mutual trust and support is considered essential
to the learning process.
(3) Students are permitted to use their native language, andare provided with translations from the teacher whichthey then attempt to apply.
(4) Grammar and vocabulary are taught inductively.
(5) "Chunks" of target language produced by the studentsare recorded and later listened to - they are alsotranscribed with native language equivalents tobecome texts the students work with.
Key Features (Contd)
(6) Students apply the target language independentlyand without translation when they feelinclined/confident enough to do so.
(7) Students are encouraged to express not only how
they feel about the language, but how they feelaboutthe learning process, to which the teacherexpresses empathy and understanding.
(8) A variety of activities can be included (for example,focusing on a particular grammar orpronunciationpoint, or creating new sentences based on therecordings/transcripts).
Typical Techniques
(1) Tape Recording Student Conversation
(2) Transcription
(3) Reflection on Experience
(4) Reflective Listening
(5) Human Computer
(6) Small Group Tasks
Objectives
Teachers using the Silent Way want their students to become highlyindependent and experimental learners.
Making errors is a natural part of the process and a key learning device, asit is a sign that students are testing out their hypostheses and arriving atvarious conclusions about the language through a trial and error styleapproach.
The teacher tries to facilitate activities whereby the students discover forthemselves the conceptual rules governing the language, rather thanimitating or memorizing
In addition to the idea that students become more autonomous learnersand "develop their own inner criteria for correctness" (Larsen Freeman,1986:62), another key objective was to encourage students to work as agroup - to try and solve problems in the target language together.
It was hoped that students would eventually be able to actively use thelanguage for self-expression, relating their thoughts, feelings andperceptions.
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Key Features
(1) Learning is facilitated if the learner
discovers or creates rather than remembers
and repeatswhat is to be learned.
(2) Learning is facilitated by accompanying
(mediating) physical objects.
(3) Learning is facilitated by problem-solving
involving the material to be learned.
Typical Techniques (1) Sound-Color Chart - click here to see an
example (2) Teacher's Silence
(3) Peer Correction
(4) Rods
(5) Self-correction Gestures
(6) Word Chart
(7) Fidel Chart - click here to see an example
(8) Structured Feedback
Objectives To tap into more of students' mental potential to learn, in
order to accelerate the process by which they learn tounderstand and use the target language forcommunication.
Four factors considered essential in this process were
the provision of a relaxed and comfortable learningenviroment,
the use of soft Baroque music to help increase alphabrain waves and decrease blood pressure and heart rate,
"de-suggestion" in terms of the psychological barrierslearners place on their own learning potential, and
"suggestibility" through the encouragement of learnersassuming "child-like" and/or new roles and names in thetarget language.
Key Features (1) Learning is facilitated in an environment that is as
comfortable as possible, featuring soft cushioned seatingand dim lighting.
(2) "Peripheral" learning is encouraged through thepresence in the learning environment of posters anddecorations featuring the target language and variousgrammatical information.
(3) The teacher assumes a role of complete authority andcontrol in the classroom.
(4) Self-perceived and psychological barriers to learners'potential to learn are "desuggested".
(5) Students are encouraged to be child-like, take "mentaltrips with the teacher" and assume new roles and names inthe target language in order to become more "suggestible".
Key features (Contd)
(6) Baroque music is played softly in the background toincrease mental relaxation and potential to take in andretain new material during the lesson.
(7) Students work from lengthy dialogs in the targetlanguage, with an accompanying translation into thestudents' native language.
(8) Errors are tolerated, the emphasis being on content andnot structure. Grammar and vocabulary are presented andgiven treatment from the teacher, but not dwelt on.
(9) Homework is limited to students re-reading the dialogthey are studying - once before they go to sleep at nightand once in the morning before they get up.
(10) Music, drama and "the Arts" are integrated into thelearning process as often as possible.
Typical Techniques (1) Classroom Set-up (2) Peripheral Learning (3) Positive Suggestion (4) Visualization (5) Choose a New Identity (6) Role-play (7) First Concert (8) Second Concert (9) Primary Activation (10) Secondary Activation
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Objectives Learning needed to become more enjoyable
and less stressful. A natural way to accomplish this was to
recreate the natural way children learn theirnative language, most notably throughfacilitating an appropriate "listening" and"comprehension" period, and encouragelearners to respond using right-brain motorskills rather than left-brain language"processing".
Key Features
(1) The teacher directs and students "act" in response - "Theinstructor is the director of a stage play in which the students arethe actors" (Asher, 1977:43).
(2) Listening and physical response skills are emphasized overoral production.
(3) The imperative mood is the most common language functionemployed, even well into advanced levels. Interrogatives are alsoheavily used.
(4) Whenever possible, humor is injected into the lessons to makethem more enjoyable for learners.
(5) Students are not required to speak until they feel naturallyready or confident enough to do so.
(6) Grammar and vocabulary are emphasized over other languageareas. Spoken language is emphasized over written language.
Typical Techniques
(1) Using Commands to Direct Behavior
(2) Role Reversal
(3) Action Sequence
As part of the Natural Approach, students listen to the teacherusing the target language communicatively from the verybeginning.
It has certain similarities with the much earlier Direct Method,with the important exception that students are allowed to usetheir native language alongside the target language as part ofthe language learning process.
In early stages, students are not corrected during oralproduction, as the teacher is focusing on meaning rather thanform (unless the error is so drastic that it actually hindersmeaning).
Communicative activities prevail throughout a languagecourse employing the Natural Approach, focusing on a widerange of activities including games, roleplays, dialogs, groupwork and discussions.
There are three generic stages identified in
the approach:
(1) Preproduction - developing listening skills;
(2) Early Production - students struggle with thelanguage and make many errors which are
corrected based on content and not structure;
(3) Extending Production - promoting fluencythrough a variety of more challenging activities.
Asher, James. 1977. Learning Another Language Through
Actions: The Complete Teacher's Guidebook. Los Gatos, CA: SlyOaks Productions. See alsohttp://www.tpr-world.com/.
Brown, H. Douglas. 1994. Teaching by Principles: An InteractiveApproach to Language Pedagogy. Prentice Hall.
Finocchiaro, Mary & Brumfit, Christopher. 1983. The Functional-Notional Approach: From Theory to Practice. Oxford UniversityPress.
Krashen, Stephen D., & Terrell, Tracy D. 1983. The NaturalApproach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom. PergamonPress. See also Bilingual Education: Arguments For and (Bogus)Arguments Against,Theory of Second Language Acquisition, ASummary of Stephen Krashen's "Principles and Practice in SecondLanguage Acquisition",Why Bilingual Education?.
http://www.tpr-world.com/http://www.tpr-world.com/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/jwcrawford/Krashen3.htmhttp://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/jwcrawford/Krashen3.htmhttp://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash.htmlhttp://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash.htmlhttp://www.languageimpact.com/articles/rw/krashenbk.htmhttp://www.languageimpact.com/articles/rw/krashenbk.htmhttp://gopher.ael.org/~eric/digests/edorc968.htmlhttp://gopher.ael.org/~eric/digests/edorc968.htmlhttp://gopher.ael.org/~eric/digests/edorc968.htmlhttp://www.languageimpact.com/articles/rw/krashenbk.htmhttp://www.languageimpact.com/articles/rw/krashenbk.htmhttp://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash.htmlhttp://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/jwcrawford/Krashen3.htmhttp://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/jwcrawford/Krashen3.htmhttp://www.tpr-world.com/http://www.tpr-world.com/http://www.tpr-world.com/ -
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Larsen-Freeman, Dianne. 1986. Techniques and Principles in LanguageTeaching. New York: Oxford University Press.
Nunan, David. 1991. Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook forTeachers. Prentice Hall. See also http://ec.hku.hk/dcnunan/
Prator, Clifford H. & Celce-Murcia, Marianne. 1979. "An outline oflanguage teaching approaches." In Celce-Murcia, Marianne & McIntosh,Lois (Ed.),Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. NewburyHouse.
Richards, Jack & Rodgers, Theodore. 1986. Approaches and Methods inLanguage Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Online Resources:
Second Language Teaching Methodologies- Eric Clearinghouse onLanguages and Linguistics
Teaching Techniques- From www.eslabout.com
Whole Language, Whole Person- A Handbook of Language TeachingMethodology
http://ec.hku.hk/dcnunan/http://www.englishraven.com/Second%20Language%20Teaching%20Methodologies.htmlhttp://esl.about.com/cs/teachingtechnique/http://esl.about.com/cs/teachingtechnique/http://www.sbg.ac.at/rom/people/lekt/co/echanger/book.dochttp://www.sbg.ac.at/rom/people/lekt/co/echanger/book.dochttp://www.sbg.ac.at/rom/people/lekt/co/echanger/book.dochttp://esl.about.com/cs/teachingtechnique/http://www.englishraven.com/Second%20Language%20Teaching%20Methodologies.htmlhttp://ec.hku.hk/dcnunan/