Elements of Argument - Claims

•Claims of Fact

•Claims of Value

•Claims of Policy

Claims of Fact

Definition:

•A condition has existed, exists, or will exist

•Support consists of factual information (statistics & testimony)

Claims of Fact

Example Claims:

•Most of the students in this class come from towns within fifty miles of Boston.

•Students who take their courses Pass/Fail make lower grades than those who take them for specific grades.

•The Red Sox will win the pennant this year.

•The only life in the universe exists on this planet.

Defending a Claim of Fact

1. State the claim clearly

2. Define terms that may be controversial or ambiguous so that readers know exactly what you mean.

3. Make sure that your evidence fulfills the appropriate criteria. The data should be sufficient, accurate, recent, typical; the authorities should be reliable.

4. Make clear when conclusions about the data are inferences or interpretations, not facts.

5. Arrange your evidence in order to emphasize what is most important.

Sample Analysis: Claim of Fact

Read “Cocaine is Even Deadlier Than We Thought” and the Analysis afterwards.

Claims of Value

Definition:

•Make a judgment

•Express approval or disapproval

•Attempt to prove that some action, belief, or condition is right or wrong, good or bad, beautiful or ugly, worthwhile or undesirable

Claims of Value

Example Claims:

•Democracy is superior to any other form of government.

•Killing animals for sport is wrong.

•The Sam Rayburn Building in Washington is an aesthetic failure.

Defending a Claim of Value

1. Try to make clear that the values or principles you are defending should have priority on any scale of values. Keep in mind that you and your readers may differ about their relative importance.

2. Suggest that adherence to the values you are defending will bring about good results in some specific situation or bad results if respect for the values is ignored.

3. Since value terms are abstract, use examples and illustrations to clarify meanings and make distinctions. Comparisons and contrasts are especially helpful.

4. Use testimony of others to prove that knowledgeable or highly regarded people share your values.

Sample Analysis: Claim of Value

Read “Shopping and Other Spiritual Adventures in America Today” and the Analysis afterwards.

Claims of Policy

Definition:

•Argue that certain conditions should exist

•Advocate adoption of policies or courses of action because problems have arisen that call for solution

Claims of Policy

Example Claims:

•Voluntary prayer should be permitted in public schools.

•A dress code should be introduced for all public high schools.

•A law should permit sixteen-year-olds and parents to “divorce” each other in cases of extreme incompatibility.

•Mandatory jail terms should be imposed for drunk driving violations.

Defending a Claim of Policy1. Convince your audience that a problem exists.

2. Make your proposal clear (precisely defined).

3. If necessary, establish that there is a need for a change. If changes have been ignored or resisted, there may be good or at least understandable reasons why this is so.

4. Consider the opposing arguments. You may want to state the opposing arguments in a brief paragraph in order to answer them in the body of your argument.

5. Devote the major part of your essay to providing that your proposal is an answer to the opposing arguments and there are distinct benefits for your readers in adopting your proposal.

6. Support your proposal with solid data, but don’t neglect the moral considerations and the common-sense reasons, which may be even more persuasive.

Sample Analysis: Claim of Policy

Read “So That Nobody Has to Go to School If They Don’t Want To” and the Analysis afterwards.