EISENHOWER PRESIDENCY• Fit American Mood

▫ Craved peace and stability▫ Ike “middle of the road”

Inspired confidence

• Dynamic Conservatism▫ Big Picture

Delegated authority Reconciled contending factions

▫ Governing Style Stayed out of legislative process Let Cabinet do it’s thing Laid-back to public

Ruthless politician Focused on business principles

▫ Slashed budget▫ Promoted private development of

hydroelectric and nuclear power▫ Economic advisors (CEA)

• Increases government spending in times of recession

Centrist course Pragmatic

▫ Reduce taxes▫ Contain inflation▫ Govern efficiently

• Modern Republicanism▫ Domestic program

Resisted national health care Civil rights Federal aid to education “Eisenhoover” nickname

Fiscal conservative 1st priority to balance budget

Successes Large tax cut for wealthy and business Increased funding for public housing Increased minimum wage from .75 to 1.00 Extended social security Construction of St. Lawrence Seaway Interstate Highway System

▫ Great domestic achievement, legacy▫ 40,000 miles

• Election of 1956▫ Democrats

Adlai Stevenson▫ Ike

“Everything booming but the guns” Landslide victory Democrats retained control of Congress

JIM CROW IN COURT• Chief Justice Earl Warren

(1953)▫ Jencks v. United States 1957

Accused has right to inspect government files used by prosecution

▫ Yates v. United States 1957 Overturned convictions of

Communist party officials under Smith Act Ended further prosecution of

communists “Impeach Earl Warren”

▫ Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka 1954 Landmark case!!!! NAACP Thurgood Marshall

(lawyer) Reversed Plessy v. Ferguson

violated 14th amendment and “equal protection under the law”

Federal district judges to monitor South vowed resistance Ike wouldn’t force White resistance increased

Revival of KKK

CIVIL RIGHTS

• Resistance climaxed▫ Sept. 1957 Little Rock, Ark.

Gov. Orval E. Faubus President had to intervene

Mobilized National Guard to block desegregation of Central High

1st President since Reconstruction to use troops to protect rights of African-Americans

Court ordered withdrawal of Guard Eisenhower forced to back federal laws

Cold war issue

• 1956 Campaign▫ Civil Rights act of 1957

Established permanent commission To investigate voting rights issues

▫ Civil Rights act of 1960 No protection for voting Didn’t empower federal officials to

register African-Americans to vote

PHASE 2 OF THE COLD WAR• Ike and Dulles

▫ Ike appoints John Foster Dulles as Secretary of State To appease GOP

▫ “Dulles Diplomacy”▫ New look for foreign policy

▫ Though containment too passive▫ Initative to challenge Soviet Union and

China▫ Talked of “liberating captive nations” of

Eastern Europe▫ “Brinkmanship” – never backing down

▫ Threatened “instant, massive retaliation” to Soviet Eisenhower not happy No response to uprisings in East Germany

(1953) or Hungary (56)

• “Atoms for Peace”▫ Idea for both superpowers to contribute

fissionable materials to a new U.N. agency for industrial progress

• Spirit of Geneva▫ 1955, suspension of further

atmospheric tests- 1958

• Dulles’ “pactomania”▫ Mutal defense pacts with 43

nations▫ “new look” defense program

More nucs Russia countered with own

hydrogen bomb Nucs actually held

superpowers in check Reduce conventional forces Early Distant warning system-

Alaska Cheyenne Mountain Operations

Center

PHASE 2- COLD WAR

• Unrest in 3rd world countries• End of colonization in Africa/Asia• Pawns in Cold War

• CIA▫ Allen Dulles, head of CIA▫ Covert actions to prevent

communism TR’s grandson “Operation Ajax” Overthrow of Iran 1953

Sowed seeds of hatred U.S. played major role, oil the issue

▫ Philippines

▫ Guatemala Operation success Mercenaries overthrew the

government Had threatened U.S. business

interests

DOMINO THEORY• Vietnam Domino

▫ Most expensive operations▫ Ike refused to send troops▫ French surrendered 1954

French had try to “retake” after WWII Imperialism increased support for

communism U.S. supported France (financially) Result:

Indochina divided into: Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam

Vietnam divided at 17th parallel North Vietnam- Communist South Vietnam- Democratic

▫ “Domino Theory” All of SE Asia would follow US refused Geneva Peace Accords Created SEATO

South East Asia Treaty Org. GB, France, Australia, New Zealand,

Philippines, Pakistan, Thailand, and the U.S.

CIA installed South Vietnamese government

TROUBLES IN THE THIRD WORLD• Middle East

▫ Difficult for U.S. to balance maintaining ties with oil rich states and supporting Israel at same time

▫ 1954 Nasser/Egypt “Suez Crisis” US tried to “woo” with building Aswan

Dam Recognized China instead

Seized the Suez Canal in 1956 Threatened Western Europe supply

line to oil Joint attack of British, French and Israeli

forces 1956 Did not consult Ike

Supported U.N. resolution to remove allies from Egypt

Eisenhower’s response Withdraw troops Anti-western sentiment in Middle

East Britain/ France never again important in

world affairs U.S. became “protector” of Middle- East

interests

• “Eisenhower Doctrine” 1957▫ US would send military aid to any

country threatened by communism Lebanon 1958

14,000 troops sent to prevent breakout of civil war between Christians and Muslims

▫ Anti-America Peru/Venezuela 1958 Fidel Castro/Cuba 1959

Overthrows government Nationalizes businesses, cuts of

U.S. trade Turns to Soviets

Breakdown of peace Spy plane/Russia 1960 “Spirit of Camp David”

EISENHOWER LEGACY Warning to Americans

Threat to traditional military life “military industrial complex”

Gave Americans prosperity and reassurance

Tried to prevent war

AFFLUENT SOCIETY

Coined by John Kenneth Galbraith 1958 Broad-based prosperity in

America

1950’s fulfillment of American Dream 60% owned homes 75% owned cars 87% owned one T.V. GNP up 50%

Despite debt 3 recessions

Highest standard of living in US ever “people of plenty”

INDUSTRY AND COMPUTERS• Federal spending major source

of economic growth▫ Doubled in 1950s

• Public spending▫ Roads, airports, home mortgages,

supported farm prices, stipends for education

▫ Electronics Consumption tripled Oil replaced coal as nation’s industry

source

• ½ of budget went to defense industries▫ R & D

New Industries Plastics, chemicals, general

dynamics

• 1944▫ International Business Machines▫ Mark I calculator▫ 500 miles of wiring

• 1946▫ US Army▫ ENAIC, 1st electronic computer▫ “debugged”, literally bugs▫ Led to development of programs

• Changed economy like 1st steam engine, electric motor▫ Sales to Industry and government▫ Crucial to IRS▫ 30,000 by mid 1960s for banks,

hospitals, universities, etc.▫ Silicon Valley 1951

Stanford Industrial Park Home to technology core

COSTS OF BIG BUSINESS• Rapid technological advances

accelerated power of big “B”▫ 1950: 20 firms over $1 billion▫ Massive oligopolies formed

TV, Auto Companies▫ New multinational enterprises▫ “executives” replaced capitalists

• Success required conformity▫ “the Lonely Crowd” 1950

No creativity

• Changes in agricultural▫ Scientific and mechanized▫ Technology cut hours▫ Factories in the fields

More machines, more chemicals

• Changes to the Environment▫ “Silent Spring” 1962 Rachel Carson

Poisons DDT

• Blue-Collar Blues▫ Consolidation transformed Labor

Movement 1955 merger of AFL and CIO

85% of union members▫ Higher wages, shorter

workweeks, paid vacations, health-care coverage, automatic wage hikes

▫ Fewer strikes▫ Unions more conservative since

more workers were in middle class▫ Decreased in numbers

Automation New jobs in service sector

▫ 1956 White-collar workers outnumber

blue collar for 1st time US now “post-industrial” society

PROSPERITY AND THE SUBURBS• Real income rose

▫ More income spent on luxuries Credit installment plan

1st credit card: Diner’s Club Card 1950 Indebtedness rose Advertisement increased

▫ 58 million new cars purchased in 1950s Flashier models

• Exodus to the suburbs▫ Highways constructed▫ Income tax stimulated home sales▫ Low interest loans (FHA, VA)▫ 98% white▫ 85% of homes built in 1950s

Embodiment of American dream▫ Greatest internal migration in US

history 20 million Sunbelt and Cali profited

CONSENSUS AND CONSERVATISM• “Togetherness”

▫ 1954 McCall’s Magazine▫ Ideal couple/family▫ Wed younger, children younger

▫ Post- war- traditional roles return▫ Fertility rate rose▫ Increase in population

Antibiotics

• Baby Boom▫ 1946-1964▫ Concern of child-rearing

Dr. Benjamin Spock, “Baby & Child Care” 1946 Don’t work, Breastfeed Less scolding/spanking

▫ Trend 1950’s schools construction 1970’s homes

• Domesticity▫ Pop culture glorified marriage

Doris day, Debbie Reynolds▫ Despite, increasing #s in workforce

Laid groundwork for 1960’s feminism

• Religion▫ Church attendance up

Cold war anxieties▫ Surge of religious activity

Evangelist: Billy Graham RC Bishop: Fulton J. Sheen Prot. Minister: Norman Vincent Peale

▫ Pop Culture Movies

Ben Hur, Ten Commandments Songs

“I believe”, “Man Upstairs” Congress

Added “under God” to pledge Added “In God we Trust” to currency

Books Bible sales all time high

• Education▫ Enrollment increased▫ Progressive educators promoted

socialibility Self-expression over math/science “well-rounded” students

CULTURE OF THE 1950S• Reflected prosperity and fear of Cold War

▫ Art New York/ Modernism Jackson Pollack

▫ Literature Dissatisfaction with jobs and homes

John Clecter’s “The Wapshot Chronicles” 1957

John Updike’s “Rabbit Run” 1960 African-American Culture

James Baldwin’s “Go tell it on the Mountain” 1953

Ralph Ellison’s “Invisible Man” 1951 Jewish Culture

Bernard Malamud’s “The Assistant” 1957 Philip Roth’s “Goodbye Columbus” 1959

Southern Culture William Faulkner’s “The Town” 1957, “The

Mansion” 1960 Eudora Weltly’s “The Ponder Heart” 1954

▫ Hollywood Diminished interest in political issues

Westerns, musicals, spectacles Working women replaced with dumb blondes Minorities invisible Movie attendance down 50%

• Message of Medium: TV▫ 1946: 1 in 18,000 had a TV▫ 1960: 9 out of 10▫ Radio stations transitioned

ABC, CBS, NBC▫ TV Guide, TV Diners▫ Retail

Davy Crockett 1955 Coonskin hats

• TV Culture▫ At 1st showcased creativity and talent

Opera Documentaries Sitcoms with ethnic families

▫ As price decreased demand for mass appeal increased Few with conflict or controversy

Exception “The Honeymooners” “I love Lucy” controversy

“Leave it to Beaver” the norm▫ Difficult to assess impact

Racial and gender stereotypes reinforced Virtually ended network radio Changed political life

McCarthy Trials, Checkers speech

THE OTHER AMERICA• Poverty and Urban Blight

▫ 35 million below poverty line▫ Bulk lived in inner-city slums

African-Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans

▫ Michael Hummington’s “The Other America, Poverty in the United States” 1962 Poor trapped in vicious cycle Need for low-cost housing

• Black’s struggle for justice▫ 1954 Brown decision sparked new

civil rights movement Non-violent resistance

▫ Rosa Parks Dec. 1, 1955 Arrested = Montgomery bus boycott Challenged in Supreme Court 1956 1957 SCLC

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Led non-violent sit-ins

• Latinos and Latinas▫ Inadequate schools and housing▫ Loss of culture

Puerto Ricans Mexican-Americans

▫ 1951 Bracero program reintroduced 7.5 million new irrigated acres in SW

▫ Operation “wetback” 1953-1955 Deportation of illegal immigrants

▫ Supreme Court Decision Banned exclusion of Mexican-Americans

from juries (1954)▫ Breaking boundaries

1st Mexican-American mayor 1958 Roberto Clemente

• Native Americans▫ Poorest minority▫ 1954-1962: 12 Termination bills of

reservations passed 60.000 relocated

SEEDS OF DISQUIET

• Sputnik▫ October 4, 1957▫ 1st artificial satellite launched by

Soviet Union▫ Nov 3, 1957

Launched another satellite, this time with a dog inside

▫ US response Dec 6. 1957 “flopnik” Doubled funds for missiles

development Lead to creation of NASA 1958

▫ New focus on education National Defense Education Act 1958

Math, science, and foreign languages new focus

College enrollment increased 1.5 billion in new funding

SEEDS OF DISQUIET• Social consequences

▫ Juvenile delinquency▫ Rock-n-Roll

1950’s Alan Freed Bill Haley’s “shake, rattle, and roll” 1954

First white Rock-n-Roll hit Corruption of youth, delinquency, mix

races, devil’s music

• Elvis Presley▫ Embodied new Rock-n-Roll

movement▫ Developed out of Jazz and R&B

▫ Associated with African-Americans first

▫ Record sales tripled ▫ “American Bandstand” 1960▫ Outsiders

Buddy Holly Frankie Lymon Richie Valens

• Portents of Change▫ Movies

Marlon Brando in “ The Wild One” 1954 James Dean in “Rebel without a Cause”

1955▫ Beatniks

Revolt against middle-class America Allen Ginsberg’s “Howl” 1956 Jack Kerouac’s “On the Road” 1957 J.D. Salinger’s “Catcher in the Rye”

1951 Joseph Heller “Catch-22”

Scorned conformity and materialism “square” America Romanticized outcasts Reaction

Scorned by Mass media Admired by college youth

Advocated spontaneity, rebellion against social standards, drugs

Set stage for youth rebellion in 1960s

END OF THE “NIFTY 50’S” Revolution on the way