JOURNAL OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, 1980, 2, 137-147.

Children's Attitudes Toward Physical Activity: A Longitudinal Analysis

Frank L. Smoll Robert W. Schutz University of Washington University of British Columbia

Attitudes toward six subdomains of physical activity were assessed across Grades 4 t o 6 for a multiple longitudinal sample consisting of 58 boys and 56 girls. The children's attitudes toward physical activity (CATPA) were generally positive for both sexes; and consistent with preGious research, the eirls showed more favorable attitudes toward the aesthetic subdomain than - the boys. However, the boys evidenced significantly more positive attitudes toward physical activity as the pursuit of vertigo and as catharsis. Neither the among-grade comparisons nor sex-by-grade comparisons attained statistical significance, indicating stability in group attitude scores. However, correla- tional analyses revealed the lack of stability of CATPA within individuals across the grades studied. Factor analysis provided further evidence negating the assumption of CATPA as a n enduring behavioral disposition. The findings are discussed in relation to previous cross-sectional studies, and implications are derived for future research.

The concept of attitudes is not only a focal point of inquiry in social psychology, but likewise interest in the study of attitudes is prevalent in sport psychology. This concern is reflected by the design and construction of instruments to assess attitudes toward a variety of attitude objects, including sportsmanship, intense competition, and physical fitness and exercise (see Albinson, 1975). A major advance in attitude research resulted from Kenyon's (1968b, 1968c) construction of an inventory to assess attitudes toward physical activity (ATPA) based on a conceptual model characterizing physical activity as a multidimensional phenomenon (Kenyon, 1968a). The six subsets or dimensions identified were physical activity as a social experience, as health and fitness, as the pursuit of vertigo, as an aesthetic experience, as catharsis, and as an ascetic experience. In the last several years, Kenyon's inventory has been used with adults and high school students for numerous studies concerning ATPA and their relationship with various situational and dispositional variables (e.g., Alderman, 1970; Dorfman, 1968; Lockhart, 1971; Mullins, 1969; Straub & Felock, 1974; Zaichkowsky, 1975).

Appreciation is extended t o Joan K. Cunningham for assistance in data collection and to Donald L. Mickey, Director of Research, Bellevue School System, for cooperation throughout the study.

Reprint requests should be sent to Dr. Frank L. Smoll, Department of Kinesiology, DX-10, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195.

138 SMOLL AND SCHUTZ

Although there may be some potential value in knowing people's ATPA, Martens (1975) emphasized that "the important function of studying attitudes is to learn how these attitudes are formed, how they may be changed, and how they relate to actual behavior" (p. 137). In this regard, the period of middle childhood is particularly salient as this is the time when basic attitudes are being formed (Ausubel& Sullivan, 1970; Geoghegan, Pollard, &Kelly, 1963; Lee& Lee, 1958). It should be noted that of the multitude of definitions available, the notion of an enduring behavioral disposition is a common element in conceptualizations of the attitude concept (e.g., Kenyon, 1968b; Krech, Crutchfield, & Ballachey, 1862; Leventhal, 1974; Rokeach, 1968). It follows that ATPA is assumed to be a relatively stable attribute. However, very little is known about the nature and characteristics of ATPA during the time of their formation. In view of this, the present study is devoted to a longitudinal analysis of children's attitudes toward physical activity (CATPA) in order to determine their degree of stability during middle childhood.

Method

Design To date, cross-sectional and longitudinal methods have been the most

commonly used designs in studying age-functional relationships. However, because of the inadequacies of cross-sectional and pure longitudinal designs (Baltes, 1968; Labouvie, Bartsch, Nesselroade, & Baltes, 1974; Schaie, 1965; Schutz, 1978), a multiple longitudinal design was employed. The term multiple longitudinal refers to repeated measurements made on more than one intact group or cohort over a period of time.' In the present study, three repeated measurements (Grades 4, 5, and 6) were made for two birth cohorts (groups of individuals born in the same time span, hereafter referred to as Cohorts '65 and '66). As shown in Table 1, data collection for Cohort '65 began in the spring of 1975 (Grade 4) and was completed in 1977 (Grade 6). The data for Cohort '66 spanned the years 1976-1978 for Grades 4 through 6.

Subjects Both cohorts attended the same elementary school in Bellevue, Washington.

Cohort '65 initially consisted of 45 boys and 43 girls who were in Grade 4 during the 1974-1975 school year. Attrition due to change in residence after the first or second year of the study resulted in a final sample size of 58 (30 boys, 28 girls) with complete data for Grades 4, 5, and 6. Of the 75 Grade 4 students who initially comprised Cohort '66, complete data were obtained on 56 (28 boys,

'Kemper and van't Hof (1978) introduced the term multiple longitudinal in place of the term mixed longitudinal because the latter has been used inconsistently in the literature t o describe several different designs. Specifically, the term mixed longitudinal has been used for designs in which subjects leave and join the study during the period of measurement as well as for designs of longitudinal studies with cohorts overlapping ages during the study.

CHILDREN'S ATTITUDES 139

Table 1-Multiple Longitudinal Design Giving Grades of Cohorts at Each Measurement Time

Cohort Time of measurement

1975 1976 1977 1978

28 girls). Thus 66% and 75% of Cohorts '65 and '66, respectively, comprised the sample for the study.

For Cohort '65, means and standard deviations of chronological age for the boys and girls at Grade 4 were 123.3 (f4.2) and 121.9 (k4.8) months, respectively. Those for the boys and girls of Cohort '66 were 124.4 (f 4.0) and 123.0 ( f 4.2) months, respectively. Cohorts '65 and '66 participated in the same physical education programs taught by the same elementary school specialists throughout the course of the study. Parental permission was obtained for the children's participation in the study.

Instrumentation and Procedures Simon and Smoll's (1974) semantic differential inventory, which is an

adaptation of Kenyon's (1968~) instrument, was utilized for assessing CATPA. In developing the CATPA inventory, the format and content of Kenyon's scales were closely followed, but substantial changes in wording made the instrument appropriate for the reading competencies of elementary school children in Grades 4 through 6. CATPA with respect to each subdomain are quantified through use of a 7-point semantic differential scale for each of eight bipolar adjectives, thus yielding scores ranging from 8 to 56 for each of the six subdomains. The CATPA inventory has shown high internal consistency (Hoyt reliabilities ranging from .80 to .89) and test-retest reliabilities (6-week time interval) of approximately .60 (Simon & Smoll, 1974).

The CATPA inventory was administered during half-hour classroom sessions following standard procedures (Simon & Smoll, 1974). The data collection was conducted by the same person during the month of May for each of the 4 years.

Results

A 2 X 2 MANOVA, sex by sample (dropouts vs. survivors), was performed to test if the attrition was random with respect to attitudes-that is, whether selective drop-out occurred. The dependent variables were the six CATPA scores obtained at Grade 4. The nonsignificant sample and sex by sample effects indicated that the subjects on which complete data were obtained (survivors) were not different from those who were lost after 1 or 2 years (dropouts). Thus it

140 SMOLL AND SCHUTZ

can be concluded that the causes of attrition were independent of the dependent variables under investigation (i.e., CATPA).

Internal consistency, measured by Hoyt reliabilities, ranged from .70 to .92 for boys (median = .84) and from .67 to .91 for girls (median = .85). These values compare favorably with those from previous studies (Simon & Smoll, 1974; Smoll, Schutz, & Keeney, 1976). No change in internal consistency across grades was noted for either sex.

Table 2 shows the mean attitude scores and standard deviations for each subdomain separately by cohort, sex, and grade. The relatively large standard deviations for the boys' aesthetic scores are the result of the existence of a few very low scores in this.subdomain. Specifically, there were eight cases of the minimal score (a value of 8) in the total data set, and all of these occurred in the aesthetic subdomain (six boys and two girls).

As it was desirable to collapse across cohorts in order to create sufficient sample sizes for subsequent multivariate analyses, a test of cohort equivalence was performed. A 2 X 2 MANOVA (cohort by sex) on the 18 dependent variables (six CATPA scores at each of the three grades) yielded a significant cohort effect, F(18, 93) = 2 . 7 3 , ~ < .001. The significant cohort difference was primarily due to the Grade 4 aesthetic variable, for which the only significant univariate F ratio was obtained, F(1, 93) = 6.48, p < .02. Despite a nonsignifi- cant cohort by sex interaction, this between-cohort difference seems entirely attributable to the boys' data, with Cohort '65 having a mean of 42.4 versus a mean of 32.2 for Cohort '66. Between-cohort differences on the aesthetic subdomain for the remaining five sex-grade comparisons all have values of less than 2.2. The nonsignificant cohort by sex effect, along with the fact that the significant cohort effect can be attributed to a large difference in one specific sex-grade comparison (out of 36 such possible comparisons), provides sufficient evidence for assuming that Cohorts '65 and '66 are equivalent with respect to the CATPA scores. Thus, all further analyses were performed on the data collapsed across cohorts.

Specific contrasts applied to the set of 18 dependent variables allowed for tests of relevant preplanned comparisons within the 2 X 2 MANOVA. Averaged over grades, there was a significant sex effect, F(6, 105) = 1 5 . 7 7 , ~ < .001, with the follow-up univariate F ratios being significant for the vertigo (p < .01), aesthetic (p < .01), and catharsis (p < .04) subdomains. The boys evidenced more positive attitudes toward physical activity as the pursuit of vertigo and as catharsis, whereas the girls showed a more favorable attitude toward the aesthetic dimension. A nonsignificant multivariate F ratio for the set of among- grade comparisons, F(12, 99) = 1.01, p = .45, and sex by grade comparisons, F(12, 99) = 1.19, p = .30, indicates the absence of any grade differences in CATPA.

Although the preceding analysis suggests a stability of attitudes across grades, it should be noted that this is a group stability and does not permit inferences with respect to the stability of attitudes within individuals. The between-grades correlations presented in Table 3 do provide the necessary

Table 2-Means and Standard Deviations for Each Attitude Subdomain Separately by Cohort, Sex, and Grade

Subdomains Boys Girls

Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6

Social Cohort '65 44.9 f8.3 47.7 k5.3 44.6 k7.0 45.0 f7.1 45.8 f 6.9 46.4 f6.2 Cohort '66 46.0 f 6.9 44.4 f5.8 46.3 f 6.8 46.9 f7.1 45.0 f 7.0 48.2 f 5.4 Total 45.4 f7.6 46.1 f5.6 45.4 f 6.9 45.9 f7.1 45.4 f6.9 47.3 f 5.8

Health & Fitness Cohort '65 48.0 f 5.6 47.9 f 6.8 47.1 f6.6 47.5 f5.6 46.8 f 5.2 46.7 f 7.4 " Cohort '66 47.5 f 8.4 48.3 f 6.6 49.9 f 5.6 49.6 f5.5 46.3 f6.3 48.6 f5.8 Total 47.7 f7.0 48.1 f6.7 48.5 k 6.3 48.6 f5.6 46.5 f5.7 47.6 f 6.7

Vertigo g Cohort '65 37.8 f9.1 43.9 f 8.0 42.3 f9.0 35.8 f11.9 38.2 f 11.7 38.0 +9.7 2 Cohort '66 42.4 f9.9 40.6 f8.3 41.6 f7.6 37.2 f8.2 35.4 f 10.5 39.3 f 7.4 h

Total 40.0 f9.7 42.3 f 8.2 42.0 f 8.3 36.5 f 10.2 36.8 f 11 .l 38.6 f 8.6 2 4

Aesthetic c Cohort '65 42.4 f 9.8 35.1 f13.2 37.3 f 12.4 47.3 f 5.9 49.8 f6.0 49.9 f6.3 Cohort '66 32.2 f 13.8 36.6 f15.0 35.1 f 14.6 48.0 f9.4 48.1 k8.3 48.8 k7.5 i3 Total 37.4 f 12.7 35.8 f14.0 36.2 f 13.5 47.7 f 7.8 49.0 f 7.2 49.3 f 6.9

Catharsis Cohort '65 43.2 -17.1 46.9 f 9.8 46.4 f 8.6 41.8 f9.7 45.0 f 8.5 44.8 +I 1.1 Cohort '66 45.9 f 8.8 43.5 f8.3 47.4 k9.2 40.3 f 9.3 43.1 f 7.3 44.1 f7.4 Total 44.5 k8.0 45.3 f9.2 46.9 f 8.8 41.0 f9.5 44.1 f 7.9 44.5 f9.3

Ascetic Cohort '65 41.2 f7.7 38.9 f 10.8 38.6 f 11.2 35.5 f 11.4 39.1 f10.4 40.5f6.1 Cohort '66 40.1 f10.7 42.2 f 8.5 40.8 f 10.3 40.8 f 9.6 40.4 f 10.4 41.1 f 6.2 Total 40.7 f 9.2 40.5 f9.8 39.6 f 10.7 38.2 f 10.8 39.7 f 10.3 40.8 f 6.1 -

E

142 SMOLL AND SCHUTZ

Tabie 3-Between-Grades Correlations for Each Subdomain Separately by Sex

Subdomains Sex Grades 4-5 Grades 5-6 Grades 4-6

Social Boys .18 .33 .19 Girls .44 .44 .30

Health & Fitness Boys .45 .44 .15 Girls .16 .35 .14

Vertigo Boys .38 .56 .29 Girls .39 .32 .25

Aesthetic Boys .43 .43 .35 Girls .52 .58 .47

Catharsis Boys .06 .12 .20 Girls .32 .35 .08

Ascetic Boys .29 .52 .20 Girls .16 .21 -.20

Note: Critical values at p= .01, boys' r (56) = .30, girls' r (54) = .31.

information for examining the degree of intra-individual variability. If a significance test was applied separately to each of these 36 correlation coefficients, it would show that of the 18 coefficients for girls, 10 of them are significantly different from zero (p < .01), and 9 of the 18 values for the boys achieve significance. Furthermore, these statistically significant correlations account for only 10% (r = +.32) to 34% (r = +.58) of the total variance in any one attitude subdomain at a particular grade.

Canonical correlations were calculated in order to examine the relationships between the sets of variables (CATPA scores) for each grade pairing, that is, to examine the grade-to-grade stability of the composite CATPA domain. The canonical correlation coefficient indicates the strength of the relationship between two canonical variates, these variates being the linear combination of the set of variables which maximizes the strength of the relationship (Harris, 1975). The coefficients associated with each variable in the canonical variate indicate the relative contribution that each variable within the set makes towards the relationship between the two sets. For girls, a single significant canonical relationship was obtained for each grade pair-Grades 4-5, Rc = .69, x2(36) = 7 9 . 3 , ~ < .001; Grades 5-6, Rc = .63, x2 (36) = 6 1 . 8 , ~ < .005; Grades 4-6, Rc = .55, X2(36) = 51.0, p < .05. Examination of the coefficients for the canonical variables revealed that these significant relationships were primarily attributable to the aesthetic subdomains. In other words, for each grade pairing, the relationship that does exist between the CATPA domains can be explained by the stable (across grades) characteristic of the aesthetic subdomain (i.e., stable relative to the other subdomains).

For the boys, several significant ( p < .05) canonical correlations were obtained for each grade pair. However, the structure of these relationships was not clear, which is contrary to what was found for the girls. Examination of the

CHILDREN'S ATTITUDES 143

coefficients revealed the absence of a pattern of any type insofar as any specific subdomain contributing to the relationship. For example, the first significant canonical correlation between Grades 4 and 5 seemed to be accounted for by a relationship between the catharsis subdomain in Grade 4 and a combination of the health and fitness and aesthetic dimensions in Grade 5 (Table 4). The remaining significant canonicals were also due to a weighted combination of a variety of subdomains, with different subdomains predominating in each case.

Table 4-Canonical Coefficients for CATPA: Boys, Grades 4-5

Subdomains Grade 4 Grade 5

Social .25 .31 Health & Fitness .21 .56 Vertigo -.25 -.32 Aesthetic .36 .52 Catharsis .55 -.I9 Ascetic .25 .10

In view of the lack of emergence of any pattern of stability of attitudes across grades, factor analysis (principal components with varimax rotation) was employed as an exploratory technique to determine if any alternate structure existed. The factor structure and loadings were very similar for the boys and the girls; thus the two groups were combined, yielding the factor analysis solution reported in Table 5. This solution represents a very clear structure, analogous to Thurstone's (1947) "simple structure," with virtually every variable having a loading greater than .50 on one and only one factor. The ascetic subdomain, Grade 5, was the only variable not being represented. It is readily apparent that two factors (2 and 3) are attitude factors, accounting for a total of 25% of the total variance. The remaining three are grade factors (1,4, and 5), accounting for 36% of the total variance.

Discussion

In agreement with the findings of Kenyon (1968~) and Simon (1973), the CATPA scores reflected positive attitudinal dispositions (mean values greater than 32 units) for both sexes, extending across the grades studied. Simon administered the CATPA inventory to 922 4th-, 5th-, and 6th-grade children from five elementary schools in the Bellevue, Washington School District-the same community in which the present data were collected. The United States subsample of Kenyon's cross-nationalqtudy involved the administration of the ATPA inventory to 720 Grade I0 and 12 students in Cleveland, Ohio. It should be noted that the equivalence of the CATPA and ATPA inventories has been established (Schutz & Smoll, 1977), and therefore valid comparisons can be made between studies which have used these inventories. For elementary school children, the magnitude and direction of sex differences for the aesthetic

144 SMOLL AND SCHUTZ

Table 5-Factor Analysis of CATPA: Boys and Girls, Grades 4 to 6

Subdomains & Grades Factor Loadings

1 2 3 4 5

Social 6 .70 Health & Fitness 6 .78 Catharsis 6 .76 Ascetic 6 .57

Aesthetic Aesthetic Aesthetic

Health & Fitness 4 Vertigo 4 Vertigo 5 Vertigo 6

Social 5 Health & Fitness 5 Catharsis 5

Social Catharsis Ascetic

Percentage of variancea 1 4% 13% 1 2% 1 2% 1 0%

Note: Only loadings > _+ .50 are presented. "This value represents the percentage of total variance among the attitudinal

subdomains accounted for by the factor.

subdomain were the only consistent findings between this study and that of Simon. In both cases, the females scored much higher than the males a t all grade levels (at least twice the magnitude of the difference which existed within any other subdomain). However, between-sex comparisons on the remaining five subdomains failed to completely replicate Simon's findings.

The absence of a significant grade effect in the present study is in general agreement with Simon's (1973) findings. Her study revealed a significant grade difference only for the health and fitness subdomain. But this difference was very small (a maximum differential of 1.6 units between grades), and it was detected by a univariate ANOVA in contrast to the less powerful MANOVA used herein. Both studies failed to reveal a significant grade by sex interaction. Such findings might prompt one to conclude that CATPA is an attribute which exhibits I

stability for children across Grades 4 to 6. However, the availability of longitudinal data enables elucidation of the true nature of the stability of such measures over time. Bloom (1964) defines a stable characteristic as one which exhibits a correlation of greater than -50 for two measures obtained at least 1 year apart. According to this criterion, only the aesthetic subdomain for girls can be classified as showing year-to-year stability over the time span investigated (i.e.,

CHILDREN'S ATTITUDES 145

Grades 4-5 and 5-6). As shown by the Grade 4 to 6 correlations in Table 3, none of the subdomains for either sex revealed stability over 2 years. (In fact, only one of the 12 correlations exceeded .35.) Furthermore, it is quite probable that the higher correlation for the aesthetic subdomains can be partially attributable to the much larger interindividual variability for this subdomain. More specifically, the few individuals who scored very low in this dimension tended to do so consistently across grades, thus inflating the correlations. Both Kenyon's and Simon's cross-sectional studies have inferred stability on the basis of nonsignifi- cant grade effects. However, such findings pertain only to equivalence across grades and provide no basis for drawing conclusions with respect to the stability of individual characteristics. The correlational statistics from this longitudinal study clearly indicate that CATPA is not a stable attribute across Grades 4 to 6 . The results of the canonical analyses provide further evidence that CATPA and the interrelationships among its subdomains are not constant over time (the exception being the aesthetic subdomain for girls). In light of the absence of stable grade-to-grade attitude relationships, it is not surprising that previous research (Smoll et al., 1976) failed to detect a consistent across-grade pattern in the relationship between CATPA and involvement in physical activities.

Final support for the claim of a lack of stability in CATPA is provided by the factor analysis results. If these attitudes were stable, one would expect a six- factor solution with one factor for each of the six subdomains. The results presented in Table 5 show that this is true only for the aesthetic subdomain and, to a lesser extent, the vertigo subdomain. The other three factors are clearly grade dependent, supporting the notion of a grade-specific general ATPA.

What are the implications of these findings with respect to the assumption that ATPA, and more specifically CATPA, are stable attributes? The findings of the present study clearly negate the concept of CATPA as an enduring characteristic for boys and girls in Grades 4 to 6. Although one may conclude that the average of a group is consistent across grades, this must not be interpreted as reflecting individual stability. Because of this lack of stability, one should not expect to find consistent CATPA-behavior relationships across grade levels, nor should CATPA be used in any research focusing on individual difference variables. On the other hand, the CATPA inventory can be a valuable instrument for assessing group status. The current findings regarding CATPA also raise serious questions concerning the assumption of ATPA stability. Although the lack of stability of CATPA may hold true only for the elementary school years, there is no evidence to support the notion of ATPA as an enduring entity for older populations. The assumption of the stability of ATPA at oIder ages has yet to be tested.

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Manuscript submitted: 9120179 Revision received: 1/8/80