effects of media and destination image on the behavioral …ijthr.or.kr/xml/10844/10844.pdf ·...

Ⅰ. Introduction

Many studies seeking to explain the decision-making

process of tourists’ behaviors have considered the

destination image as one of the most important elements in

tourist destination decision-making. It seems that a tourist

destination’s image plays a great role in the travel

decision-making process. In other words, potential tourists

tend to visit the destination regardless of the distance and/or

cost in order to realize the expectation or fantasy of the

* This research is supported by Hwacheon gun.

** Assistant professor, Department of Global Tourism Management,

Shinhan University, email: [email protected]

*** Professor, Graduate School of Tourism, Kyung Hee University,

email: [email protected]

† (Corresponding author) Associate Professor, Department of

Hotel & Convention Management, PaiChai University, e-mail:

[email protected]

destination. There are several studies on the influence of

tourist destination image on tourist’s behavior (Baloglu,

2000; Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Han & Hyun, 2015;

Milman & Pizam, 1995). Particularly, several studies have

dealt with the influence of image on tourists’ destination

preference or intention to visit (Chen & Kerstetter, 1999;

Leisen, 2001). Thus, developing a favorable image can be a

key strategy for successful tourism destination (Dadgostar

& Isotalo, 1992). One of the key elements in forming the

tourist destination’s before-image is information delivered

by various media (Frias et al., 2008). Tourists develop

expectations, fantasies, or images of destinations through

advertisements, media exposure, word of mouth, and actual

visits (Urray, 2002). Recently, media focused on tourist

destinations have been diversified due to the rapid growth

of online information, such as personal blogs and other

social media. Television channels and newspapers are also

International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality ResearchVolume 31, Number 4, pp. 27-41, 2017 ISSN(Print): 1738-3005Homepage: http://www.ktra.or.kr DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.21298/IJTHR.2017.4.31.4.27

Effects of media and destination image on the behavioral intention to visit Hwacheon Sancheoneo Ice Festival*

Juyeon Kim**⋅Kyungmo Ahn***⋅Hakjun Song†2)

Department of Global Tourism Management, Shinhan University, Uijeongbu 11644, Republic of Korea

Graduate School of Tourism, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea

Department of Hotel & Convention Management, PaiChai University, DaeJeon, 35345, Republic of Korea

AbstractAfter Hwacheon Sancheoneo Ice Festival was introduced as one of 7 Wonders of Winter on CNN America’s website

in 2011, the festival has been covered by various media. The media effect brought an increase in visitors to HIF. This study aims to understand the festival visitors’ destination image according to the exposed media information, attitude, and behavioral intention by adopting the Extended Theory of Planned Behavior (ETPB) including additional constructs such as media information and destination image. An on-site survey was conducted among 423 visitors attending the festival from January 21 to January 27, 2013. A total of 451 questionnaires were used for empirical analysis. The survey results revealed that both media information and three aspects of the festival’s image (cognitive, affective, and unique) indirectly influenced the festival visitors’ behavioral intention. Specifically, media information had a significant influence on all three aspects of the image, and it had the greatest influence on the unique image. Affective image and unique image significantly affected festival visitors’ attitude. Although attitude and subjective norm had significant effects on behavioral intention to attend the festival, perceived behavioral control and frequency of past behavior was statistically insignificant on behavioral intention. Based on these research results, theoretical importance and practical implications are discussed in this paper.

Key words: Media effects, Destination image (cognitive, affective, and unique image), Extended theory of planned behavior, Decision-making process

28 Effects of media and destination image on the behavioral intention to visit Hwacheon Sancheoneo Ice Festival

able to cause a remarkable change in a destination’s image

due to their high credibility and ability to reach mass

audiences (Gartner & Shen, 1992). In particular, news

media has a great impact on image formation when it

reports about a distant country or depicts a dramatic event

(Castelltort & Mäder, 2010). The scene of thousands of

people enjoying various activities on ice at Hwacheon

Sancheoneo Ice Festival (hereafter HIF), the subject of this

study, is enough to draw interest around the world. HIF is a

winter festival that takes place in a remote and isolated

location, 140 kilometers from Seoul, the capital of South

Korea (hereafter Korea). This unique festival enables

travelers to enjoy various winter activities; for instance,

visitors can catch mountain trout by either drilling an ice

hole in a lake or by walking into an icy water pool to catch

the fish with their bare hands. They also can enjoy various

winter activities including bobsledding, skating, and snow

sledding.

CNN America’s website introduced HIF as one of 7

Wonders of Winter through its travel section on December

1st, 2011. This image has spread through domestic and

international media, and HIF has been covered by domestic

TV news programs, newsletters, magazines, and travel-

related websites. As a consequence of the extensive media

coverage, the number of visitors to HIF has increased from

1.33 million in 2010 to 1.44 million in 2012 and finally to

1.5 million in 2013, 1.4 million in 2014, 1.5 million in

2015~2017. Based on the research dealing with the media's

influence on destination image, extensive media coverage

of HIF is hypothesized to influence travelers’ image,

attitude, and visiting behavior (Castelltort & Mäder, 2010;

Frias et al., 2008; Urray, 2002). In this regard, the current

study analyzed the influence of media coverage on the

festival's image and identified the decision-making process

of festival visitors. In order to achieve its research goal, this

study extended the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), one

of the most widely-adopted theories, by adding the

influence of media coverage to the original TPB. From the

theoretical point of view, the findings of this study are

expected to enhance the understanding of media’s effects on

destination image and tourist behaviors. From the practical

point of view, the study’s results will provide festival

managers and marketers with viable media marketing

strategies to attract more tourists to HIF.

Figure 1. View of Hwacheon Ice Festival

International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research 31(4), 2017 29

Ⅱ. Literature review

1. TPB and ETPB

It has been shown that tourists’ behavioral intention to

visit festivals, since it is closely related to actual festival

visiting behavior, is key both to understanding the festival

visitors’ decision-making process and to developing

successful marketing strategies (Song et al., 2012). In terms

of theoretical background, Han (2015) and Lam and Hsu

(2006) claimed that the TPB can be a valuable theoretical

framework to understand the behavior of various tourists. In

order to identify the mechanism of TPB, exploring the

mechanism of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) is first

required since TPB is an advanced and revised model of

TRA. Behavioral intention, the most closely-related

antecedent of an actual behavior, is decided by attitude

toward the behavior (i.e., individual’s evaluation of the

extent to which the behavior is favorable or unfavorable)

and subject norm (i.e., the perception of social pressures

from close friends or important person to perform the

behavior) in the TRA (Ajzen, 1985; Lam & Hsu, 2006).

However, TRA cannot consider the situation of

non-volitional control of human behavior (Ajzen, 1991). In

the situation of non-volitional control, behavioral intention

is not the only predictor of actual behavior. An individual’s

capacity to perform a behavior can be another predictor of

the human behavior in the situation of non-volitional

control. When an individual has enough power, resources,

money, and/or free time to perform a certain behavior, the

behavioral intention and the likelihood of performing the

behavior would increase in the situation of non-volitional

control (Lam & Hsu, 2004).

In order to address the limitation of TRA, Ajzen (1985)

suggested the TPB by introducing the construct of

perceived behavioral control (PBC) as a new determinant of

behavioral intention. In the TPB, behavioral intention is

determined by attitude toward behavior, subjective norm,

and PBC (Ajzen, 1985). PBC indicates the perceived ease

or difficulty with which a specific behavior can be

performed (Ajzen, 1985, 1991; Lam & Hsu, 2006).

Therefore, the TPB becomes the more advanced theory

when considering a behavior outside of volitional control

through the construct of PBC (Ajzen, 1985, 1991; Lam &

Hsu, 2006). Leone et al. (1999) stated that the explanatory

power of intention in the TPB is superior to that of the TRA.

However, it seems that the TPB is also not the ideal theory

to explain the complex mechanism of human behaviors

since it is not enough to explain a human behavior in a

specific situation (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001).

In this regard, revised or extended TPB (ETPB) has been

proposed and tested by several researchers and has

incorporated new predictors of intentions and behaviors

(Bagozzi, 1992; Triandis, 1977). In the field of tourism,

Lam and Hsu (2006) tested ETPB with the addition of the

past behavior variable in order to understand the behavioral

intention of choosing a travel destination for potential

Taiwanese travelers to Hong Kong. Lee and Back (2007)

built ETPB with the addition of the past behavior and the

concept of destination image to comprehend meeting

participation behavior of association members. Quintal,

Lee and Soutar (2010) applied ETPB to understand

traveling decision-making by considering the impact of risk

and uncertainty for online consumer panels in Korea,

China, and Japan. Han and Kim (2010) suggested the ETPB

which incorporates critical constructs (i.e., service quality,

customer satisfaction, overall image, and frequency of past

behavior) into the TPB model in order to understand the

complicated decision-making process of green hotel

customers. Because it was found that the ETPB is an

appropriate framework to explain a variety of tourist

behaviors based on the results of previous studies, the

current study also employs the ETPB to understand the

decision-making process of festival visitors by considering

the influence of media and image on HIF.

2. Media effect

Media is the most important promoter of consumers’

product consumption. Contemporary consumers usually

gather information through various online channels such as

mass media (e.g., TV and newspapers) and SNS (e.g.,

online news, blogs, Twitter). Media information produced

by potential customers plays a critical role in purchasing


and decision-making processes. Information about tourist

destinations performs an important role in tourism

destination selection, and media’s role in providing

up-do-date news to potential tourists is also essential

(Castelltort & Mäder, 2010). Information provided by mass

media affects potential tourist’s decision-making process as

they select their tourism destination (Hanefors & Mossberg,

2001). Murray (1991) has argued that perceived risk and the

process of information search are related, indicating that

perceived risk can be reduced as more information

regarding tourist destination is collected.

Morgan and Pritchard (1998) have pointed out

television’s influence and argued that in some cases,

description on TV may even alter the reality of a place. TV

shows have been catalysts for the recreation of a place as

tourism site. News media has a particularly great impact on

image formation when it reports on a distant country or

depicts a dramatic event (Castelltort & Mäder, 2010). Other

than traditional mass media sources like TV, potential

tourists’ reliance on online information (i.e., social media

such as private blogs, festival homepages) has increased

due to widespread adoption of information appliances like

smart phones or/and tablet PCs. Therefore, tourists consult

social media sites providing information both to assist

potential traveler’s travel-related decisions and to shape

perceptions and images about destination and travel

offerings (Arsal et al., 2008). Especially, information

appliances (e.g., smart phone or/and table PC) provide the

environment where one can explore information without

any space restrictions. Searching for information online

assists travelers in obtaining useful information before,

after, and during their travel. Thus, it would be safe to state

that we are living in an environment where online media has

greater influence on travelers’ decision-making process.

3. Destination image

A purchasing decision can be explained not only by the

product’s performance characteristics but also by the

consumer’s perception of its personality or image. Image

also has great influence on the travel decision-making

process. According to Guthrie and Gale (1991), visitors are

likely to act based on their perceptions and not on reality.

Destinations with stronger positive images will be more

likely to be chosen (Alhemoud & Armstrong, 1996; Echtner

& Ritchie, 1991; Lee, 2009). Therefore, destination image

simplifies the destination selection process (Gartner, 1993),

and it performs a role in travel decision, satisfaction, and

travel-related actions (Beerli & Martin, 2004; Echtner &

Ritchies, 1991; Gartner, 1986). This is why it has been

widely acknowledged as a significant concept in tourism

marketing. Several researchers have focused on the effect of

image on destination choice (Baloglu, 2000; Baloglu &

McClearly, 1999; Um & Crompton, 1990). Some scholars

have explored the image formation process (Baloglu &

McClearly, 1999; Gartner, 1993; Gunn, 1972). The

relations between information sources and a destination

choice (Um & Crompton, 1990; Woodside & Lysonsky,

1989) and the effect of image on destination preference

have also explored (Goodrich, 1978; Milman & Pizam,

1995). Gunn (1972) has also developed the notion of the

organic and induced image. An organic image is formed as

a result of general exposure to newspaper reports, magazine

articles, and other specifically non-tourist information. An

induced image is formed by deliberate portrayals and

promotions by various tourism organizations and

marketers. Gartner (1993) has developed Gunn’s (1972)

two-image concept and systematized a typology of eight

image formation agents with differing degrees of control by

the destination marketers, market penetration, and

credibility to the information receivers. He insisted these

agents affect destination image differently and should be

used in combination for effective destination image

promotion. Kim and Richardson (2003) pointed out that the

role of autonomous image formation agents such as news,

TV programs, and films appears to have particularly

powerful effects on destination image formation. Media

accessed easily in everyday life has a powerful influence

and can be used as effective promotional tool. The location

or/and event exposed by media is important in the image

formation of a travel destination. It was also found that the

image affects potential traveler’s decision-making process

(Beerli & Martin, 2004; Echtner & Ritchies, 1991; Kim &

Richardson, 2003). Therefore, creating and managing


appropriate destination images is critical to an effective

positioning and marketing strategy (Echtner & Ritchies,

1993).

4. Cognitive, affective, and unique image

Many studies on destination image have revealed that it

is made up of both cognitive/perceptive and affective

components(Baloglu & Bringerg, 1997; Beerli & Martin,

2004). Cognitive evaluations are referred to as the

individual’s knowledge and beliefs about the object, and

affective appraisals are related to an individual’s feeling

towards the object (Beerli & Martin, 2004). Gartner (1993)

regarded the former as the evaluation of the known

attributes of the object and the latter as the subjective

feelings about the object (Baloglu & Bringerg, 1997). These

two types of images have been used in many studies. On the

other hand, the three aspects—holistic, functional-

psychological, and unique-common characters—have been

suggested by Echtner and Ritchie (1993) for measuring

destination’s overall image. The unique image is the

opposite concept of the common image. Echtner and

Ritchie (1993) have pointed out that the unique image is

crucial for differentiating in the minds of the target market.

A number of studies have conceived of the unique image as

an important element that has a significant influence on a

destination’s brand and differentiates it from other tourist

destinations in order to attract more tourists (Cai, 2002;

Echtner & Ritchie, 1993; Qu, Kim & Im, 2011). Uniqueness

of a tourist destination can attract more tourists to choose

the destination over other alternatives. Qu et al. (2011) has

confirmed that a destination’s cognitive image, affective

image, and unique image affect its overall image, and this

overall image has a significant impact on intention to revisit

and recommend. Considering the characteristic of the

media exposure such as TV, newsletter or magazine,

Cognitive, Emotional and Unique image were employed in

the research.

5. Hypothetical relationships

1) Media effects on destination image

One of the factors widely considered as a potential

influence on the formation of pre-visit destination image is

the information searched and the information sources used

by the tourists (Frias et al., 2008). According to Gould and

White (1974), views about places are formed from a highly

filtered set of impressions, and images are strongly affected

by the information that individuals receive through filters.

The filters are usually related to the source of information

(Berry, 1970). Mansfeld (1992) argued that image is likely

to be formed by organic, induced, and autonomous sources

of information, Beerli and Martin (2004) stated that image

usually fulfills three basic functions in destination choice:

to minimize the risk that the decision entails, to create an

image of the destinations, and to serve as a mechanism for

later justification of the choice.

Media reports are able to cause a remarkable change in

destination image because of their high credibility and

ability to reach mass audiences (Gartner & Shen, 1992). In

particular, news media have a great impact on image

formation when they report on an unknown country or

describe a vivid occurrence (Castelltort & Mäder, 2010).

Urray (2002) alleged that places are objects of daydreaming

and fantasy that are in turn induced by advertising and other

media-generated sets of signs. Based on those studies,

information transferred through diverse media has a large

impact on a region’s image formation. Thus, we would like

to suggest the hypothesis that information exposure on one

region’s festival through media would have a significant

influence on each cognitive image, affective image, and

unique image.

H1: The level of media exposure has an effect on

destination image.

H1-1: The level of media exposure has a positive effect on

cognitive image of destination.


affective image of destination.


unique image of destination.


2) Image and attitude

When potential tourists have positive perceptions or

impressions of a destination, they are likely to choose that

destination (Alhemoud & Armstrong, 1996; Echtner &

Ritchie, 1993). Several scholars have focused on the

relationship between destination image and preference or

visiting intention (Goodrich, 1978; Milman & Pizam,

1995). Bigne et al. (2001) examined how the destination

image positively affects potential tourists’ satisfaction and

future behavior. Lee (2009) also confirmed that destination

image directly affects satisfaction and indirectly affects

future behaviors. Seaton (1989) insisted that image

influences tourism related attitudes and behaviors. In a

study by Watson and Hill (1993), affective image is found to

be associated with attitudes, emotions, values, and feelings.

Santos (1998) pointed out that organic image is closely

related to attitude, which involves mainly subjective

knowledge of a tourism destination. He also suggested that

image can be defined as a general attitude towards a

destination. Building on the research above, this paper is

intended to analyze the influence that a tourist destination’s

images has on tourists’ attitude toward attending HIF.

H2: Destination image has a positive effect on attitude

toward attending HIF.

H2-1: Cognitive image has a positive effect on attitude

toward attending the HIF.

H2-2: Affective image has a positive effect on attitude


H2-3: Unique image has a positive effect on attitude


3) Attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control,

past behavior and behavioral intention

Festival visitors are likely to develop their behavioral

intention to attend a festival when they: (1) have a positive

attitude toward the behavior, (2) expect that close friends or

important persons support the behavior, and (3) have

enough power, resources, money, and/or free time to

perform the behavior. In this regard, the TPB is employed to

understand visitors’ decision-making process for attending

a festival. As antecedents of behavioral intention, the role of

attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control

on behavioral intention has been well explained in previous

studies (Baker et al., 2007; Cheng et al., 2006). Researchers

in various fields have found that attitude, as one’s overall

evaluation on conducting a specific behavior, exerts a

positive influence on individual intention to perform the

behavior (e.g., Ajzen, 1991; Baker et al., 2007; Cheng et al.,

2006).

A person tends to assess the possible benefits or losses

derived from a specific behavior to decide whether or not to

perform the behavior (Baker et al., 2007; Cheng et al.,

2006). As a result, a person can have a willingness to

perform a specific behavior when the expected outcomes

are positively evaluated. In the TPB, an attitude reflecting

overall evaluation to conduct a certain behavior would

strengthen an individual’s behavioral intention (Ajzen,

1991; Baker et al., 2007). In the context of a festival, if an

individual reveals a positive attitude toward visiting a

festival after subjective evaluations for the festival visiting

behavior, it would reinforce an individual’s behavioral

intention for visiting the festival. Therefore, it is

hypothesized that attitude significantly affects behavioral

intention as follows:

H3: Attitude toward attending the HIF has a positive

effect on behavioral intention.

Cheng et al. (2006) claimed that an individual’s decision

and behavior is likely to be decided by the opinion of salient

referents. It indicates that an individual usually has a

tendency to consider and comply with other people’s

opinions in performing a specific behavior (Bearden &

Etzel, 1991). In this regard, Laroche et al. (2001)

emphasized the role of subjective norm, a perceived social

pressure for the situation whether or not an individual

performs a specific behavior, as another significant factor of

behavioral intention in the TPB. With regard to festival,

when an individual perceives that other people support

festival-visiting behavior as a positive or valuable activity,

it would enhance an individual’s behavioral intention to

visit the festival. Therefore, it is hypothesized that

subjective norm significantly affects behavioral intention as

follows:


H4: Subjective norm has a positive effect on behavioral

intention.

In the TPB, perceived behavioral control, which

considers the situation of non-volitional control, is another

crucial factor of behavioral intention. Previous studies of

TPB demonstrated that an individual’s behaviors are

affected by perceived behavioral control which indicates

individual resources or opportunities to perform the

behaviors (Ajzen, 1991; Conner & Abraham, 2001). Ajzen

(1991) stressed that as individual confidence or ability to

perform a specific behavior is fully prepared, the

individual’s behavioral intention to perform a specific

behavior can be reinforced. However, the hypothetical

relationship between perceived behavioral control and

actual behavior is not considered since the final variable of

the current study is a behavioral intention, not an actual

behavior in this study. In other words, perceived behavioral

control is only hypothesized to influence behavioral

intention for festival visiting behavior as follows:

H5: Perceived behavioral control has a positive effect on

behavioral intention.

When an individual performs a particular behavior

repeatedly or habitually, it is likely to increase the level of

the individual’s behavioral intentions to perform the

behavior. This human characteristic can be expressed by the

influence of past behavior. Several human behavior studies

have revealed that past behavior has an effect on individual

intention although the original TPB does not choose past

behavior as an antecedent of the model (Bagozzi &

Warshaw, 1992; Conner & Armitage, 1998; Han, Hsu, &

Sheu, 2010; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001). Leone et al. (2004)

emphasized the role of past behavior as a proxy of habit to

decrease perceived risks associated with a particular

behavior. In this regard past behavior has been recognized

as an important antecedent of future behaviors (Conner &

Armitage, 1998). Based on these previous studies, it is

hypothesized that frequency of past behavior significantly

affects behavioral intention as follows:

H6: Frequency of past behavior has a positive effect on

behavioral intention.

Ⅲ. Methodology

1. Data collection procedures

In order to understand the source and influence of festival-

related information that HIF participants obtained, pre-

interviews were conducted on the festival participants. Six

participants were randomly chosen to conduct individual

Attitude

Subjectivenorm

Perceived behavioral

control

Exposed media

informationCognitive image

Behavioral intention

Frequency of past behavior

Unique image

Affective image

H1-1

H2-1

H5

H6

H3

H1-3

H2-3

H4

H1-2

H2-2

Figure 2. Hypothetical model


interviews on January 6, the beginning day of the festival.

These participants noted that they have obtained their

information through television news programs, television

travel programs, websites, and word of mouth. A summary

of a few participants’ answers follows:

30’s female who visited with her child:

“This is my first time visiting this festival. I decided to

visit after reading someone’s review of the festival in one of

my internet cafés. Usually, I tend to search travel-related

information on portal websites and read other people’s

review. I have already searched for the festival’s entrance

fee, map, and other activities through the festival’s official

website, blog, and other online sources. Fishing and ice

sledding were the most interesting activities. I am planning

to post the pictures taken at the festival on my Facebook,

Kakao Story (popular social media in Korea).”

Early 40’s female accompanied by her child:

“It is my second time visiting this festival. I learned

about the festival through a TV news program and

newsletter and decided to pay a visit for the first time a

couple of years ago. After I decided to participate in this

festival, I searched about what to eat and enjoy as well as

other information through portal websites. Blogs have

provided all the detailed information about what to do in

order to have successful fishing, and it has been a lot of help.

Since there are a lot of activities to enjoy with kids, such as,

fishing, I like this festival. I am planning to take pictures

during the festival and post them on Kakao Story.”

Late 30’s male:

“Since there are many people around me who already

visited this festival, I have heard a lot about this festival

from them. Thus, I have decided to participate in this

festival. I have checked the entrance fee and map on the

festival’s official homepage before visiting this festival. I

have learned how to fish when I was purchasing fishing

equipment here.”

2. Respondents’ demographic characteristics

The survey was conducted during HIF from January 21,

2013 to January 27, 2013 for seven days. Convenient

sample survey was conducted on individual festival

participants. 5 Trained undergraduate students led the

survey as examiners and a small gift was provided to

participants in order to promote survey participation.

Out of the 476 questionnaires collected during the

survey period, 25 questionnaires were excluded due to

invalidity and 451 valid questionnaires were used for

　Demographic

variableFrequency % 　

Demographicvariable

Frequency %

Gender MaleFemale

202248

44.855.0

Visiting frequency

1st2nd3rd4th5th6~10th

2996627201719

66.314.6

6.04.43.84.2

Age Teens20's30's40'sOver 50

2511797

13279

5.525.921.529.317.5 Occupation Professional/

Technical workBusiness ownerService OfficePublic servantHouse wifeStudentRetireeOthers

107

3450312266944

42

23.7

7.511.1

6.94.9

14.620.8

.99.3

Marriage SingleMarried

166278

36.861.6

Education High schoolCollegePostgraduate

11729634

25.965.67.5

Stay duration One day1 night2 nightsOver 3 nights

2671492210

59.233.04.92.2

Table 1. Respondents’ demographic characteristics (N=450)


analysis.There were more female participants than male

participants. Respondents ranged in age, though people in

their forties were the large group, followed by people in

their twenties, thirties, and fifties, respectively. Also, there

were two times more married participants than single

participants. First-time participants made up the biggest

portion at 66%. Second-time participants made up 15% of

the respondents, with the rest being comprised of

participants who had visited three or more times. It was

found that most of the festival participants stayed at the

festival for one day.

3. Measurement developments

This study measured (1) information search level, (2)

image (Beerlie & Martin, 2004; Echtner & Ritchie, 1993;

Kim & Richardson, 2003; Qu et al., 2011; Russel & Pratt,

1980), and (3) TPB variables (Ajzen, 1991; Han et al., 2010;

Lam & Hsu, 2004, 2006) to test relationships among the

study’s variables. Specifically, the survey items of

information search level consisted of five different channels

(i.e., TV, magazine or newspaper, online media, official

festival homepage, people around participants). In this

study, the survey items of information search level are

derived from interview results (e.g., “I have been exposed

to information about HIF through TV”). Each item was

measured on a five-point Likert-type scale: (1) Never, (2)

Somewhat inapplicable, (3) Neutral, (4) Somewhat

applicable, (5) Of course. Cognitive, affective, and unique

image are used to measure overall image. Specifically,

cognitive image items (Kim & Richardson, 2003; Qu et al.,

2011) related to “festival-related facilities’s safety and

comfort,” “convenient facilities,” “food and beverage

service,” and “friendliness of festival operating staffs” were

modified to measure HIF’s cognitive image (e.g.,

“Festival-related facilities are safe and comfortable”).

Affective image items (Beerlie & Martin, 2004; Russel &

Pratt, 1980) related to “pleasant,” “excited,” “enjoyable,”

and “full of energy” were modified to measure HIF’s

affective image (e.g., “This festival is pleasant.”). Unique

image items (Echtner & Ritchie, 1993; Qu et al., 2011) are

also modified to measure HIF’s unique image (e.g., “This

festival enables me to have unique experience, even in

winter”).

Respondents were asked to indicate their levels of

agreement with a five-point Likert type scale, where

1=strongly disagree and 5=strongly agree. Lastly, TPB

variables consisted of five dimensions: attitude (4 items)

(e.g., “I think visiting the festival is a positive behavior”),

subjective norm (4 items) (e.g., “Most people who are

important to me agree with that I visit the festival”),

perceive behavioral control (4 items) (e.g., “I am confident

that if I want, I can visit the festival”), behavioral intention

(4 items) (e.g., “I want to revisit the festival next time”), and

frequency of past behavior (i.e., “How many times have you

visited HIF?”). A total of 17 items were adapted from

previous literature (Ajzen, 1991; Han et al., 2010; Lam &

Hsu, 2004, 2006). Each item was measured on a five-point

Likert scale, ranging from ‘1’ strongly disagree to ‘5’

strongly agree, except the frequency of past behavior,

which was coded as a continuous variable.

Ⅳ. Results

1. Measurement model

We adopted a confirmatory approach using PLS (Partial

Least Square) as our analysis method. PLS has been widely

used in theory testing or confirmation. It is also an

appropriate approach for examining whether relationships

might or might not exist and ultimately for suggesting later

testing hypotheses (Fornell & Lacker, 1981). We used

PLS-Graph version 3.0 to analyze the measurement and

structural model. As a result of implementing confirmatory

factor analysis in order to measure the category’s validity,

two items showing low factor loading on media information

and cognitive image were eliminated. All the composite

reliability’s values exceeded .8, and all the Cronbach’s

alphas scores exceeded .7 except the value of media (.689).

Therefore, it was found that each concept’s internal

consistency was secured (Fornell & Larcker, 1981;

Nunnally, 1987). Discriminant validity was also assessed

by comparing the Average Variance Extracted (AVE)


associated with each construct with the correlations among

constructs (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). The results of Table 2

and 3 confirmed discriminant validity that the square root of

the AVE for each construct is greater than the levels of the

correlations involving the construct.

2. Structural model

A bootstrapping procedure was used to generate

t-statistics and standard errors (Chin, 1998). Statistical

results indicated that media’s information has significant

influence on all three images. Among these three images,

media information has the highest influence on unique

　Factor item LoadingCronbach's

alphaC.R. AVE

Media information (MEDIA)I have been exposed to this festival’s information through TV._________________ through newsletter or/and magazine._________________ through internet blog or/and internet café._________________ through Hwacheon Mountain Trout Festival’s homepage.

.660

.626

.803

.764

.689 .807 .514

Cognitive image (CI)Festival related facilities are safe and comfortable.There is sufficient number of convenient facility in this festival.There is much delicious food in this festival.There are many souvenirs that are worth purchasing.

.798

.811

.800

.740

.797 .867 .621

Emotional image (EI)This festival is pleasant.This festival is exciting.This festival is enjoyable.This festival is full of energy.

.900

.848

.906

.883

.907 .935 .782

Unique image (UI)This festival enables to have unique experience in even winter.This festival has interesting activity.This festival has unique activity.This festival’s environment is not polluted and clean.This festival enables to enjoy the nature.

.748

.852

.802

.717

.724

.829 .879 .593

Attitude (AT)I think visiting the festival is a positive behavior I think visiting the festival is a valuable behaviorI think visiting the festival is a beneficial behaviorI think visiting the festival is a necessary behavior

.872

.921

.911

.839

.909 .936 .786

Subjective norm (SN)Most people who are important to me agree with that I visit the festival_________________________ support that I visit the festival_________________________ understand that I visit the festival_________________________ recommend that I visit the festival

.898

.897

.905

.904

.923 .945 .811

Perceive behavioral control (PBC)I am confident that if I want I can visit the festivalI am capable of attending the festivalI have enough money to visit the festivalI have enough time to visit the festival

.725

.878

.856

.755

.819 .880 .649

Behavioral intention (BI)I want to revisit the festival next timeI will make an effort to revisit the festivalI am willing to recommend the festival to my neighborsI am willing to save time and money to revisit the festival

.907

.888

.871

.882

.910 .937 .787

Table 2. Reliability and confirmatory factor analysis


image (=.361, t=3.982), then cognitive image (=.276,

t=2.578) and then affective image (=.253, t=2.475),

supporting H1-1, H1-2, and H1-3. The results also indicate that

affective and unique image have significant influence on

attitude, supporting H2-2 and H2-3. Between these two

images, affective image is shown to be more powerful (

=.457, t=3.930) than unique image (=.233, t=1.988).

However, cognitive image (=.078, t=.724) is not

statistically significant in predicting attitude, thereby not

supporting H2-1.

Among four factors of attitude, subjective norm, perceived

behavioral control, and past visit behavior, only attitude and

subjective norm is shown to significantly affect behavioral

intention, supporting H3 and H4. Between these two factors,

subjective norm (=.415, t=3.072) is understood to have

higher influence over attitude (=.272, t=2.247). However,

perceived behavioral control (=.143, t=1.689) and

frequency of past behavior (=.086, t=1.153) are not

statistically significant in predicting behavioral intention,

thus not supporting H5 and H6. This finding indicates that

visitors’ attitude and subjective norms, antecedents of the

TPB model, positively affect their intention to visit the festival

as expected. It is also reveals that visitors’ media information

and images for a festival destination can indirectly influence

their behavioral intention with the aforementioned

antecedents that have been tested in the TPB.

Ⅴ. Conclusion

This study employed the ETPB to test to what extent the

predictive validity of the antecedents in the TPB can be

　 MEDIA CI EI UI AT SN PBC FPB BI MEDIA

CIEIUIATSN

PBCFPBBI

.717

.276

.253

.361

.352

.302

.255

.184

.276

　.788 .549 .550 .457 .420 .344 .158 .507

　　

.885

.607

.641

.612

.382

.035

.582

　　　

.770

.553

.537

.347

.067

.518

　　　　.887 .681* .400 .066 .617

　　　　　

.901

.444

.020

.665

　　　　　　

.806

.155

.449

　　　　　　　

1.000 .133

　　　　　　　　

.887 Note: * Pairs of constructs having highest correlations. Numbers on the diagonal indicate squared root of AVE.

MEDIA=Media information; CI=Cognitive image; EI=Emotional image; UI=Unique image; AT=Attitude; SN=Subjective norm; PBC=Perceived behavioral control; FPB=Frequency of past behavior; BI=Behavioral intention.

Table 3. Correlation and descriptive statistics

β t-value DecisionH1-1 MEDIA → CI .276 2.578* supportedH1-2 MEDIA → AI .253 2.475* supportedH1-3 MEDIA → UI .361 3.982*** supportedH2-1 CI → AT .078 .724 Not supportedH2-2 AI → AT .457 3.930*** supportedH2-3 UI → AT .233 1.988* supportedH3 AT → BI .272 2.247* supportedH4 SN → BI .415 3.072** supportedH5 PBC → BI .143 1.689 Not supportedH6 FPB → BI .086 1.153 Not supported

Note: MEDIA=Media information; CI=Cognitive image; EI=Emotional image; UI=Unique image; AT=Attitude; SN=Subjective norm; PBC=Perceived behavioral control; FPB=Frequency of past behavior; BI=Behavioral intention.*p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001

Table 4. Hypotheses and results


applied to the festival setting in Korea. Specifically, the

study explored the influence of exposed media information

and festival image that is closely related to the current

study’s unique setting. The results of the study show that

attitude and subjective norm have significant effects on

behavioral intention to attend the festival, whereas

perceived behavioral control and frequency of past

behavior’s impacts on behavioral intention are statistically

insignificant. The findings of current study validate the

assertion that an individual is more likely to exhibit a

behavioral intention to visit a festival if the individual has a

positive attitude toward visiting the festival and receives

support for visiting the festival from close friends or

important people. In addition the findings also verify that

the individual’s attitude towards visiting the festival is

positively determined by image toward the festival through

various media information. This indicates that Korean

visitors will form a more favorable attitude toward visiting

the HIF if they have a high level of affective or unique

image formed through media information.

Particularly, subjective norm is the most significant

predictor of behavioral intention. In terms of the extended

constructs added to the original TPB, media information

significantly affects three image factors (i.e., affective

image, unique image, and cognitive image). The fact that

media information has the greatest influence on unique

image among the three factors could be understood in the

context that information exposed through media has

reflected the HIF’s unique characteristics. For example,

pictures or/and video of many happy festival participants

fishing mountain trout through ice holes would be sufficient

to convey the festival’s uniqueness. As noted by prior

studies such as Echtner and Ritchie (1993), Cai (2002), and

Qu et al. (2011), uniqueness is an important factor.

Moreover, affective image and unique image have a

positive effect on attitude toward attending the festival.

This finding implies that media information and festival

image can stimulate visits to the festival. Further, it would

be safe to assume that affective image and unique image

have a more important influence on participants’ decision to

visit the festival than cognitive image does. Thus, festival

marketers and operators should pay more attention to

festivals’ original attraction and the emotional benefits that

can be felt by participating in the festival. These results also

indicate that the inclusion of important variables to develop

or extend the TPB is meaningful in the field of festival.

The findings of this study using the ETPB as a theoretical

framework provide several theoretical implications. First, a

utilization of the ETPB improves the understanding of the

complicated mechanism that shapes the behavioral

intention to visit the festival by taking into consideration the

influences of the media information and visitors’ images of

the festival. According to the results of current study, the

ETPB seems to be a proper framework for predicting

festival visitors’ behavior. The noteworthy effects of

attitude and subjective norm on festival visitors’

decision-making process reveal that the behavior of festival

visitors derives mainly from cognitive factors in the TPB.

Therefore, a more advanced model, like the ETPB, is

necessary to consider these factors in order to help

researchers and managers better understand the behavior of

festival visitors. The insignificant relationship between

perceived behavioral control and behavioral intention

indicates that, relatively speaking, festival visitors do not

tend to consider their resources or opportunities for the

festival at the stage of forming an intention. Furthermore,

the insignificant relationship between the frequency of past

behavior and behavioral intention implies that the

frequency of past behavior is not a direct predictor of

behavioral intention. The results of this study also have

several practical implications for the successful operation

of the festival. First, media information has a significant

impact on the formation of the festival image and indirect

effect on attitude towards the festival. Therefore, the

festival marketers should be more tactical in promoting the

event. Specifically, attitudes of visitors are significantly

affected by affective and unique image. So, they should

highlight the emotional benefits that can be experienced in

the festival, and they should emphasize the uniqueness of

the programs not found in other festivals. Second, the result

that subjective norm is the most important factor of

behavioral intention implies that neighbors’ high awareness

and support of the festival encourage people re-visit the

festival. To keep up people’s awareness and support of the


festival, the reputation of the festival should be protected by

steady publicity. Therefore, managers should place a high

value on maintaining the reputation of the festival through

managing various media types. Third, since media

information affects visitors' image of the festival and

strengthens their attitude toward it, it is quite necessary to

inform the visitors that HIF is unique as well as interesting.

Managers should develop various programs stressing its

unique and interesting components. Examples of what to

stress include ice sports (e.g., ice sledding, ice soccer,

snowball fighting, ice hockey, and ice skating) and various

ice-related cultural programs (e.g., snow castle and snow

sculptures). Additionally, practitioners need to initiate

campaigns and educational programs to enhance the image

of the HIF.

However, there is a limitation on generalizing the

research results due to the restrictive research scope on how

media information and image influence the tourist

destination decision-making and festival-visiting behavior.

Therefore, there is a need for understanding the media

information and image’s influence on the travel destination

decision-making process of various festivals in the near

future. Especially, further research should be conducted to

understand how the three aspects of image exert different

influences on travelers’ behavior depending on festival’s

types. Through further research of this nature, a

differentiated promotion strategy could be found based on

different festival types.

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Received February 21, 2017Revised April 24, 2017

Accepted April 26, 2017

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