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U . S . D E P A R T M E N T O F T H E I N T E R I O RN A T I O N A L B I O L O G I C A L S E R V I C E

W A S H I N G T O N , D . C . 2 0 2 4 0

I N F O R M A T I O N A N D TECHNOLOGYREPORT 2AUGUST 1995

EFFECTS OF FIRE ON

T HR EAT EN ED A N D

E N D A N G E R E D P L A N T S:A N A N N O T A T E D

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BY

Amy Hess1

and

Susan Spa&man

NWRC

This page has been left blank intentionally

Contents

Frontispiece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Acknowledgments ................................................Cited References ...............................................

Annotated Bibliography on the Effects of Fire on Threatened and Endangered Plants ...........

Appendix A. Agencies from which the authors requested information about rare, threatened, andendangered plants in relation to tire ....................................

Appendix B. Individuals, by region of the United States, who provided information about rare,threatened, and endangered plants in relation to fire ...........................

Author Index. .................................................Geographic Index ...............................................

Species Index .................................................

Page. . . iv. . . 1. . . 16. . . 16. . . 19

. . . 49

. . .50

. . .51

. . .52

. . . 53

. . .111

Effects of Fire on Threatened and Endangered Plants:An Annotated Bibliography

Amy Hessl’

Susan Spackman’

The Nature ConservancyColorado Natural Heritage Program

University of ColoradoBoulder, Colorado 80309

Abstract. This bibliography presents basic information about the effects of fm on plants that theU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists as endangered or threatened or as category-one (Cl) candidatesfor federal listing. We searched 23 databases for publications, unpublished reports, and records withpertinent information; summarized and compiled information on the effects of fire from all final rulingson endangered and threatened plants and from endangered species recovery plans for plants; andsolicited information from key researchers and agencies involved in fxe ecology. The bibliographyincludes 126 references to the effect of fire on 172 federally listed plant species, or on 26% of the totalnumber of federally listed plant species in these categories. Our study revealed that the total numberof relevant articles has been increasing since the 1970s and more rapidly since the 1980s. Althoughresearch on fire and rare plants is increasing, an absence of information on many species persists. Wehope that this document will facilitate and encourage research in this increasingly important field ofbotanical conservation.

Key words: Bibliography, botanical conservation, endangered plants, fue ecology, threatened plants,rare plants.

Fire plays a role in the management of many threatenedand endangered plant species. Fire helps maintain openhabitat (**Rome 1987; Jacobson et al. 1991), encouragessexual and vegetative reproduction (*Boyd 1987; Hartnettand Richardson 1989; *Kirkman and Drew 1993). andaffects competing or associated plant species (Stone andScott 1985; Melgoza et al. 1990; *Fishbein and Gori 1992).Although fire may injure or kill plants (Dunwiddie 1990;*Cobb 1994), long-term effects on species may be benefi-cial. For example, the same fire that kills plants may alsoreduce competitors (*Folkerts 1977; *U.S. Fish and WildlifeService 1986) or create beneficial openings for seedling

’ Present address: Colorado Natural Heritage Program, College ofNatural Resources, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colo.80523.

* An asterisk denotes unpublished material.

establishment (Gankin and Major 1964; *U.S. Fish andWildlife Service 199Oa, 1993a; Menges and McAnlis 1994).Fire suppression may imperil some endangered plant species(Schwartz and Herman 1991; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service199Ob; *Kagan 1992; *U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service1994a). On the other hand, researchers in Hawaii fear thateven a single fire would be a serious threat to the survival ofsome endangered plant species by either directly killingplants or by encouraging the invasion and competition fromexotic species that are well adapted to tire (U.S. Fish andWildlife Service 1985; *U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service199Oa; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 199Ob, 199 la, 1992a,1994a, 1994b).

Fire management must address the timing of a bum (i.e.,timing in relation to the life cycles of the plants) and the area,frequency, and intensity of a bum (U.S. Fish and Wildlife

1

2 INFORMMIONANDTECHNOLOGYREP~RT 2

Service 1987, 1992b, 1993b; S. Popovich, U.S. Bureau ofLand Management, Shoshone, Idaho, personal communica-tion). Ideally, natural processes and cycles do not have to bedisrupted. However, land managers, particularly managersof small reserves, often face the challenge of mimickingnatural fire regimes with prescribed burns. Bums in areaswith endangered species must be carefully planned, andaccurate information about plant-fire relations is essentialfor planning, restoration, or other management of endan-gered-plant habitat.

Investigations of rare plant populations and effects of tireare hindered by the difficulties associated with such re-search. For example, information on the taxonomy, habitat,and physiology of rare plants is often sparse (Owen andRosentreter 1992). Experiments with rare plants that includeprescribed bums are often limited in scope, cover a smallgeographic region, involve few plants, and are difficult toreplicate. Time and funding for research are often unavail-able for long-term studies of threatened or endangeredplants.

Research into fire and rare plants is, however, vital to therecovery and management of some rare plant populations.Appropriate management requires scientific data on the roleof fire in the biology and ecology of rare plants and theirhabitats. This bibliography presents basic information aboutthe effects of fire on plant species listed as threatened,endangered, and category-one (Cl) on or before 30 Septem-ber 1993 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1993c, 1993d).These categories as defined in the Endangered Species Actof 1973 are:

E Endangered: taxa formally listed as endangered.

T Threatened: taxa formally listed as threatened.

Cl Category I : taxa with substantial biologicalinformation on file to support listing asendangered or threatened.

C2 Category 2: taxa for which current informationindicates that listing as endangered or threatenedis possible, but appropriate or substantialbiological information for immediate rulemaking is not on file.

3C Category 3: taxa are more abundant or wide-spread than previously believed or are notsubject to any identifiable threat.

0 species that are not listed.

Other objectives of this project were to provide a synopsisof useful information for the management of rare plants withfire and to update and expand the Natural Heritage Program,The Nature Conservancy, and the National Biological Serv-ice databases with the addition of information on the effectsof fire. The annotations present information that facilitatesand encourages research in this important field of botanicalconservation.

We used the key wordsfire, burn, endangered, threat-ened, rare, plant, endemic, vegetation, and disturbance tosearch the following databases:

AGRICOLA 1970-present (USDA)Arizona Natural Heritage ProgramCalifornia Natural Heritage ProgramCalifornia Regional Office of The Nature

Conservancy (TNC)Colorado Alliance for Research Libraries (CARL)Colorado Natural Heritage ProgramColorado State University Library SystemDissertation Abstracts Online 1990-presentFire Effects Information System (FEIS)Fish and Wildlife Reference ServiceFlorida Natural Areas ProgramGeorefTM 1989-present (Geological abstracts)International Association of Wildland FireMELVYL (University of California Library

System)National Office of The Nature Conservancy (TNC)Northeastern Regional Office of The Nature

Conservancy (TNC)Selected Water Resources Abstracts 1990-presentSoutheastern Regional Office of The Nature

Conservancy (TNC)BIOSIS Previews 1989-present (Biological

Abstracts)University of Colorado Government Documents

LibraryU.S. Department of the Interior Reference Service

LibraryWestern Regional Office of The Nature

Conservancy (TNC)Wildlife Review and Fisheries Review

We searched for publications, unpublished reports, fi-nal rulings on threatened and endangered plants, endan-gered species recovery plans (all recovery plans printed byAugust 1994 were reviewed for information on the effectsof fire), research in progress, and anecdotal information.Although threatened, endangered, and category-one spe-cies were the target of our research, we also selected otherpertinent references to the effects of fire. We searched forreferences to the effect of fire on rare but not federallylisted plant species, to plant communities with rare plantspecies, and to some plant genera with one or more feder-ally listed species.

After the literature search, we contacted key re-searchers and agencies involved with fire ecology. Weposted electronic bulletins on Internet and on the U.S.Forest Service computer network and contacted federal,state, and local agencies to obtain access to unpublishedreports, field notes, anecdotal information, and informa-tion on research in progress (Appendixes A-B).

We found 126 references to the effects of fire on 172federally listed plants (26% of the plant species in thesecategories) and 36 references to the effects of fire on otherrare plants (including some C2 plants). Of the total of 165references, 39 are unpublished documents and 9 are personalcommunications.

The albeit limited number of references revealed that thenumber of relevant articles has been increasing since the1970s and most rapidly since the late 1980s (Table 1). Wefound only three articles on threatened, endangered, or Clspecies that were published before 1980. After 1980, thenumber of pertinent studies increased, probably in responseto the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (P.L. 93-205 [87stat. 8841) and the subsequent development of recoveryplans. The total number of publications was greater in the1990s (57) than in the 1980s (33). We also compared thenumber of references describing the effects of fire on endan-gered, threatened, and category-one plants in each state withthe number of plant species in these categories currently orhistorically occurring in each state (Table 2; Figs. 1 and 2).

Although the preservation and management of botani-cal diversity requires an understanding of the relation offire to plants, the variety of responses documented in thisbibliography suggests that the role of tire in creating,maintaining, and destroying rare plants and their habitatscan be complex and elusive. For example, long-term moni-toring is necessary to establish the role of fire in successionand other vegetative processes (Owen and Rosentreter1992; *Sutter 1994; D. Soblo, The Nature Conservancy,Columbia, South Carolina, personal communication); aminimum of 3 years may be needed to study and predictrare plant population dynamics (Menges 1986); and fireintensity, extent of bum, and season of bum must bemeasured to determine the variability of tire behavior(Pavlovic 1994). Fires may be detrimental to some speciesin spring but beneficial in summer or fall or vice versa(“Lesica 1992; D. Gori, The Nature Conservancy, Tucson,

EFFECX OF FIRE ON THREATENED AND ENDANGERED PLANTS 3

Arizona, personal communication). Similarly, anthropo-genie disturbances, such as mowing or grazing, can mimica historical fire regime if they occur with the correctfrequency and intensity but can also be destructive(Pavlovic 1994).

Some authors (Campbell et al. 1991; Hardin andWhite 1992; *Gordon 1992a, 1992b) simply stated thata plant species occurs in a fire-adapted community. Be-cause fire occurs in nearly all terrestrial environments atsome time or another, we suspect that information aboutthe effects of fire on plant communities may be importantfor the general management of endangered species. Al-though all plants are adapted to environmental stresses,plant morphology may provide additional informationabout adaptation to fire. For example, species with thickbark, hard-coated seeds, or fire-resistant foliage maybenefit from fire during part of their life cycles (Agee1994).

For each bibliographic entry, we summarized the in-formation on the effects of fire, unless an abstract orother written summary was available. The nature of eachsummary is identified as AA (author’s abstract of thepublication), PA (partial abstract of the publication), AS(researcher’s summary of the unpublished material), orPS (researcher’s partial summary of the unpublishedmaterial). The absence of a designation denotes oursummary of a publication, unpublished material, or re-cord.

Additionally, we summarized the available informa-tion on the effects of fire on the species covered by thisbibliography in a table that lists each species, its status,associated references, and known or suspected responsesto fire (Table 3). This summary is not a comprehensivelisting of rare species affected by tire, and the listedresponses are not meant to be definitive information onthe effects of fire on species. We refer readers to theoriginal sources for more detailed information.

Table 1. Number of references by year and decade to the effects of tire on federally listed endangered, threatened, orcategory-one plants.

Sources

DecadeYear PR

1980 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994a 1970s 1970s 1980s 1990s

Printedarticles 0 2 4 9 4 4 3 4 3 9 16 12 14 6 I 2 33 57includinggovernmentpublications

Unpublished 1 1 2 2 0 2 7 6 5 6 20papers

Personal 6 6communication

Total I 2 4 9 4 4 4 6 5 9 18 19 20 18 1 2 39 84

aExclusive of references that became available after 31 August.

4 I N F O R M A T I O N A N D TECHNOLOGYREKIRT~

Table 2. Number of federally listed threatened, endangered, and category-one plants per state (U.S. Fish and WildlifeService 1993c, 1993d or as of September 1993) and number of references to species in these categories by state.

State Species

Alabama 18Alaska 1Arizona 32Arkansas 23California 189Colorado 18Connecticut 3Delaware 8Florida 52Georgia 22Hawaii 113IdahO 11Illinois 10Indiana 7Iowa 2Kansas 3Kentucky 7Louisiana 2Maine 3Maryland 10Massachusetts 5Michigan 7Minnesota 4Mississippi 3Missouri 9

References State Species References

7 Montana 1 00 Nebraska 4 26 Nevada 20 00 New Hampshire 3 0

17 New Jersey 7 11 New Mexico 17 11 New York 10 22 North Carolina 27 20

29 North Dakota 1 011 Ohio 4 116 Oklahoma 2 0

1 Oregon 32 63 Pennsylvania 6 01 Rhode Island 3 11 South Carolina 19 90 South Dakota 1 03 Tennessee 21 60 Texas 32 81 Utah 27 03 Vermont 4 01 Virginia 13 30 Washington 16 02 West Virginia 5 11 Wisconsin 7 11 Wyoming 2 0

0 References

1 to 5 References

6 to 10 References

11 to 20 References

21 to 30 References

Fig. 1. Number of references by state to the effects of fire on federally listed endangered, threatened, and category-one plant species.

EFIXCTS OFFIF~EONTHREATENEDANDENDANGEREDPLANTS 5

0 to 5 Species

6 to 20 Species

21 to 50 Species

51 to 99 Species

Over 100 Species

Fig. 2. Number of federally listed endangered, threatened, and category-one plant species per state as of September 1993.

Table 3. Scientific names, common names, federal statuses, references to species in this bibliography, and summariesof responses by these species to fire. Status codes: E = Endangered; T = Threatened; C 1 = Category-one candidate;C2 = Category-two candidate; 3C = Category-three species; 0 = not federally listed.

Scientific name Common name St&IS Sourcea Response

Abronia macrocarpaAbutilon

eremitopetalumA. menziesiiA. sandwicenseAgalinis acuta

Large-fruited sand verbena

Amorpha crenulata(S = A. herbacea var.crenulata)

Ko’ola’ula

Sandplain gerardia

Crenulate leadplant

Amsinckia grandiflora Large-flowered fiddleneck

Arctostaphylos glandulosa

A. hookerissp. montana

A. myrt?ifolia

Tamalpais manzanita

lone manzanita

EE

EEE

E

E

0

c2

Cl

USFWSb 1992eUSFWS 199lf

USFWS 1986aUSFWS 1991aJo&n 1994USFWS 1989~USFWS 1988bGordon 1992b

Pavlik 1991Pavlik 1993

Pavlovic 1994USFWS 1985e

Kelly andParker 1990

Parker 1987

Gankin andMajor 1964

Wood andParker 1988

Fire may maintain favorable habitatFire poses a significant threat

Threatened by fueThreatened by fireFire may increase number of individualsMay require disturbance such as fueFire may maintain suitable habitatOccurs in a fire adapted community

Fire maintains favorable habitatMortality rates decreased and survivor-

ship increased following a fall bum

Controlled bums may have adverse orpositive effect on this species

Resprouts following fire

Decrease in germination followingwinter bum

Fiie kills adults, but may encourageseedling establishment

Must regenerate from seed followingfre, but fue may increasegermination rates

6 INFORMATIONANDTECHNOLOGYREPORT 2

Table 3. Continued.

Scientific name Common name status Source Response

Argyroxiphium kauenseAristida stricta

Ka’u silversword

A. tuberculosa

Asimina tetramera Four-petal pawpaw

Astragalus atratus var.inseptus

A. onictformis

A. schmolliae Schmoll milkvetchAstrophytum asterias Star cactusBaptisia arachnifera Hairy rattleweed

Betula uberBidens cuneata

(S = B. molokaiensis)B. wiebkeiBonamia grandtflora

Brickellia mosieri (S = B.eupatorioides var.floridana)

Brighamia insignisBuxus vahliiCalamintha ashei

Calamovilfa curtissii

Milkvetch

Milkvetch

Virginia roundleaf birchCuneate bidens

Ko’oko’olauFlorida bonamia

Vahl’s boxwood

Sand grass

Calochortus umpquaensisCastanea pumila

var. ozarkensisCaulanthus amplexicaulis

var. barbaraeC. californicus

(S = Stanfordiacalifornica)

Ceanothus ferrisiae

Umpqua mariposa lilyOzark Chinquapin

Santa Barbara jewelflower

California jewelflower

Coyote ceanothus

C. ophiochilus Vail Lake ceanothus

E0

0

E

c 2

0

c 2EE

EE

ET

c 2

EE

c 2

c 2

Clc 2

Cl

E

E

c 2

USFWS 1993eHardin and

White 1992Bowles et al.

1990Pavlovic 1994Johnson 1989

Johnson 1994Kral 1993Popovich 1994

Popovich 1994

Collier 1994USFWS 1993hKral 1983USFWS 1984d

Kral 1983USFWS 1984~

USFWS 1992~Gordon 1992aHartnett and

Richardson1989

Kral 1983USFWS 1990e

Gordon 1992b

USFWS 1994cUSFWS 1985fJohnson 1994Menges and

McAnlis 1994Johnson 1994Johnson 1993aJohnson and

Blyth 1988Kagan 1992Campbell et al.

1991Danielson 1993

USFWS 1991d

Freas 1993

S haffer 1993

Threatened by fireOccurs in a fire adapted community

Fire or disturbance that mimics fireresults in increased survival rate

May require fire to maintain suitablehabitat

Fire maintains suitable habitatMay require fire to maintain open habitatStout caudex and deep taproot may

allow plants to survive fireLow mortality due to fire because of

deep taproot and stout caudex

Fire suppression may be detrimentalObserved in recently burned habitatLarge perennial rootstock suggests

plants may tolerate fire; tire may alsoreduce competition and promoteseedling establishment

Not damaged by a prescribed bumThreatened by fire

Threatened by fireOccurs in fire adapted communityStem density and seed production

increased following tire

May require fire to maintain open habitatMay require fire to maintain long-term

viability of habitatOccurs in fire adapted community

Threatened by fireThreatened by fireKilled by fire but recovers from seed

Fire may maintain favorable habitatFire may increase flowering

Fire suppression may be detrimentalOccurs in community that experiences

frequent tiresMay be fire tolerant

Threatened by alteration of its naturalfire regime

No differences in germination betweenheat treated, scarified, and controlseeds

Seeds require heat or scarification forgermination; adapted to summer andfall fires

8 INFOWIA~ONANDTECHNOLOGYREFQRT 2

Table 3. Continued.

Scientific name Common name Status Source Response

Corypantha sneedii var. leei(S = Escobariasneedii var. leei)

Cupressus abramsiana

Lee pincushion cactus

Santa Cruz cypress

Cyanea superba

Dalea foliosa Leafy prairie clover

Deeringothamnuspulchellus

D. rugelii

Delphinium variegatum ssp.kinkiense

D. variegatum ssp.thornei

Dicerandra christmaniiD. cornutissima

D. frutescens

D. immaculata

Diellia falcataDionaea (genus)

Dubautia herbstobataeDudleya traskiae

Echinacea laevigata

E. tennesseensis

Beautiful pawpaw

Rugel’s pawpaw

San Clemente Islandlarkspur

Thome’s royal larkspur

Garrett’s mintLongspurred mint

Scrub mint

Lakela’s mint

Na’ena’eSanta Barbara Island

liveforeverSmooth coneflower

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

C l

EE

E

E

E0

EE

E

Tennessee purple coneflower E

USFWS 1986d

USFWS 1987a

USFWS 199lb

Campbell 1994

USFWS 1991~Hardin and

White 1992Krall983Hardin and

White 1992Kra11983

USFWS 19848

USFWS 19848

Johnson 1994Johnson 1994Kral 1983USFWS 1987bJohnson 1994Kral 1983

Menges 1992

Pavlovic 1994USFWS 1987bJohnson 1994Kral 1983

USFWS 1987bUSFWS 1991aFolkerts 1977

USFWS 1991aUSFWS 19858

KraJ 1983

Campbell 1994

Kral 1983

USFWS 1982

Effects of fue not yet determined

Natural fire frequency estimated at50-100 years

Threatened by stochastic extinctiondue to fire

Results from controlled burn notavailable

Fire used to maintain habitatOccurs in fue adapted community

May benefit from prescribed bumsOccurs in fue adapted community

Fiie stimulates rigorous flowering fromstorage roots and may reducecompetition

May be adapted to dormant season fires

Other species in this genus respondwell to tire

Killed by fire but recovers from seedKilled by fire but recovers from seedMay require fire to maintain open habitatMay benefit from occasional firesKilled by fire but recovers from seedMay require fire or other disturbance

to maintain open habitatSpring fue killed individual plants.

Seedling recruitment followed fue.Fire probably beneficial

May benefit from occasional firesKilled by fire but recovers from seedMay require fire or other disturbance

to maintain open habitatMay benefit from occasional firesThreatened by fireSpecies in this genus are generally

recognized as tire dependentThreatened by fireFire may be used to reduce spread of

competing exotic plantsProbably tolerates fire by resprouting

from cormResults following controlled bums are

not yet availableProbably tolerates tire by resprouting

from strong rhizomesDeep taproots may allow plants to survive

low temperature bums of short duration.Fire may also reduce competing speciesfrom strong rhizomes

EFFECTS OF FIRE ON THREATENED AND ENDANGERED PLANTS 9

Table 3. Continued.


Echinocereus pectinatus

E. reichenbachii

E. triglochidiatus

Eremalche kemensis(S = E. parryi ssp.kemensis)

Eriastrum hooveri

Eriogonum longifoliumvar. gnaphalifolium

Eryngium aristulatumvar. parishii

E. cuneifolium

Escobaria sneedii var.sneedii (S = Coryphanthasneedii var. sneedii)

Euphorbia deltoidea ssp.deltoidea (S = Chamaesycedeltoidea var. deltoidea)

E. garberiE. telephioides

Exocarpos luteolus

Fremontodendrondecumbens

Fritillaria ojaiensis Ojai fritillaryGalactia smallii Small’s milkpea

Gouania hillebrandii

G. meyeniiHackelia gracilentaHaplostachys haplostachya

Mesa Verde stickleaf

Harperocallis Java

Hedeoma dtfusa

Black lace cactus

Hedgehog cactus

Kern mallow

Hoover’s woolly star

Scrub buckwheat

San Diego button celery

Snakeroot

Sneed pincushion cactus

Telephus spurge

Leafy heau orleafy exocarpos

Pine Hill flannelbush

Harper’s beauty

0

E

0

E

T

T

E

E

E

0

ET

E

Cl

c2E

E

Ec2E

E

0

Thomas 1988

Bunting 1980

Thomas 199 1

USFWS 1991d

USFWS 1991d

USFWS 1993

USFWS 1993a

Menges andMcAnlis 1994

USFWS 1990e

USFWS 1986d

USFWS 1988d

USFWS 1988bUSFWS 1993b

USFWS 1994c

Boyd 1987

Boyd andSerafini 1992

Danielson 1993Gordon 1992bUSFWS 1988bUSFWS 1990f

USFWS 1991aCollier 1994USFWS 1979

Godfrey 1976Hardin and

White 1992USFWS 1983a

Phillips et al.1992

Increased mortailty following fire.Flower production increased orremained neutral

Significant mortality followingspring bums

General reference, responses ofsucculents to fire

Threatened by alteration of naturalfire regime

Threatened by alteration of naturalfire regime

May be negatively affected by fue

Occurs in habitat that may require firefor long-term viability

Effects of fire not yet determined

May require fire to maintain open habitat

Requires periodic winter season firesto maintain suitable habitat

Threatened by fire

Successful regeneration by resproutingand seedling recruitment followedcontrolled fall bum

Impermeable seed coats break follow-ing tire. Fire suppression detrimentalto recruitment. Root sprouting occursfollowing fire

May be fire tolerantOccurs in fue adapted communityFire may maintain suitable habitatMay be vulnerable to extirpation if

affected by brush fireThreatened by fueEffects of prescribed bum forthcomingIndividual plants killed. Fire may

promote invasion by exotic plantspecies

Occurs in fire adapted communityOccurs in fire adapted community

Occurs in fire adapted community

Cool bums may enhance recruitmentand survivorship

10 INFORMATIONANDTECHNOLOGYREPORT 2

Table 3. Continued.


Hedeoma graveolens(S = Stachydeomagraveolens)

Hedyotis st.-johniiHelianthemum dumosum

Helianthus eggertii Eggert’s sunflower

H. schweinitzii

Hibiscadelphus distans

Hudsonia montana

H. tomentosa

Hymenoxys acaulis var.glabra (S = Tetraneurisherbacea)

Hypericum cumulicola

Iliamna corei(S = Iliamna rivularisvar. rivularis)

Isodendrion hosakaeI. pyrifoliumJatropha costaricensisKalmia cuneata

Kokia drynarioides

Lechea cernuaL. deckertiiLembertia congdonii

Lespedeza leptostachya

Lesquerella filiformisL pallidaL stonensisLiatris helleri

L ohlingerae

Mock pennyroyal

Na Pali beach hedyotisBushy rush-rose

Schweinitz’s sunflower

Kauai hau kuahiwi

Mountain golden heather

Lakeside daisy

Highlands scrub hypericum

Peter’s Mountain mallow

AupakaWahine noho kulaCosta Rican jatrophaWhite-whicky

Koki’o or Hawaiitree cotton

San Joaquinwoolly-threads

Prairie bush clover

Missouri bladderpodWhite bladderpodStone River bladderpodHeller’s blazingstar

Scrub blazingstar

0

Ec 2

Cl

E

E

T

0

T

E

E

EEE

Cl

E

3 c0E

E

EE

ClT

E

Hardin andWhite 1992


USFWS 199 1 h Threatened by fueDunwiddie 1990 Cover and flowering increased follow-

Kral 1983

USFWS 199ljBarden 1994a

Barden 1994b

USFWS 1986b

USFWS 1983b

Bowles et al.1990

Pavlovic 1994USFWS 199og

USFWS 1990e

Jacobs 1993

USFWS 1990d

USFWS 199leUSFWS 1994bUSFWS 1984bHardin and

White 1992USFWS 1984a

Gordon 1992aGordon 1992aUSFWS 199ld

Smith 1994USFWS 1988a

Thomas 1994USFWS 19923KraJ 1983KraJ 1983USFWS 1989b

Kral 1983

ing spring bumOccurs in habitat historically maintained

by fueFire suppression may be detrimentalSpring bum increased number of stems

and number of flowers per plant.Fall bum reduced plant height andflowering

Controlled spring bums caused increasein plant height and flowering. Fallbums resulted in minor height increase

Threatened by fire; single populationclose to a fire pit

Fire may decrease competing plantspecies

Fire or disturbance that mimics fireresults in increased survival rates

Fire can kill emerging inflorescencebuds and damage leaves. Fire mayhelp maintain suitable habitat

Occurs in habitat that may require ftrefor long-term viability

Germination occurs if seed coats arebroken by fire

Light fues may stimulate germinationand maintain suitable habitat

Threatened by dry season range firesThreatened by fireThreatened by fireOccurs in fire adapted community

Threatened by fire

Occurs in fire adapted communityOccurs in tire adapted communityThreatened by alteration of natural

fire regimeResults not yet availablePrescribed bums may control encroaching

shrubs and trees, but the effects of tirenot fully known

Results of 4-year study inconclusiveFire may maintain suitable habitatMay be disturbance dependentMay benefit from prescribed bumsSpecies in this genus are generally

recognized as fire dependentMay require fire to suppress competing

species

Table 3. Conrinued.

Scientific name Common name

EFFECTS OF FIRE ONTHREATENEDANLIENDANGEREDPLANTS 11

Status Source Resnonse

Liatris provincialis

Limnanthesjloccosassp. grandijlora

Lipochaeta faurieiL. lobata var.

leptophyllaL tenuifoliaL venosa

Lobelia niihauensisLomatium bradshawii

L. cookii

Lupinus aridorum(S = Lupinus westianusvar. aridorum)

Lysimachia asperulaefolia

Macbridea alba White birds-in-a-nest

Manihot walkerae Walker’s maniac

Marshallia mohrii Mohr’ s Barbara’s buttons

Matelea alabamensisMelicope knudseniiM. pallidaMuhlenbergia torreyana

AngelpodAlaniAlani

Munroidendron racemosumNeraudia angulataNothocestrum breviforumN. peltatumNototrichium humileOchrasia kilaueaensisOpuntia treleasei

(S = 0. basilaris var.treleasei)

Orcuttia californicaOxypolis canbyi

‘Aiea‘ AieaKulu’iHoleiBakersfield cactus

California orcutt grassCanby’s dropwort

Godfrey’s blazingstar

Large-floweredmeadowfoam

Nehe

Nehe

Bradshaw’s desert parsley

Cook’s lomatium

Scrub lupine

Rough leaved loosesttife

c 2

c 2

EE

EE

EE

C l

E

E

T

E

T

c 2EE0

EEEEEEE

EE

USFWS 199oe

Hermann 1988

Johnson 1993b

Johnson 1994Borgias 1993

USFWS 1994cUSFWS 1991a

USFWS 1991aUSFWS 1979

USFWS 1991aUSFWS 1993c

Borgias 1993

USFWS 1990e


Kral 1983Smith 1992Sutter 1994

USFWS 1994a

USFWS 1993b

USFWS 1993k

USFWS 1991k

Gordon 199 1USFWS 1994cUSFWS 1994cHardin and

White 1992USFWS 1994cUSFWS 1991aUSFWS 1994bUSFWS 1994cUSFWS 1991aUSFWS 1994bUSFWS 199ld

USFWS 1993eKral 1983

Soblo 1994

Occurs in a habitat that may requirefire for long-term viability

Preliminary results inconclusive,further results forthcoming

Fiie may stimulate flowering. Firesuppression may be detrimental

Fiie may stimulate reproductionIncreased in numbers 2 years

post-fireThreatened by fireThreatened by fue

Threatened by fueIndividual plants killed. Fiie may pro-

mote invasion of exotic plant speciesThreatened by fueMay require fire to maintain suitable

habitatMonitored following prescribed bum,

results inconclusiveOccurs in habitat that may require tire

for long-term viability

Occurs in fue adapted community

May require fire to maintain open habitatRequires fire; fue may stimulate floweringFive year study measured response to

prescribed burningMay require periodic fire to maintain

suitable habitatRequires periodic winter fires to

maintain suitable habitatMay require tire to maintain suitable

habitat and promote seed germinationMay require fire or other disturbance to

maintain suitable habitatFire may maintain suitable habitatThreatened by fueThreatened by fireOccurs in fire adapted community

Threatened by fireThreatened by fueThreatened by fireThreatened by fireThreatened by fireThreatened by fireThreatened by alteration of its natural

fire regime

May be negatively affected by fireMay require fire to maintain open

habitatOccurs in fire adapted community.

Number of individuals increased

12 INFORMATION AND TECHNOLOGY REPORT 2

Table 3. Continued.


Panicum abscissum

P. fauriei var.carteri

Paronychia chartacea

Pediocactus paradinei

Penstemon haydenii Penland beardtongue

P. lemhiensis

Peucedanum sandwicensePhlox idahonis

P. nivalis ssp. texensis

Phyllanthus pentaphyllus ssp.pentaphyllus var.fEoridanus

Pinguicula ionantha

Platanthera hoobri

P. integra

P. integrilabiaP. leucophaea

P. praeclara

Pogogyne nudiusculaPolygala smallii

Cutthroat grass

Carter’s panicgrass

Papery whitlow-wort

Kaibab pincushion cactus

MakouClearwater phlox

Texas trailing phlox

Godfrey’s butterwort

Eastern prairie fringedorchid

Western prairie fringedorchid

Otay mesa mintTiny polygala

c 2

E

T

Cl

E

0

ECl

E

c 2

T

0

0

c 2T

T

EE

following a hot wildfire. Samepopulation has been declining since

USFWS 1990a Fiie may benefit by maintaining suit-able habitat

Gordon 1992a Occurs in tire adapted communityMyers and Flowering increased following spring

Boettcher 1987 bum. Fiie maintains suitable habitatUSFWS 1983d Single fire could destroy only known

populationGordon 1992aJohnsonand

Abrahamson1990

Krall983USFWS 1990e

Occurs in fue adapted communityMay require fire to maintain suitable

habitat

Warren et al.1992

May require fire to maintain open habitatOccurs in habitat that may require fire

for long-term viabilityCan survive low intensity fires, but

high intensity bums may result inhigh mortality

USFWS 1992b

Moseley et al.1990

USFWS 1994cMoseley andCrawford 1993

Fire suppression has negatively affectedhabitat suitability

May be threatened by succession dueto tire suppression

Threatened by fireDecreased in density at one site,

probably as a result of post-firesuccession

USFWS 1991i Fire is required to maintain suitablehabitat

Carlson et al.1993

Folkerts 1977


USFWS 1993b

USFWS 1993i

Species in this genus are generallyrecognized as tire dependent

Requires periodic winter fires tomaintain suitable habitat

May require frequent, low intensityfues to maintain suitable habitat


Fire dependent throughout range

Bowles et al.1990

KraJ 1983MacRobetts and Plants increased flowering and bloomed

MacRoberts earlier following winter bums1990

Kral 1983 Prescribed bums had no lasting effectCurrier 1984 Spring burning may induce flowering

Jacobson et al. Fire may maintain suitable habitat1991

Kral 1983Pavlovic 1994Smith 1994 Results not yet available

USFWS 1993e Fire may damage seedsGordon 1992b Occurs in fue adapted communityUSFWS 1988b Fire may maintain suitable habitat

EFFECKS OFFIREONTHREATENEDANDJZNDANGEREDPLANTS 13

Table 3. Continued.

Scientific name Common name StatuS Source Response

Polygonella articulata

P. basiramia

P. macrophylla

Portulaca sclerocarpaPritchardia munroiPrunus geniculata

Wireweed

Large-leaved jointweed

Po’eLoUlUScrub plum

Pteralyxia kauaiensisPtilimnum nodosum Harperella

Pyxidanthera barbulata

Rhododendron chupmanii

Well’s pixie-moss

Chapman rhododendron

Rhus michauxii Michaux’s sumac

Rhynchospora knieskemii

Ribes echinellumSanicula mariversaSarracenia alata

Knieskem’sbeaked-rush

Miccosukee gooseberry

S. flava

S. oreophila Green pitcher plant

0

E

c2

EEE

EE

Cl

E

E

T

TE0

0

E

Bowles et al.1990

Pavlovic 1994Hawkes and

Menges 1994Johnson 1993~


Fire maintains suitable habitat

USFWS 1994bUSFWS 1992~Krall983

USFWS 1990e

USFWS 1994cKral 1983USFWS 1990b

Observed to resprout and increaseflowering following fire

Threatened by fireThreatened by fireResponds vigorously to fire and has a

history of fire disturbanceOccurs in habitat that may require fire

for long-term viabilityThreatened by fue

Effects of fire and fue suppressionunknown



Kral 1983



USFWS 1983~


Krall983USFWS 1993j

Occurs in fire adapted communityand resprouts following fire

Occurs in fire adapted communityand resprouts following fire

Occurs in fue adapted community


USFWS 19931 May require frequent fires to maintainsuitable habitat

USFWS 1992f May require fire to maintain suitablehabitat

USFWS 1985dUSFWS 1991aBarker and

Williamson1988

Folkerts 1977

Fire could threaten with extinctionThreatened by fueWinter fue increased foliage and

seedling recruitment

Schnell 1982

Species in this genus are generallyrecognized as fire dependent

Increased growth and seedlingrecruitment following mechanicaldisturbance

Benjamin 1992 Prescribed spring bum increased leafproduction

Bertram andMyers 1988

Folkerts 1977

Fire maintains suitable habitat

Kral 1983



Troup and Flowering and population sizeMcDaniel 1980 increased following fire

USFWS 199 1 k May require tire or other disturbanceto maintain suitable habitat


Table 3. Conrinued.


Sarracenia psittacina

S. purpurea

S. putpurea ssp.venosa

S. rubra ssp.alabamensis

S. rubra ssp. jonesii

Schiedea adamantisS. apokremnosS. kaalaeS. lydgatei

Schwalbea americana

Scutellariajloridana Florida skullcap

S. montana

Selaginella rupestris

Sidalcea hickmanii ssp.parishii

S. nelsoniana

Silene alexandri

S. hawaiiensisS. lanceolata

S. regia

S. spaldingii

Alabama canebrakepitcher plant

Mountain sweetpitcher plant

Diamond Head schiedeaMa’oli’oli

American chaffseed

Large-floweredskullcap

Parish’s sidalcea

Nelson’s checkermallow

Royal catchfly

Spalding’s catchfly orSpalding’s silene

0

0

0

E

E

EEEE

E

T

E

0

Cl

E

E

EE

3 c

c 2

Barker andWilliamson1988

Folkerts 1977

Kral 1983Schnell 1982

Folkerts 1977

Schnell 1982

Folkerts 1977

Kral1983Schnell 1982

USFWS 1992a

Folkerts 1977

Kral1983Schnelll982

USFWS 199OcUSFWS 1984~USFWS 1991hUSFWS 1991aUSFWS 1992~

Campbell et al.1991

Kirkman andDrew 1993

Kral 1983USFWS 1992d

USFWS 1993b

USFWS 1986~

Bowles et al.1990

Kral 1983Danielson 1993

USFWS 1993g

USFWS 1992~

USFWS 1994bUSFWS 1992~

Menges 1988

Lesica 1992

Winter fire increased total cover


Increased growth and seedling recruit-ment following mechanical disturbance

Species in this genus are generallyrecognized as tire dependent



May require fire to maintain open habitatIncreased growth and seedling recruit-

ment following mechanical disturbanceFire suppression may threaten existing

populationsSpecies in this genus are generally

recognized as fue dependent


Fiie important for habitat maintenanceThreatened by fireThreatened by tireThreatened by fireFire promotes invasion of exotic plant

species that may out-competeOccurs in a community that experiences

frequent tireFlowering occurs following fire,

regardless of seasonMay benefit from prescribed bumsMay require frequent, low intensity fires

to maintain suitable habitatRequires periodic winter fires to main-

tain suitable habitatFire may have adverse effect


Thought to be fire tolerant


Fire promotes invasion of exotic plantspecies that may out-compete

May be threatened by fireFire promotes invasion of exotic plant

species that may out-competeControlled bums enhanced plant

growth rateSpring bum increased recruitment

more than fall bum

EFI%CTS OF FIRE ON THREATENED AND ENDANGERED PLANTS 15

Table 3. Continued.


Sisyrinchium dichotomum White irisette E

Solanum sandwicenseSolidago pulchra

S. shortii

Spiranthes delitescens

S. diluvialis

S. parksii

Stachydeoma graveolens

Stenogyne angustifolia var.angusttjolia

Stephanomeria malheurensis

Talinum rugospennum

Tetramolopium arenariumT. j%~ormeT. remyiT. rockii

Thalictrum cooleyi

Thermopsis macrophylla var.agnina (S = Thermospsismacrophylla var.macrophylla)

Tofieldia glutinosa ssp. absona

Torreya californicaT. taxifolia

Tragia saxicola

Carolina goldenrodE

C l

Short’s goldenrod E

Madman ladies’-tresses or C 1Canelo Hillsladies’-tresses orchid

Ute ladies’-tresses T Arft 1994

Navasota ladies’-tresses E

0

E

Malheur wire lettuce E

Rough-seeded fameflower C2

EEET

Cooley’s meadowrue E

0

c 2

California torreyaFlorida torreya

0E

c 2

USFWS 1991g

USFWS 1994cHardin and

White 1992USFWS 1988d

Fishbein andGori 1992

McClaren andSundt 1992

USFWS 1984e


USFWS 1979

USFWS 19911

Bowles et al.1990

Pavlovic 1994USFWS 1994bUSFWS 1991aUSFWS 1991fUSFWS 1992~


Kral 1983

Rome 1987

USFWS 1993a

Fire or other disturbance may berequired to maintain suitable habitat

Threatened by tireOccurs in fire adapted community

Historic range may be related to openhabitat created by bison and by fires

Associated species height decreasedfollowing experimental bums. Nonew recruits observed

Results inconclusive following experi-ments with spring bums and grazing.Many species in this genus respondwell to tire

Monitoring for 2 years followingcontrolled bums indicates that fmmay increase flowering

Fiie or other disturbance may berequired to maintain suitable habitat

Occurs in ftre adapted community

Individual plants killed. Fire may pro-mote invasion by exotic plant species

Fire promotes invasion of exotic plantspecies that may out-compete


Threatened by fireThreatened by fireThreatened by tireFire promotes invasion of exotic plant

species that may out-competeOccurs in fire adapted community

May be dependent on fire to maintainopen habitat

Fire creates favorable habitat. Winter orearly spring may be best time to bum


Wilcyenski 1993 Fire frequency of 0 to 2 years had noeffect on population size, plant size,or sex ratio

Borchert 1989 Controlled bums monitored for 9 yearsdemonstrated successful resprouting,seedling recruitment, and increasedheight of recruits

Jacobson et al. Fire may maintain suitable habitat1991

Esser 1993 Smoke may suppress parasitic fungusSchwartz and Fire suppression contributed to decline

Herman 1991Esser 1993 Smoke may suppress parasitic fungusKral 1983 May be killed by tireCarlson et al. Occurs in fire adapted community

1993


Table 3. Continued.


Trifolium reflexurnT. stoloniferum

Urera kaalaeVerbesina heterophylla

Vicia menziessiWarea carteri

Wyethia reticulata 0

Zanthoxylum hawaiienseZiziphus celata

A’eFlorida ziziphus

EE

0Running buffalo clover E

Opuhe ECl

Hawaiian vetchCarter’s mustard

EE

Campbell et al.Campbell et al.

1988Pavlovic 1994USFWS 199laHardin and

White 1992USFWS 1984hKral 1983

USFWS 199Oe

Kral 1983Boyd 1987USFWS 1994bUSFWS 199Oe

Fire suppression may be detrimentalFire suppression may be detrimental

Threatened by fireOccurs in fiie adapted community

Fires have reduced suitable habitatMay require fire to reduce interspecific

competitionOccurs in habitat that may require fire


Fall controlled bum increased floweringThreatened by fireOccurs in habitat that may require fire


;See the annotated entries.U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

A list of species addressed in each reference is pro-vided at the end of each reference summary. The codesused to represent the federal listing conform to the En-dangered Species Act of 1973 definitions previouslygiven.

Also at the end of many summaries, we list the speciesstate distributions as in U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service(1993c, 1993d) publications.

The nomenclature follows Kartesz (1994), who alsoprovides a complete list of synonyms. When plant namesused by Kartesz did not coincide with the names in thecited reference or in U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service(1993b, 1993~) documents, we provided Kartesz’ namein parentheses.

Acknowledgments

We thank D. Cross of the National Biological Servicefor direction, assistance, and knowledge. We are in-debted to W. Leenhouts of the National Interagency FireCenter for initiating this project. The Home Office ofThe Nature Conservancy and the staff of The NatureConservancy Fire Research Center provided support andassistance. K. Pague assisted with database manage-ment. E. Powell assisted with editing and layout. Thisdocument would not have been possible without the helpand cooperation of the contributing researchers. M.Bucher, J. Greenlee, A. Johnson, E. Menges, R. Sutter,and R. Young were exceptionally forthright with theirknowledge and generous with their time.

Cited References3

Agee, J. K. 1993. Fire ecology of pacific northwest forests. IslandPress, Washington D.C. 493 pp.

*Boyd, B. 1987. The effects of controlled burning on three rareplants. T. Elias, editor. Conservation and management of rareand endangered plants: proceedings from a conference of theCalifornia Native Plant Society held in Sacramento, Calif., 5-8November 1986.630 pp.

Campbell, J. J., D. D. Taylor, M. E. Medley, and A. C. Risk. 1991.Floristic and historical evidence of fire-maintained, grassypine-oak barrens before settlement in southeastern Kentucky.Pages 359-375 in S. C. Nodvin and T. A. Waldrop, editors.Fire and the environment: ecological and cultural perspectives,proceedings of an international symposium; 20-24 March1990; Knoxville, Tenn. Southeastern Forest Experiment Sta-tion, Asheville, NC.

*Cobb, N. 1994. The effects of grazing and prescribed burning onplant performance and population dynamics of Chrysotham-nus molestus. Northern Arizona University. Unpublished.

Dunwiddie, P. W. 1990. Rare plants in coastal heathlands: ob-servations on Corema conradii and Helianthemum dumosum.Rhodora 92(869):22-26.

*Fishbein, M., and D. Gori. 1992. The effect of prescribed bumson the composition and structure of Cienega vegetation, withspecial emphasis on the Canelo Hills Ladies’ tresses orchid,Spiranthes delitescens: post-burn responses. Report to TheNature Conservancy, Tucson, Ariz. Unpublished.

*Folkerts, G. W. 1977. Endangered and threatened carnivorousplants of North America. Pages 301-313 in G. T. Prance andT. S. Elias, editors. Extinction is forever: proceedings of a

3 An asterisk denotes unpublished material.

EFFECTS OF FIRE ONTHREATENEDANDENDANGEREDPLANTS 17

symposium held at the New York Botanical Garden, Bronx,New York, 11-13 May 1976. Unpublished.

Gankin, R., and J. Major. 1964. Arctostaphylos myrtifolia, itsbiology and relationship to the problem of endemism. Ecology45:792-808.

*Gordon, D. 1992a. Element stewardship abstract for Floridascrub community. The Nature Conservancy in associationwith the Network of Natural Heritage Programs and Conser-vation Data Centers. Arlington, Va. Unpublished.

*Gordon, D. 1992b. Element stewardship abstract for pine rock-land community. The Nature Conservancy in association withthe Network of Natural Heritage Programs and ConservationData Centers. Arlington, Va. Unpublished.

Hardin, D. E., and D. L. White. 1992. Rare vascular plant taxaassociated with wiregrass (Aristida stricta) in the southeast-em United States. Natural Areas Journal 9:234-245.

Hartnett, D. C., and D. R. Richardson. 1989. Population biologyof Bonamia grandljlora (Convolvulaceae): effects of fire onplant and seed bank dynamics. American Journal of Botany73:361-369.

Jacobson, G. L., H. Almquist-Jacobson, and J. C. Winne. 1991.Conservation of rare plant habitat: insights from the recenthistory of vegetation and fire at Crystal Fen, northern Maine,USA. Biological Conservation 57:287-3 14.

*Kagan, J. 1992. Draft species management guide for Calochor-tus umpquaensis Fredricks. Roseburg District of the Bureauof Land Management and Umpqua National Forest. Unpub-lished.

Kartesz, J. T. 1994. A synonymized checklist of the vascular floraof the United States, Canada, and Greenland. Second edition(2 volumes). Timber Press, Inc., Portland, Oreg. 1,478 pp.

*Kirkman, L. K., and M. B. Drew. 1993. Season of fire effects onthe federally endangered Schwalbea americana: preliminaryresults. Joseph W. Jones Ecological Research Center, Ichau-way, and the Georgia Institute of Ecology. Unpublished.

*Lesica, P. 1992. The effects of fire on Silene spaldingii at theDancing Prairie Preserve. Report to The Nature Conservancy,Helena, Mont. Unpublished.

Melgoza, G., R. S. Nowak, and R. J. Tausch. 1990. Soil waterexploitation after tire: competition between Bromus tectorum(cheatgrass) and two native species. Oecologia 83:7-13.

Menges, E. S. 1986. Predicting the future of rare plant populations:demographic monitoring and modeling. Natural Areas Journal6:13-25.

Menges, E. S., and J. McAnlis. 1994. Microhabitat and time sincefire: effects on demography of a Florida scrub endemic plant.Archbold Biological Station, Lake Placid, Fla. In preparation.

Owen, W. R., and R. Rosentreter. 1992. Monitoring rare peren-nial plants: techniques for demographic studies. Natural Ar-eas Journal 12:32-39.

Pavlovic, N. B. 1994. Disturbance-dependent persistence of rareplants: anthropogenic impacts and restoration implications.Pages 159-193 in M. L. Bowles and C. Whelan, editors.Restoration of Endangered Species. Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge. 28 pp.

*Rome, A. 1987. Element stewardship abstract for Thalictrumcooleyi. The Nature Conservancy in association with the

Network of Natural Heritage Programs and ConservationData Centers, Carrboro, N. C. Unpublished.

Schwartz, M. W., and S. Herman. 1991. The role of fire suppres-sion in the catastrophic decline of the endangered conifer,Torreya taxifolia. Bulletin of the Ecological Society of Amer-ica 721244.

Stone, C. P., and J. M. Scott. 1985. Hawaii’s terrestrial ecosys-tems: preservation and management. Cooperative NationalPark Resources and Studies Unit, University of Hawaii, Ma-noa, Hawaii.

*Sutter, R. D. 1994. Summary of ‘The effect of varied firefrequency on Lysimachia asperulifolia” study in North Caro-lina, 1987-1992. Report to The Nature Conservancy, ChapelHill, N.C. Unpublished.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Determination of threat-ened status for Ribes echinellum (miccosukee gooseberry).Federal Register 50(133):29338-29341.

*U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1986. Sneed and Lee pincushioncacti (Corypantha sneedii var. sneedii and Corypantha sneediivar. lee0 recovery plan. Albuquerque, N.M. Unpublished.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1987. Determination of endan-gered status for Cupressus abramsiana (Santa Cruz cypress).Federal Register 52(5):675-679.

*U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1990a Recovery plan for thelakeside daisy (Hymenoxys acaulis var. glabra). Twin Cities,Minn. Unpublished.

*U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1990b. Recovery plan forGouania hillebrandii (Rhamnaceae). Portland, Greg. Unpub-lished.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1991. Determination of endan-gered status for 26 plants from Waianae Mountains, island ofOahu, Hawaii. Federal Register 56(209):55770-55786.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1992a. Determination of endan-gered status for 16 plants from the island of Molokai, Hawaii.Federal Register 57( 196):46325-46344.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1992b. Endangered status forSchwalbia americana (American chaffseed). Federal Regis-ter 57( 189):44703-44708.

*U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1993a. Walker’s maniac (Mani-hot walkerae) recovery plan. Albuquerque, N.Mex. Unpub-lished.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993b. Endangered and threat-ened status for five Florida plants. Federal Register58( 13 1):37432-37443.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993~. Endangered and threat-ened wildlife and plants. 50 CFR 17.11 & 17.12. U.S. Gov-ernment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 40 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1993d. Endangered and threat-ened wildlife and plants: review of plant taxa for listing asendangered or threatened species. Federal Register 58( 188):51144-51190.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994a. Determination of endan-gered or threatened status for 24 plants from the island ofKauai, Hawaii. Federal Register 59(38):9304-9328.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994b. Determination of endan-gered or threatened status for 2 1 plants from the island of Ha-waii, state of Hawaii. Federal Register 59(43): 10305-10325.

Errncrs OF FIRE ON THREATENED AND ENDANGERED PLANTS 19

Annotated Bibliography on the Effects of Fire on Threatened andEndangered Plants4

1. ARFT, A. 1994. Final report on Spiranthes diluvialisto Colorado Natural Areas Program. Unpublished.

Demographic plots were established at three locationsin Boulder County, Colorado, to collect data on thelife history of Spiranthes diluvialis. The author evalu-ated management techniques and environmental vari-ables that may be necessary for the persistence of S.diluvialis. Thirty-four experimental and control plotswere monitored between 1992 and 1993. All plotswere monitored to determine the effects of mowing,grazing, and burning on S. diluvialis. Bum treatmentsconsisted of an early bum to simulate fires in summerand a late bum to simulate fires in winter. By June of1993 control plots and late bum plots had alreadyproduced significantly more inflorescence buds thanthe other treatment plots. The grazed, early bum, andlate bum plots produced flowers before the othertreatment plots. Orchids in the late bum plots sufferedsignificantly high mortality in July-August. Long-term monitoring and observation will be continued bythe personnel of Boulder County Open Space.

Spiranthes diluvialis (T)

2. BARDEN, L. S. 1994a. Recovery of Schweinitz’s sun-flower Helianthus schweinitzii, a federally listed en-dangered species, after early- and mid-growing sea-son controlled bums in Piedmont North Carolina.Bulletin Ecological Society of America 75:9.

Recently, controlled burning during the growing sea-son to kill woody competitors of perennial herbaceousplants has received increased emphasis despite theimmediate damage to endangered herbaceous spe-cies. A controlled bum in North Carolina in earlyApril 1993 [burned] newly sprouted (2-5 cm) Schwe-initz’s sunflowers. In October 1993, average heightwas reduced 44% compared to October 1992, but thenumber of stems per plant increased 200%, with anaverage of 27 flower heads/plant. In contrast, a con-trolled bum in mid-growing season (August 1992)[burned] nearly mature plants (average height 72 cm)which resprouted but reached only 10 cm height byOctober, with none flowering. At the same site, one

4AA = Abstract of the publication, PA = Partial Abstract of thepublication, AS = Researcher’s summary of the unpublished material,or PS = Researcher’s partial summary of the unpublished material. Theabsence of a designation denotes our summary of a publication,unpublished material, or record.

year later (October 1993), survival was less than 80%,survivors were only 40% as tall as pre-fire plants,there was no increase in the number of stems, and only30% of plants produced flowers. Negative effects ofmid-growing season bums may be temporary butshould be considered by managers of endangeredspecies. [AA].

Helianthus schweinitzii (E)

3. BARDEN, L. S. 1994b. Recovery of Schweinitz’s sun-flower Helianthus schweinitzii, a federally listed en-dangered species, after early- and mid-growing sea-son controlled bums in Piedmont North Carolina.Paper presented at American Institute of BiologicalSciences (AIBS), Knoxville, Tenn., August 1994.

Controlled burning during the growing season to killwoody competitors of perennial herbaceous plantshas received increased emphasis despite the immedi-ate damage to endangered herbaceous species. A con-trolled bum at the Gar Creek NCNC site in NorthCarolina in early April 1993 [burned] newly sprouted(2-5 cm) Schweinitz’s sunflowers. In October 1993average height was reduced 44% compared to Octo-ber 1992 (145 cm vs. 83 cm), but the number of stemsper plant increased 300% (1.8 vs. 7.6 stems per plant).However, by July 1994, average height per plant was108 cm and by October 1994 average height was 162cm, 12% taller than pre-fire height in October 1992.Average number of stems per plant in July 1994 was5.6,200% greater than pre-fire stem number in Octo-ber 1992.

A controlled bum in mid-growing season (August1992) at the Mineral Springs NCNC site [burned]nearly mature plants (avg height July 1992 was 68cm). These plants resprouted but reached only 10 cmheight by October 1992, with none flowering. Oneyear later (July 1993) survival was less than 805,survivors were only 40% as tall as pre-fire plants andthere was no increase in the number of stems. How-ever, by July 1994 average height of survivors was 73cm, 7% taller than pre-fire numbers, replacing the20% mortality observed in 1993. The number of stemsper plant did not change throughout the 2-year period.Thus, managers should be aware of negative effectsof mid-growing season bums but should also realizethat these negative effects may be temporary. Meas-urements documenting the effects of mid-season fires


on existing populations of endangered species mustbe repeated for at least two years before the long-termeffects become discernible. [AS].


4. BARKER, N. G., AND G. B. WILLIAMSON. 1988. Ef-fects of winter fire on Sarracenia data and S. psittac-ina. American Journal of Botany 75: 138-143.

The effects of a prescribed winter bum on two speciesof pitcher plant, Surrucenia alata and S. psittucina,were investigated by comparing changes in variablesmeasured before and after the fire in randomly se-lected plots in a Louisiana savanna. Burned plotsshowed an increase in foliage and unburned plotsshowed a decrease in foliage, as measured in the totalnumbers of leaves (>25 cm) for S. data and in totalcover for S. psittucina. For S. data, the gain in foliagein the burned plots was less than the loss in foliage inthe unburned plots, but for S. psittucina the gain inburned plots was greater than the loss in unburnedplots. Seedling recruitment of S. data after the firewas exponentially related to the number of floralscapes produced in the year before the fire and wasgreater in the burned plots than in the unburned plots.Numbers of floral scapes of both pitcher plant speciesdecreased in the year after the fire, but the decreaseoccurred equally in burned and unburned plots. [AA].

Sarracenia alata (0), Sarracenia psittacina (0)

5. BENJAMIN, S. 1992. Data summary and analysis forSarraceniu oreophila, Eller Preserve (1990-I 992)and Mull Preserve ( 199 I- 1992). The Nature Conser-vancy, Southeast Regional Office, Chapel Hill, N.C.Unpublished.

Populations of Sarrucenia oreophila were monitoredat two sites in the Eller Preserve, North Carolina, fora response to a prescribed bum in April 1992. Leafproduction of S. oreophilu increased, presumably inresponse to the prescribed bum. Hardwoods devel-oped quickly from rootsprouts. Hardwood and Rubusspp. may compete with the pitcher plant populationand should be monitored.

Surrucenia oreophila (E)

6. BERTRAM, K., AND R. MYERS. 1988. Element stew-ardship abstract for Surrucenia oreophilu. SoutheastRegion Fire Ecology Program. Tall Timbers ResearchStation, Tallahassee, Fla. Unpublished.

Fire plays a major role in the maintenance of extant

and in mixed oak flatwoods in Alabama, Georgia, andTennessee. Historically, fire maintained the popula-tions in a sub-climax stage. Interspecific competitionshould be reduced and light intensity should be in-creased for effective management.

Sarracenia oreophila (E)

7. BORCHERT, M. 1989. Post fire demography of Ther-mopsis macrophylla H.A. var. angina, J. T. Howell(Fabaceae), a rare perennial herb in chaparral. Ameri-can Midland Naturalist 122: 120- 132.

Demography of the rare perennial herb Santa Ynezthermopsis (Thermopsis macrophylla var. angina)was monitored at two sites for 9 yr after a controlledbum in the Santa Ynez Mountains near Santa Barbara,California. One of the burned sites was located inchaparral and the other in a fuelbreak, an area pur-posely cleared of chaparral to slow the advance ofwildfire. Numerous individuals resprouted in the 1styr after the fire and thousands of seedlings establishedfrom heat-stimulated germination of refractory seed.Vegetation before and after the fire was markedlydifferent between the two sites. Despite this differ-ence, however, seedling production was very similaron the two sites. Losses of recruits-seedlings thatsurvived beyond the 1 st yr-also were similar. Nineyr after the fire the density of recruits was equivalenton both sites, Recruits were significantly taller in thefuelbreak than in the chaparral but the average num-ber of stems/individual was not different.

Individuals that resprouted after the fire producedmore than lo6 seeds/900 m* from 1980-1987. How-ever, only 3.9% of the seed was present in the soil 8yr after the fire. Seed production by recruits, in con-trast, was very low and appeared to be declining.Thus, this species relies heavily on seed productionby resprouts to maintain a sizable soil-seed bank. Inaddition to seed production by resprouts, the survivalof recruits during the interfire period is a critical lifehistory stage in the population biology of this species.Recruits that survive both the interfire period and thenext fire show marked increases in stem production,seed output, and survivorship. [AA].

Thermopsis macrophylla var. angina (0)

8. BORGIAS, D. D. 1993. Fire effects on the RogueValley mounded prairie on the Agate Desert, JacksonCounty, Oregon. The Nature Conservancy, Portland,

populations of Sarracenia oreophila in seepage bogs Oreg. Unpublished.

Two species, Lomatium cookii and Limnanthesjloc-cosa ssp. grandiflora were monitored before and aftera prescribed bum and wildfire in the Agate Desertmounded prairie of southwestern Oregon. Becausethe sampling design included only three replicates pertreatment for each species, a determination of statis-tically significant effects of the fires was difficult.Lomatium cookii did not have an obvious negativeresponse to the burns. Limnanthes jloccosa ssp.grandij7ora recovered during the second year after thefires, and its abundance at that site was greater thanpreviously.

Lomatium cookii (Cl), Limnanthes jloccosa ssp. grandi-flora (C2)

9. BOWLES, M. L., M. M. DEMAURO, N. PAVLWIC,AND R. D. HIEBERT. 1990. Effects of anthropogenicdisturbances on endangered and threatened plants atthe Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. Natural AreasJournal 10: 187-200.

Populations of 81 endangered and threatened plantsin the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore were inves-tigated and quantified during 1984-88. More thanhalf of the populations occurred in naturally or anthro-pogenically disturbed habitats. The authors discussdifferent types of disturbance that affect these speciesand the history of fire in relation to Habenaria hook-eri, Aristida tuberculosa, Polygonella articulata,Hudsonia tomentosa, Selaginella rupestris, andTalinum rugosperma. Fire or anthropogenic distur-bance that mimics fire increased the survival of thesespecies. Protection from tire led to the decline offire-tolerant species of savanna, prairie, fen, and whitepine communities.

Talinum rugosperma (C2)

10. BOYD, B. 1987. The effects of controlled burning onthree rare plants. T. Elias, editor. Conservation andManagement of Rare and Endangered Plants: pro-ceedings from a conference of the California NativePlant Society held in Sacramento, Calif., 5-8 Novem-ber 1986.630 pp.

A small-scale controlled bum was conducted in Oc-tober 1983 at the Pine Hill Ecological Reserve, Cali-fornia, to determine the effect of fire on Fremontoden-dron decumbens, Ceanothus roderickii, and Wyethiareticulata. The three species possess varying combi-nations of adaptations to fire including re-sprouting,fire-stimulated flowering, and root-sprouting. Afterthe bum, F. decumbens regenerated by root-sprout-ing. The increase of F. decumbens seedlings was 73

EFFECTS OF FIRE ON'hUKENEDANDENDANGEREDPLANTS 21

times greater in burned than in unburned plots; C.roderickii experienced a 23.5-fold increase in estab-lishment after the fire, and W. reticulata floweringincreased 23.5-fold after the fire. Appropriately timedcontrolled burning is not a threat to W. reticulata’sexistence but is a necessary component of its repro-duction.

Ceanothus roderickii (Cl), Fremontodendron decumbens(Cl), Wyethia reticulata (C 1)

11. BOYD, R. S., ANDL. L. SERAFINI . 1992. Reproductiveattrition of the rare chaparral shrub Fremontodendrondecumbens Lloyd (Sterculiaceae). American Journalof Botany 79( 11): 1264-1272.

[The authors] examined reproductive attrition in Fre-montodendron decumbens to characterize sexual re-production in this rare California shrub. Most seeds(97.8%) were dormant due to an impermeable seedcoat. Breaking of the coat, mechanically or by heat,allowed high levels of germination. Chamise charateand ash added to the potting medium resulted in thehighest levels of germination and emergence. Mostseedlings produced in unburned chaparral by plantingheat-treated seeds in openings between shrubs weredestroyed by predators (rodents and insects). All seed-lings that escaped predation died during the summerdrought. [The authors] concluded that sexual repro-duction was limited by (in order of importance): 1)lack of fire, 2) pre-dehiscence consumption by in-sects, 3) post-dehiscence consumption by rodents.Size distributions from two populations revealed that,despite the apparent absence of sexual reproductionin unburned chaparral, two unburned sites containeda large proportion of individuals in small size classes.Excavation of several small individuals demonstratedthat they were sprouts from the roots of nearby largershrubs. Because asexual reproduction by rootsprout-ing circumvented the high attrition of sexual repro-ductive effort on unburned sites, sprouting from rootsmay be a significant reproductive strategy of some‘sprouter’ species in chaparral. [PA].

Fremontodendron decumbens (C 1)

12. BUNTING, S. C., H. A. WR I G H T, AND L. F.NEUENSCHWANDER . 1980. Long-term fire effects oncactus in the southern mixed prairie of Texas. Journalof Range Management 33:85-88.

Few Opuntia phaeacantha (brownspine pricklypear)were immediately killed by the direct effects of fire.Most plants resprouted after burning in the spring, butmortality averaged 70% by the end of the fourth year


or absent where succession had advanced to mixed Three sensitive plant species occur inside the perime-pine-hammock composition. ter of the 1993 fire in the Los Padres National Forest:

Chamaecrista lineata (C 3)) Phyllanthus pentaphyllus(C2), Tragia saxicola (C2)

Caulanthus amplexicaulis var. barbarae, Sidalceahickmannii ssp.parishii, and Frittillaria ojaiensis. Allthree species benefit from fire and are expected to

17. COBB, N. 1994. The effects of grazing and prescribedrecover from this fire.

burning on plant performance and population dynam- Caulanthus amplexicaulis var. barbarae (C I), Frittillariaits of Chrysothamnus molestus. Northern Arizona ojaiensis (C2), Sidalcea hickmannii ssp. parishii (Cl)University..Unpublished.

The effects of grazing, prescribed burning, season of 21*bum, and climate on Crysothamnus molestus on theCoconino Plateau in Northern Arizona are evaluated.Burning in spring or in fall increased shoot growth.However, mortality was high after burning in springand negligible after burning in fall. Shoot productionwas less among the plants burned in spring than thoseburned in fall. Cobb concluded that fall burningshould be employed on C. molestus and that managersshould consider large scale climatic variations whenevaluating long-term frequency and time of bum.

Chrysothamnus molestus (C2)

DUNWIDDIE, P. W. 1990. Rare plants in coastal heath-lands: observations on Corema conradii and Helian-themum dumosum. Rhodora 92(869):22-26.

Dunwiddie describes the effects of prescribed burningon two coastal heathland species, Corema conradiiand Helianthemum dumosum, in New England. Firekilled adult C. conradii individuals but generatedabundant seedlings. After a spring bum, the cover andflowering of H. dumosum increased. Occasional firemay be necessary to maintain healthy, reproductivepopulations of these species.

Corema conradii (0), Helianthemum dumosum (C2)

18. COLLIER , M. 1994. Natural Resources, Mesa Verde

Prescribed bums of areas with Astragalus schmolliae

National Park, Colorado. Personal communication.

will be conducted in the Mesa Verde National Park,Colorado, during summer 1994. Results from M. Col-lier will be available in fall 1994. Collier observed thatHackelia gracilenta was more prevalent after an ear-lier bum in the Mesa Verde National Park.

tabase]. Missoula, Montana: U.S. Forest Service, In-

22,

termountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire

ESSER, L. L. 1993. Torreya taxijiolia. In W. C. Fischer,compiler. The Fire Effects Information System [Da-

Sciences Laboratory. Unpublished.

Published research on tire adaptations of Torreyataxifolia (Florida torreya) is lacking. A related spe-cies, T. californica (California torreya), sprouts fromroots, root crowns, and boles after fire. Torreya taxi-folia may respond to fire in a similar manner. Untilrecently, ground fires were a constant influence on theneighboring long-leaf pine (Pinus palustris) forestcommunity. The smoke from these fires may haveoperated as a natural fungicide by suppressing a fun-gus that now infects T. taxifolia. Torreya taxifolia isknown from northern Florida and southern Georgia.

Astragalus schmolliae (C2), Hackelia gracilenta (C2)

19. CURRIER , P. J. 1984. Response of prairie fringedorchid to fire and reduction in grazing (Nebraska).Restoration and Management Notes (2):28.

Traditional grazing practices and prescribed burningare used to manage native grasslands at Crane Mead-ows, Nebraska, which contains more than 50 prairiewhite fringed orchids (Platanthera leucophaea). The Torreya californica (0), Torreya taxifolia (E)orchids were discovered after a bum in spring. Sea-son-long grazing during the last 50 years maintained 23.the orchids in a non-flowering state. Abundant mois-ture, less intense grazing, and fire probably contrib-uted to the pulse of flowering.

Platanthera leucophaea (T)

20. DANIELSON , K. 1993. Marre fire rehabilitation plansummary. Botany Technical Report. U.S. Forest Serv-ice, Los Padres National Forest, Calif. Unpublished.18 PP.

FISHBEIN, M., AND D. GORI. 1992. The effect ofprescribed burns on the composition and structure ofCienega vegetation, with special emphasis on theCanelo Hills ladies’ tresses orchid, Spiranthes delites-tens: post-bum responses. Report to the Nature Con-servancy. The Nature Conservancy, Tucson, Ariz.Unpublished.

The effects of prescribed burning on Spiranthes de-litescens and the vegetation of its Cienega habitat 3months after a treatment bum are reported. Nine plots


without Spirunfhes (referred to as experimental plots)and two plots with Spirunthes were established. Oneplot with Spiranthes and ail experimental plots wereburned. Vegetation height decreased in the burnedplot with Spirunthes and in all experimental plots. Nonew Spiranthes recruits were evident in the Spiran-thes plots, and the abundance of flowering stems didnot increase. Because of the variation in weatherconditions, several bum treatments may be necessaryto gain a better understanding of the effects of burningon Cienega vegetation composition.

Spirunthes delitescens (C 1)

24. FOLKERTS, G. W. 1977. Endangered and threatenedcarnivorous plants of North America. Pages 301-3 13in G. T. Prance and T. S. Elias, editors. Extinction isforever: proceedings of a symposium held at the NewYork Botanical Garden, Bronx, N.Y., 11-13 May1976.

Three genera of carnivorous plants, Surruceniu,Dionuea, and Pinguicula are fire dependent. Moder-ate tires reduced competition from woody species andstimulated growth of the species in these genera. Firesuppression increased woody undergrowth and thethreat of severe fire. Surruceniu alutu produced largerrhizomes and more leaves per rhizome on burnedsites. Fire was an important part of carnivorous planthabitat and must be taken into account in future man-agement. The genus Surruceniu has three listed andtwo candidate species, Dionaea has one candidatespecies, and Pinguicula has one listed and one candi-date species.

Dionaea spp., Pinguicula spp., Sarracenia spp.

25. FREAS, K. E. 1993. Letter to Field Supervisor regard-ing proposed endangered status for three serpentineplant species. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Sacra-mento, Calif.

Ceanothusferrisae appears to be primarily threatenedby development and lack of recruitment in existingpopulations. During three years of monitoring threepopulations of C. ferrisae [the author] found no evi-dence of recruitment; ail populations were composedof mature and senescent individuals. Based on [theauthor’s] experience with greenhouse propagation instudy done at Stanford’s Center for ConservationBiology, the species apparently does not require firefor germination, as is believed to be the case for manychaparral shrub species. In that study, there were nosignificant differences in germination rates betweenheat treatment, stratification, and no treatment of

seeds, although stratification resulted in more rapidgermination than did the other two treatments. Thesmallest C. ferrisae population burned during thesummer of 1992. On December 31, 1992, approxi-mately 5% of the individuals survived the fire. All ofthese individuals were damaged by the fire and cur-rently support only one to several live branches. Po-tential seed production in the population has beenseverely reduced. [PSI.

Ceanothusferrisae (E)

26. GANKIN, R., AND J. MAJOR. 1964. Arctostaphylosmyrtifoliu, its biology and relationship to the problemof endemism. Ecology 45:792-808.

Fire plays an important role in chaparral plant com-munities and is extremely important in the Ione regionof California. Arctostaphylos myrtifolia is killed bytire. However, tire creates open areas in which newseedlings establish.

Arctostaphylos myrtifolia (C 1)

27.

28.

29.

GIBSON, D. J., AND L. C. HULBERT. 1987. Effects offire, topography and year to year climatic variation onspecies composition in tallgrass prairie. Vegetation72:175-185.

Described are compositional changes in response tofire and topography during a 5-year period in nativeunplowed tallgrass prairie at Konza Prairie, Kansas.The percentage and cover of all C4 species andgrasses decreased when the prairie did not bum. Asecondary gradient reflected topography (upland ver-sus lowland soils).

GLENN, S. M., AND S. L. COLLINS. 1992. Effects ofscale and disturbance on rates of migration and ex-tinction of species in prairies. Oikos 63:273-280.

Relations between local annual immigration and ex-tinction rates of plants and total species richness weredetermined from long-term data in tallgrass and short-grass prairies in Kansas. The researchers tested thehypothesis that extinction rates are higher on burnedthan on unburned grasslands. Extinction rates posi-tively correlated with the number of species at a site,and this relation was unaltered by burning.

GODFREY, R. K. 1976. Harper’s beauty (Hurperocal-lis Jlavu McDaniel). Pages 89-90 in J. N. Layne,editor. Inventory of rare and threatened biota of Flor-ida. Florida Audubon Society and Florida Defendersof the Environment.

Err%crs OF FIRE ON THREATENED AND ENDANGERED PLANTS 25

Harperocallis jlava occurs in only one bog in theApalachicola National Forest, Franklin County, Flor-ida. Other plants associated with H.Jlava are adaptedto fire. Whether H. jlava is similarly adapted shouldbe determined.

Harperocallisflava (E)

30. GORDON, D. 1991. Response of two rare species tomanipulation: effects of fire on Matelea alabamensisand effects of transplanting and shade on Conradinaglabra. The Nature Conservancy, Gainsville, Fla. Un-published.

Matelea alabamensis was examined for its responseto burning. Individuals were marked and measuredprior to burning. Results indicate that plants under anopen canopy are more robust and are more likely toflower than plants under a closed canopy. Fire sup-pression and upland site preparation may have causedless robust vines. The effects of fire on Conradinaglabra were also examined. The author concludedthat burning under natural conditions may be requiredto sustain this species. These observations were basedon preliminary data obtained in Florida.

Conradina glabra (E), Matelea alabamensis (C2)

31. GORDON, D. 1992a. Element stewardship abstractreport for Florida scrub community. The Nature Con-servancy in association with the Network of NaturalHeritage Programs and Conservation Data Centers.Arlington, Va. Unpublished.

The role of tire in maintaining the Florida scrubcommunity is discussed. The Florida scrub commu-nity and the neighboring longleaf pine (Pinus palus-tris) community are maintained by fire. Fire oftenspreads from the longleaf pine community into theFlorida scrub community. Cerutiola ericoides, Pani-cum abscissum, Bonamia grandijlora, Lechea deck-ertii, L. cernua, and Paronychia chartacea are mem-bers of the Florida scrub community, and theirhabitats may depend on fire.

Bonamia grandiflora (T), Ceratiola ericoides (0), Lecheacernua (3C), Lechea deckertii (0), Panicum abscissum(C2), Paronychia chartucea (T)

32. GORDON, D. 1992b. Element stewardship abstract forpine rockland community. The Nature Conservancy,Arlington, Va. Unpublished.

Persistence of the pine rockland community dependson fire. Human development reduced the distributionof this community. Amorpha crenulata, Brickellia

mosieri, Chamaesyce deltoidea ssp. deltoidea, C.porteriana var. scoparia, Galactia smallii, and Poly-gala smallii occur in this community.

Amorpha crenulata (= A. herbacea var. crenulata) (E),Brickellia mosieri (= B. eupatorildes var.Joridana) (C2),Chamaesyce deltoidea ssp. deltoidea (E), Chamaesyceporteriana var. scoparia (C2), Galactia smallii (E), Poly-gala smallii (E)

33. GORI, D. 1994. The Nature Conservancy, Tucson,Ariz. Personal communication.

The Nature Conservancy in Arizona conducted pre-scribed bums of Chrysothamnus molestus in springand fall to determine the effect of the season of bumon this species. Bums in spring were detrimentalbecause they occurred during the primary growingseason and caused high seedling mortality. Burns infall reduced shrub cover and increased survivorship.The frequency of presettlement fires is approximately7-12 years.

Chrysothamnus molestus (C2)

34. HARDIN, D. E., AND D. L. White. 1992. Rare vascularplant taxa associated with wiregrass (Aristidu stricta)in the southeastern United States. Natural Areas Jour-nal 9~234-245.

[The authors] list 191 rare plant taxa that occur inecosystems in the southeastern United States (Ala-bama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina,and South Carolina) where wiregrass (Aristidastrictu) is an important component. Wiregrass ecosys-tems throughout the Southeast have been greatly re-duced and continue to be threatened by conversion toother uses and inappropriate fire management. [PA].

Aristidu stricta (0), Clitoriufragruns (Cl), Deeringotham-nus pulchellus (E), Deeringothamnus rugelii (E), Hur-perocallisflava (E), Hedeoma graveolens (= Stachydeomagruveolens) (0), Kalmiu cuneata (Cl), Lysimachiu aspe-rulifolia (E), Muhlenbergia torreyana (0), Pyxidantherabarbulata ssp. brevifolia (= P. brevifolia) (Cl), Rhododen-dron chapmanii (E), Rhus michauxii (E), Solidagopulchra(C 1 ), Thalictrum cooleyi (E), Verbesina heterophylla (C 1)

35. HARTNEIT, D. C., AND D. R. RICHARDSON . 1989.Population biology of Bonamiu grundifloru (Con-volvulaceae): effects of fire on plant and seed bankdynamics. American Journal of Botany 73:361-369.

The effects of disturbance on reproduction and plantand seed bank dynamics of Bonamia grandtjlora arediscussed. Several populations of B. grandiflora were


studied during 3 years. Sites were either burned, me-chanically disturbed, or left undisturbed. Fire in-creased stem densities, the percentage of flowers pro-ducing seeds, and the number of capsules and seedsper plant. Fire caused a significant turnover in the seedbank but no immediate change in population size.

Bonamia grandiflora is only known from Florida.

Bonamia grandiflora (T)

36. HAWKES, C. V., AND E. S. MENGES. 1995. Densityand seed production of a Florida endemic, Poly-gonella basiramia, in relation to time since fire andopen sand. The American Midland Naturalist133:138-145.

Density and reproductive output in relation to fire,open sand, and other site factors were determined forPolygonella basiramia. This federally endangeredspecies is endemic to only three ridges in centralFlorida and found primarily in rosemary (Ceratiolaericoides) dominated sand pine (Pinus clausa) shrub.Twenty-two sites ranging from 5 to >26 yr post-firewere sampled. Site factors of openness, time since lastfire, dominant species, ground cover, elevation andsoil type were examined. Multivariate analyses iden-tified the amount of open sand habitat at a site as theonly variable having a significant positive relation-ship with both plant density and seed production. Seedproduction actually increased with conspecific den-sity, suggesting that the lack of interspecific compe-tition in open sand gaps helps define P. basiramiamicrohabitat. Open sand habitat is critical in the lifehistory strategy of this obligate-seeding, perennialherb in a community where it must compete withlarger, resprouting shrubs and herbs both immediatelyafter fire and during fire-free intervals. [AA].

Polygonella basiramia (E)

37. HERMANN, S. M. 1988. Preliminary report on theimpact of a mid-summer fire on Liatris provincialisat the J. H. Phipps Preserve. Tall Timbers ResearchStation, Tallahassee, Fla. Unpublished.

Two plots with Liatris provincialis were burned andtwo unburned plots served as controls. The responseof L. provincialis to fire was measured. Additionalyears are required to confirm benefits of fire to L.provincialis.

Liatris provincialis (C2)

38. JACOBS, J. 1993. New hope for the Peter’s MountainMallow. Endangered Species Technical Bulletin18(3):13-14.

The seeds of Peter’s Mountain Mallow (Iliamnacorei) must be scarified to germinate. The NatureConservancy in Virginia and biologists with the Vir-ginia Natural Heritage Program are using prescribedbums to manage the only known population of thisspecies. This population had declined from 50 indi-viduals in 1927 to 3 individuals in 1986. The firstprescribed bum in 1992 resulted in 12 new seedlings,4 of which survived the first year. A bum in May 1993resulted in 500 new seedlings.

Iliamna corei (= I. rivularis var. rivularis) (E)

39. JACOBSON , G. L., H. ALMQUIST-JACOBSON , AND J. C.WINNE. 199 1. Conservation of rare plant habitat: in-sights from the recent history of vegetation and fire atCrystal Fen, northern Maine, USA. Biological Con-servation 57:287-314.

Crystal Fen in north-central Maine is a well knownlocality of several rare plants. Recent drying and anincrease in woody vegetation in the fen may threatenthe habitat of Platanthera leucophaea and Tofieldiaglutinosa. The adjacent railroad bed and drainageditch may be causing the changes. Changes weredescribed with aerial photos (1938-present), presentvegetation, evidence of fire, and a pollen record of thelast 200 years. A decline in frequency of bums in-creased the abundance of woody plant species. How-ever, the pollen record shows that this rare planthabitat was created by the adjacent railroad tracksbuilt in 1893 and was subsequently maintained byfires caused by drifting ash from steam locomotives.When steam locomotives were replaced by dieselengines, the fire regime was altered. The plants arenow threatened by the lack of fire and increasingwoody vegetation.

Platanthera leucophaea (T), Tofieldia glutinosa var. ab-sona (C2)

40. JOHNSON, A. F. 1989. Four petal pawpaw (Asiminatetramera) summary report. Florida Natural AreasInventory, Tallahassee, Fla. Unpublished.

The author observed two neighboring sites ofAsiminatetramera among white sand scrub in Florida. One sitewas composed of open vegetation and the other wasovergrown with woody vegetation. Data from thesetwo sites and observations by other researchers sug-gest that A. tetramera is more abundant after distur-bance such as fire, hurricane, or cutting by humans.

EFFECTS OF FIRE ONTHF~EATENEDANDENDANGEREDPLANTS 27

Asimina tetramera (E)

41. JOHNSON, A. F. 1993a. Population status survey ofCalamovilfa curt&ii (Vassey) Lamson-Scribner.Florida Natural Areas Inventory, Tallahassee, Fla.Unpublished.

Calamovilfa curtissii is endemic to the Florida pan-handle and occurs in association with wiregrass (Aris-tida stricta) and flatwood areas. A population in theMerritt Island National Wildlife Refuge is burnedfrequently (every 3 years) and had been burned inspring before the author visited the site. Youngerplants were frequent on bare ground between themature clumps of sandgrass. Fire prevented C. curtis-sii habitat from being invaded or shaded by shrubs.Mechanical disturbance, which affects C. cur&ii, iscommon because the plant occurs in roadside ditchesand along powerline rights-of-way.

Calamovilfa curtissii (C2)

42. JOHNSON, A. F. 1993b. Population status survey ofLiatris provincialis Godfrey. Florida Natural AreasInventory, Tallahassee, Fla. Unpublished.

Information on the taxonomy, range, habitat, andmanagement of Liatris provincialis is provided. Re-cent observations suggested that clear-cuts in andaround L. provincialis populations mimic the stimu-latory effects of fire. Liatris provincialis produces anunderground corm, indicating that it can persist forsome time under a dense canopy in a suppressed stateuntil tire or clear-cutting removes the canopy andstimulates the plant to flower. The author suggests,however, that the absence of fires for a long periodwould probably be detrimental to the species becauseeventually the corms, suppressed under dense cano-pies, may begin to die off and not be replaced by newseedlings.

Liatris provincialis (C2)

43. JOHNSON, A. F. 1993~. Population status and surveyof Polygonella macrophylla Small. Florida NaturalAreas Inventory, Tallahassee, Fla. Unpublished.

Polygonella macrophylla is endemic to scrubs alongthe mainland coast of the Florida panhandle. It re-sprouts after fire, and anecdotal reports indicate thatfire may enhance flowering. The author suggests thatmanagement of P. macrophylla requires the preserva-tion of the stable communities in which it occurs.Naturally occurring salt winds and fires should not beobstructed.

Polygonella macrophylla (C2)

44. JOHNSON , A. F. 1994. Florida Natural Areas Inven-tory, Tallahassee, Florida. Personal communication.

Asimina tetramera (Annonaceae)-Comparison ofshaded and unshaded shrubs on two sites a few cityblocks apart (unpublished data) shows that shadingadversely affects percent of shrubs flowering-indicat-ing the plant needs fire to maintain low stature ofsurrounding scrub plants to permit flowering. Observa-tions during a survey for [A. tetramera] in 1988 indicatethat cutting or mowing appears to stimulate the speciesto re-sprout and flower. Species produces a very deeptaproot. Calamovilfa curtissii (Poaceae>-Observa-tions during a survey for this species in 1987-88 in theFlorida Panhandle (Johnson, A. F., 1988) indicate thatit requires cutting or mowing to stimulate it to flower.Liatris provincialis (Asteraceae)-Observations dur-ing a 1993 status survey for this species indicate thatreproduction in this species is also reduced by shading,indicating that fire is necessary to stimulate reproduc-tion. The species flowers vigorously after clearcut-ting-a process that may mimic the effects of tire in anatural situation. Polygonella macrophylla (Poly-gonaceae)---This species has been observed to re-sprout following fire. It is found in open salt sprayedprune oak scrub (Quercus myrtifolia, Q. geminata) oncoastal terraces in Okaloosa and Walton Counties. Italso grows with rosemary (Ceratiola ericoides) underopen sand pine (Pinus clausa) canopies, but has notbeen found where the sand pine canopy closes to pro-duce dense shade. It appears to flower vigorously a fewyears after a fire, but this may also be because itsflowering stems are more conspicuous when the sur-rounding shrubs are lower. [Johnson] observed thatseveral shrubby members of the mint family (Conrad-ina canescens, Calamintha ashei) are killed by fire andrecover from seed. This also appears to be the case forDicerandra frutescens (Menges, E. S. 1992). If thisgeneralization holds for other shrubby species in thesegenera, it would include Conradina brevifolia, C.glabra, C. etonia, Dicerandra comutissima, D. im-maculata, and D. christmanii on the list of rare speciesin Florida. [AS].

Asimina tetramera (0), Calamintha ashei (C2), Ca-lamovilfa curtissii (C2), Ceratiola ericoides (0) Conrad-ina brevifolia (= C. canescens) (E), Conradina etonia (E),Conradina glabra (E), Dicerandra christmanii (E), Dicer-andra cornutissima (E), Dicerandrafrutescens (E), Dicer-andra immaculata (E), Liatris provincialis (C2), Poly-gonella macrophylla (C2)

INFORMATION AND TECHNOLOGY REPORT 228

45. JOHNSON, A. F., AND W. G. ABRAHAMSON. 1990. Anote on the fire responses of species in rosemaryscrubs on the Southern Florida Lake Wales Ridge.Florida Scientist 53: 138-l 43.

Three herbaceous species (Lechea deckertii, L. cer-nua, and Paronychia chartacea) appeared in postbumsamples of plots in rosemary scrubs, that were rare orabsent in prebum samples of the same plots and werealso rare in samples of plots in unburned scrubs.Changes in cover levels with stand age suggest thatthese species are displaced by the increasing cover ofrosemary and reindeer lichens within 9-12 years,their populations then being rejuvenated by periodicfires. [AA].

Lechea cernua (3C), L. deckertii (0), Paronychia char-tucea (T)

46. JOHNSON,A.F.,AND A. BLYTH. 1988.Re-discoveryof the Calamovilfu curtissii (Gramineae) in FloridaPanhandle. Sida 13: 137-140.

The range of Calamovilfa curtissii in the Floridapanhandle was re-examined and expanded. The plantis associated with wiregrass (Aristidu stricta) flat-woods that are considered a fire-managed commu-nity. Populations of C. curtissii that were either re-cently burned or mechanically disturbed floweredprofusely.

Calamovilfa curtissii (C2)

47. JORDAN, M. J. 1994. The Nature Conservancy, ColdSpring Harbor, New York. Personal communication.

The abundances of two subpopulations of Agalinisacutu increased drastically in 1993, after prescribedbums at the Hampstead Plains North, Nassau County,Long Island, New York, in 1992. A conclusion that firewas responsible because populations typically fluctuatewidely from year to year is premature. Populations alsoincreased at another Long Island site (Sayville Grass-land) that was not burned but was extensively brush-hogged and mowed. Fire and mowing were probablyresponsible for the increases at the Hampstead PlainsNorth and Sayville, especially because populations atall other Long Island sites either decreased or remainedunchanged.

Agalinis acutu (E)

48. KAGAN, J. 1992. Draft species management guide forCulochortus umpquaensis Fredricks. Roseburg Dis-trict of the Bureau of Land Management and UmpquaNational Forest. Unpublished.

Calochortus umpquaensis occurs in Douglas-fir(Pseudotsuga menziesii), mixed conifer forests in Ore-gon with a natural tire frequency of 10-20 years. Firesuppression during the past 80 years changed the openhabitat into a closed canopy forest that is dominated byDouglas-fir. Without the reintroduction of fire, popula-tions of this species may disappear over time.

Calochortus umpquaensis (C 1)

49. KAYE, T. N., K. CONNELLY , AND K. FINLEY. 1994.Population viability analysis of an endangered plant,Lomatium bradshawii, under three prairie burningtreatments. Supplement to Bulletin of the EcologicalSociety of America 75: 106.

Lomatium bradshawii is an endangered plant speciesof western Oregon prairies that were burned annuallyby Native Americans prior to Euro-American settle-ment. The plants are perennial, reproduce by seedonly, and do not maintain a persistent soil seed bank.We used transition matrix models incorporating ob-served environmental stochasticity to determine theeffects of prescribed fires on the viability of twopopulations. Three fire treatments were used: burnedthree times in six years (1988-1993), twice in sixyears, and not burned (control). Burning tended toimprove fruit production and subsequent seedlingrecruitment, and lower mortality of seedlings andsmall vegetative plants. In addition, fire increased theequilibrium population growth rate (h) of both popu-lations from 0.943 and 0.928 (respectively for eachpopulation) without burning, to 1.110 and 0.976 whenburned in two years, to 1.190 and 1.014 when burnedthree times. The risk of extinction declined sharplywith increased fire frequency, from 100% without fireat both populations, to 100% and 52% when burnedtwice, to 0% when both populations were burned threetimes. Fire is an effective tool for maintaining viablepopulations of this endangered species. Our resultssuggest that in the absence of fire, even large popula-tions will eventually decline to extinction. [AA].

Lomatium bradshawii (E)

50. KELLY, V. R., AND V. T. PARKER. 1990. Seed banksurvival and dynamics in sprouting and nonsproutingArctostaphylos species. American Midland Naturalist124:114-123.

Species of the genus Arctostuphylos in the chaparralregenerate after fire either by obligate seeding or bysprouting. The authors tested the hypothesis that sprout-ing species do not differ from nonsprouting species inflower, fruit, and seed production. The productions of


inflorescence, infructescence, and fruit do not differsignificantly between A. canescens and A. glandulosa.Results suggested that the reproduction of sproutingand nonsprouting chaparral species after fire do notconsistently differ.

Arctostaphylos glandulosa is known only from Califor-nia.

Arctostaphylos glandulosa (C 1)

51.

52.

KIRBY, R. E., S. 3. LEWIS, AND T. N. SEXSON. 1988.Fire in North American wetland ecosystems and fire-wildlife relations: an annotated bibliography. U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 88(l).146 pp.

This is a comprehensive bibliography of fire in wetlandcommunities. Also provided are limited references tofire in grassland, forest, scrub, desert, chaparral, tropicalboreal, and subalpine vegetation types and to the relationbetween tire and wildlife in these areas.

KIRKMAN, L. K., AND M. B. DREW. 1993. Season offire effects on the federally endangered Schwalbeaamericana: preliminary results. Joseph W. Jones Eco-logical Research Center, Ichauway, and the GeorgiaInstitute of Ecology. Unpublished.

The authors experimentally examined the responsesof Schwalbea americana populations to season ofbum. Flowering occurred in response to burning re-gardless of season. Fire management practices thatvary from the traditional tire regime in winter may notbe devastating to the population because flower pro-duction is delayed until post-fire conditions againexist. Schwalbea americana is known from the east-em United States.

Schwalbea americana (E)

53. KRAL, R. 1983. A report on some rare, threatened, orendangered forest-related plants of the south. U.S. For-est Service, Atlanta, Ga. Technical Publication R&TP2. 1,305 pp.

Kral’s two volume set details the taxonomy, phenol-ogy, distribution, ecology, and habitat of more than300 forest-related rare, threatened, and endangeredvascular plants of the South. A table is provided foreach species and includes information about the spe-cies’ response to several management practices, in-cluding prescribed bums.

54. LESICA, P. 1992. The effects of fire on Silene spaldingiiat the Dancing Prairie Preserve. Nature Conservancy

progress report. The Nature Conservancy, Helena,Mont. Unpublished.

Results suggest that recruitment of Silene spaldingiiis enhanced in grasslands following fire. There was amodest trend for increased flowering in bum plots, butthere was no evidence for increased growth. Theseeffects may become more apparent in subsequentyears as nutrients released by fire are absorbed by theplants. There was no evidence for increased mortalityin bum plots. Density of S. spaldingii was greatest inspring bum plots compared to fall bum plots. Springbum plots generally had a lower intensity. It is notknown whether the positive effects of the spring bumare the result of the cooler bum conditions or the earlyphenology of the plants. Results from subsequentyears will provide further information on the effectsof fire on S. spaldingii. [AS].

Silene spaldingii (C2)

55. MACROBERTS, M. H., AND B. R. MACROBERTS.1990. Notes on the occurrence of Platanthera integra(Nutt.) A Gray Ex Beck (Orchidaceae) in West Cen-tral Louisiana. Phytologia 69:378-38 1.

The authors surveyed bogs in the Kisatchie District ofthe Kisatchie National Forest in west-central Louisi-ana. Platanthera integra occurred in 35% of the bogs.None of the bogs had been burned in the year preced-ing the survey; however, all but one had been burnedin winter 1989-90, the last year of the survey. Flow-ering of P. integra after fire increased in most bogs.The only bog that did not bum in 1989-90 did notincrease in flowering. Blooming peaked 2-3 weeksearlier in the burned bogs than in the unburned bog.

Platanthera integra (0)

56. MCCLARAN, M. P., AND P. C. SUNDT. 1992. Popula-tion dynamics of the rare orchid Spiranthes delites-tens. Southwestern Naturalist 37:299-333.

Spiranthes delitescens is known from only four loca-tions in southeastern Arizona. A prescribed bum inApril 1979 was used in an attempt to increase flowering.Although flowering increased after the burn, it alsoincreased in other burned and in unburned sites. In May1986, another bum was conducted at the same site, butno plants flowered in the following summer. Theauthors compared grazed and burned sites with controlsites but stress that possible inherent site differencesprohibit conclusions about the effects of grazing andburning. Because many Spiianthes species favorablyrespond to fire, the authors recommend that a controlledexperiment be performed to assess the effects of burn-


ing, grazing, and mowing on the population dynamicsof S. delitescens.

Spirunthes delitescens (C 1)

57. MELGOZA, G., R. S. NOWAK, AND R. J. TAUSCH.1990. Soil water exploitation after fire: competitionbetween Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass) and two na-tive species. Oecologia 83:7-13.

Bromus tectorum becomes abundant after fire insemiarid areas of western North America. The authorsexamined this phenomenon in relation to plant-waterpotential and competition with the native plants Stipucomata and Chtysothamnus viscidiflorus. They meas-ured soil water content, plant water potential, above-ground biomass production, and water-use efficiencyto determine whether B. tectorum competes witheither of the two native species. Soil water contentwas significantly lower around native species in asso-ciation with B. tectorum than around individuals with-out the presence of B. tectorum.

Bromus tectorum (0), Chrysothumnus viscid@orus (C2),Stipa corn&u (0)

58.

59.

MENGES, E. S. 1986. Predicting the future of rare plantpopulations: demographic monitoring and modeling.Natural Areas Journal 6: 13-25.

Conservation biology desperately needs techniques topredict the future of small populations and endan-gered species, and to guide conservation strategy andmanagement tactics. In particular, information is re-quired on extinction probability and minimum viablepopulation. Techniques in population viability analy-sis are just being developed; they have the potentialfor providing such information, but have not yet beenapplied to plants. Most techniques focus on geneticfactors rather than environmental or demographic,although the last two may constitute more immediatethreats to small plant populations. This paper reviewsmodeling and data collection approaches to predictingrare plant populations. The projections are driven byempirical data on life history components: mortality,growth, and fecundity of individuals grouped by de-fined life history stages. To fully utilize the tech-niques, a long-term commitment (three years or more)to data collection of moderate intensity is required.Data collection issues and methods are illustrated byreferring to an ongoing study of Furbish’s lousewortin Maine. [PA].

MENGES, E. S. 1988. Population biology of a rareprairie forb: Silene regia 1987-1988. Report to the

Ohio Department of Natural Resources and the Indi-ana Academy of Sciences. Holcomb Research Insti-tute, Indianapolis, Ind. Unpublished.

Described are the effects of habitat fragmentation onpopulation viability of Silene regiu, a midwestemplant species. The growth rates of this plant were thehighest in populations that had been subjected tocontrolled burning. Most S. regia become more pro-ductive with plant size. Menges recommends burning,control of woody vegetation, and maintenance ofother hummingbird food plants to sustain the habitatof S. regia.

Silene regiu (C3)

60. MENGES, E. S. 1992. Habitat preferences and re-sponse to disturbance for Dicerandra frutescens, aLake Wales Ridge (Florida) endemic plant. Bulletinof the Torrey Botanical Club 119:308-3 13.

Dicerundru frutescens is restricted to drained yellowsands with evergreen oak-dominated scrub vegeta-tion. Fires in spring, manual defoliation, or removalof above ground tissues killed 100% of D. fiutescensin a field experiment. After fire, D. frutescens re-cruited from seed stored in soil. Fire is probablybeneficial to D. frutescens. Populations that wereburned in the previous decade tend to be the mostvigorous.

Dicerandra frutescens (E)

61.

62.

MENGES, E. S., AND N. M. KOHFELDT. 1994. Lifehistory strategies of Florida scrub plants in relation tofire. In Preparation. Archbold Biological Station,Lake Placid, Fla. Unpublished.

Ninety-eight species found in either rosemary scrubor scrubby flatwoods were placed into guilds basedon recovery mechanisms. Most (92%) of species arein 4 guilds: resprouters (mainly woody shrubs), re-sprouters and seeders (small-statured shrubs, palms,and herbaceous perennials), obligate seeders (mainlyherbs), and resprouters and clonal spreaders. Herba-ceous plants tended to decrease with time since tire.Vegetative recovery modes generally increased infrequency with time since fire. In rosemary scrub,seedling recovery has been favored, whereas vegeta-tive recovery has come to predominate in scrubbyflatwoods. In managing Florida scrub, a variety offire-return intervals at any site are needed to promotediversity of both life history and species. [AS].

MENGES, E. S., AND J. MCANLIS. 1994. Microhabitatand time since fire: effects on demography of a Flor-

EFFECTS OF FIRE ON THREATENED AND ENDANGERED FUNTS 3 1

ida scrub endemic plant. In preparation. ArchboldBiological Station, Lake Placid, Fla.

The effects of 22 microhabitat characteristics on sur-vival, growth, and fecundity of 1,287 Eryngiumcuneifolium were examined during 4 years. Survivalincreased with distance to the nearest shrub and sizeof open spaces. Ceratiola ericoides and Calaminthaashei seemed to increase the mortality of E. cuneifo-lium more than other shrub species. Sand accretionincreased growth and fecundity of E. cuneifolium.This herbaceous endemic is dependent on an openhabitat, which is maintained by disturbance such asfire. [AS].

Calamintha ashei (C2), Ceratiola ericoides (0), Eryngiumcuneifolium (E)

63. MOSELEY, R. K., AND R. C. CRAWFORD. 1993. Popu-lation monitoring and management plan for the Idahophlox (Phlox idahonis). Idaho Department of Fish andGame, Natural Resource Policy Bureau, Boise, Idaho.Unpublished.

Direct gradient analysis of plant cover data indicatethat livestock grazing intensity explained a majorityof floristic variation in plant monitoring plots. Secon-darily, meadow type and soil water content explainedthe remaining variation. Summary of stem density forall plots indicates that Phlox idahonis remained stableover the fifteen year period (of study). There washowever, significant differences between meadows.Phlox density increased in one plot in Eureka Mead-ows, the cause of which is unexplainable to us. Itdecreased in plot 7, however, probably as a result ofpost-fire succession at this site in the CPTPAMeadow. Phlox disappeared completely from Plot 4in North Casey Meadow. Stem density and vegetationcomposition and structure data indicate that heavylivestock grazing are not detrimental to populationviability. We also found that shrub and tree invasionof the prime meadow habitat does not appear to be athreat, at least during the 15year monitoring period.The current conservation status of Phlox idahonis, asa category 1 candidate, is appropriate. Our recommen-dations include protection for all populations, grazingbe excluded from heavily grazed meadows, perma-nent plots be read every 5 years, and managementremain adaptive to new information, among others.PAI.

Phlox idahonis (C 1)

64. MOSELEY , R. K., M. MANCUSO, AND J. HILTY. 1990.Field investigation and status survey of Penstemon

lemhiensis (Lemhi penstemon) in Idaho. Idaho De-partment of Fish and Game, Boise, Idaho. Unpub-lished.

Numerous and varied human-caused threats to Lemhipenstemon have been recognized throughout itsrange. These include road building, road maintenanceactivity, mining, botanical and horticultural collect-ing, herbicide spraying, and livestock grazing. Al-though not previously recognized by other investiga-tors, we believe that the unnatural rate of vegetativesuccession due to fire suppression is the greatest threatto the long-term viability of the species in Idaho.Although most surveys have relied on the occurrenceof Lemhi penstemon on roadcuts to find populations,these plants from artificial habitats contribute little tothe overall viability of the species. Conservation plan-ning for Lemhi penstemon should focus on naturalpopulations in natural habitats. [PA].

Penstemon lemhiensis (C2)

65.

66.

MYERS, R. L. 1989. Condominiums, trailer parks andhigh intensity fires: the future of sand pine scrubpreserves in Florida. Proceedings of the 17th TallTimbers Fire Ecology Conference. Tallahassee, Fla.

Sand pine scrub, a sand pine/evergreen sclerophyllousshrub community endemic to Florida, is maintainedby infrequent high-intensity fires. Scrub is habitat for2 1 federally listed endangered or threatened species,all of which depend on the scrub fire regime. Thispaper reviewed the biological attributes of the scrub,the role fire plays in maintaining various scrub habi-tats, and management implications for the communityas Florida’s burgeoning population and phenomenalrate of development threaten remaining scrubs. [PA].

MYERS, R., AND S. BOETTCHER. 1987. Floweringresponse of cutthroat grass (Panicum abcissum) fol-lowing fire. Bulletin of the Ecological Society ofAmerica 68:375.

Cutthroat grass forms a continuous cover on seepageslopes in central Florida. The grass is flammable andwill carry fire throughout the year. In the absence oftire, these cutthroat glades are invaded by pines andhardwoods. Burns were conducted monthly in fourglades, each with a known fire history. In one glade,additional plots received the following monthly treat-ments: mowed, fertilized, or mowed and fertilized.Flowering occurred after summer burns, but not afterwinter bums. A few blooms appeared on control plotsin glades with a history of recent fire, but none ap-peared on control plots that had not been burned

32 INFOFMUION AND TECHNOLOGY REPORT 2

recently. The greatest number of flowering stalksappeared on plots that were mowed and fertilizedrather than burned, but both mowing and fertilizingalone also stimulated flowering. It appears that thepersistence of cutthroat glades depends not only onthe flammability of the grass limiting the encroach-ment of woody species but also on flowering stimu-lated by summer bums. [AA].

Panicum abscissum (C2)

67.

68.

OWEN, W. R., AND R. ROSENTRETER . 1992. Monitor-ing rare perennial plants: techniques for demographicstudies. Naturai Areas Journal 12:32-39.

Demographic monitoring of rare plant species is anessential component of an effective species manage-ment program. Traditional demographic techniquesmay fail to provide a clear view of the populationprocesses of rare species because of statistical andlogistical problems associated with small samplesizes, and because of the particular biological proper-ties of rare perennial species. Managers need to beaware of these potential barriers to the interpretationof demographic data and know how to compensatethrough adjustments in their monitoring program.[AAl.

PARKER, V. T. 1987. Effects of wet-season manage-ment bums on chaparral vegetation: implications forrare species. Pages 233-237 in T. Elias, editor. Con-servation and Management of Rare and EndangeredPlants. Proceedings from a conference of the Califor-nia Native Plant Society, held in Sacramento, Calif.,5-8 November 1986.

Many chaparral species, including most rare and en-dangered chaparral species, depend on seed banks inthe soil for recovery after fire. The author examinesthe effects of a prescribed bum in winter on theregeneration of several chaparral species, includingArctostaphylos hookeri ssp. montanu. Prescribedbums in Marin County, California, were studied forthree growing seasons. Field and experimental dataindicated decreasing germination of shrubs and her-baceous species after bums during winter. Parkerrecommended that the effects of prescribed bumsduring moist conditions on species regenerationshould be carefully considered.

Arctostaphylos hookeri ssp. montana (C2)

69. PAVLIK, B. M. 1991. Reintroduction of Amsinckiagrandiflora to three sites across its historic range.State of California, Department of Fish and Game,

Endangered Plant Program, Sacramento, Calif. Un-published.

Using methods developed on this and other endan-gered plants, Pavlik succeeded in creating a new,vigorous population of Amsinckia grandiflora withinits historic range. An experimental design with demo-graphic monitoring was used to test the effects ofburning, hand clipping, and a grass-specific herbicideon the fates of 3,460A. grandifora nutlets. The studyconcluded that new populations of A. grandifloracould be created in mesic annual grassland if thehabitat is treated to minimizecompetition with annualgrasses. [PA].

Amsinckia grandiflora (E)

70. PAVLIK, B. M., D. L. NICKRENT , AND A. M. HOWALD.1993. The recovery of an endangered plant: creatinga new population of Amsinckia grandifora. Conser-vation Biology 75 10-526.

Amsinckia grand$ora is an annual plant of the winter-wet, summer-dry grasslands of northern California. Theauthors discuss initial efforts to recover A. grandijloraby re-establishing the species in its historical range andevaluate the effects of habitat manipulations such asfire, herbicide application, and clipping of its regrowth.Five of 20 2x2-m plots were burned on 20 October 1989immediately after seeding. Researchers monitored insitu germination, stress factors (desiccation, etiolation,and grazing), mortality, phenology, reproductive survi-vorship, and nutlet production per plant and per plot.One month after the first rains, live grasses constituted44% of the total cover on control plots and between17% and 23% on treatment plots; the burned plots hadthe smallest percentages of cover. Fire significantlyreduced mortality early in the growing season andincreased survivorship and plant size at maturity. Thenutlet production per plant was unaffected by fire.

Amsinckia grandijlora (E)

71. PAVLOVIC, N. B. 1994. Disturbance-dependent per-sistence of rare plants: anthropogenic impacts andrestoration implications. In M. L. Bowles andC. Whelan, editors. Recovery and Restoration of En-dangered Species. Cambridge University Press, Cam-bridge. 28 pp.

Many rare plant species are successional and requiredisturbances for their regeneration. Their persistencedepends on concordance of their life histories with thetemporal and spatial patterns, and intensity or severityof disturbance regimes. These species are classifiedinto three response categories: 1)species that persist


only under natural disturbance regimes in naturalhabitats and decline under human impact, 2) speciesthat occur under both natural and anthropogenic dis-turbance regimes and habitats, and 3) species that nolonger occur under natural habitats, but persist inanthropogenically disturbed habitats. Managing orrestoring disturbance-dependent rare plant species re-quires an understanding of the relationship betweenthe scale of suitable patch disturbance regimes andpopulation dynamics. [PSI.

Amsinckia grandiflora (E), Aristida tuberculosa (0),Dicerandra frutescens (E), Hudsonia tomentosa (0), Pla-tanthera leucophaea (T), Polygonella articulata (0),Talinum rugospermum (C2) Trifolium stoloniferum (E)

72. PHILLIPS , B. G., H. GREEN, S. DUDLEY, AND R.GALEANO-POPP. 1992. Prescribed fire research onFlagstaff pennyroyal (Hedeoma dtffusum Greene).Pages 162-169 in Southwestern Rare and Endan-gered Plants. R. Sivinski and K. Lightfoot, editors.Proceedings of the Southwestern Rare and Endan-gered Plant Conference held in Santa Fe, N.Mex., 30March-2 April 1992.

A prescribed bum study on Hedeoma diffusum isbeing conducted in the Coconino National Forest,New Mexico. Preliminary results after two years in-dicate pre- and post-monsoon cool bums may yieldincreases in plant numbers through successful survi-vorship and enhanced recruitment. The responses af-ter the bums were highly variable from plot to plot,however, further analysis of the data and continuedmonitoring for several years will be necessary toprovide definitive conclusions. [AA].

Hedeoma diffusum (= H. diffusa) (C3)

13. POPOVICH, S. 1994. Bureau of Land Management,Shoshone, Idaho. Personal communication.

Astragalus oniciformis occurs in sagebrush steppecommunities and is endemic to Blaine, Minidoka, andLincoln counties in south-central Idaho. Although tirebefore settlement in this area occurred with an esti-mated frequency of 20-80 years, it has been sup-pressed since the early 1900s. Because fire suppres-sion and the invasion of exotic annuals createdincreased fuel loads, fires now bum more frequentlyand more intensely. The U.S. Bureau of Land Man-agement and the National Biological Service initiateda 5year study of the demography and the effects offire on A. oniciformis. As of 1994,2 years of unpub-lished data are available. The initial results suggestthat A. oniciformis has a low mortality when subjected

to high-intensity fires because of a deep taproot and astout caudex that remain unburned. Personal observa-tions indicate a vigorous return of A. oniciformisduring the first year after fire. Astragalus atratus var.inseptus is endemic to ephemeral swales of a mound-intermound sagebrush complex of the Bennett Hillsof south- central Idaho. This portion of the communityis rocky and burns infrequently. Fires tend to be cooland irregular. However, A. atratus also occurs in theflat areas of a community that is composed of sage-brush and bunchgrasses. Here, tires are more frequentand more intense. Personal observations revealed thatthe plant’s stout caudex and deep taproot often pro-mote its survival in fire.

Astragalus atratus var. inseptus (C2), Astragalus onicifor-mis (C2)

74. ROBINETT, D. 1992. Letter to Sue Rutman, U.S. Fishand Wildlife Service, Ecological Services, Phoenix,AliZ.

In June 1991, Robinett, in conjunction with the Ari-zona State Land Department and the State Depart-ment of Agriculture, performed a controlled bum ona pasture with several Corypantha scheeri var.robustispina plants. On 5 June 1992, he observed thatall the plants had been burned, all sprouted, and all thelarge plants were in bloom. One plant that was com-pletely scorched had sprouted and was blooming.Robinett plans to continue monitoring the effects offire on this species.

Corypantha scheeri var. robustispina (T)

75. ROME, A. 1987. Element stewardship abstract reportfor Thalictrum cooleyi. The Nature Conservancy,Carrboro, N.C. Unpublished.

Thalictrum cooleyi is an early successional speciesthat requires open habitat. Without a regular distur-bance regime, the species will be eliminated by com-petition from other species. Fire suppression reducesopen habitat and is therefore detrimental to this plant.Other disturbances such as mowing, plowing, andclear-cutting were recently substituted for tire. In theabsence of disturbance, some populations may beendangered. The appropriate frequency of distur-bance has not yet been determined. However, theauthor recommends that controlled bums, if con-ducted, should be in winter or in early spring whenreproductive plant parts would be spared.

Thalictrum cooleyi is known from North Carolina andFlorida.


Thalictrum cooleyi (E)

76. SCHNELL , D. E. 1982. Effects of simultaneous drain-ing and brush cutting on a Surruceniu L. populationin a southeastern North Carolina pocosin. Castanea4’7:248-260.

The cutting, burning, and ditching of a very largepocosin in southeastern North Carolina for silvicul-ture afforded the opportunity to observe the responseof three species of Surruceniu growing in the densebrush. Prior to disturbance (the last fire was sometwenty years previously), pitcher plants were growingpoorly but maintained a presence. Subsequent toclearing, the immediate effects of increased light anddecreased aerial competition became apparent with anexuberant growth release wherein the Surruceniusbecame dominant and there was an increase in seed-ling activity. The effects of ditching lagged and thesoil did not begin to dry for one to two years afterclearing at which time the Surrucenius promptly de-creased, even though shrub sprouting had recurredsufficiently to provide significant competition. Theevents in the pocosin are compared to reports ofsavanna burnings and the possible significance ofburning the cut brush of the pocosin after drying isdiscussed along with the various previous and currentsoil analyses. It is concluded that the effects of me-chanical clearing followed by decreasing hydrationwere probably the most important factors involved inSurruceniu reaction. [AA].

Surruceniuflavu (0), Surruceniupurpureu ssp. venosu (0),Surruceniu rubru ssp. ulubumensis (E), Surruceniu rubrussp. jonesii (E).

77. SCHWARTZ, M. W., AND S. HERMAN. 1991. The roleof fire suppression in the catastrophic decline of theendangered conifer, Torreyu tuxifoliu. Bulletin of theEcological Society of America 72:244.

[The authors] present evidence that fire suppressionmay have contributed to the fungal decline of torreya(Torreyu tuxifoliu). During the 1950s torreya suffereda catastrophic die-back. The torreya die-back wasprobably caused by needle pathogens inducedthrough environmental stress. Several environmentalstresses were concurrent with the decline of the tor-reya. One of these stresses may have been fire sup-pression. Torreya grows within ravines, where firesusually do not occur. However, smoke from the fre-quent natural upland fires settled into ravines. [Theauthors] present data showing that several needlepathogens isolated from torreya have reduced germi-nation and growth rates on substrates treated with

smoke. Succession, as a result of fire suppression, alsoreduced light incidence within ravines. [The authors]show that torreya growth is correlated with light inci-dence. [The authors] discuss the fire hypothesis in thecontext of other hypotheses for the torreya decline.[AAl.Torreyu tuxifoliu is known from Florida and Georgia.

Torreyu tuxifoliu (E)

78. SHAFFER, K. 1993. Report to the Fish and GameCommission on the status of Vail Lake ceanothus(Ceunothus ophiochilus). Natural Heritage DivisionStatus Report #93-3. Unpublished.

Like many other members of the Ceunothus genus, C.ophiochilus is an obligate seeder. Germination of itsseeds requires heat or scarification, making C. ophio-chilus fire dependent. The season, frequency, inten-sity, and duration of the fires are important variablesin the long-term viability of the species. The mainte-nance of populations of members of the Cerastessection of the Ceunothus genus, of which C. ophio-chilus is a member, require high-intensity tires at longintervals. This species is particularly well adapted tothe duration and frequency of fires, which occur insummer and late fall.

Ceunothus ophiochilus is known from California.

Ceunothus ophiochilus (C2)

79. SMITH, I. 1992. Element stewardship abstract forLysimuchiu usperulifoliu. The Nature Conservancy,Chapel Hill, N. C. Unpublished.

Lysimuchiu usperulifoliu is shade intolerant and re-quires a regular fire regime. However, the effect of theseason of bums on populations of this species is notknown. The North Carolina Office of the NatureConservancy initiated a long-term study of the effectsof fire on L. usperulifoliu in 1987. Studies at the GreenSwamp Preserve, North Carolina, revealed that firesmay stimulate the flowering of the species.

Lysimuchiu usperulifoliu (E)

80. SMITH, W. 1994. The Nature Conservancy, Minnea-polis, Minn. Personal communication.

The Minnesota field office of The Nature Conser-vancy has been monitoring the effects of prescribedburning on Plutuntherupruecluru and Lespedezu lep-tostuchyu. As of 1994, 10 years of data were collectedbut will not be synthesized or available for approxi-mately 5 years.


Lespedeza leptostachya (E), Platanthera praeclara (T)

81. SOBLO, D. 1994. The Nature Conservancy, Columbia,SC. Personal communication.

Fire is extremely important for Oxypolis canbyi,which occurs in habitat with a regular tire frequency.The Nature Conservancy observed an increase fromfewer than 50 individuals to more than 200 after a hotwildfire in 1980. Since the 198Os, the same populationdecreased to approximately 10 plants. The NatureConservancy is planning to research the effects of firefrequency, intensity, and season of bum on 0. canbyi.

Oxypolis canbyi (E)

82.

83.

STONE, C. P., AND J. M. SCOTT. 1985. Hawaii’sterrestrial ecosystems:preservation and management.Cooperative National Park Resources and StudiesUnit, University of Hawaii, Manoa, Hawaii.

This book covers various aspects of species conserva-tion and preservation in Hawaii. Several chaptersprovide relevant information on fire and the habitat offederally listed species. However, no species-specificeffects of fire are mentioned. Because the frequencyof natural tires before human habitation was relativelylow, fire is detrimental to most of the native plants ofthe islands. Fire has also played a key role in encour-aging the spread of non-native species in Hawaii.

SUTTER, R. D. 1994. Summary of “The effect ofvaried fire frequency on Lysimachia asperulifolia”study in North Carolina, 1987-1992. UnpublishedReport to The Nature Conservancy, Chapel Hill, N.C.Unpublished.

The North Carolina Office of The Nature Conser-vancy performed a 5-year study to measure the re-sponse of Lysimachia asperulifolia to prescribedburning. Three treatment levels were assigned to 12plots of variable size: bum every year, bum everyother year, and bum every fourth year. The effects ofthe treatments did not differ.

Lysimachia asperulifolia (E)

84. THOMAS, P. A. 1988. Mechanisms by which cactipersist in tire-prone habitats of Arizona. PreliminaryReport to the British Ecological Society. Unpub-lished.

Fourteen months after a prescribed bum, Thomasexamined the effect of fire on several species of cacti.The mortality of Echinocereus pectinatus 14 monthsafter the fire was 12% higher than on a control site but

was only 4% higher immediately after the fire. Cactican make use of internal reserves for months or yearsdespite being severely damaged. Cactus plants thatsurvived burning recovered primarily by regrowthfrom the apex. Regrowth was often prolific. Flowerproduction after burning was the same or better thanon unburned control sites.

Echinocereus pectinatus (0)

85. THOMAS, P. A. 1991. Response of succulents to tire:a review. International Journal of Wildland Fire 1: 1 l-22.

Many succulents live in fire-prone habitats with firefrequencies ranging from l-3 years (Canadian Prai-ries) to ~250 years (Sonoran Desert). Mortality aftertire is often >50% but rarely total. A few plants areleft unburnt in refugia but most cacti and leaf succu-lents persist by survival of the apical meristem, anadaptation to the normal climate of such habitats.Similarly, reproduction is governed by weather pat-terns, not fire. Apex survival is critical becausegrowth from other meristems (above or belowground) is rare except in the leaf succulents, Agaveand Aloe. Survival is consequently dependent uponthe frequency and intensity of fire. [AA].

Echinocereus triglochidiatus (E)

86. THOMAS, L. 1994. Wilson’s Creek National Battle-field, National Park Service, Republic, Missouri. Per-sonal communication.

During four seasons, Thomas collected data on tireand Lesquerella filiformis. Lesquerella filiformis, awinter annual, experienced high mortality in responseto bums in spring but demonstrated no distinct re-sponse to bums in late summer. However, the treat-ment plots were small (3 x 3 meters), and the intensityof the fire was low. A second study incorporatedlarger plot sizes (15 x 15 meters), a bum of the entirecommunity, and fires in late summer. Although thedata have not yet been analyzed, Thomas observedthat fires in June caused no distinct response on L.filiformis, but tires in late August produced a flush ofgermination. Because the population size of L. filifor-mis is intensely variable from year to year, it is diffi-cult to attribute this flush of germination to the lateAugust tires.

Lesquerellafiliformis (E)

87. TROUP,R.L.,ANDS.MCDANIEL. 1980.Currentstatusreport on Sarracenia oreophila. Washington D.C.


Office of Endangered Species. U.S. Fish and WildlifeService. Unpublished.

Surruceniu oreophifa reproduces primarily by vege-tative means, with seedlings found only in a fewpopulations. Species appear to be adapted to fire withan increase in flowering after fire and an increase inpopulation size in sites managed by fire. [PA].

Surrucenia oreophilu is known from Alabama, Geor-gia, and Tennessee.

Surruceniu oreophilu (E)

88. U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE . 1979. Determina-tion that three Hawaiian plants are endangered spe-cies. Federal Register 44(211):62468-62469.

Accidental tires set by hunters or the military de-stroyed vegetation surrounding Stenogyne ungusttfo-liu var. angustifoliu, Huplostuchys haplostuchya var.ungustifoliu, and Lipochuetu venosu. Fires may de-stroy established plants and thereby create open habi-tat and promote invasion by exotic species that harmnative taxa. The three species were extirpated in partof their range by these processes.

Huplostuchys huplostuchya var. ungustifoliu (= H.huplostuchyu) (E), Lipochuetu venosu (E), Stenogyne un-gustifoliu var. ungustifoliu (E)

89. U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1982. Tennesseeconeflower recovery plan. U.S. Fish and WildlifeService, Atlanta, Ga. Unpublished.

Fire is a natural and common phenomenon in cedarglades because of frequent dry conditions. How Echi-nuceu tennesseensis responds to tire is not known, butdeep, fibrous taproots enable the plant to survivelow-temperature bums of short duration that oftenoccur in the glades. Echinuceu tennesseensis may alsobenefit from reduced competition caused by fire. Therecovery plan recommends that observations of theeffects of fire on E. tennesseensis be made over manyyears to determine long-term effects.

Echinuceu tennesseensis is known only from Tennes-see.

Echinuceu tennesseensis (E)

90. U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1983a. Harper’sbeauty recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,Atlanta, Ga. Unpublished.

Harperocullisflavu is found in and adjacent to openbogs. In one location, its habitat is surrounded bylongleaf pine (Pinus palustris) woods, which occa-

sionally bum. The U.S. Forest Service has managedthe habitat of H. fluvu since 1983.

Harperocullisfluvu is known only from Florida.

Harperocullisflavu (E)

9 1. U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1983b. Mountaingolden heather recovery plan. U.S. Fish and WildlifeService, Atlanta, Ga. Unpublished.

Limited to quartzite ledges and outcrops, Hudsoniumontuna depends on fire to decrease competition.Two other species of Hudsoniu respond favorably tolight fire, suggesting H. montana may as well. Therecovery plan recommends that research be con-ducted to determine H. montunu’s relation to fire.

Hudsoniu montunu is known only from North Caro-lina.

Hudsonia montunu (T)

92. U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1983~. Recoveryplan for Chapman’s rhododendron. U.S. Fish andWildlife Service, Atlanta, Ga. Unpublished.

Rhododendron chupmunii occurs in scrubby flat-woods that are exposed to frequent fires. Rhododen-dron chupmunii vigorously resprouts from roots orfrom the base when the tops of the plants are killed byfire or cutting. The absence of fire increased compe-tition between R. chupmunii and other associatedscrub species that may not be as well adapted to fire.

Rhododendron chupmanii is known only from Flor-ida.

Rhododendron chupmunii (E)

93. U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1983d. Rule to listPunicum curteri (Carter’s panicgrass) as an endan-gered species and determine its critical habitat. Fed-eral Register 48( 198):46328-46333.

Panicum curteri (Punicumfuuriei var. curteri) inhab-its dry lowland habitats on Mokoli’i, Hawaii, and isprimarily threatened by stochastic extinction. A sin-gle fire or act of vandalism could deplete or destroythe single known population.

Punicum fuuriei var. carteri (E)

94. U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1984a. Determina-tion of endangered status and critical habitat for Kokiudrynarioides (koki’o). Federal Register49(234):47397-47401.

EFFECTS OFbJZONTHREATENEDAND~DANCXREDkANTS 37

Kokiu drynarioides occurs in forested habitat on theisland of Hawaii, Hawaii. This single population of K.drynarioides is threatened by fires near or in its habi-tat. The recent invasion of Pennisetum setaceum(fountain grass) inhibited K. drynarioides regenera-tion and increased the frequency, intensity, and extentof fires in and around its habitat.

Kokia drynarioides (E)

95. U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE . 1984b. Determina-tion of endangered status for Jutropha costuricensis(Costa Rican jatropha). Federal Register49( 146):30199-30201.

Dry season fires, often started by vandals and carriedby dry conditions, threaten Jatropha costaricensiswith extinction.

Jutropha costuricenis is known only from Costa Rica.

Jutropha costuricensis (E)

96. U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE . 1984~. Final ruleto list Bidens cuneata and Schiedea adamantis asendangered species. Federal Register 49(34):6099-6101.

Bidens cuneata and Schiedea adamantis are knownfrom one small population on the rim of the DiamondHead crater in Honolulu, Hawaii. Fires pose a signifi-cant threat to both of these taxa, especially during thedry season (April through September). Schiedeaadamuntis is especially susceptible to fire because ofits location on windward slopes. Fire could cause theextinction of S. adamantis through either the immedi-ate mortality of established individuals or eradicationof available habitat.

Bidens cuneata (= B. molokaiensis) (E), Schiedeaadamantis (E)

97. U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE . 1984d. Hairy rat-tleweed recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv-ice, Atlanta, Ga. Unpublished.

The large perennial rootstock of Baptism arachniferuis characteristic of a fire-tolerant species and suggeststhat fire is important for maintaining favorable habitatfor this species. The recovery team recommendedexperimental burns to test the frequency, intensity,and season of bum that are appropriate for B. arach-niferu. Fire management may help reduce competi-tion and promote seedling establishment.

Baptisia arachnifera is known only from Georgia.

Baptism arachniferu (E)

98. U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1984e. Navasotaladies’-tresses recovery plan. U.S. Fish and WildlifeService, Albuquerque, N.Mex. Unpublished.

Spiranthes parksii is part of a subclimax communitytype. Therefore, the persistence of habitat of S. parksiimay require disturbances, such as fire or grazing. Inthe absence of disturbance, succession would proceedto another seral stage, eliminating habitat for S. purk-sii.

Spiranthes parksii is known only from Texas.

Spiranthes parksii (E)

99. U.S. FISH AND WILDLI~% SERVICE . 1984f. Raven’smanzanita recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv-ice, Rockville, Md. Unpublished.

Fire maintains the coastal chaparral and coastal scrubcommunities where Arctostuphylos hookeri ssp. ru-venii occurs. The species may require fire to break thedormancy of its seeds or to prepare a seed bed. Theauthors recommend that more specific informationabout the effects of fire on A. hookeri ssp. ravenii beestablished.

Arctostaphylos hookeri ssp. ravenii is known onlyfrom California.

Arctostaphylos hookeri var. ravenii (E)

100.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 19848. Recoveryplan for the endangered and threatened species of theCalifornia Channel Islands. U.S. Fish and WildlifeService, Portland, Oreg. Unpublished.

Delphinium variegatum ssp. kinkiense, known fromat least seven grassland sites, is thought to be adaptedto fires, which occur during its dormant season. Def-phinium variegatum ssp. thornei is known from twograssland sites on the San Clemente Island. Becauseother species of Delphinium respond favorably to fire,both of these species may be similarly adapted.

Delphinium variegatum ssp. kinkiense and 0. vari-egatum ssp. thornei are known only from California.

Delphinium variegatum ssp. kinkiense (E), Delphiniumvariegatum ssp. thornei (C 1)

1Ol.U.S. FISH AND W ILDLIFE SERVICE. 1984h. Viciumenziessii recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv-ice, Portland, Oreg. Unpublished.

Although the decline of Vicea menziessii was primar-ily caused by grazing, the authors also mention the


role of forest fires and logging in the reduction ofsuitable habitat on Mauna Kea, Hawaii.

Vicia menziessii (E)

102.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1985a. Determi-nation of threatened status for Ribes echinellum (mic-cosukee gooseberry). Federal Register 50( 133):29338-29341.

Known from Florida and South Carolina, Ribesechinellum exists only in two small populations. Be-cause of its small numbers and narrow distribution,fires and other disturbances pose a significant threatto this species. Lightning fires are frequent in thisregion and threaten this taxa with extinction.

Ribes echinellum (T)

103.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1985b. Determi-nation that Amsinckia grandijlora is an endangeredspecies and designation of critical habitat. FederalRegister 50(89): 19374-19377.

Amsinckia grandijlora occurs in grassland habitat innorthern California. Controlled bums near A. grandi-flora habitat may have adverse effects on the plant.The California Native Plant Society suggested thatcontrolled bums may help suppress competing exoticspecies and may be beneficial to A. grandiflora.

Amsinckia grandiflora (E)

104.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1985~. Final ruleto determine Buxus vahlii (Vahl’s boxwood) as anendangered species. Federal Register 50( 156):32572-32574.

Fire is a significant threat to Buxus vahlii, whichoccurs in semi-evergreen seasonal forests in northernand northwestern Puerto Rico. During the dry season,B. vahlii habitat is susceptible to fire. The increase inbeach use by surfers and campers may cause acciden-tal fires that may spread to B. vahlii habitat.

Buxus vahlii (E)

105.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1985d. Santa Bar-bara Island liveforever (Dudleya traskiae) recoveryplan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, Oreg.Unpublished.

Dudleya traskiae is a part of the coastal sage scrubcommunity. Anthropogenic activities such as fire, graz-ing, cultivation, and construction altered the naturalstructure of communities on the Santa Barbara Islands.

coastal region of California and the Channel Islands,the role of fire on the Santa Barbara Islands is notknown. Fire-adapted genera such as Adenostoma andCeanothus are absent from the island, suggesting thatfire has been infrequent. Furthermore, D. traskiae habi-tat is primarily steep rocky slopes that do not carry fire.However, a fire in 1959 burned two-thirds of the islandand caused the decline of the exotic species Gasoul(Mesembryanthemum) crystallinum. Fire may be em-ployed to reduce the spread of this exotic plant, whichcompetes heavily with D. traskiae.

Dudleya traskiae (E)

106.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1986a. Determi-nation of endangered status for Abutilon menziessii(ko’oloa’ula). Federal Register 51(187):34412-34415.

Known from only three small populations, Abutilonmenziesii is threatened by fire, especially during dryperiods. A single fire could destroy an entire popula-tion.

Abutilon menziesii is known only from Hawaii.

Abutilon menziesii (E)

107.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1986b. Determi-nation of endangered status for Hibiscadelphus dis-tans (Kauai hau kuahiwi). Federal Register51(82):15903-15905.

Hibiscadelphus distans is threatened by fire becauseof the proximity of its single population to a fire pit.This danger is exacerbated by drought and fuel build-up during the dry season.

Hibiscadelphus distans is known only from Hawaii.

Hibiscadelphus distans (E)

108. U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 19861~. Determina-tion of endangered status for Scutellaria montana (large-flowered skullcap). Federal Register 5 1 (I 19):22521-22524.

Scutellaria montana is primarily threatened by an-thropogenic changes in its habitat. These changes arecaused by logging, wildfire, and residential develop-ment. Fire adversely affects this taxa.

Scutellaria montana is known only from Georgia andTennessee.

Although Native Americans used fire in much of the Scutellaria montana (E)

EFFECTS OF FIRE ON THREATENED AND ENDANGERED PLANTS

109.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1986d. Sneed andLee pincushion cacti (Corypantha sneedii var. sneediiand Corypantha sneedii var. leei) recovery plan. U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service, Albuquerque, N.Mex. Un-published.

Coryphuntha sneedii var. leei is restricted to the TansilLimestone Formation in eastern New Mexico and west-em Texas. Interspecific competition in this limitedhabitat is intense. As a result, a tire could destroy C.sneedii var. leei. Fire may increase mortality but maybenefit the s_pecies if it reduces or eliminates competi-tion from other species. Controlled experiments areneeded to determine the effect of fire on C. sneedii var.leei and C. sneedii var. sneedii. Until more is knownabout tire and Coryphantha species, prescribed burnsshould be directed away from these species.

Coryphunthu sneedii var. leei (= Escoburiu sneedii var.leei) (E), Coryphunthu sneedii var. sneedii (= Escoburiusneedii var. sneedii) (E)

11O.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1987a. Determi-nation of endangered status for Cupressus ubrum-siunu (Santa Cruz cypress). Federal Register52(5):675-679.

Cupressus ubrumsiunu groves have been shaped byperiodic fires. Cones of this species are serotinous andmay not open until exposed to tire. Human develop-ment, logging, and recreation altered the frequency ofnatural fires in C. ubrumsiunu habitat. When fires aretoo frequent, trees are not able to reach seed-bearingage before the next fire. Because C. ubrumsiunu can-not resprout, the grove may be unable to survivefrequent fires. However, if the fire interval is too long,competing plants become established, constricting ordestroying entire groves. The natural tire frequency isan estimated 50-100 years.

Cupressus ubrumsiunu is known only from Califor-nia.

Cupressus ubrumsiunu (E)

111 .U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1987b. Recoveryplan for three Florida mints. U.S. Fish and WildlifeService, Atlanta, Ga. Unpublished.

Dicerundru immaculutu, D. cornutissima, and D.frutescens depend on habitat of bare sand that bordersscrub vegetation. Their habitat requirements suggestthat these mints may benefit from occasional fires thatoccur in the sand pine and scrub oak communities.Protected sites should be kept open by prescribed bum-

ing, cutting, brush-hogging, or maintenance oflanes.

39

fire

Dicerundru cornutissimu (E), Dicerundru frutescens (E),Dicerundru immuculutu (E)

112.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1988a. Recoveryplan for a rare prairie bush-clover (Lespedezu lepto-stuchyu). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Twin Cities,Minn. Unpublished.

Prescribed bums may be useful for the control of en-croaching shrubs and trees in the habitat of Lespedezuleptostuchyu, but the direct effects of fire on this speciesare not known. If tire is used in management, it shouldbe restricted to early spring (before May 15) to avoiddestroying seedlings. If bums in spring are ineffectivein controlling shrubs, some other form of managementsuch as cutting by hand may be necessary. No more thanhalf of any population should be burned or cut in anyone year. Several populations of L leptostuchyu weremowed, burned, or grazed, but no specific studies of theeffects of these treatments were conducted.

Lespedeza leptostuchyu is known only from Illinois,Iowa, Minnesota, and Wisconsin.

Lespedezu leptostuchyu (E)

113.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1988b. Recoveryplan for five pine rockland plant species. U.S. Fish andWildlife Service, Atlanta, Ga. Unpublished.

Pine rocklands in Florida are kept in a sub-climaxseral stage by fire, which suppresses hardwoodgrowth and maintains an open canopy. The recoveryteam recommended experimentation with varying fireintervals to maintain pine dominance, suppress hard-woods, and create more habitat for Euphorbiu del-toideu ssp. deltoideu, E. garberi, Amorphu crenulata,Guluctiu smullii, and Polygala smullii.

Amorphu crenulatu (= A. herbuceu var. crenulatu) (E),Euphorbiu deltoideu ssp. deltoideu (= Chumuesyce del-toideu ssp. deltoideu) (0), Euphorbiu garberi(= Chamaesyce gurberi) (0), Guluctiu smullii (E), Poly-gala smullii (E)

114.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1988~. Recoveryplan for Florida golden aster. U.S. Fish and WildlifeService, Atlanta, Ga. Unpublished.

Chrysopsisfloridunu occurs in sand pine scrub vege-tation. All sites where C. $‘oridanu presently occurshave been disturbed by either bulldozing, pedestriantraffic, grazing, or fire. Although C.floridunu benefitsfrom limited disturbance, intense disturbance may


eliminate the species and its habitat. Managementshould include low-intensity disturbance such as pre-scribed bums but should exclude excessive distur-bance.

Chrysopsisfloridana is known only from Florida.

Chrysopsis floridana (E)

115.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1988d. Short’sgoldenrod recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv-ice, Atlanta, Ga. Unpublished.

The historic range of Solidugo shortii may be related tothe open habitat created by bisons (Bison bison) and bytire. Since settlement, secondary succession occurredin the absence of these types of natural disturbance.Solidugo shortii habitat disappeared as a result of thesechanges in the vegetation and continues to be threat-ened by increased woody cover.

Solidago shortii is known only from Kentucky.

Solidago shortii (E)

116.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1989a. Alabamaleather flower recovery plan. U.S. Fish and WildlifeService, Jackson, Miss. Unpublished.

Clematis socialis occurs in natural and anthropogenicopenings of a grass-sedge-rush community in north-eastern Alabama. This species may benefit from limiteddisturbance, which creates an early successional stageor open habitat. Prescribed burning at a site that ismanaged by The Nature Conservancy in St. ClairCounty suppressed competing vegetation.

Clemaris socialis (E)

117.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE . 1989b. Heller’sblazing star recovery plan. U.S. Fish and WildlifeService, Atlanta. Ga. Unpublished.

The effects of tire on Liutris helleri are not known,however, other species in the genus Liutris depend ondisturbance for the maintenance of their early succes-sional habitat. The recovery team recommends that theeffects of past and current disturbances on L. helleri bestudied.

Liutris helleri is known only from North Carolina.

Liatris helleri (T)

118.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1989~. Sandplaingerardia (Agalinis acutu) recovery plan. U.S. Fish andWildlife Service, Newton Corner, Mass. Unpub-lished.

Agulinisacutu may require regular disturbance to main-tain viable populations over time. Locations of all ex-tant populations of A. acutu evidence various forms ofdisturbance, including small confined or sporadic fires.Fire suppression led to increased competition and coverby woody vegetation.

Agulinis acutu is known only from Connecticut, Mas-sachusetts, Maryland, New York, and Rhode Island.

Agalinis acutu (E)

119.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1990a. Canby’sdropwort recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv-ice, Atlanta, Ga. Unpublished.

Oxypolis cunbyi occurs in bays or ponds with little orno canopy cover. Several populations of this speciesmay require aggressive management, such as pre-scribed burning, to maintain open habitat conditions.Fire may also play a role in the interactions between 0.cunbyi and associated species.

Oxypolis canbyi is known only from Delaware, Geor-gia, Maryland, North Carolina, and South Carolina.

Oxypolis cunbyi (E)

12O.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE . 1990b. Harperella(Ptilimnium nodosfim) recovery plan. US. Fish andWildlife Service, Newton Comer, Mass. Unpub-lished.

Little is known about the habitat requirements ofPtilimnium nodosum, including the effects of fire andfire suppression.

Ptilimnium nodosum is known only from Alabama,Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina,and West Virginia.

Ptilimnium nodosum (E)

121.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1990~. Mountainsweet pitcher plant recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wild-life Service, Atlanta, Ga. Unpublished.

Sarracenia rubra ssp. jonesii is dependent on boggysubclimax communities that are dominated by shrubs.In the past, these communities were kept open bydrought, water fluctuation, climate extremes, fire, andother natural disturbances. Moderate fires cause re-duced competition and induced flowering in otherspecies of Surraceniu. By causing heavy litter accu-mulation and high intensity fires, fire suppression hasnot been favorable for S. rubru ssp. jonesii habitat.Experimentation should address the role of fire inmaintaining S. rubra ssp. jonesii.

Errncrs OF Fm ON THRFATENED AND ENDANGERED RANTS 41

Sarracenia rubra ssp. jonesii is known only fromNorth Carolina and South Carolina.

Sarracenia rubra ssp. jonesii (E)

122.U.S. FISH AND W ILDLIFE SERVICE. 1990d. Peter’sMountain mallow (Iliamna corei) recovery plan. U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service, Annapolis, Md. Unpub-lished.

Known from only one site, Zliamna corei declined from50 individuals in 1927 to 4 individuals in 1990. BecauseI. corei plants prefer open sites without competingvegetation, fire suppression may have increased com-petition from weedy plant species and decreased ger-mination. Historical references indicate that I. corei wasexposed to more direct sunlight in the past. Concernover the absence of regeneration sparked several studieson seed germination. Recent evidence suggests thatheat and light stimulate germination. The author recom-mends further research into this topic.

Iliamna corei is known only from Virginia.

Iliamna corei (= Iliamna rivularis var. rivularis) (E)

123.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE . 1990e. Recoveryplan for eleven Florida scrub plant species. U.S. Fishand Wildlife Service, Jacksonville, Fla. Unpublished.

Fires historically occurred in Florida scrub vegetationat long intervals. Bonamia grandiflora, Chionanthuspygmaeus, Eryngium cuneifolium, Hypericum cu-mulicola, Liatris ohlingerae, Lupinus aridorum,Paronychia chartacea, Prunus geniculata, Wareacarteri, and Ziziphus celata occur in scrub habitat inFlorida and may require fire for long-term viability.

Bonamia grandiflora (T), Chionanthus pygmaeus (E),Eryngium cuneifolium (E), Hypericum cumulicola (E),Liatris ohlingerae (E), Lupinus aridorum (= L. westianusvar. aridorum) (E), Paronychia chartacea (T), Prunusgeniculata (E), Warea carteri (E), Ziziphus celata (E)

124.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1990f. Recoveryplan for Gouania hillebrandii (Rhamnaceae). U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, Oreg. Unpub-lished.

The authors express concern over the effects of fire onGouaniu hillebrandii. Historically, brush fires, grazing,exotic species, and the development of agricultural landeliminated native vegetation throughout the Hawaiianislands. Both extant populations of G. hillebrandii maybe vulnerable to extirpation from brush fire. The naturalrole of fire in this ecosystem is not well understood.Prior to human settlement, fire was not a major influ-

ence. Although fire has not been reported at either site,several grass species may be fuel for fire during the dryseason. The authors recommend the protection of G.hillebrandii from brush fire.

Gouaniu hillebrandii (E)

125.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1990g. Recoveryplan for the lakeside daisy (Hymenoxys acaulis var.glabru). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Twin Cities,Minn. Unpublished.

Hymenoxys acaulis var. glabra requires open habitat.Past disturbances and post-settlement fire suppressioncreated favorable conditions for the invasion by woodyand exotic species. Little is known about the seedecology of H. acaulis var. glabru or its response toprescribed burning. Restored populations of this spe-cies occur in state nature preserves, which are currentlymanaged with prescribed burning. The effects of a bumin spring in the Lockport Prairie indicate that fire cankill emerging inflorescence buds and damage leaves.Permanent plots should be established in these burnedareas to determine the specific effects on reproduction,plant growth, and general vigor.

Hymenoxys acaulis var. giabra is known only from Illi-nois, Ohio, and Ontario.

Hymenoxys acaulis var. glabra (= Tetraneuris herbacea) (T)

126.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE . 1991a. Determi-nation of endangered status for 26 plants fromWaianae Mountains, island of Oahu, Hawaii. FederalRegister 56(209):55770-55786.

Fire threatens 16 of the 26 taxa covered by this linalrule. Plants that are upslope from the Makua MilitaryReservation and the Schofield Barracks are threatenedby the large number of fires generated by militaryexercises. Because Hawaiian plants have rarely experi-enced fire, they are poorly adapted to fire and seldomrecover from bums.

Abutilon sandwicense (E), Centaurium sebaeoides (E),Chamaesyce celastroides var. kaenana (E), Chamaesycekuwaleana (E), Dielliafalcata (E), Dubautia herbstobatae(E), Gouania meyenii (E), Lipochaeta lobata var. lepto-phylla (E), Lipochaeta tenuifoliu (E), Lobelia niihauensis(E), Neraudia angulata (E), Nototrichium humile(E),Suniculu mariversa (E), Schiedea kaalae (E), Tetra-molopium filiforme (E), Urera kaalae (E)

127.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE . 1991b. Determi-nation of endangered status for Cyanea superba, a

42 INFORMATION AND TECHNOLOGY REWRT 2

Hawaiian plant. Federal Register 56( 176):46235-46238.

Cyunea superba exists in only two wild populationsof less than 20 individuals. Therefore, C. superba ismost seriously threatened by stochastic extinctioncaused by fires, pig damage, competition from non-native plants, and general habitat degradation.

Cyaneasuperba(E)

128.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1991~. Dalea fo-how (leafy prairie-clover) determined to be endan-gered. Federal Register 56(84):19953-19959.

Most populations of Dalea foliosa are currentlythreatened by adverse modification and destruction ofhabitat. Competitive woody and herbaceous speciesmay invade and displace D. foliosa by competition.The maintenance of open habitat requires aggressivemanagement. In Illinois, fire has been used to manageD. foliosa habitat. Results of this work are unavailableat this time.

Dulea foliosa is known only from Alabama, Illinois,and Tennessee.

Dalea foliosa (E)

129.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1991d. Determina-tion of endangered status for five plants from the south-em San Joaquin Valley. Federal Register 55(139):29361-29370.

Caulanthus californicus, Eremalche kernensis, Erias-trum hooveri, Lembertia congdonii, and Opuntia tre-leasei inhabit the grassland and neighboring scrubcommunities of the San Joaquin Valley, California.The five species are threatened by the alteration oftheir natural tire regime. Exotic grasses, which com-pete for nutrients and water, may also threaten thenative plants by providing finer, more flammablefuels, thereby increasing the frequency and intensityof fire.

Caulanthus californicus (= Stanfordia californica) (E),Eremalche kernensis (= E. parryi ssp. kernensis) (E),Eriastrum hooveri (E), Lembertia congdonii (E), Opuntiatreleasei (= 0. basilaris var. treleasei) (E)

130.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1991e. Determi-nation of endangered status for Isodendrion hosakae(aupaka), a Hawaiian plant. Federal Register56(9):1454-1457.

Like most other native Hawaiian taxa, Isodendrionhosakae (aupaka) is harmed by fire. Most of I. hosakae

habitat is affected by cattle grazing. Range tires alsopose a serious threat to this species, especially duringthe dry season.

Isodendrion hosakae (E)

13 1. U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 199 1 f. Determina-tion of endangered status for six plants from the islandof Lanai, Hawaii. Federal Register 56(183):47686-47694.

Tetramolopium remyi and Abutilon eremitopetalum arethreatened by fire. These species grow on dry, lowelevation ridges where fires occur. A single tire couldhave a devastating effect on populations of either spe-cies.

Abutilon eremitopetalum (E), Tetramolopium remyi (E)

132.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1991g. Determi-nation of endangered status for the plant Sisyrinchiumdichotomum (white irisette). Federal Register56( 187):48752-48754.

Maintenance of the open habitat of Sisyrinchium di-chotomum depends on disturbance. Periodic fires andgrazing historically provided this disturbance. Firesseem to reduce competition from woody species andremove the litter layer, allowing germination andsurvival of seedlings. The four remaining populationsof this species exist in disturbed habitat, indicatingthat fire may be important for this species. Si-syrinchium dichotomum is known only from NorthCarolina.

Sisyrinchium dichotomum (E)

133.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE . 199 1 h. Determi-nation of endangered status for two Na Pali coastplants: Hedyotis st. johnii (Na Pali Beach hedyotis)and Schiedea apokremnos (Ma’oli’oli). Federal Reg-ister 56( 189):49639-49634.

Fire is an immediate threat to Hedyotis st. johnii andSchiedea apokremnos. During dry conditions, firesstarted by humans spread rapidly in the habitat ofthese two species. Also, stochastic events, such as tire,threaten to destroy the remaining populations.

Hedyotis st. johnii and Schiedea apokremnos areknown from Hawaii.

Hedyotis st. johnii (E), Schiedea apokremnos (E)

134. U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 199 li. Final rule tolist the plant Phlox nivalis ssp. texensis (Texas trailing

phlox) as endangered. Federal Register recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Port-56(189):49636-49639. land, Oreg. Unpublished.

Phlox nivalis ssp. texensis occurs in grassy openingsdominated by longleaf pine. Because these openingswere historically maintained by frequent fires, firesuppression reduced P. nivalis ssp. texensis habitat byallowing woody species to invade. Prescribed burningon The Nature Conservancy property enhanced habi-tat for this species.

Phlox nivalis ssp. texensis is known only from Texas.

Phlox nivalis ssp. texensis (E)

Stephanomeria malheurensis is known from a singlesite in the big sagebrush community of Hamey County,Oregon. The site is dominated by sagebrush (Artemisiatridentata) and cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), an exoticspecies. Cheatgrass rapidly colonizes sagebrush areasafter fire. Stephanomeria malheurensis does not com-pete well with cheatgrass. A fire lane was establishedand maintained around critical S. malheurensis habitatto enhance the plants’ survival. The author recommendsexperimental bums to determine the effects of fire onthe growth and reproduction of S. malheurensis.

135.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1991j. Helianthusschweinitzii (Schweinitz’s sunflower) determined tobe endangered. Federal Register 56(88):21087-21091.

Stephanomeria malheurensis (E)

Helianthus schweinitzii is threatened by adversemodification and destruction of its habitat. Approxi-mately one third of the known populations of H.schweinitzii are extirpated, mainly because of firesuppression and grazing suppression. Fire, grazing,controlled burning, or other disturbance is necessaryto maintain the prairie remnants, which compose H.schweinizii habitat. In the absence of disturbance,woody species encroach on H. schweinitzii habitatand inhibit the plant by competition. Of the 15 remain-ing populations, 11 are in disturbed areas.

138.U.S. RSHANDWILDLIFESERVICE. 1992a. Agency draftAlabama canebrake pitcher plant recovery plan. U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service, Jackson, Miss. Unpublished.

Helianthus schweinitzii is known only from NorthCarolina and South Carolina.

Sarracenia rubra ssp. alabamensis, known from 12sites in seeps, bogs, and swamps in central Alabama,depends on the maintenance of early successional habi-tat in which competing woody vegetation is suppressed.Historically, natural fires controlled these woody spe-cies and maintained open habitat for S. rubra ssp.alabamensis. Fire suppression and the encroachment ofwoody species remain a severe threat to existing popu-lations. Management should be focused on controllingwoody vegetation through mowing, pruning, and bum-ing.

Sarracenia rubra ssp. alabamensis (E)


136.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1991k. Recoveryplan for Mohr’s Barbara’s buttons. U.S. Fish andWildlife Service, Jackson, Miss. Unpublished.

139.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1992b. Blowoutpenstemon (Penstemon haydenii) recovery plan. U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service, Denver, Colo. Unpublished.

Marshallia mohrii typically occurs in moist, prairie-likeopenings of woodlands in the southeastern UnitedStates. These openings were historically maintained byoccasional fire. Clematis socialis and Sarracenia oreo-phila often occur with ikf. mohrii and occur in habitatthat is characterized by frequent tires. Managers shouldaddress the problems associated with competing woodyspecies and should experiment with the use of pre-scribed burning with various intervals and seasons.

Penstemon haydenii is restricted to blowouts in thesandhills of Nebraska. Historically, fires eliminatedstabilization of the vegetation from the sand dunes,allowing blowouts. In the absence of fires, vegetationhas advanced and stabilized the dunes, resulting in adecline in suitable habitat for P. haydenii. Researchshould address the use of fire and grazing for manage-ment.

Penstemon haydenii (E)

Clematis socialis (E), Marshallia mohrii (T), Sarraceniaoreophila (E)

140.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1992c. Determina-tion of endangered status for 16 plants from the island ofMolokai, Hawaii. Federal Register 57( 196):46325-46344.

137.U.S. FISH AND W ILDLIFE S E R V I C E. 19911.Stephanomeria malheurensis (Malheur wire lettuce)

Fire is a major threat to native plant species in dry tomesic habitats on the island of Molokai. Fire not only

Ems OFFl.WONTHREATENEDAND&JDANGFRED~S 43

44 INFORMX~ION AND TECHNOLOGY REPORT 2

can kill native plants but encourage competition fromexotic fire-adapted species with native taxa that can-not tolerate fire. Although one species listed here,Silene lanceolutu, may be tolerant of fire, the exoticgrasses compete with the native plant after bums. Thisprocess is converting shrubland to grassland. Fire is aserious threat to Bidens weibkei, Pritchardia munroi,Scheidea lydgatei, Silene alexandri, Silene lanceo-lata, and Tetramolopium rockii.

Bidens weibkei (E), Pritchardiu munroi (E), Scheidealydgarei (E), Silene alexundri (E), Silene lunceolutu (E)and Tetramolopium rockii (T)

141.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1992d. Endan-gered status for Schwalbea americana (Americanchaffseed). Federal Register 57( 189):4470344708.

Schwalbea americana, known from the easternUnited States, is dependent on disturbance such asfire, mowing, or fluctuating water to create openhabitat. Historically, the species occupied openingscreated by fire in savannas and pinelands. Schwalbeaamericana grows vigorously at sites that were burned.Although fire is integral to the long-term viability ofS. americana, it may be important in ways that are notyet understood. In the past, fires may have beenfrequent and of low intensity. Questions remain aboutthe timing, frequency, and intensity of fires requiredby this species.

Schwalbea americana (E)

142.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1992e. Large-fruited sand-verbena (Abroniu macrocarpa) recoveryplan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Albuquerque,N. Mex. Unpublished.

populations of this plant. One extant population of R.knieskernii exists on a burned pitch pine site. Beforesettlement, fires occurred in the pitch pine (Pinusrigidu) forests of the pine barrens community. Furtherexperimentation on the effects of habitat disturbanceby fire, mowing, and water fluctuation are recom-mended by the author.

Rhynchosporu knieskernii is known only from Dela-ware and New Jersey.

Rhynchosporu knieskernii (T)

144.U.S. RSH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 39928. White blad-derpod (Lesquerellu pallidu) recovery plan. U.S. Fishand Wildlife Service, Albuquerque, N.Mex. Unpub-lished.

Lesquerella pallida occurs in eastern Texas. This spe-cies is primarily threatened by the invasion of woodyand herbaceous plants. Some of the competitive speciesare native to this region and in the past were controlledby a natural fire regime. Introduced shrubs also com-pete with L. pullida for open habitat. The use of fire orbrush-hogging may improve habitat by helping controlwoody and herbaceous species. Studies of fne, shading,competition, and grazing should be initiated because thesefactors significantly affect populations of L pullida.

Lesquerella pallida (E)

145.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE . 1993a. Agencydraft recovery plan for Cooley’s meadowrue. U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, Ga. Unpublished.

Abronia macrocarpa occurs in post oak savanna. Hu-man activities have suppressed fire and other naturaldisturbances, reducing the number of these naturalopenings. The authors recommend further research onthe genesis of these openings, their frequency, and theirseral stage.

Thalictrum cooleyi grows in moist to wet savannasthat are kept open by frequent natural fires or pre-scribed bums. Fire is currently used in several T.cooleyi habitats. However, information on the fre-quency and seasonality of fire best suited to T. cooleyiis not known.

Thalictrum cooleyi is known only from Florida andNorth Carolina.

Abronia macrocarpa is known only from Texas.

Abronia macrocarpa (E)Thalictrum cooleyi (E)

143.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE . 1992f. Kniesker’s 146.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE . 1993b. Agency

beaked-rush (Rhynchosporu knieskernii) recovery technical draft recovery plan for four plants of the

plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, New Jersey lower Appalachicola region, Florida: Euphorbia fele-

Field Office, Pleasantville, N.J. Unpublished. phioides (telephus spurge), Mucbridea alba (whitebirds-in-a-nest), Pinguicula ionantha (Godfrey’s but-

Rhynchospora knieskemii requires early successional terworth), and Scutellaria floriduna (Florida skull-habitat and is generally found on bare substrates with cap). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, Ga.open vegetation. Periodic fire may have maintained Unpublished.

EFFECTS OFFIREONTHREATENEDANDENDANGEREDFUNTS 45

Euphorbia telephioides, Macbridea alba, Pinguicula Although Coryphantha scheeri var. robustispina oc-ionantha, and Scutellaria floridana inhabit poorly curs in semi-desert grasslands that experience fre-drained, coastal pinelands that are subject to periodic quent tires, little is known about the effect of fire onfires. The absence of fire during the dormant winter this species. Small cacti experience high mortalityseason is detrimental to much of the pineland flora. when exposed to high temperatures from tires. Mor-The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has used control- tality does not always occur immediately after tire butled burning to manage habitat for these species. can be delayed for 1 year or longer. Resource manag-

Euphorbia telephioides (T), Macbridea alba (T), Pin-guicula ionantha(T), Scutellariafloridana (T)

147.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1993~. Brad-shaw’s lomatium recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wild-life Service, Portland, Oreg. Unpublished.

Secondary succession is occurring in most open grass-land habitats with Lomatium bradshawii. The recov-ery team recommends fire to control secondary suc-cession because L. bradshawii responded well to firein the past. Seasonality, frequency, and intensity ofbums, the effects of tire on exotic species, and theeffects of fire on other sensitive species associatedwith L. bradshawii should be considered prior to

ers at the Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge InArizona use controlled burning to suppress non-na-tive grasses and to encourage recovery of the bob-white (Colinus virginianus ridgwayi). Some of thesebums may affect C. scheeri var. robustispina, andrefuge staff plan to collect survivorship informationabout this cactus. The cactus may survive fires bybecoming established in open microsites that do notcarry fire. The spread of non-native grass speciesconverted many of these open spaces into grasslandthat is susceptible to fire. This transformation mayleave fewer sites available for C. scheeri var.robustispina.

Coryphantha scheeri var. robustispina (E)

burning.

Lomatium bradshawii is known only from Oregon.

Lomatium bradshawii (E)

15 1 .U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE . 19938. Determi-nation of threatened status for Sidalcea nelsoniana(Nelson’s checker mallow). Federal Register 58(28):8235-8242.

148.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1993d. Determi-nation of endangered status for Argyroxiphiumhuense (ka’u silversword). Federal Register 58(65):18029-18041.

Argyroxiphium kauense, a Hawaiian endemic withonly two extant populations, is threatened by stochas-tic extinction caused by lava flows or wildfires.

Prairies inhabited by Sidalcea nelsoniana were his-torically maintained by fire. Because of recent firesuppression, much of S. nelsoniana habitat is in-vaded by non-native species that reduce habitat forS. nelsoniana. Fires occur at the sites with the mostvigorous growth of S. nelsoniana; fire may be bene-ticial for managing this species.

Sidalcea nelsoniana is known only from Oregon.Argyroxiphium kauense (E) Sidalcea nelsoniana (T)

149.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1993e. Determi- 152.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 199311. Determi-nation of endangered status for three vernal pool nation of threatened status for the plant Astrophytumplants and the riverside fairy shrimp. Federal Register asterias (star cactus). Federal Register 58( 199):58(147):41384-41391. 53804-53807.

Fire may harm several rare species that occur in the Current management threatens the habitat of Astro-vernal pools of California. In summer 1992, one quarter phytum asterias that occurs in grasslands andof a Pogogyne nudiuscula population was burned, pos- shrublands of Texas and Tamaulipas, Mexico. Me-sibly resulting in seed damage. chanical clearing, chemical clearing, exotic species,

Eryngium aristulatum var. parishii (E), Orcuttia califor-nica (E), Pogogyne nudiuscula (E)

and suppression of the natural tire cycle harm thespecies and threaten to eliminate its habitat.

Astrophytum asterias (E)150.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1993f. Determina-

tion of endangered status for the plant pima pineapplecactus (Coryphantha scheeri var. robustispina). Fed-eral Register 58( 183):49875-49879.

46 INFORMATIONANDTECHNOLOGYREP~RT 2

153.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 19933. Endan-gered and threatened status for five Florida plants.Federal Register 58(131):37432-37443.

Conradina glabra occurs in open areas of mixedhardwoods or pines (Pinus spp.), suggesting that itrequires habitat that may be frequently burned. Con-radina brevifolia are killed by fire but reproduce fromseed. Pinguicula ionantha occurs in savanna vegeta-tion maintained by frequent, low intensity fires. Thefrequency and season of bums are critical to manyplant species that occur in the savanna, but the effectsof fire on various taxa can be subtle. More research isrequired before effective fire management can beapplied to conserve these species.

Conradina brevifolia (= C. canescens) (E), Conradinaglabra (E), Pinguicula ionantha (T)

154.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1993j. Michaux’ssumac recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,Atlanta, Ga. Unpublished.

Rhus michauxii grows in sandy or rocky open woods,and the maintenance of its habitat depends on distur-bance. Anthropogenic disturbances currently mimicthe historic fires that kept the woods in a subclimaxcondition. Widespread fire suppression degradedhabitat of R. michauxii and caused the loss of popula-tions in several areas. Staff at Fort Bragg, a U.S.Department of Defense facility, manage a populationof R. michauxii by burning its habitat every 3 yearsduring the growing season.

Rhus michauxii is known only from Georgia, NorthCarolina, and South Carolina.

Rhus michauxii (E)

155.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1993k. Walker’smaniac (Manihot walkerae) recovery plan. U.S. Fishand Wildlife Service, Albuquerque, N.Mex. Unpub-lished.

Manihot walkerae is primarily threatened by destruc-tion and modification of its habitat. Mechanical andchemical disturbance and prescribed burning frag-mented and eradicated the native brush that neigh-bored M. walkerae habitat since the early 1900s.However, fire may play a role in creating M. walkeraehabitat or in promoting seed germination. The effectof fire on M. walkerae should be investigated ingreater detail.

Manihot walkerae is known only from Texas andMexico.

Manihot walkerae (E)

156.U.S. FISH AND WLLDLIFE SERVICE. 19931. Regionalnews. Endangered Species Technical Bulletin 18(3).Unpublished.

Biologists of the Virginia Natural Heritage Programextended the known range of Rhus michauxii intoVirginia and possibly discovered the largest popula-tion of this species. Frequent fires seem to createfavorable habitat for R. michauxii. Natural HeritageProgram staff are currently developing a managementplan for the species in Fort Picket& Virginia.

Rhus michauxii (E)

157.U.S. FISH AND W ILDLIFE SERVICE. 1994a. Agencydraft rough leaved loosestrife recovery plan. U.S. Fishand Wildlife Service, Atlanta, Ga. Unpublished.

Lysimachia asperulifolia occurs in the ecotone betweenlongleaf pine (Pinus palustris) and shrub-dominatedplant communities. The open habitat this species re-quires is maintained by periodic fires. Fire suppressionis a threat to the survival of L asperulifolia. Federal andstate agencies and The Nature Conservancy personnelmanage populations of L. asperulifolia with prescribedburning. The recovery team recommends further re-search on tire frequency.

Lysimachia asperulifolia is known only from NorthCarolina and South Carolina.

Lysimachia asperulifolia (E)

158.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE . 1994b. Determi-nation of endangered or threatened status for 2 1 plantsfrom the island of Hawaii, state of Hawaii. FederalRegister 59(43):10305-10325.

Pennisetum setaceum is a tire-adapted bunch grass thatinvaded much of the open areas and lava flows on theisland of Hawaii since it was introduced there in theearly 1900s. This exotic species disrupts plant regen-eration, invades open areas, and alters the natural fireregime by carrying fires more frequently than theywould naturally occur. Pennisetum setaceum threatensColubrina oppositifolia, Isodendrion pyrifolium, Not-hocestrum breviflorum, Ochrosia kilaueaensis, Tetra-molopium arenarium, and Zanthoxylum hawaiiense.Exotic species are often better adapted to fire thannative species and invaded much of Hawaii’sshrubland. The presence of these alien species duringthe dry season or during drought, increases the extent,intensity, and frequency of fires. Fires can destroy theseed bed and entire plants. Fire is a threat to C. opposi-

EFFIXXS OFFIREONTHREAIENEDANDENDANGERWPLANTS 47

tifolia, I. pyrtfolium, N. brevtjlorum, 0. kilaueaensis, P.sclerocarpa, S. hawaiiensis, T. arenarium, and Z.hawaiiense.

Colubrina oppositifolia (E), Isodendrion pyrifolium (E),Nothocestrum breviflorum (E), Ochrosia kilaueaensis (E),Portulaca sclerocarpa (E), Silene hawaiiensis (T), Tetra-molopium arenarium (E) and Zanthoxylum hawaiiense(El.

159.U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1994~. Determi-nation of endangered or threatened status for 24 plantsfrom the island of Kauai, Hawaii. Federal Register59(38):9304-9328.

Before the Hawaiian islands were colonized by people,the Hawaiian flora was not subjected to tire, except inareas of volcanic activity or by occasional lightningstrikes. Therefore, many Hawaiian plant species are notadapted to recurring fires and are unable to recover fromtire. Exotic plants are often better adapted to fire andare widespread on the islands. The presence of thesefire-adapted exotic species increases the intensity, ex-tent, and frequency of fires. Fire can destroy native seedbanks and plants. Fire is a threat to Brighamia insignis,Exocarpos luteolus, Lipochaeta fauriei, Melicopeknudsenii, Melicope pallida, Munroidendron racemo-sum, Nothocestrum peltatum, Peucedanum sand-wicense, Pteralyxia kauaiensis, and Solanum sand-wicense.

Brighamia insignis (E), Exocarpos luteolus (E), Lipo-chaeta fauriei (E), Melicope knudsenii (E), Melicope pal-lida (E), Munroidendron racemosum (E), Nothocestrumpeltatum (E), Peucedanum sandwicense (E), Pteralyxiakauaiensis (E), and Solanum sandwicense (E).

160. U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE . 1994d. Endangeredstatus for three plants and threatened status for one plantfrom sandy and sedimentary soils of central coastalCalifornia. Federal Register 59(24):5499-5509.

Chorizanthe pungens var. pungens is known fromsedimentary soils of central coastal California. Thehighest densities of C. pungens var. pungens occurwhere disturbances are most frequent. This species isprobably adapted to open conditions created by fre-quent disturbance. Prior to human disturbance, theseareas were probably kept open by wildfires.

Chorizanthe pungens var. pungens (T)

161 .U.S. FOREST SERVICE . 1994. Fire effects informationsystem [database]. U.S. Department of Agriculture,Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, In-termountain Fire Sciences Laboratory. Magnetic tape

reels; 9 track; 16OObpi, ASCII with Common LISPpresent. Unpublished.

The Fire Effects Information System is a database ofthe U.S. Forest Service that contains references on theeffects of tire on species and vegetation communitytypes. As of December 1994, information on only onethreatened or endangered plant species, Torreya taxi-folia, was included in the database.

Torreya taxijolia (E)

162.WARREN, P. L., R. J. FR Y E, D. GORI, AND A .LAURENZI. 1992. Population biology of Pediocactusparadinei, a rare cactus from northern Arizona. Pages132-143 in R. Sivinski and K. Lightfoot, editors.Southwestern rare and endangered plants: proceed-ings on the southwestern rare and endangered plantconference, held 30 March-2 April 1992, in Santa Fe,N. M. New Mexico Forestry and Resources Conser-vation Division, Santa Fe, N.Mex.

Recruitment, growth, and mortality of almost 100Pediocactus paradinei were monitored for 4 years. Theauthors also monitored the effects of two fires of differ-ent intensities, one accidental and one prescribed bum,on P. paradinei. The plants were rated according to theirdegree of fire damage. The following year, evidence ofnew growth on these plants was recorded. Results indi-cated that P. paradinei can survive low-intensity fires,but as in other cacti, high-intensity bums result in highmortality. Data also indicate that burning does notsignificantly reduce the reproduction of surviving indi-viduals. The authors recommend that prescribed bumsin P. paradinei habitat be kept cool and conservative.

Pediocactus paradinei (C 1)

163.WEBBER, H. J. 1935. The Florida scrub, a fire-fightingassociation. American Journal of Botany 22: 138- 143.

The author describes the inability of Florida scrub toendure fires, which is in contrast to the neighboringlongleaf pine (Pinus palustris) association that bumsannually. Because the scrub community is deciduousand does not accumulate much litter, it does not tendto carry fire. The author also describes a natural firebreak between the scrub and the pine communitiesthat may help to prevent the spread of fire to the scrubassociation. The article contains useful informationabout rare species that exist in this association.

164.WrLcYzNsK1, C. J. 1993. A three year study on thepopulation dynamics of Cooley’s meadowrue(Thalictrum cooleyi) at Lanier Quarry, Pender

County, North Carolina. The Nature Conservancy,Carlboro, N.C. Unpublished.

Thalictrum cooleyi was monitored at a site in Pendercounty, North Carolina, during 1988-90. A censuswas taken of all flowering stems in 18 plots. Each plotwas assigned a bum frequency. For this population, afrequency of O-2 years had no effect on populationsize, plant size, or sex ratio. A study of fire seasonalityis recommended to determine a beneficial tire regime.

As an obligate seeder, Arctostaphylos myrtifolia iskilled by fire; stand regeneration depends on seedlingestablishment. During the authors’ study, A. myrtifo-lia responded unlike other members of the genus.Seeds do not respond to stimulatory treatments thatnormally promote germination in other chaparral spe-cies. A high germination rate in response to tire hasbeen observed and can be seen at several sites withdocumented fire histories. Arctostaphylos myrtifoliawill probably respond to fire similarly to other Arcto-staphylos species if no exotic species invade anddominate the site first. However, no prescribed bum-ing is recommended at the Apricum Hill EcologicalReserve before further studies with tire are conductedelsewhere.

Thalictrum cooleyi (E)

165. WOOD, M. K., AND V. T. PARKER. 1988. Managementof Arctostaphylos myrtifolia at the Apricum Hill ECO-logical Reserve. California Department of Fish andGame, Ranch0 Cordova, Calif.Unpublished. Arctostaphylos myrtifolia (Cl)

EFFECTS OF FIRE ONTHREATENEDAND~~JDANGEREDPLAIW~

Appendix A. Agencies from which the authors requested informationabout rare, threatened, and endangered plants in relationto fire.

49

The Nature Conservancy Heritage ProgramsArizona Field Office CaliforniaArkansas Field Office ColoradoColorado Field Office FloridaGreat Basin Field Office GeorgiaIllinois Field Office IdahoMassachusetts Field Office IndianaMissouri Field Office KentuckyNational Office MinnesotaNebraska Field Office New JerseyNew York Field Office New MexicoNorth Carolina Field Office OhioNortheast Regional Office South CarolinaOregon Field Office UtahSouth Carolina Field Office VirginiaSoutheast Regional Office VirginiaTennessee Field Office WisconsinTexas Field Office WyomingVirginia Coast PreserveVirginia Field OfficeWest Virginia Field Office

Government AgenciesBuenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge, ArizonaBureau of Land Management, IdahoCalifornia Department of Fish and Game, CaliforniaCoronado National Forest, ArizonaU.S. Forest Service Western Region, CaliforniaYellowstone National Park, WyomingYosemite National Park, CaliforniaOhio Department of Natural Resources, OhioU.S. Forest Service, S.E. Forest Experiment Station, South CarolinaGeorgia Department of Natural Resources, GeorgiaIndiana Dunes National Lakeshore, IndianaChattahouchee National Forest, Georgia

Other OrganizationsArchbold Biological Station, FloridaCalifornia Native Plant Society, CaliforniaJoseph W. Jones Ecological Research Center, FloridaTall Timbers Research Station, Florida


Appendix B. Individuals,information

by region of the United States, who providedabout rare, threatened, and endangered

plants in relation to fire.

Region Contacta

Northeast Peter Dunwiddie

Southeast Anne Johnson

Southeast Eric Menges

Southeast Margit Bucher

Southwest Rick Young

Midwest Doug Ladd

Northwest Steve Popovich

Northwest Jason Greenlee

West Ronnie Glick

Address

Lost Farm, Hummock Pond RoadNantucket, Massachusetts 02554Florida Natural Areas Inventory1018 Thomasville RoadTallahassee, Florida 32303Archbold Research StationP.O. Box 2057Lake Placid, Florida 33852The Nature Conservancy, North Carolina Field OfficeCarrboro, North CarolinaThe Nature Conservancy, Arizona Field OfficeTucson, ArizonaThe Nature Conservancy, Missouri Field OfficeSt. Louis, MissouriBureau of Land Management, Shoshone DistrictShoshone, IdahoInternational Association of Wildland FireSpokane, WashingtonCalifornia Native Plant SocietySacramento, California

Telephonenumber

(904)224-8207

(813)465-2571

(919)967-7007

(602)622-3861

(3 14)968-l 105

(208)886-2206

(509)283-2397

aThe contacts permined the mention of their names in this appendix.

EFFECTS OF FIRE ON THREATENED AND ENDANGERED PLANTS 5 1

Author IndexAbrahamson, W. G. 45Almquist-Jacobson, H. 39Arft,A. 1Barden, L. S. 2,3Barker, N. G. 4Benjamin, S. 5Bertram, K . 6Blyth, A. 46Boettcher, S. 66Borchert, M. 7Borgias, D. 8Bowles, M. L. 9Boyd, B. 10Boyd, R. S. 11Bunting, S. C. 12Campbell, D. L. 13Campbell, J. J. 14,15Carlson, P. R. 16Cobb, N. 17Collier, M. 18Collins, S. L. 28Connelly, K. 49Crawford, R. C. 63Currier, P. J. 19Danielson, K. 20DeMauro, M. M. 9Drew, M. B. 52Dud ley , S. 72Dunwiddie, P. W. 21Esser, L. L. 22Evans , M. 14Finley, K. 49Fishbein, M. 23Folkerts, G. W. 24Freas, K. E. 25Frye, R. J. 162Galeano-Popp, R . 7 2Gankin, R. 26Gibson, D. J. 27Glenn, S. M. 28Godfrey, R. K. 29Gordon, D. 30, 31,32Gori, D. 23,33, 162Green, H. 72Hardin, D. E. 34Hartnett, D. C. 35Hawkes, C. V. 36Herman, S. 77Hermann, S. M. 37Hiebert, R. D. 9Hilty, J. 64Howald, A. M. 70Hulbert, L. C. 27Humphrey, S. R. 16Jacobs, J. 38Jacobson, G. L. 39Johnson, A. F. 40,41,42,43,44,45,46Jordan, M. J. 47Kagan, J. 48Kaye, T. N. 49Kelly, V. R. 50Kirby, R. E. 51Kirkman, L. K. 52

Kohfeldt, N. M. 61Kral,R. 5 3Laurenzi, A. 162Lesica, P. 54Lewis, S. J. 51MacRoberts, B. R. 55MacRoberts, M. H. 55Major, J. 26Mancuso, M. 64McAnlis, J . 6 2McClaran, M. P. 56McDaniel, S. 87Medley, M. E. 14,15Melgoza, G. 57Menges, E. S. 36.58, 59,60,61,62Moseley, R. K. 63,64Myers, R. 6,66Myers, R. L. 65Nickrent, D. L. 70Neuenschwander, L. F. 12Nowak, R. S. 57Owen, W. R. 67Parker, V. T. 50,68,165Pavlik, B. M. 69,70Pavlovic, N. 9Pavlovic, N. B. 71Phillips, B. G. 72Popovich, S. 73Richardson, D. R. 35Risk, A. C. 15Robinett, D. 74Rome, A. 75Rosentreter, R. 67Schnell, D. E. 76Schwartz, M. W. 77Scott, J. M. 82Serafini, L. L. 11Sexson, T. N. 51Shaffer, K. 78Smith, I. 79Smith , W. 80Soblo, D. 8 1Stone, C. P. 82Sundt, P. C. 56Sutter, R. D. 83Tanner, G. W. 16Tausch, R. J. 57Taylor, D. D. 15Taylor, N. L. 14Thomas, L. 86Thomas, P. A. 84,85Troup, R. L. 87U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 88-160Warren, P. L. 162Webber, H. J. 163White, D. L. 34Wilcyznski, C. J. 164Williamson, G. B. 4Winne, J. C. 39Wood, J. M. 16Wood, M. K. 165Wright, H. A. 12

52 IN F O R M A T I O N ANDTECHNOLOGYREPORT 2

Geographic hdexAlabama 6,34,87, 116, 120, 128, 138Arizona 17.23,33,56,74,84, 150, 162California 7, lo, 11,20,22,25,26,50,68,69,70,78,99, 100, 103, 105, 110,129,149, 160,165Colorado 1, 18Connecticut 118Costa Rica 95Delaware 119,143Florida 6, 16,22,29,30,31,34,35,36,37,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,60,61,62,65,66, 75,77,90,92, 102, 111,113,114,

123,145,146,153,163Georgia 6,22,34,52,53,77,87,89,90,91,92,97, 108, 111, 113, 114, 115, 117, 119, 120, 121, 145,146, 154, 157Hawaii 82,88,93,94,96,101, 106, 107, 124,126, 127, 130, 131, 133, 140, 148, 158, 159Idaho 63,64,73Illinois 112,125,128Indiana 9,59Iowa 112Kansas 27,28Kentucky 14,15,115Louisiana 4,55Maine 39,58Maryland 99,118,119,120,122Massachusetts 118,120Mexico 152,155Minnesota 80,112,125Mississippi 34,116, 136,138Missouri 86Montana 22,54Nebraska 19,139New England 21New Jersey 143New Mexico 72,98,109,142,144,155,162New York 24,47,118North Carolina 2,3,5, 15,34,75,76,79,83,91, 117, 119, 120, 121, 132, 135, 145, 154, 157, 164Ohio 59,125Ontario 125Oregon 8,48,49,100,101,105,124,137,147,151Puerto Rico 104Rhode Island 118South Carolina 34,81,102, 119,120,121,135,154,157Tennessee 3,6, 13, 15,87,89, 108, 128Texas 12,98,109, 134,142,144,152,155Virginia 38,122,156West Virginia 120Wisconsin 112

EFFECB OF FIRE ON THREATENED AND &IDANGEaELD %4NTS 53

Species IndexAbronia macrocatpa 142Abutilon eremitopetalum 131Abutilon menziesii 106Abutilon sandwicense 126Agalinis acuta 41,118Agalinis decemloba 1 5Amorpha crenulata 32,113Amorpha herbacea var. crenulata 32Amsinckia grandtflora 69,70,103Arctostaphylos 50Arctostaphylos canascens 50Arctostaphylos glandulosa 50Arctostaphylos hoobri ssp. montana 68Arctostaphylos hookeri ssp. ravenii 99Arctostaphylos myrtifolia 26,165Argyroxiphium kauense 148Aristida stricta 34,41,46Aristida tuberculosa 9,71Asimina tetramera 40,44A s t e r concolor 15Astragalus atratus var. inseptus 13A s t r a g a l u s onicifonnis 13Astragalus schmolliae 18Astrophytum asterias 152Baptisia arachnifera 97Bidens cuneata 96Bidens molokaiensis 96Bidens weibkei 140Bonamia grandtjlora 31.35.123Brickellia eupatorildes var.floridana 32Brickellia mosieri 32Brighamia insignis 15Bromus tectorum 57, 137Buxus vahlii 1 0 4Calamintha ashei 4462Calamovilfa curtissi 41Calamovilfa curtissii 41,44,46Calochortus umpquaensis 48Castanea pumila 15Castanea pumila vat. ozarkensis 15Caulanthus amplexicaulis ssp. barbarae 20Caulanthus califotnicus 129Ceanothus ferrisae 25Ceanothus ophiochilus 78Ceanothus rodericki 1 0Centaurium sebaeoides 126Ceratiola ericoides 31,36,44,62Chamaecrista lineata 16Chamaesyce deltoidea ssp. deltoidea 32,113Chamaesyce garberi 113Chamaesyce kuwaleana 126Chamaesyce porteriana var. scoparia 32Chamaesycecelastroides var. kaenana 126Chionanthus pygmaeus 123Chorizanthe pungens var. pungens 160Chrysopsis floridana 114Chrysothamnus molestus 17,33Chrysothamnus viscidtflonrs 57Cirsium carolinianum 15Clematis socialis 116,136Clitoria fragrans 34

Colubrina oppositifolia 158Conradina brevifolia 44,153Conradina canescens 44,153Conradina etonia 44Conradina glabra 30,44,153Corema conradii 2 1Cotypantha scheeri var. robustispina 74Corypantha sneedii var. leei 109Corypantha sneedii var. sneedii 109Cupressus abramsiana 110Cyanea superba 127Dalea foliosa 13,128Deeringothamnus pulchellus 34Deeringothamnus rugelii 34Delphinium variegatum ssp. kinkiense 100Delphinium variegatum ssp. thornei 100Dicerandra christmanii 44Dicerandra comutissima 44,111Dicerandra fmtescens 44,60,71,111Dicerandra immaculata 44,111Diellia falcata 126D i o n a e a 2 4Dubautia herbstobatae 126Dudleya traskiae 105Echinacea tennesseensis 13,89Echinocereus pectinatus 84Echinocereus triglochidiatus 85Eremalche kernensis 129Eremalche parryi ssp. kemensis 129Eriastrum hooveri 129Eryngium aristulatum var. parishii 149Eryngium cuneifolium 62,123Eryngium yuccifolium 15Escobaria sneedii var. leei 109Escobaria sneedii var. sneedii 109Euphorbia deltoidea ssp. deltoidea 113Euphorbia garberi 113Euphorbia telephioides 146Exocarpos luteolus 159Fremontodendron decumbens 10.11Frittillaria ojaiensis 20Galactia smallii 32,113Gouania hillebrandii 124Gouania meyenii 126Gymnopogon ambiguus 15Habenaria hookeri 9Hackelia gracilenta 18Haplostachys haplostachya var. angustifolia 88Harperocallis Java 29,34,90H e d e o m a di$usa 72Hedeoma diffusum 72Hedeoma graveolens 34Hedyotis st. johnii 133Helianthemum dumosum 2 1Helianthus atrorubens 15Helianthus schweinitzii 2,3, 135Hibiscadelphus distans 107Hudsonia tomentosa 9.71Husdsonia montana 9 1Hymenoxys acaulis var. glabra 125Hypericum cumulicola 123


lliamna corei 38,122Iliamna rivularis var. rivularis 122Isodendrion hosakae 130Isodendrion pyrifolium 158Jatropha costaricensis 95Kalmia cuneata 34Kokia drynarioides 94Lechea cernua 31,45Lechea deckertii 31,45Lembertia congdonii 129Lespedeza leptostachya 80,112Lesquerellafiliformis 8 6Lesquerella pallida 144Liatris helleri 117Liatris ohlingerae 123Liatris provincialis 37,42,44Liatris squarrosa ISLilium philadelphicum 15Limnanthes floccosa 8Limnanthes floccosa ssp. grandifora 8Lipochaeta fauriei 159Lipochaeta lobata var. leptophylla 126Lipochaeta tenuifolia 126Lipochaeta venosa 88Lobelia niihauensis 126Lomatium bradshawii 49, 147L o m a t i u m cookii 8Lupinus aridorum I23Lupinus wetianus var. aridorum 123Lysimachia asperulifolia 34,79,83, 157Macbridea alba 146Manihot walkerae 155Marshallia mohrii 136Matelea alabamensis 30Melicope knudsenii 159Melicope pallida 159Muhlenbergia torreyana 34Munroidendron racemosum 159Neraudia angulata 126Nothocestnrm breviflorum 158Nothocestrum peltatum 158Nototrichium humile 126Ochrosia kilaueaensis 158Oenothera perennis 15Opuntia basilaris var. treleasei 128Opuntia phaecantha 12Opuntia treleasei 128Orcuttia caltfornica 149Oxypolis canbyi 81, 119Panicum abcissum 31.66P a n i c u m carteri 93Panicum fauriei var. carteri 93Paronychia chartacea 31,45, 123Parthenium integrtfolium 15Pediocactus paradinei 162Pennisetum setaceum 94, 158Penstemon haydenii 139Penstemon lemhiensis 64Peucedanum sandwicense 159Phlox amoena 15Phlox idahonis 63Phlox nivalis ssp. texensis 134Phyllanthus pentaphyllus 16

Pinguicu la 24Pinguicula ionantha 146,153Pinus clausa 36,44Platanthera 9Platanthera integra 55Platanthera leucophaea 7 1Platanthera praeclara 80Pogogyne nudiuscula 149Polygala polygama 15Polygala smallii 32,113Polygonela aurticulata 9Polygonella articulata 9.71Polygonella basiramia 36Polygonella macrophylla 43.44Portulaca sclerocarpa 158Pritchardia munroi 140Prunus geniculata 123Pteralyxia kauaiensis 159Ptilimnium nodosum 120Pyxidanthera barbulata ssp. brevtfolia 34Pyxidanthera brevifolia 34Quercus geminata 44Quercus myrtifolia 44Rhododendron chapmanii 34,92Rhus michauxii 34, 154, 156Rhynchosia tomentosa 15Rhynchospora knieskernii 143Ribes echinellum 102Robinia hispida var. rosea 15Sanicula marilandica (var. petioluata) ISSanicula mariversa 126Sarracenia 24,76,121Sarracenia alata 4,24Sarraceniaflava 7 6Sarracenia oreophila 5,6,87, 136Sarracenia psittacina 4Sarracenia pupurea ssp. venosa 76Sarracenia rubra ssp. alabamensis 76, 138Sarracenia rubra ssp. jonesii 76,121Scheidea lydgatei 140Schiedea adamantis 96Schiedea apokremnos 133Schiedea kaalae 126Schwalbea americana 15,52, 141Scutellaria floridana 146Scutellaria montana 108Selaginella rupestris 9Sidalcea hickmannii ssp. parishii 20Sidalcea nelsoniana 151Silene alexandri 140Silene hawaiiensis 158Silene lanceolata 140Silene regia 59Silene spaldingii 54Sisyrinchium dichotomum 132Solanum sandwicense 159Solidago pu lchra 34Solidago shortii 115Spiranthes delitescens 23,56Spiranthes diluvialis 1Spiranthes parksii 98Stachydeoma graveolens 34Stanfordia califomica 129

Stenogyne angustifolia var. angustifolia 88Stephanomeria mdheurensis 137Stipa comata 57Talinum rugospetma 9Talinum rugospennum 9,71Tetramolopium arenarium 158Tetramolopium filiforme 126Tetramolopium remyi 131Tetranwlopium rockii 140Tetraneuris herbacea 125Thalictnun cooleyi 34,75, 145, 164Thermopsis macrophylla var. angina 7

EFFECLS OF FIFE ON THREATENED AND ENDANGERED PLANTS 55

Tojieldia glutinosa var. absona 39T o r r e y a califomica 22Torreya taxifolia 22,77,161T r a g i a saxicola 16Trifolium rejlexum 1 4Trifolium stoloniferum 14,71Verbesina heterophylla 34Vicia menziessii 101Warea carteri 123Wyethia reticulata 10Zunthoxylum hawaiiense 158Ziziphus celata 123

NWRC

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A list of current Information and Technology Reports follows:

1. Population Biology of the Florida Manatee, edited by Thomas J. O’Shea, Bruce B. Ackerman, and H. FranklinPercival. 1995.287 pp.

NOTE: The mention of trade names does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the Federal Government.

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U.S. Department of the InteriorNational Biological Service

As the Nation’s principal conservationagency, the Department of the Interior has re-SponsibiIity for most of our nationally ownedpublic lands and natural resources. This respon-sibility includes fostering the sound use of ourlands and water resources; protecting our fish,wildlife, and biological diversity; preserving theenvironmental and cultural values of our na-tional parks and historical places; and providingfor the enjoyment of life through outdoor rec-reation. The Department assesses our energyand mineral resources and works to ensure thattheir development is in the best interests of allour people by encouraging stewardship and citi-zen participation in their care. The Departmentalso has a major responsibility for AmericanIndian reservation communities.

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