Effects of Fashion Magazines on Body Dissatisfaction and Eating Psychopathology in Adolescent and Adult Females

Julie Shaw

It has been shown that fashion magazines have an age- and stimulus-specific effect on the body size estimation of non-eating-disordered adolescent and adult females. This study examines whether photographs of thin fashion models have similar effects on female body dissatisfaction. The results indicate that adolescent girls tend to respond to fashion images by showing greater body dissatisfaction than adults, and that both groups respond m e to pictures of adults than to those of adolescents. Greater adolescent dissatisfaction was refated to increased age, weight and bulimic tendencies. Theoretical implications are considered.

INTRODUCTION

It has been argued that the mass media’s promotion of thinness as the ideal female form plays a significant role in the aetiology and maintenance of the body image distortion that is characteristic of anorexia and bulimia nervosa. This hypothesis of media effects on ‘body percept’ (body size estimation) has received recent experimental support (Hamilton and Waller, 1993; Shaw and Waller, under consideration; Waller et al. 1992). Irving (1990) has shown that media images also affect ‘body concept’ (body dissatisfaction). Such studies indicate that the body image of a large non-clinical female population might be adversely affected by the messages to ‘be thin’ presented in fashion magazines.

Adolescence appears to be a crucial period in the development of body image distortion (e.g. Halmi et al., 1977). Investigations of body concept demonstrate high levels of body dissatisfaction in adolescents (Davies and Furnham, 1986; Whitaker et al., 1989; Hill et al., 1992). However, research to date has not considered the relationship between wider social influences and the development of body concept during adolescence. The present study examines the comparative responsiveness of non-eating-disordered adolescent and adult females to one societal influence (fashion magazines). Three main issues are investigated. First, do adolescents report greater changes in body dissatisfaction

CCC 1072-4133/95/01001549 0 1995 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. and Eating Disorders Association

European Eating Disorders Review 3(1), 15-23 (1995)

J. Shaw

than adults after viewing pictures of thin fashion models? Second, do fashion magazines have a greater influence on the body dissatisfaction of their age- specific target group? Finally, is there a relationship between changes in body dissatisfaction after viewing different types of media images and other characteristics (age, weight and eating attitudes)?

METHOD Participants

Two groups of 24 females, with no current or past eating disorder, were recruited from a Comprehensive School and a College of Further Education. Participants were allocated to each group on the basis of age. The mean Body Mass Index (BMI-weight in kilograms divided by height in metres squared) of both groups was calculated. Llewellyn-Jones and Abraham (1984) suggest that BMI is a useful measure of body mass (as a proportion of height) in the diagnosis of anorexia nervosa. Beumont et al. (1988) confirm that a BMI value of 16 or lower is acceptable as one criterion in the diagnosis of anorexia nervosa.

Materials and measures

Three types of photographs were used as stimuli. Twenty ‘Adolescent’ photographs were drawn from three fashion magazines with an adolescent target audience (aged 13-17 years). Twenty ‘Adult’ pictures were drawn from one fashion magazine targeted on an older female audience (aged 18 + years). The third set of photographs consisted of neutral pictures, depicting individual rooms, drawn from a mass circulation ‘house style’ magazine. Pictures in each set were approximately A4 size.

Body dissatisfaction was measured using the Body Satisfaction Scale (BSS-Slade et al., 1990). This scale consists of three sub-scales (‘general’, ‘head’ and ‘body’), which measure levels of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with 16 body parts. A higher BSS score indicates greater levels of body dissatisfaction. Slade et al. (1990) have shown that both eating-disordered and overweight samples were less satisfied with their bodies than comparison samples.

Eating attitudes were measured using the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26-Garner et al., 1982). This self-report scale measures a range of eating attitudes and behaviours, including anorexic and bulimic symptoms, food preoccupation, and weight concern. Garner et al. (1982) have presented data confirming the EAT-26 as a valid measure of eating attitudes in both eating-disordered and comparison groups.

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Procedure

Each participant was asked to view each of the three sets of media images (‘Adult’, ‘Adolescent’ and ‘neutral’). Each picture was observed for 20 s and the participant was asked to complete a 7-point rating scale indicating how attractive they found each picture (to focus attention on the task). The order of presentation of the three types of media image was counterbalanced within each group. The participant completed the BSS after viewing each set of pictures. Following the third set, each participant was interviewed to confirm the absence of an eating disorder, and then completed the EAT-26. Finally, participants were debriefed.

Data analysis Two Change Index (CI) scores (‘Adolescent’ CI and ‘Adult’ CI) were calculated from the three BSS sub-scale scores of each participant, using an adaptation of Norris’s (1984) formula:

x 100 Experimental BSS-Neutral BSS

Experimental BSS CI =

A positive ‘Adolescent’ or ‘Adult’ CI signifies greater body dissatisfaction after viewing that set of fashion images than after viewing neutral images. Thus, whilst the BSS provides a direct measure of body dissatisfaction, the CI score indicates changes in behavioural responses to each set of fashion pictures (measured in terms of body dissatisfaction). This measure is intended to indicate the possible presence of sensitivity to media stimuli. CI scores were compared across conditions for the two groups using ANOVAs. The calculation of CI scores enabled the examination of correlations of the three EAT-26 sub- scales (dieting, bulimia and food preoccupation, and oral control) with age and BMI for each group.

RESULTS Comparison of the age, BMl and EAT-26 scores of the two groups

The mean age of the adolescent group was 14.5 years (SD= 1.44), while the mean age of the adult group was 27.3 years (SD=5.19). The BMI of the adolescent group was 19.9 (SD=3.71), while the BMI of the adult group was 23.5 (SD = 5.30). Thus, the adult women were significantly heavier (for their height) than the adolescent group [ F( 1,46) = 7.17; p < 0.01 3 . However, there were no differences between the EAT-26 scores of the two groups [F(1,46)=0.01].

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Body Satisfaction Scale (BSS) scores for the two groups

Table 1 shows the BSS scores of each group following exposure to the three types of media stimulus. Comparison of the raw scores indicates that the adolescent group tended to respond to both types of fashion with greater body dissatisfaction than the adult group. Both groups responded more to the fashion images aimed at adult women than to the images aimed at adolescent girls.

Table 1. Body Satisfaction Scale (BSS) scores for adolescents and adults following exposure to media stimuli

~ ~~

Type of stimulus

Adolescent Adult Neutral

Adult

27.3 (7.45) 23.5 (6.31) 56.1

(11.4) 25.4 (8.38) 18.2 (7.09) 49.3

(15.4)

27.9 (7.52) 22.9 (5.63) 57.6

(11.1) 26.2 (7.69) 17.7 (5.38) 49.9

(12.4)

26.4 (6.90) 22.1 (5.89) 54.9 (9.02) 26.0 (8.55) 15.8 (6.68) 49.3 (15.8)

Change lndex (Cl) scores for adolescents and adults Change Index scores express the comparative behavioural response of each group to the different sets of media images, relative to the neutral images. The Change Indices in Table 2 show that both adolescent and adult females responded to the ‘Adult’ fashion images with significantly increased body dissatisfaction, compared to their responses to the ‘Adolescent’ fashion images. In other words, for all participants, BSS ‘body’ dissatisfaction was higher after seeing the fashion pictures targeted at an adult age group. In addition, adolescent ‘body’ dissatisfaction was greater than adult ‘body’ dissatisfaction after viewing both types of pictures, although that difference between groups was not significant. The ability of the ANOVAs to find significant differences between CI scores that are small (relative to the standard deviations) is due to the use of a within-subjects design.

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Effects of Fashion Magazines

Table 2. Change Index (CI) scores for adolescents and adults

BSS CI

Body CI

Head CI

General CI

Group ANOVA

Ado. Adult Group Picture Group Picture lescent x Pic

Adolescent 1.65 -3.09 1 .oo 4.12* 0.21 (SD) (15.8) (14.6) Adult 4.09 0.79 (SD) (16.0) (13.0) Adolescent 4.56 -3.62 2.68 0.29 0.25 (SD) (16.3) (17.5)

(SD) (15.8) (16.7) Adolescent 0.58 -0.36 0.23 1.88 0.29 (SD) (13.1) (13.8) Adult 3.36 0.86 (SD) (13.0) (13.5)

Adult 2.70 -3.68

*p<0.05.

Association of Change Indices with age, BMI and eating attitudes

Table 3 shows correlations of CIS with demographic measures for the two groups. The responsiveness of ‘body’ and ‘head’ dissatisfaction among the adolescent group was positively correlated with age and Body Mass Index. In other words, BSS scores (‘head’ and ‘body’) were more responsive to fashion pictures in adolescents who were older. Similarly, ‘head’ and ‘body’ BSS scores were more responsive to the fashion pictures in adolescents who were relatively heavier (greater BMI). In contrast, adults showed no association between BSS responses to fashion pictures and their age or BMI.

Table 3. Association (Pearson’s r ) of responsiveness to media images with age and BMI in adolescents and adults

Group

Adolescents Adults

Measure Media image Age BMI

BSS CI Adolescent 0.35* 0.507 body Adult 0.25 0.42*

BSS CI Adolescent 0.35* 0.39* head Adult 0.48’ 0.52t

BSS CI Adolescent 0.23 0.25 general Adult 0.19 0.3 1

Age

-0.14 - 0.08 -0.02 -0.25

0.01 -0.16

BMI

- 0.0 I -0.17 -0.10 -0.21 -0.04 -0.19

*p< 0.05; ‘p< 0.01.

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Table 4. Association (Pearson’s r ) of responsiveness to media images with eating attitudes (EAT-26) in adolescents and adults

Group

Adolescents Adults

Scale EAT-26 scale EAT-26 scale

Measure Media Oral Oral image Dieting Bulimia control Dieting Bulimia control

BSS CI Adolescent 0.06 0.23 -0.21 0.14 0.22 0.31 body Adult 0.06 0.26 -0.29 -0.08 -0.06 0.16

BSS CI Adolescent 0.13 O.SO* 0.03 0.00 0.10 0.14 head Adult 0.26 0.687 0.07 - 0.04 0.01 0.11

BSS CI Adolescent -0.20 O.SO* -0.06 -0.07 0.09 0.14 general Adult -0.14 0.54* -0.08 -0.1s -0.12 0.05

*p < 0.01; fp < 0.001.

Table 4 shows the correlations between the Change Indices and the three sub-scales of the EAT-26, demonstrating the relationship between women’s responsiveness to fashion images and their degree of eating psychopathology. The results indicated different responses for the two groups. Adult eating attitudes were not significantly associated with responsiveness to either the ‘Adolescent’ or the ‘Adult’ fashion images. However, there were salient findings regarding the adolescent group. An association was found between the degree of bulimic eating attitudes and magnitude of bodily dissatisfaction in this group. ‘General’ and ‘head’ dissatisfaction were more responsive to both types of fashion pictures in adolescents with greater bulimic eating attitudes, but there was no such association with the responsiveness of BSS ‘body’ scores.

DISCUSSION

This experiment has produced three major findings. First, the effects of fashion magazines tended to be age-specific. The body dissatisfaction of adolescent girls was greater than that of their adult counterparts after viewing both ‘Adolescent’ and ‘Adult’ fashion images, although that difference was not significant. Second, the effect of fashion magazines on body dissatisfaction was stimulus-specific, but not in the direction predicted. The ‘Adult’ fashion pictures produced greater levels of ‘body’ dissatisfaction than the ‘Adolescent’ pictures in both age groups. Third, this experiment identified three personal characteristics- age, BMI and greater bulimic tendencies - which were positively correlated with greater adolescent responsiveness to images of thin fashion models. These characteristics were not related to media image responsiveness in adults.

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Effects of Fashion Magazines

The finding that adolescents tended to report greater body dissatisfaction (i.e. a poorer body concept) after viewing both ‘Adolescent’ and ‘Adult’ images compared to neutral images supports the earlier finding of a global effect of fashion magazines on adolescent body percept (Shaw and Waller, under consideration). Adults might not have shown such a high degree of responsiveness to the fashion images because they were not as concerned with collecting information regarding personal identity development.

The finding that ‘Adult’ fashion images produced greater body dissatisfaction in both age groups might be explained using Social Identity Theory (Turner, 1981). An individual’s social identity is positively related to the degree of social attractiveness conferred by their membership of a particular social group. The fashion magazines aimed at adult women present highly desirable social images for both age groups. The emphasis on thinness promoted by such images might explain the greater body dissatisfaction in both younger and older females. Such behavioural changes might be indicative of increased sensitivity of adolescent body image to fashion magazines. However, the evidence obtained in this study is not conclusive, The nature of the repeated measures task used might have invited participants to respond to its demand characteristics.

The finding that adolescent repsonsiveness to fashion magazines was related to increased age, weight and bulimic tendencies supports previous research. Whitaker et al. (1989) found that older and heavier adolescent girls were more likely to report anorexic and bulimic symptoms than their younger and lighter counterparts. This finding might also be explained by Social Identity Theory. Females learn early in life that they are often judged primarily in terms of physical attractiveness and body image. Adolescents whose bodies do not match the thin ideal will experience social pressure to conform to this ideal to gain social approval.

Slade’s (1982) paradigm offers a suitable model to explain how fashion magazines might act as a psychosocial stimulus, triggering body dissatisfaction and encouraging weight control behaviours. Such fashion images will motivate girls to present a body image that wins social approval and acceptance. Body dissatisfaction provides justification for the instigation and maintenance of weight control behaviours, which can lead to the downward spiral in eating that is often reported in the aetiology of eating disorders.

The greater magnitude of responsiveness to fashion magazines in older and heavier adolescents with bulimic tendencies has important theoretical and practical implications. The development of female psychosocial identity during adolescence is an issue that needs addressing within theoretical formulations of the aetiology and maintenance of eating disorders. Further research is required to determine the potential effects of societal influences on the development of psychosocial processes during adolescence. Such knowledge would assist the development of screening instruments for early identification of individuals at risk of developing an eating disorder.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Dr Glenn Waller of Birmingham University for his helpful comments on earlier drafts of this paper. Thanks are also due to the pupils and staff at Oakwood Comprehensive School, Rotherham whose time and efforts made the study possible.

REFERENCES

BEUMONT, P., Al-Alami, M. and Touyz, S. (1988). Relevance of a standard measurement of undernutrition to the diagnosis of anorexia nervosa: use of Quetelet’s body mass index (BMI). International Journal of Eating Disorders,

DAVIES, E. and Furnham, A. (1986). Body satisfaction in adolescent girls. British Journal of Medical Psychiatry, 59, 279-287.

GARNER, D. M., Olmsted, M. P., Bohr, Y. and Garfinkel, P. E. (1982). The EAT: psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychological Medicine, 12, 87 1-878.

HALMI, K. A., Goldberg, S. C. and Cunningham, S. (1977). Perceptual distortion of body image in adolescent girls: distortion of body image in adolescence. Psychological Medicine, 7, 253-257.

HAMILTON, K. and Waller, G. (1993). Media influences on body size estimation in anorexia and bulimia: an experimental study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 837-840.

HILL, A. J., Oliver, S. and Rogers, P. J. (1992). Eating in the adult world: the rise of dieting in childhood and adolescence. British Journal of Clinical Psychology,

IRVING, L. M. (1990). Mirror images: effects of the standard of beauty on the self- and body-esteem of women exhibiting yarying levels of bulimic symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9, 230-242.

LLEWELLYN-JONES, D. and Abraham, S. F. (1984). Quetelet index in diagnosis of anorexia nervosa. British Medical Journal, 288, 1800.

NORRIS, D. L. (1984). The effects of mirror confrontation of self estimation of body dimensions in anorexia nervosa, bulimia and two control groups. Psychological Medicine, 14, 835-842.

SHAW, J. and Waller, G. (under consideration). Sociocultural influences on body image distortion in adolescence and adulthood: age-specific effects of fashion magazines. European Journal of Social Psychology.

SLADE, P. D. (1982). Towards a functional analysis of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 21, 167-179.

SLADE, P. D., Dewey, M. E., Newton, T., Brodie, D. and Kiemle, G. (1990). Development and preliminary validation of the body satisfaction scale (BSS). Psychology and Health, 4, 213-220.

TURNER, J. C. (1981). The experimental social psychology of intergroup behaviour. In: Intergroup Behaviour (eds J. C. Turner and H. Giles). Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

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31, 95-105.

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WALLER, G., Hamilton, K. and Shaw, J. (1992). Media influences on body size estimation in eating-disordered and comparison subjects. British Review of Bulimia and Anorexia Nervosa, 6, 81-87.

WHITAKER, A., Davies, M., Shaffer, D., Johnson, J., Abrams, S., Walsh, T. and Kalikow, K. (1989). The struggle to be thin: a survey of anorexic and bulimic symptoms in a non-referred adolescent population. Psychological Medicine, 19, 143-163.

Julie Shaw, BA, MA (Senior Lecturer in Social Sciences) Rotherham College of Arts and Technology, Eastwood Lane, Rotherham, S65 lEG, U.K.

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