EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH WRITING

FLORENCE M. ITEGI

NAIROBI

2016

Learning Outcomes • Ability to articulate aims, objectives and research

question that guide the study

• Show evidence : Understanding theories and recent

empirical studies in the field the proposed study is to

be conducted.

• Demonstrate knowledge in documenting cited

sources to avoid plagiarism

Cont. • Demonstrate clear understanding of methods

(including data sources, research instruments and

methods of analysis) selected to respond to the

purpose, objectives and key research

questions/hypothesis outlined in the study?

• Originality and significance for consideration at the

Ph.D level of study

What is research?

• It’s an investigation undertaken to discover new

facts

• Process of arriving at effective solutions to problems through systematic inquiry

• Scientific and empirical study of relationships among variables

• systematic inquiry contributing to the advancement of knowledge

Sources of Research Topics

• Researchers interests, knowledge, observations and problems.

• Challenges in professional practice

• Readings

• Interactions with researchers, experts

• current issues

• Funds available (sponsored area)

A legitimate research topic

• Of interest to researcher and category or

group/field of study

• Trustworthy sources of literature; examined and

appraised by experts in the field.

• Regionally permissible/pragmatic ; proposed geographical is practical

Types of research problems

(i) Conceptual

• Research problems are based on perception or

frame of reference researchers uses to view social

world ( differing views)

• The view influences planning, literature review &

methods

• Conceptual research is common in social sciences;

Provides deeper understanding of the phenomenon

(ii) Practical Research • Findings used to develop products,

• Common in business or pure sciences academic

fields such as health and engineering

• Involves experiments, observation and

measurements in controlled environments

(iii) Applied Research • Carried out by professionals (doctors, teachers, and

engineers’)

• Collected information aimed at solving a given

problem

• Data used to make conclusions that produce

decisions to be implemented

• Has high level of uptake as practitioners are

involved at all stages

Importance of literature Determines what exists to avoid duplication,

Provides a framework to interpret findings

Enhances reader’s confidence in the researcher

Demonstrate familiarity with existing knowledge

Researcher benefits from experiences of other

researchers (strategies, procedures and

instruments

Helps to identify gaps in past studies

Literature sources • Theses and dissertations

• Papers presented in conferences

• Supplementary library materials (government

documents)

• Periodicals: journals, magazines

• Text books to enhance theoretical support

The Internet sources

• Google scholar: Web data bases eg Eric for

Education

• Use keywords to search for relevant literature

• Expand/limit search guided by available resources

either by regions, years or synonyms

Writing Theoretical Paper

• Introduction- introduce the topic and indicate

which aspects of it you intend to tackle and which

ones fall outside the scope.

• Body-It takes up 80-90% of the paper. It develops

the main ideas supporting them with evidence.

• (I)Structure – it should be simple and clear, with

logical subheads broken into paragraphs in a

united coherent manner.

Cont. • (II)Argument- Logical arguments with conclusions

emanating from preceding statements.

• (III) Reasons (why) for proposing the view; relevant,

adequate evidence for or against to avoid bias.

Ensure that matters of facts are not distorted.

• Conclusion; make the reader feel what you set to

do have been accomplished; summarizes the

argument

Cont. • Your paper should demonstrate ability to research

the topic, think creatively and evaluative existing

knowledge, structure arguments and provide

sources. o Observe principles of compiling; formatting of standard academic work;

Level titles

• Apply proper style of acknowledging sources, APA,

Chicago Manual or Turabian

Task 1 1. Select a topic of your choice

2. Review three journal papers

3. Make a summary

4. Develop a rationale for the paper you intend to

write; highlight the gaps you intend to fill

Parts of Research Report Chapter one

i. Title

ii. Background

iii. Statement

iv.Objectives

v. Hypotheses /Research Qs

vi.Conceptual Framework

(i) Title Title: Topic Should be comprehensive, specific,

regionally permissible spelling out variables under

study

Not too wordy 10-12 for journal papers

18-22 for research reports

Addressing a significant problem defying solutions

Exercise: Identify Independent & Dependent

variables in a title

Background of the study

The background comprises of literature that puts

the study in context of others

Check out for other studies on same subject that

brings insights on magnitude of problem

It demonstrates scholarly crediting of earlier

studies

Providing history of the phenomenon

It gives readers a framework understanding the

study

It indicates gaps in existing studies

Format of background Two approaches:

(i) General to specific- world-Region-National- target

population

Standing Triangle Specific-General

.

Specific-General-Target

population-National-Region-

World

Problem Statement • An explicit statement of specific task to be

undertaken :magnitude of the problem based on

evidence(citations)

• Possible consequences

• Explicit for a variety of audience

• Related to objectives, hypothesis or research

questions.

Statement Format • Section (i)- Importance of the phenomenon under

study (Evidence)

• Section (ii)- Current situation and likely

consequences (documented source)

Section (iii)- Intentions of current study

• Half to 2/3 of a page is adequate

• Extensive write up makes statement to loose focus

Objectives Research objectives: a list of aims to indicate the

purpose of the research. The main objective

provides a broad indication of the purpose which

is further broken into precise statements of intent.

Specific objectives describe activities which the

researcher intends to undertake. Objectives use

verbs such as “To find out …..” “To investigate

……….” ‘To determine ……” “To explore…….” “To

examine ……….

Objectives • Objectives mark its scope-Specific areas being

addressed

• 4-6 objectives are adequate

• Objectives guides the study: formulation RQs or

hypotheses, conceptual framework, main literature

titles, & areas of focus in data collection and

analysis (study drivers)

Cont. • Objectives describe an academic process or a task

to be performed.

• They predetermine the data needed to establish

the aims

• Determines suitable design and instruments of data

collection.

• The objectives help the researcher to select

relevant literature

Hypotheses • Testable prepositions in predicting relationship

between variables. An assumption testing logical or

empirical consequences to be accepted or

rejected through data analysis

• A good hypothesis requires thorough literature

review, experience and expertise knowledge.

Alternative hypotheses • Symbol H1.

• Shows expected relationship between variables

e.g.

• H1: Job satisfaction is determined by level of

motivation.

• H2: There is significance difference between

individual success in life and their level of

education.

Null hypotheses • Symbolized as H0

• Indicate No relationship between variables.

• H0: 1There is no relationship between job

satisfaction and motivation level.

• H0: 2 There is no significant difference between

individual success in life and their level of

education.

Conceptual Framework • Concepts express generalization from particulars.

Reflects the image researcher holds of the

phenomenon under study

• Visual expression of relationships between

independent and dependent variables

• Need to explain independent variable relates to the

dependent variable (phenomenon under study)

Chapter Two Relevant guided by study objectives

• Introduction

• Explanation of concept

• Main titles derived from: objective (i), (ii), (iii) & (iv)

• Summary helps to identify gaps

Acknowledging Sources (i) Reference style: Author surname, Other names/

initials. year. Title. Place of Publication: Publisher

e.g.

Oliver, P. (2006). Writing Your Thesis. London: SAGE

PUBLICATIONS.

Reference list • Shorter, A. & Onyancha, (1997). Secularism in

Africa; A case of Nairobi city. Nairobi: Paulines Publications.

• Steinberg, L. (1991). Adolescence. New York: McGraw Hill.

• Stephen, J. Ling L., Burman, E., & Cooper, M. (1998).

Values in Education.

London: Routledge.

Citing sources in text • The past few years have seen immoral behaviour

among pupils become an almost daily occurrence

in Kiambu district. Such includes alcohol and

substance abuse, transactional sex, stealing,

disobeying school rules, and use of vulgar

language among others (Shorter and Onyancha,

1997).

(ii) Bibliography Style • Placing a superscript number at the end of a

sentence.

• Notes provided at the bottom of page (footnotes),

or a list at the end of the paper/chapter (Endnotes)

Note: 1Paul Oliver, Writing Your Thesis. (London: SAGE

PUBLICATIONS, (2006), p50.

Citing Sources in Text • The past few years have seen immoral behaviour

among pupils become an almost daily occurrence

in Kiambu district. Such includes alcohol and

substance abuse, transactional sex, stealing,

disobeying school rules, and use of vulgar

language among others1

Guarding Against Plagiarism?

• Means stealing words, ideas, or work that rightfully

belong to others, presenting them as our own.

• Plagiarism is unauthorized use or imitation of ideas

or thoughts of other authors without acknowledging

Mugenda (2008).

• Plagiarized is treated as cheating in exams.

Sentences copied directly should be in quotation

marks.

Detecting Plagiarism • Complete paragraphs with no sources

• Copy –pasting instead of paraphrasing

• Cited sources not appearing in References or

Bibliography

• Inadequate recent Sources of literature

• Passive sponge approach quotation after the other

without synthesis

NB. Computer programmes are available

Chapter Three Methods: Demonstrates Knowledge of Research

Designs-:

Survey involves gathering information from members

of a large group

Surveys mainly adopt Questionnaires either mailed,

face to face or telephone

• Case Study is an intensive or in-depth exploration of

single case, social unit e.g.

Cont. • A group, community, institution, program, a person

or document.

• Causal comparative investigates effects of

independent variable on the dependent variable.

Independent variable is manipulated and

observations made on its effect on the dependent

variables (s).

• Co relational Research (Causal)program

Cont. • It attempts to determine whether and to what

extent relationship exists between variables.

• Its aim is to use relationship to make predictions

about a given phenomenon

Cont. • Pure experimental involves random sampling where

subject do not know their groups. Randomization

makes groups equal with some characteristics e.g.

in schools or different geographical regions. It uses

two groups (experimental and control group).

Describing Methods Design, sampling techniques and instruments for data

collection and analysis

(i) Theory- Need to explain what research books say

about proposed methods and

(ii) Practice: why the researcher consider methods or

techniques to be appropriate and what they hope

to achieve

Research instruments • Questionnaires: A method of data collection which

employs a list of questions to be responded to by

the subjects.

• The respondents type or written response to each

item in the questionnaire

Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire

• Simple and clear language for easy understanding

• Framed in a way that require specific information

• Precise and brief

• Questions should not be leading i.e. objective

• Information collected be easy to interpret

Cont. • Interview schedule: A list of questions is presented to

respondents orally to provide responses through

face to face or telephone interaction. It is based on

the view that people are more willing to talk than

write.

• Document analysis schedule: examination of

records like reports, registers, and books of

accounts, minutes of meetings diaries &recording

Cont • Observation schedule: Data collection on non-

verbal information in natural setting

• The structure defines specific data to be collected.

Data Analysis • This section Presents data using relevant techniques

(qualitative or quantitative)

• Data is analyzed according to research objectives

at 3 levels:

• Presentation- figures, diagrams or verbatim

• Interpreting helps to make meaning by giving

examples,

• Discussion:comparing, contrasting or confirming

findings of related studies item by item.

Analysis of Quantitative Data

• Quantitative data is analyzed using numbers, mean,

mode, %, in tables, graphs and inferential statistics

• Qualitative data is analyzed by narrations in

quotation marks or block quotes

• NB. Avoid narrations without the voices from the

field

.