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DOI: 10.1177/0013164408318771

23 May 20082008 68: 1041 originally published onlineEducational and Psychological Measurement

Frank C. Worrell and Stevie WatsonScores: Testing the Expanded Nigrescence Model

A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS)

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A Confirmatory Factor Analysis

of Cross Racial IdentityScale (CRIS) Scores

Testing the Expanded Nigrescence Model

Frank C. Worrell

University of California, Berkeley

Stevie Watson

Rutgers University

In this study, the authors tested the viability of the expanded nigrescence (NT-E) model

as operationalized by Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS) scores using confirmatory fac-

tor analyses. Participants were 594 Black college students from the Southeastern United

States. Results indicated a good fit for NT-Es proposed six-factor structure. One-factor

and two-factor higher-order models also yielded good fit indices, although several coeffi-

cients in the one-factor higher-order model were not salient or statistically significant. In

sum, the results provide strong support for the CRIS as an operationalization of NT-E.

The authors suggest that CRIS scores can be used in studies concerned with drawing

inferences about the effects of racial identity attitudes.

Keywords: CRIS; expanded nigrescence model; racial identity; validity

F rom the seminal doll studies in the first half of the last century (Clark & Clark,1947, 1950) to contemporary explanations of African American underachieve-ment (e.g., Ogbu, 2004; Oyserman, Kemmelmeier, Fryberg, Brosh, & Hart-Johnson,

2003; Steele, 1997; Steele & Aronson, 1995), racial identity attitudes have beenimplicated in the psychological well-being and educational attainment of African

Americans. Indeed, in the past two decades, there have been numerous articles and a

substantial number of doctoral dissertations on the relationship between racial iden-

tity attitudes and psychological well-being in African American populations. Given

its prominence in the research literature (Cokley, Caldwell, Miller, & Muhammad,

2001), it is clear that the construct of racial identity must be considered in any psy-

chological study of African Americans.

Educational and

Psychological Measurement

Volume 68 Number 6

December 2008 1041-1058

2008 Sage Publications

10.1177/0013164408318771

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Authors Note:Please address correspondence to Frank C. Worrell, Cognition and Development, Uni-

versity of California at Berkeley, 4511 Tolman Hall, #1670, Berkeley, CA 94720-1670; e-mail:

[email protected].

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There are several Black racial identity theories in the literature. Helms (1990)

identified 11 of these and classified them into two groups, one emphasizing the cli-

ent as problem and the other emphasizing development. Around the same time per-iod, Burlew and Smith (1991), using a [very] broad definition of racial identity

(p. 54), grouped 17 racial identity measures into four categories: developmental

(4), Africentric (3), group based (6), and racial stereotyping (4). However, based on

conceptualizations of construct validity as an overarching concept subsuming mul-

tiple types of evidence (see Benson, 1998), the evidence for scores on all of the

measures listed by Burlew and Smith (1991) is weak.

Unfortunately, the psychometric evidence for scores on two of the most fre-

quently used Black racial identity measures in the research literature is also weak.

Scores on all of the versions of the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (Helms &Parham, 1990, 1996; Parham & Helms, 1981) have been criticized for low internal

consistency estimates and inconsistent structural validity (Burlew & Smith, 1991;

Fischer, Tokar, & Serna, 1998; Lemon & Waehler, 1996; Tokar & Fischer, 1998;

Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994), and Cokley (2007) argued that it was difficult

to justify using the scale. Researchers have also reported equivocal evidence

for scores on the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity (MIBI; Sellers,

Rowley, Chavous, Shelton, & Smith, 1997; Sellers, Smith, Shelton, Rowley, &

Chavous, 1998), as the structure does not conform to the theory on which the scale

is based (Cokley & Helm, 2001; Helm, 2002; Simmons, Worrell, & Berry, 2006).Concerns about the instruments being used with racial and ethnic minorities

have been articulated for several years (e.g., Fischer & Moradi, 2001; Sabnani &

Ponterotto, 1992; Spencer & Markstrom-Adams, 1990). As Fisher, Jackson, and

Villarruel (1998) observed, to date, the lack of consistency in definitions and mea-

surement of ethnic and cultural identity has limited the extent to which current

research findings expand our understanding of the dynamic interaction between

development and context (p. 1159). Despite the lack of validity information,

many racial identity instruments are used in studies where inferences and conclu-

sions are dependent on scores that have not been appropriately validated.One of the more recent instruments is the Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS;

Vandiver et al., 2000; Worrell, Vandiver, & Cross, 2004), which operationalizes

the expanded nigrescence model (NT-E; Cross & Vandiver, 2001; Worrell, Cross,

& Vandiver, 2001). The authors of the CRIS (Vandiver et al., 2000) attempted to

avoid many of the criticisms about the reliability and validity of scores that plague

other instruments with a lengthy scale development process and a systematic series

of validation studies. In this article, we describe NT-E, review the development of

the CRIS, and summarize the current psychometric evidence for CRIS scores.

Then, we use confirmatory factor analysis to test the hypothesis that the structure

of the CRIS represents NT-E. The goal of the study is to provide empirical support

for the use of CRIS scores in inferential studies.

1042 Educational and Psychological Measurement



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The Expanded Nigrescence Model

NT-E was introduced into the research literature 6 years ago (Cross & Vandiver,

2001; Worrell et al., 2001) as an update on the original (NT-O; Cross, 1971) andrevised (NT-R; Cross, 1991) nigrescence models. In keeping with contemporary

theorizing about collective identities (e.g., Ashmore, Deaux, & McLauglin-Volpe,

2004), NT-E is a multidimensional conceptualization of Black racial identity atti-

tudes. Whereas NT-O and NT-R were articulated as developmental stage theories,

in NT-E, Black racial identity is conceptualized as a series of attitudes related to

three specific themes, Pre-Encounter, Immersion-Emersion, and Internalization.

Pre-Encounter themes refer to those identities that accord low or even negative

salience to race and Black culture . . . [and] include Assimilation, which reflects low

race salience, as well as Miseducation and Self-Hatred, both forms of negative racesalience (Worrell, Vandiver, Schaefer, Cross, & Fhagen-Smith, 2006, p. 521). Indi-

viduals with predominantly Assimilation attitudes are likely to downplay the impor-

tance of race in the United States, and those with Miseducated attitudes believe the

negative stereotypes about African Americans, sometimes to the point of self-loathing

(Self-Hatred attitudes).

The Immersion-Emersion attitudes, Anti-White and Intense Black Involvement,

represent intense pro-Black and anti-White fixations, respectively (Worrell, Vandiver,

et al., 2006). Immersion-Emersion themes become salient when African Americans

who previously downplayed the importance of race are confronted with the realityof racism in America (e.g., through a personal experience with discrimination).

Intense Black Involvement represents a desire to bond or join in the collective African

American identity, and Anti-White attitudes reflect a deep-seated anger at (a) White

America for the unfairness of American society and (b) the self for not heretofore

recognizing the effects of belonging to a stigmatized group. Individuals in whom

these Immersion-Emersion attitudes are predominant have the potential to be intoler-

ant of both individuals with primarily Pre-Encounter attitudes and those with multi-

cultural attitudes (Vandiver, Fhagen-Smith, Cokley, Cross, & Worrell, 2001), as they

are likely to romanticize all things Black and demonize all things White.The Afrocentric, Bicultural, and Multicultural identities are under the Interna-

lization thematic heading and are symbolic of the types of identity attitudes where

ones positive feelings about being Black do not preclude acknowledging other

salient identities in self or others (Worrell, Vandiver, et al., 2006, p. 522). All the

Internalization attitudes reflect an acceptance of being Black. Afrocentric attitudes

highlight the importance of using Afrocentric values as a foundation for living.

Bicultural attitudes combine pro-Black attitudes with one other salient identity

(e.g., racial identity and religion, racial identity and gender, racial identity and sex-

ual orientation). Multicultural Racial attitudes reflect pro-Black attitudes combinedwith positive attitudes toward individuals from other marginalized groups (e.g.,

Latinos, American Indians). Finally, Multiculturalist Inclusive attitudes combine

Worrell, Watson / Structural Validity of CRIS Scores 1043



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pro-Black feelings with positive attitudes toward all other cultural groups, includ-

ing members of the majority culture. Cross and Vandiver (2001) indicated that the

specific attitudes described in NT-E represent only a subset of the possible universeof Black racial identity attitudes that exist in the population.

The Cross Racial Identity Scale

Scale development and internal consistency. The CRIS (Vandiver et al., 2000,

Worrell, Vandiver, & Cross, 2004) was developed to operationalize NT-E. The CRIS

consists of six subscales of five items each (for a total of 30 items), including three

Pre-Encounter attitudes (Assimilation, Miseducation, Self-Hatred), one Immersion-

Emersion attitude (Anti-White), and two Internalization attitudes (Afrocentricity andMulticulturalist Inclusive). Three of the attitudes that are highlighted in NT-E (see

Worrell et al., 2001) are not included on the CRIS. Vandiver, Cross, Worrell, and

Fhagen-Smith (2002) indicated that it is not feasible to measure the large number of

possible biculturalist attitudes. They also reported that subscales assessing Intense

Black Involvement and Multicultural Racial attitudes are under development. The

fact that these scales are not yet available harkens back to a question raised in one of

the scale development studies: can Intense Black Involvement and Multiculturalist

Racial [attitudes] be measured directly, or will indirect methods be needed?

(Worrell et al., 2001, p. 207).The development of the CRIS, which is outlined in several articles (Cross &

Vandiver, 2001; Vandiver et al., 2001, 2002; Worrell et al., 2001), took place over

a 5-year period and involved six phases:

The initial item development and content validation of the scale was conducted in

Phase 1. The goals of Phases 2 through 4 were to establish a minimum reliability esti-

mate of .70 for the subscale scores and establish construct [structural] validity through

exploratory factor analysis. In Phases 5 and 6, the goals of scale development were to

achieve a minimum reliability estimate of .80 for subscale scores and to replicate con-

struct [structural] validity through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses.(Cross & Vandiver, 2001, p. 381)

As can be seen in Table 1, reliability estimates (Cronbachs alpha) for the five-

item CRIS subscale scores from 10 studies in the literature are in the .78 to .86

range, providing convincing evidence for the internal consistency of the items,

although two of the subscales have not reached the floor of .80 set by the authors

(see also Henson, 2001).

Structural validity. Structural validity evidence for the CRIS is also generallysupportive. Since the initial scale development studies (Vandiver et al., 2001, 2002),

there have been four studies examining the structural validity of CRIS scores, all




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using exploratory analyses (Helm, 2002; Gardner-Kitt & Worrell, 2007; Simmons

et al., 2006; Worrell, Vandiver, Cross, & Fhagen-Smith, 2004). In a 2002 dissertation

study, Helm analyzed the 30 CRIS items in a sample of 388 college students using

principal components analysis. She reported that all CRIS items loaded on their

assigned subscales and that there were no complex items (i.e., items loading on more

than one factor). Worrell, Vandiver, Cross, et al. (2004) used an exploratory factor

analysis (EFA; principal axis extraction, oblimin rotation with a delta of 0) and

reported similar results in a sample of African American adults (mean [M] age=

34).Simmons et al. (2006) and Gardner-Kitt and Worrell (2007) reported the same out-

comes for a sample of college students (M age= 19) and school-aged adolescents

(M age= 14), respectively. However, in the adolescent study, one Afrocentricity

item was complex, with a salient coefficient on its home factor and on the Anti-

White factor, although the coefficient on the home fact was higher.

To date, the only confirmatory factor analysis of CRIS scores was conducted as

part of the original scale development studies. Vandiver et al. (2002) compared the

six-factor model based on NT-E with several other models, including two-, three-,

four-, and five- first-order models, and both one- and two-factor higher-order mod-els. The six-factor NT-E model achieved the best fit with a comparative fit index

(CFI) of .94, a chi square/degrees of freedom ratio of 1.55, and an root mean square

error of approximation (RMSEA) 90% confidence interval of .043 to .055. The two

Table 1

Coefficient Alpha Reliability Estimates for Cross

Racial Identity Scale (CRIS) Subscale Scores

Studies N PA PM PSH IEAW IA IMCI

Cokley (2002) 153 .74 .81 .80 .81 .83 .83

Helm (2002) 388 .78 .78 .89 .89 .83 .83

Vandiver et al. (2002) 309 .85 .78 .89 .89 .83 .82

White (2002)a 271 .82 .75 .87 .89 .82 .85

Wright (2003)b 181 .77 .77 .75 .81 .82 .74

Worrell, Vandiver, and Cross (2004) 105 .83 .77 .70 .83 .85 .77

Cokley (2005) 201 .83 .84 .76

Simmons et al. (2006) 225 .80 .80 .82 .84 .82 .77Gardner-Kitt and Worrell (2007)c 143 .70 .83 .86 .87 .80 .83

Jones, Cross, and DeFour (2007)b 310 .74 .84 .76 .87 .80 .81

Median .78 .78 .82 .86 .83 .82

Note: PA=Pre-Encounter Assimilation; PM=Pre-Encounter Miseducation; PSH=Pre-Encounter Self-

Hatred; IEAW= Immersion-Emersion Anti-White; IA= Internalization Afrocentricity; IMCI= Internaliza-

tion Multiculturalist Inclusive.

a. All male sample.

b. All female samples.

c. School-aged adolescents.




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higher-order models achieved fit statistics that were almost as good as the six-factor

model, with the two-factor higher-order model edging out the single-factor higher-

order model on fit statistics and theoretical viability. In sum, structural validity evi-dence to date provides strong evidence for CRIS scores.

Convergent validity. Both convergent and discriminant validity evidence exist

for CRIS scores. Vandiver et al. (2002) reported bivariate correlations between

CRIS subscales and MIBI (Sellers et al., 1997, 1998) subscales. Statistically signifi-

cant and meaningful (i.e., r :30) relationships were generally in keeping with

theoretical predictions. Assimilation scores on the CRIS had positive correlations

with Assimilation and Humanist scores on the MIBI and negative correlations with

the MIBIs Centrality and Nationalist scores. Self-Hatred scores on the CRIS werenegatively related to Private Regard scores on the MIBI, which assess individuals

private feelings about being Black. Anti-White and Afrocentricity scores on the

CRIS were positively related to Nationalist scores on the MIBI, and Anti-White

scores were also negatively related to Humanist scores. Finally, the CRIS Multi-

cultural Inclusive subscale scores were positively related to Oppressed Minority

and Humanist scores on the MIBI. Helm (2002) and Simmons et al. (2006) reported

a similar pattern of bivariate correlations between CRIS and MIBI scores, as did

Worrell, Vandiver, and Cross (2004) using canonical correlations.

Worrell and Gardner-Kitt (2006) examined the relationship between CRIS scoresand scores on the original Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM-O, Phinney,

1992) using bivariate and canonical correlations. The MEIM-O has two subscales

(Phinney, 1992; Worrell, 2000; Worrell, Conyers, Mpofu, & Vandiver, 2006), one

assessing ethnic identity (attitudes toward ones own group) and the other group

orientation (attitudes toward groups other than ones own). Bivariate correlations

yielded results in the expected directions: Ethnic Identity scores on the MEIM had a

positive correlation with Afrocentricity and a negative correlation with Assimilation,

and Other Group Orientation scores on the MEIM had a positive correlation with

Multiculturalist Inclusive scores and a negative correlation with Anti-White scores.The canonical correlations resulted in more nuanced results in keeping with theory

and a multidimensional examination of cultural identity scores. Two statistically signif-

icant, meaningful (R2c 10%), and theoretically interpretable variates were identified.

The first variate, labeled Black Racial/Ethnic Identification, reflected an in-group focus

and was positively correlated with Anti-White (CRIS), Afrocentricity (CRIS), and

Ethnic Identity (MEIM) attitudes and negatively correlated with Assimilation (CRIS),

Self-Hatred (CRIS), Multiculturalist Inclusive (CRIS), and Other Group Orientation

(MEIM) attitudes. The second variate was labeled Grounded Multiculturalism and

represented positive attitudes toward both African Americans and other ethnic and

racial groups. This variate had positive relationships with Multiculturalist Inclusive

(CRIS), Ethnic Identity (MEIM), and Other Group Orientation (MEIM) attitudes and

negative relationships with Self-Hatred (CRIS) and Anti-White (CRIS) attitudes.




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Finally, Vandiver et al. (2002) also reported a negative correlation (.32) between

global self-esteem scores using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965)

and Self-Hatred scores on the CRIS. This finding is in keeping with Crosss (1991)contention that personal identity variables and reference group orientations (e.g.,

racial identity attitudes) are generally not related, unless the reference group orienta-

tion has specific personal identity implications, as in the case of Black self-hatred.

Discriminant validity.To establish discriminant validity, CRIS scores were com-

pared with social desirability, global self-esteem, and the Big Five personality traits

(Vandiver et al., 2002). CRIS scores were not related to social desirability, yielding

low correlations (:11 r :23) with Self-Deceptive Enhancement and Impression

Management subscale scores of the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding(Paulhus, 1984, 1991). Additionally, with the exception of self-hatred as indicated

above, no CRIS scores were related to global self-esteem.

The Big Five was measured using the Big Five Inventory (BFI; John, Donahue, &

Kentle, 1991), an instrument with reliable and valid scores in that sample (Worrell &

Cross, 2004). Both unidimensional (bivariate correlations) and multidimensional

(canonical correlations) analyses were employed. No CRIS scores had meaningful

bivariate relationships with the Big Fivethe largest correlation was .21 between

Multicultural Inclusive attitudes and Openness (Vandiver et al., 2002). The first and

only interpretable variate of the canonical correlation between CRIS scores and BFIscores accounted for 15% of the variance in scores and had positive correlations with

Multicultural Inclusive attitudes, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness

and a negative relationship with Miseducation attitudes (i.e., accepting negative

stereotypes about Blacks).

The Present Study

The goal of the present study was to examine the structure of CRIS scores in a

large sample using confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs). The choice of analysis isimportant for several reasons. First,

CFA requires a strong empirical or conceptual foundation to guide the specification

and evaluation of the factor model. Accordingly, CFA is typically used in later phases

of scale development or construct validation after the underlying structure has been

tentatively established by prior empirical analyses using EFA, as well as on theoreti-

cal grounds. (Brown, 2006, p. 41)

Second, the CRIS as an operationalization of NT-E is at a stage where theory

testing rather than theory generation is required (Byrne, 2006; Meyers, Gamst, &Guarino, 2006). Third, there has been only one CFA of CRIS scores (Vandiver et al.,

2002), and this was conducted as part of the scale development process. Establishing




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validity is an ongoing process (Benson, 1998), and one study should never be consid-

ered definitive. Indeed, although often ignored, replication is the very hallmark of

[good] science (Franzosi, 2004, p. 113; see also Benson & Nasser, 1998; Meehl,1990).

Fourth, racial identity constructs are being used with increasing frequency as

explanatory theories (Meehl, 1990, p. 196). Meehl also made the following perti-

nent observation: If I am going to confirm or refute a theory about the relation of

social introversion to anxiety-based affiliative drives, I ought to have grounds for

thinking that the test is sufficiently valid for use in this way (p. 216). With the

exception of the CRIS, there is weak or equivocal support for scores on the most fre-

quently used Black racial identity instruments in the research literature (Chappell,

1995; Cokley & Helm, 2001; Fischer et al., 1998; Lemon & Waehler, 1996; Myers& Thompson, 1994; Ponterotto & Wise, 1987; Sabnani & Ponterotto, 1992; Sellers

et al., 1997, 1998; Simmons et al., 2006; Stokes, Murray, Peacock, & Kaiser, 1994;

Tokar & Fischer, 1998; Yanico et al., 1994). To testthe CRIS as an operationaliza-

tion of NT-E, we examined both the internal consistency of CRIS scores and their

structural validity using CFA procedures. It was hypothesized that CRIS scores

would have reliability estimates in the moderate to high range (i.e., between .70 and

.90) and that the six-factor structure proposed by NT-E wouldfitthe data well.

Method

Participants

Participants consisted of 594 Black college students enrolled at three different

institutions in the southeastern United States. They ranged in age from 17 to 59 years

(M age= 20.9, standard deviation [SD]= 2.7; seven participants did not report their

age). Fifty-four percent of the sample was male and the majority described themselves

as African American (68.9%) or Black (13.5%), with smaller numbers endorsing

descriptors such as African (6.7%), Caribbean Black (5.4%), mixed (3.5%), or Hispa-

nic Black (0.8%). The majority of the participants (97.8%) reported that they were

U.S. citizens. Participants were primarily from suburban (44.6%) and urban (43.1%)

communities, with a smaller number coming from rural (6.2%) and other (5.2%) com-

munities. The majority of participants (90.7%) were attending historically Black col-

leges (HBCU), with the rest (n= 55) attending a principally White institution (PWI).

The HBCU students were younger (M= 20:7; SD= 2.14) than the PWI students

(M= 22:33;SD= 5.6), t(55.62)=2.13,p< :05, Cohens d=:62, and were also

from wealthier families in general: only 24.6% of the HBCU participants described

their family socioeconomic status as poor or working class compared with 34.6% of

the PWI participants. However, the students from the two types of schools did not

have statistically significant differences on any of the CRIS subscale scores.




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About half of the participants (51.6%) reported that the communities they were

raised in were at least 70% Black, and 20.1% were raised in communities that were

less than 30% Black. The majority of the participants were undergraduates

(97.6%), with seniors (42.8%) and juniors (27.5%) being represented in greater

numbers than sophomores (15.5%) and freshmen (11.8%). The modal majors were

Business (49.2%) and Social Sciences (14.7%). About half of the participants indi-

cated that their family was middle class (49.2%), with working class (23.4%) and

upper middle class (22.4%) families making up most of the rest of the sample. Less

than 3% indicated that their families were either poor or wealthy.

Measure

All participants completed a packet of measures that included the CRIS (Vandiver

et al., 2000; Worrell, Vandiver, & Cross, 2004), which was the only instrument used

in this study. The CRIS is a 30-item measure designed to assess six racial identity

attitudes put forward in NT-E (Cross & Vandiver, 2001). These attitudes include

Assimilation, Miseducation, Self-Hatred, Anti-White, Afrocentricity, and Multicul-

turalist Inclusive, and a sample item from each subscale is included in Table 2. Each

subscale consists of five items distributed between Items 1 and 40 (there are 10 filler

items). Respondents rate their agreement with each item on a 7-point Likert-type

scale with verbal anchors (1= strongly disagree, 4= neither agree nor disagree,

7= strongly agree). No items are worded negatively. The first section of the CRIS

contains demographic questions (e.g., gender, age), and the racial identity questions

are in the second section.

Table 2

Sample Items From the Cross Racial Identity Scale

Pre-Encounter Assimilation

I am not so much a member of a racial group, as I am an American.

Pre-Encounter Miseducation

Blacks place more emphasis on having a good time than on hard work.

Pre-Encounter Self-Hatred

Privately, I sometimes have negative feelings about being Black.

Immersion-Emersion Anti-White

I have a strong feeling of hatred and disdain for all White people.

Internalization Afrocentricity

I see and think about things from an Afrocentric perspective.

Internalization Multiculturalist ExclusiveI believe it is important to have both a Black identity and a multicultural perspective, which is

inclusive of everyone (e.g., Asians, Latinos, gays and lesbians, Jews, Whites).




11/19

CRIS scores have been found to be internally consistent, with reliability estimates

in the .70 to .90 range, and structurally valid (Gardner-Kitt & Worrell, 2007; Helm,

2002; Simmons et al., 2006; Vandiver et al., 2001, 2002; Worrell, Vandiver, Cross,et al., 2004). Convergent validity for CRIS scores has been established with the MIBI

(Helm, 2002; Simmons et al., 2006; Vandiver et al., 2002; Worrell, Vandiver, &

Cross, 2004), the MEIM (Worrell & Gardner-Kitt, 2006), and Baldwins (1996;

Baldwin & Bell, 1982, 1985) African Self Consciousness Scale (Simmons et al.,

2006). CRIS scores do not have meaningful relationships with social desirability and

the Big Five personality traits, demonstrating discriminant validity, and only Self-

Hatred scores are correlated with self-esteem (Vandiver et al., 2002).

Procedure

Participants were recruited using e-mail, flyer, and Web site announcements at

two historically Black colleges and one predominantly White university in a large

city in the Southeast. All three campuses were in close proximity to each other and

have sizeable Black student populations. Each participant received a booklet con-

taining the CRIS and other questionnaires. Participants completed the study in an

average of 30 minutes. To encourage participation, each participant received a $10

gift card for a local restaurant.

Results

Preliminary Analyses

Item means ranged from 1.55 to 5.71, with all of theSDs between 1 and 2. As in

past studies using the CRIS, means of Self-Hatred and Anti-White items were the

lowest (in the 1.0 to 2.0 range) and Multiculturalist Inclusive means were the highest

(in the 5.0 to 6.0 range). Similarly, items on these three subscales had the highestskew and kurtosis scores, with kurtosis values greater than 3.0 on four Self-Hatred

and two Anti-White items. Subscale means (Table 3) ranged from 1.72 to 5.42, with

much less elevated kurtosis values than for individual items. Internal consistency

estimates (Cronbachs alpha) for subscale scores ranged from .74 to .88, with confi-

dence intervals ranging from .70 to .89 (see Table 3). The confidence intervals were

calculated SPSS syntax suggested by Fan and Thompson (2003).

Subscale intercorrelations are reported in Table 4. Correlations that are greater

than .32 (i.e., shared variance of at least 10%) and statistically significant (critical

a= :

003) are flagged in the table. As can be seen, the intercorrelations are generallylow (Median= |.16|), with only two correlations greater than .32: Anti-White atti-

tudes and Self-Hatred attitudes are modestly correlated, and as in previous studies,

Afrocentricity and Anti-White attitudes are moderately correlated. Correlations




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corrected for attenuation are also provided in Table 4, but no other corrected correla-

tions exceed .30.

Confirmatory Factor Analyses

As indicated previously, CFAs are most appropriate for assessing factor struc-

tures that are supported by theory and empirical studies (Byrne, 2006; Thompson,

2004) and are also extremely useful for comparing alternative models (MacCallum,

Wegener, Uchino, & Fabrigar, 1993). Following the recommendations of several

methodologists (Byrne, 2001, 2006; Thompson, 2004), multiple criteria were used to

assess goodness of fit. These included the Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square (Satorra &

Bentler, 1994), which corrects for nonnormality in the data; the chi-square to degreesof freedom ratio; the CFI, which takes sample size into account; the nonnormed index

(NNFI), which takes model complexity into account; and the RMSEA, as well as a

90% confidence interval around RMSEA values. Hair, Anderson, Tatham, and Black

Table 3

Descriptive Statistics for Cross Racial Identity Scale Subscale (CRIS) Scores

M SD S kew Kurtosis a 95% CIa (a)

Assimilation 2.78 1.32 0.71 0.08 .82 .79-.84

Miseducation 3.65 1.33 0.02 0.55 .79 .76-.82

Self-Hatred 1.72 1.01 1.83 3.30 .82 .80-.84

Anti-White 1.84 1.11 1.63 2.34 .88 .86-.89

Afrocentricity 3.08 1.24 0.35 0.36 .85 .83-.87

Multiculturalist Inclusive 5.42 1.07 0.71 0.52 .74 .70-.77

Note:N=594;M=mean;SD = standard deviation; CI= confidence interval.

a. Confidence intervals for the reliability estimates were calculated with SPSS language from Fan and

Thompson (2003).

Table 4

Correlation Matrix of Cross Racial Identity Scale Subscale Scores

1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Assimilation 1.00 .29 .21 .08 .17 .12

2. Miseducation .23 1.00 .29 .19 .17 .10

3. Self-Hatred .17 .23 1.00 .39 .22 .08

4. Anti-White

.07 .16 .33*

1.00 .53

.295. Afrocentricity .14 .14 .18 .46* 1.00 .10

6. Multiculturalist Inclusive .09 .08 .06 .23 .08 1.00

Note:N=594. Correlations corrected for attenuation are above the diagonal.

*p< .003.




13/19

(1995) suggested that a chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio between 1 and 2 indi-

cates acceptable fit. NNFI and CFI values in the .95 range (Hu & Bentler, 1998) and

RMSEA values less than .05 (Byrne, 2001, 2006; MacCallum, Browne, & Sugawara,1996) are also indicators of acceptable fit. Maximum-likelihood extraction procedures

were used to analyze the covariance matrices based on raw scores using EQS, Version

6.1 (Bentler, 2005). The latent variables were scaled as follows: a single indicator for

each of the first-order factors was set at unity and the variances of the higher-order

models were also set at unity. Use of robust statistics resulted in corrected test statistics

and standard errors.

Five models were examined using the 30 CRIS items. Model 2 was a two-factor

correlated structure, with all Pre-Encounter subscales (Assimilation, Miseducation,

Self-Hatred) on one factor and the other three scales on the second factor. Model 3specified three correlated factors on the basis of the three themes, Pre-Encounter,

Immersion-Emersion (Anti-White), and Internalization (Afrocentricity, Multicultur-

alist Inclusive), which also match the stage model proposed in earlier nigrescence

models (Cross, 1971, 1991). Model 4 was the six-factor model articulated in NT-E;

in this model, the correlations among the six factors were estimated. Models 5 and 6

were higher-order models, with the first assessing a general Race Salience factor at

the second level, and the second assessing two second-order factors reflecting low or

negative race (Pre-Discovery) and high race salience (Post-Discovery). The correla-

tion between the Pre- and Post-Discovery factors was also estimated.CFA results are presented in Table 5. The initial runs included 599 participants,

but 5 were eliminated because of their substantial contributions to multivariate

kurtosis. The two-factor first-order model (Model 2) had a w2/dfratio more than 8.0

and NNFI and CFI values less than .50. The two factors were moderately correlated

(r= :36), and standardized coefficients were only substantial (in the .4 to .7 range)

for Self-Hatred, Anti-White and Afrocentricity items. The three-factor first-order

model (Model 3) had a w2/dfratio more than 6.0 and NNFI and CFI values less than

.60, and the pattern of coefficients was the same, with low standardized coefficients for

Assimilation, Miseducation, and Multiculturalist inclusive items (.1 to .3) and largerestimates for items on the other three factors. The correlations among the three factors

were in the low to moderate range (Pre-Encounter/Immersion-Emersion = .37; Pre-

Encounter/Internalization= .21; Immersion-Emersion/Internalization= .52). Both of

these models were rejected.

On the other hand, the six-factor NT-E model (Model 4) had a w2/df ratio less

than 2 (see Table 5), an RMSEA value less than .05, and NNFI and CFI values of

.94, suggesting a good fit to the data. Additionally, all but one of the standardized

factor coefficients were greater than .50, ranging from .42 to .85 (Median= .71),

and only two pairs of factors had correlations greater than .30: Self-Hatred and

Anti-White (r= :38) and Anti-White and Afrocentricity (r= :51).

The indices for the Race Salience higher-order model suggested a fair fit: a w2/df

ratio more than 2, NNFI and CFI values in the .90 range, and an RMSEA less than .05.




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Although the item coefficients on the first-order factors were comparable with the six-

factor model (i.e., in the .42 to .86 range), one of the coefficients from the first-order tothe second-order factor was low. The standardized coefficients for the Race Salience

model were .57 (Assimilation), .51 (Miseducation), .64 (Self-Hatred), .62 (Anti-White),

.47 (Afrocentricity), and -.26 (Multiculturalist Inclusive). The two-factor higher-order

models (Model 6) fit was almost as good as the six-factor model. The item/first-order

coefficients ranged from .42 to .85, and the coefficients from the first to the second-

order factors were as follows: Pre-Discovery (Assimilation= .22; Miseducation= .38;

Self-Hatred= .82), and Post-Discovery (Anti-White= .81; Afrocentricity= .62;

Multiculturalist Inclusive=.30). The two factors were moderately correlated

(r=:

51). Given the fit statistics, the substantial coefficients of the observed variables tothe first-order factors based on NT-E, the low coefficients to some of the higher-order

factors, and the law of parsimony (Graham, Guthrie, & Thompson, 2003), the six-factor

model was accepted as providing the best fit to the data.

Discussion

In this study, we examined the structural validity of CRIS scores using CFAs with

the goals of testing the theoretical viability of the CRIS as an operationalization of

NT-E and comparing the NT-E model specified for the CRIS with alternative mod-

els. The results indicated that the NT-E model was supported and resulted in a better

Table 5

Fit Indices for the CRIS Derived From Confirmatory

Factor Analyses (Maximum Likelihood Robust)

Model w2s-b df w2/df NNFI CFI RMSEA 90% CI

1. Null 5745.70* 435 13.21

2. Two-factor

(Pre- and Post-Encounter)

3325.15* 404 8.23 .42 .46 .110 .107-.114

3. Three-factor

(matching NT-O stages)

2638.38* 402 6.68 .55 .59 .097 .093-.100

4. Six-factora 704.16* 390 1.81 .94 .94 .037 .032-.041

5. One-factor higher-order

(Race Salience)

912.54* 400 2.28 .90 .91 .046 .042-.050

6. Two-factor higher-order

(Pre- and Post-Dis)

763.77* 400 1.91 .93 .93 .039 .035-.043

Note: N=599; CRIS=Cross Racial Identity Scale; s-b=Satorra-Bentler; df=degree of freedom;

NNFI=nonnormed fit index; CFI= comparative fit index; RMSEA= root mean square error of approxi-

mation; CI= confidence interval; NT-O=original nigrescence model; Dis=discovery.

a. Expanded nigrescence model model.

*p< .001.




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fit than all alternative models. Interestingly, some findings closely mirror the only

previous CFA of CRIS scores (Vandiver et al., 2002; N= 309), with identical CFI

values for the NT-E and two-factor higher-order models. Moreover, the models thatcame closest to the fit of the NT-E model in both studies were the two higher-order

models. As noted in the results, the item/first-order factor coefficients in the higher-

order models were similar across the six-factor NT-E model and the two higher-order

models. However, the coefficients to the second-order factors were the ones that dif-

fered most in the two studies. These results suggest that the six-factor NT-E model is

stable across the two samples, despite the considerable difference in sample size.

These findings are noteworthy for several reasons. Black racial identity is a con-

struct of considerable importance in the research and clinical literature (Ashmore

et al., 2004; Cokley, 2007; Cokley et al., 2001; Ponterotto & Mallinckrodt, 2007),and the CRIS is the first theoretically based instrument measuring this construct

with scores that have been supported by both EFA and CFA techniques. Moreover,

it is generally accepted that factoring items is more difficult than factoring scales

(Bernstein & Teng, 1989) and can often result in poor CFA fit indices (Ferrando &

Lorenzo-Seva, 2000).

Of course, establishing the validity of scores on an instrument is only a penultimate

goal. The ultimate goal is to be able to use these scores to investigate questions of

interest about the constructs that those scores are measuring. Recent studies using the

CRIS suggest that these types of studies are beginning to occur. Worrell, Vandiver,et al. (2006) used CRIS scores to demonstrate that there are generalizable clusters of

racial identity attitudes among Black college students. These researchers identified

seven different clusters that were interpretable using NT-E, and four of these clusters

generalized across three independent samples. Worrell, Vandiver, et al. (2006) con-

tended that it will be important to examine differences among clusters on many of

the variables related to racial identity attitudes (p. 541). In another recent study,

Gardner-Kitt and Worrell (2007) suggested that the CRIS could be used in longitudi-

nal studies of racial identity from adolescence to adulthood. The results of the current

study provide support for the use of CRIS scores in college student (emerging adult)populations.

Future Research and Conclusion

The findings of the study indicate that (a) the CRIS is a viable operationalization

of NT-E and (b) the internal consistency and structural validity of CRIS scores are

satisfactory. The study benefited from having a substantial sample size, which was

gender balanced. In other studies of the CRIS (e.g., Gardner-Kitt & Worrell, 2007;

Helm, 2002; Vandiver et al., 2002; Worrell, Vandiver, Cross, et al., 2004), the sam-ples have been at least 64% female. Nonetheless, there are several studies of the

CRIS that have not yet been undertaken. The stability of CRIS scores has not been

established, nor the stability of CRIS clusters (Worrell, Vadiver, et al., 2006). It is




16/19

also not yet known if CRIS factors are invariant across demographic groups (e.g.,

age, gender) and if analyses based on generalizability theory will provide support

for CRIS scores.Of course, the most fundamental questions revolve around whether racial identity is a

meaningful predictor of other attitudes and behaviors. To answer these questions will

require examining CRIS scores in relation to variables other than pen-and-pencil mea-

sures, predicting and testing hypotheses about cluster group differences, conducting

quasi-experimental studies based on group memberships established using CRIS scores,

and using temporal sequencing to observe changes from Time 1 to Time 2, perhaps with

structural equation modeling. To use a well-known phrase, the support for CRIS scores

in this study suggests that this may be the best of times for racial identity research.

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