BDUCATION, TRAINING AND THE INFORMAL SBCTOR IN KENYA

Mar t in WalshO c t o b e r 1 9 9 1

INTRODUCTION

T h e n e e d t o c r e a t e e m p l o y m e n t i n K e n y a i s w i d e l y r e c o g n i s e d , a sis the capac i ty o f the in fo rmal sec tor to absorb schoo l leavers andt h e u n e m p l o y e d a t c o m p a r a t i v e l y l i t t l e c o s t . T h i s p a p e r e x a m i n e sthe cur ren t and po ten t ia r ro re o f educat ion and espec ia l l yd i f f e r e n b k i n d s o f t r a i n i n g i n t h i s p r o c e s s . f t i s a s y n t h e s i s o ft h e r e p o r t s a n d o t h e r d o c u m e n t s l i s t e d i n t h e b i b f i o g r a p h y , i np a r b j " c u l a r t h e w o r k i n g p a p e r s p r e p a r e d b y N g a r e ( 1 g g 1 a , 1 g g 1 b ) a n dY a m b o ( 1 9 9 1 ) f o r t h e i o j - n t I L O / I ' { T T A T n i s s i o n t o p r e p a r e a p r o p o s a lf o r a n i n f o r m a l s e c t o r t r a i n i n g , p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d e m p l o y m e n tp r o j e c t i n K e n y a .

T h e p a p e r i s d i v i d e d i n t o f i v e s e c t i o n s i n c l - u d i n g t h i s s h o r ti n t r o d u c L i o n . S e c t i o n 2 b e l o w p r e s e n t s a n o v e r v i e w o f e d u c a t i o na n d L r a i n i n g , f o c u s i n g m a i n l y u p o n t h e p u b l i c t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n sa n d a d e s c r i p L i o n o f t r a i r r i n g o r a p p r e n t i c e s h i p w i t h i n t h e i n f o r m a ls e c t o r . S e c t i o n 3 e x a m i n e s s o m e o f t h e m a j o r i s s u e s i n t r a i n i n gf o r ( a n d b y ) t - h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r , t a k i n g a c r i t i c a l l o o k a t t h es t r e n g t h s a n d w e a k n e s s e s o f d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s a n d m o d e s o f t r a i n i n g .S e c t i o n 4 , w h i c h i n c l u d e s a n o u t l i n e o f c u r r e n t g o v e r n n r e n t p o l i c y ,d i s c u s s e s s o m e o f t h e w a y s i n w h i c h l . r a i n i n g c a n b e r e o r i e n t e d . s otha t ib can address the needs o f the in fo rmal sec tor moree f f e c t i v e l y t h a n i t d o e s a t p r e s e n t . S e c t i o n 5 p r o v i d e s a b r i e fc o n c l u s i o n a n d i s f o l l o w e d b y a l i s t o f a c r o n y m s a n d a b b r e v i a t i o n su s e d i n b h e t e x t ( A n n e x 1 ) , t h e s t a t i s t i c a l t , a b l e s ( A n n e x z t a n df i n a l l y a b i b l i o g r a p h y o f w o r k s c i t e d i n o r d i r e c t l y r e l e v a n t t ot h e p a p e r .

EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN KENYA: AN OVBRVIEW

T h i s s e c t i o n p r o v i d e s a d e s c r i p t i v e o v e r v i e w o f t h e s y s t e m s o ff o r m a l e d u c a t i o n , f o r m a l t r a i n i n g a n d i n f o r m a r t r a i n i n g ( o ra p p r e n t i c e s h i p ) i n K e n y a

A c c o r d i n g t o b h e N d e g w a R e p o r t ( R e p u b l i c o f K e n y a 1 9 9 1 a ) t h eto ta l - number o f peop le be ing t ra ined or educated in fo rmali r r s t i t u t i o n s i n K e n y a i s a b o u t 6 n i l l i o n o u t o f ; r t o t a l p o p u l a t i o no f 2 3 n i l J - i o n , a b o u t 6 0 % o f t h e i r a g e g r o u p ( r n o s t s t u d e n t s a n d .t r a i n e e s b e i n g u n d e r 2 0 y e a r s o l d ) . G o v e r n m e n t e x p e n d i t u r e o neducat ion in recent years has accounted fo r 38% o f to ta l recur re r r te x p e n d i t u r e ' o r 4 5 % i f t r a i n i n g i s a d d e d . T h e p u b l i c a n d . p r i v a t es e c t o r s c o m b i n e d s p e n d 9 % o f G D P o n e d u c a t i o n .

2 , 7 F o r n a l E d u c a t i o n

T h e c u r r e n b s y s t e m o f f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y r e f e r r e dt o i r s B - 4 - 4 : e i g h b y e a r s o f p r i m a r y s c h o o l , f o l l o w e d b y f o u r y e a r so f s e c o n d a r y a n d f o u r y e a r s ( a b l e a s t ) o f t e r t , i a r y e d u c a t i o n . T h e8 - 4 - 4 s y s t e m w a s i n ' L r o d u c e d i n 1 9 8 4 t o r e p l a c e t h e o l d 7 - 6 - 3 s y s t e mf o J - l o w i n g t h e r e c o m m € ) n d z r t i o n s o f t h e 1 9 8 1 P r e s i d e n t i a l W o r k i n gP a r t y o n t h e S e c o n d U n i v e r s i t y .

2 . 2 , 1 P r i m a r : y S c h o o l

T h e B - 4 - 4 s y s t e m b e g i n s w i t h e i g h t y e a r s o f p r i m a r y s c h o o le d u c a t i o n . T h e i n t a k e t o S t a n d a r d 1 i d e a l l y c o m p r i s e s s i x y e a r o l dch i ld ren who have prev ious ly ga ined an e lementary acqua in tance w i thl i te racy and numeracy in nursery schoo l . fn S tandard B s tudentst a k e t h e K e n y a C e r t i f i c a t e o f P r i m a r y E d u c a t i o n ( K C P E ) e x a m i n a t i o n .The cur r i cu lum inc ludes a number o f p rac t ica l sub jec ts taught undert h e n r b r i c o f h o m e s c i e n c e , a r t a n d c r a f t , a n d a g r i c u l t u r e .

M o s t p r i m a r y s c h o o l - s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d a n d e q u i p p e d b y t h e i rI o c a l c o m m u n i b i e s . T h e g o v e r n m e n t p a y s t e a c h e r s ' s a l a r i e s t h r o u g hl h e T e a c h e r s ' S e r : v i c e C o m m i s s i o n ( T S C ) a n d p r o v i d e s p h ; r s i c a lf a c i l - j - t j - e s i . n s o m e h a r d s h i p a r e a s . T h e 8 - 4 - 4 s y s t e m h a s r e q u i r e de x t r a f a c i l i t i e s i n t - h e f o r m o f w o r k s h o p s , a n d i t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a tb y 1 9 9 0 a b o u t 4 0 2 1 o f t h e f a c i l i t i e s n e e d e d t o i m p l e m e n t t h e n e ws y s t e m l i a d 5 e e n c o n s l r u c t e d .

T h e g o v e r n m e n t t s g o a l i s t o p r o v i d e u n i v e r s a l p r i m a r ye d u c a t i o n . W h i l e t h i s g o a l h a s y e t t o b e a c h i e v e d , i n 1 9 8 9 5 . 4n i 1 l i o n s t u d e r r t s w e r e e n r o l l e d i n m o r e t h a n 1 4 , 0 0 0 p r i m a r y s c h o o l st h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y . r n t h e s a m e y e a r a l m o s t 3 9 0 r 0 0 0 p u p i l s s a tf o r t h e K e n y a C e r t i f i c a t e o f P r i m a r y E d u c a t i o n ( K C P E ) , f o l l o w i n gw h j - c h s o m e 4 6 % g a i n e d a d m i s s i o n t o s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l .

2 . I . 2 S e c o n < l a r y S c ; h o o l

A s i n d i c a t e c i a b o v e , c l o s e t o h a l f o f a l - - L p r i m a r y s c h o o l l e a v e r sa r e a d m i t t e d t c > s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l , a b o u t 2 3 % o f i h e i r a g e g r o u p . A tt h e e n d o ! l f o u r y e a r s o f s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n s t u d e n t s ( b y t h e n a g e d1 B y e a r s p l u s ) s i t f o r t h e K e n y a C e r t i f i c a t e o f S e c o n d a r y E d u c a t i o n( K C S E ) . T h e y h a v e t o L a k e a t l e a s t o n e p r a c t i c a ] s u b j e c t , a n d t h ec u r r i c u l u m ( ' L n

L h e o r y ) p r o v i d e s a w i d e v a r i e t y t o c h o o s e f r o m ,i n c l u d i n g a g r i c r . r l t u r e , w o o d w o r k , m e t a r l w o r k , m e c h a n i c s ,c o n s t r u c t . i o n , h o m e s c i e n c e , b u s i n e s s e d u c a t , i o n , a n c i a r t a n d d e s i g n .T n 1 9 8 9 t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s h a d a t o t a l e n r o l l m e n t o f a b o u t6 4 0 ' 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s . a n d j n t h e s a m e y e a r 1 " 7 i , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s s a t f o rt h e i r K C S E e r : r m i n ; r l . i o n s .

2 . 1 . 3 U n j , v e r s i L y

T h e r : e a r e s i x p r - r b l i c u n i v e r s i t i e s w h i c h o f f e r f o u r y e a r f i r s td e g r e e c o u r s e s f o r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l l e a v e r s . I n 1 9 8 9 t h e t o t a le n r o l l . r n e n l - o f L h e r r n i - v e r s i t i e s w a s s o m e 2 3 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s : i n 1 9 9 0t h i s f i . g u , : ' e r o s e t o 4 1 , 0 0 0 , a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e d o u b l e - i n t a k en e c e s s i i ; a t . e d b y t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e B - 4 - 4 s y s t e m . A l m o s t a l l

u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s a r e a b s o r b e d i n t o f o r m a l s e c t o r e m p l o y m e n t a n da s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e s e ( 8 9 % i n 1 9 8 8 ) i n t o p u b l i cs e r v i c e . T h e r e a r e a l s o 1 1 p r i v a t e u n i v e r s i t i e s : i n 1 9 8 ? t h e i rt o t a l e n r o l l m e n t w a s a I i t t l e l e s s t h a n 1 , 5 0 0 s t u d e n t s , a b o u tt h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f w h o n w e r e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s . I t i s a l s o e s t i m a t e dt h a t t h e r e a r e a b o u t , 1 2 ' 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g a b r o a d , t h o u g h b h i sf i g u r e i n c l u d e s p e o p l e o n s h o r t v o c a t i o n a l c o u r s e s .

2 . 2 F o r m a l T r a i n i n g

Techn ica l anr l vocat iona l t ra in ing in l (enya is genera l ryi d e n b i f i e d w i t h t h e . f o r m a l t r a i n i n g o f f e r e d b y i n s t i t u t i o n s w h i c hhave s t ruc tu red cur r i cu la and f i xed-per iod prog f rammes lead ing toc e r t i f i c a t i o n . o n o n e e s t i m a b e t h e r e a r e a b o u t 2 r 0 0 0 s u c ht r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s i n t h e c o u n t r y . r n 1 g 8 ga b o u t 6 1 r 0 0 0 p e o p l , e w e r e r e c e i v i n g t e c h n i c a l v o c a t i o n a l - e d u c a t i o no r t r a i n i n g o f r l i f f e r e n t k i n d s , t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e m i n t h e Y o u t hPo ly techn ics ( see Annex 2 , Tab l -e l - , fo r an overv iew o f enro l l -menti n d i f f e r e n t . i n s b i t u t i o n s ) .

T t s h o u l . d b e n o t e d t h a t d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s o f t e n f a i l t o a g i r e eo n t h e b a s i c s t a t i s t i c s o f f o r m a l t r a i n i n g : t h e n u n b e r o fi n s t i t u t i o n s , t h e i r t o t a l e n r o l l m e n t a n d t h e i r a n n u a l i n t a k e a n do u t p u t s . f n t h e a b s e n c e o f m o r e r e l i a b l e d a t a t h e f i g u r e s c i t . e dbe low shou ld be taken as no more than an approx i rner t lon on the bas iso f a v a i . l a b l e e v i d e n c e .

2 . 2 . 1 Y o u t h P o l y t e c h n i c s

T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f o r m a l t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t e r m s o fthe i r numbers and the re levance o f 'bhe i r ou tpu t to the in fo rna ls e c t o r a r e L h e Y o u t h P o l y t e c h n i c s ( Y P s ) . T h e t o t a l e n r o l l m e n t o ft h e Y P s i n 1 9 9 0 w a s a b o u t 4 0 r 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s . T h e f i r s t y p ( o rV i l l a g e P o r y t e c h n i c , a s i t w a s t h e n c ; r I 1 e d ) w a s e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h eN C C K i n 1 9 6 6 . B y l - 9 9 0 t h e r e w e r e 5 7 3 Y P s , a n a v e r a g l e o f a b o u te i g h t p e r D i s t r i c t . O f t h e s e 3 2 5 w e r e s p o n s o r e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t( m o s t o f t h e m b y b h e M i n i s t r y o f C u l t u r e a n d S o c i a l S e r v i c e s ) a n dt h e r e m a i n i n g 2 4 8 b y d i f f e r e n t , N G O s . T h e Y P s a r e u s u a l l y m a n a g e db y L h e j - r l o c a l c o m m u n i t i e s .

T h e Y P s t y p i c a l l y o f f e r t w o y e a r a r t i s a n l - e v e l - c o u r s e s f o rp r i m a r y s c h o o l l e a v e r s ( a n d s o m e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l d r o p - o u t s )l e a d i n g t . o b h e G o v e r n m e n t r r a d e T e s t s ( e s p e c i a l l y g r a d e r r r , t h el o w e s t ) w h i c h a r e a d m i n i s t e r e d b y b h e D i r e c t o r a t e o f I n d u s t r i a lT r a i n i n g ( D I T ) i n t h e M i n i s t r y o f T e c h n i c a l T r a i n i n g a n d A p p l i e dT e c h n o l o g y ( M T T A T ) . T n t h e c a s e o f 6 7 Y P s a d o p t e d b y t h e M T T A T n e war t i -san courses < leveJ-ope- .d f o r the 8-4-4 sy l labus by the KenyaT n s t i b u L e o j ' l E d u c a L i o n ( K I t r ) a n d e x a m i n a b l e b y t h e K - e n y a N a t i . o n a lE x e t m i n a t i o n C o u n c i l h a v e b e e n i n t r o d u c e d . B n t r y r e q u i r e m e n t s f o rLhese new ( :ourses ( KCPE average C or above ) a re h igher than thosef o r ' l ; h e G o v e r n m e n t ' f r a d e T e s t s ( G T T s ) .

T h e r n o s L w i d e l y o l l f e r e d c o u r s e s i n c l u d e c a r p e n t r y , m a s o n r y ,t a i J " o r i n g z r r t d c i r e s s n a k i n g , m o t o r m e c h a n i - c s , n e t a l w o r k a n d g e n e r a lf i t b i r r g . o l - h e r c o u r s e s b o b e f o u n d i n c l u d e w e l d i r r g , p l u m b i n g ,l e a L h e r w o r k , e l e c t r i c a l w o r k a n d e l e c t r o n i c s . T h e o r i e n t a t i o n i so v e r w h e l r n i n g l y p r a c t i c a l . a n d 9 0 % o f t , h e c u r r i c u l u m i n t h e s e a r t i s a nr e v e . : I c o u r s e s i s d e v o t e d t o t r a d e s u b j e c t s , t h e r e m a i n i n g I o % t os u p p o r t i n g s u b j e c t s .

2 . 2 . 2 ' l ' c : c h n j - c a l T r a i . n i n g I n s t i t u t e s

T h e r e a r e 1 9 T e c h n i c a l T r a i n i n g I n s t i t u t e s ( T T I s ) o p e r . a t e d b yt h e I ' I T T A T . I n 1 9 B g t h e y h a d z r n e n r o l l m e n t c a p a c i t y o f a b o u t 9 r 0 0 0s t u d e n t s . B e f o r e 1 9 8 7 t h e T T I s w e r e T e c h n i c a l S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l s .The i r p r imary a im was ernd j -s to impar t techn ica l educat ion to young'L ra inees and prepare t .hem fo r employment and/or fu r ther t ra in ing .T h e T T f s o f f e r : t w o J r e a r a r t i s a n l e v e l c o u r s e s f o r p r i m a r y s c h o o ll e a v e r s a n d t h r e e y e a r c r a f l - l e v e l c o u r s e s ( l e a d i n g t o c r a f tc e r t i f i c a t e s i t n < l / o r L h e h i g h e r g r a d e T r a d e T e s t s ) f o r s e c o n d a r ys c h o o l l e a v e r s a n d i , h e g r a d u a t e s o f a r t i s a n p r o g r . a m m e s . 8 0 % o f t h ec u r r i c u l u t r a t c r : r f t l e v e l i s d e v o t . e d t o t r a d e s u b j e c t s a n d 2 0 % t os u p p o r t i . n g s u b j e c t s ,

2 . 2 . 3 I n s t i t r r t . e s o f T e c h n o l o g y

T t r e r q r a r e r r o r n e 2 0 r n s t i t u t e s o f r e c h n o l o g y ( r r s ) , f o r m e r l yk n o w n a s l { a r a m b e e I n s t i t u t e s o f T e c h n o l o g y ( H I T s ) a n d s o n e t i m e sc a l l e d f n s L i t u t e s o f A d v a n c e d ' l e c h n o l o g y , C o l l e g e s o f T e c h n o l o g y ,o r b y o t h e r s i r r j - l a r r l a m e s . T h e f i r s t H I ' l w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1 9 ? 3a n d b y 1 9 8 6 i . h e r e w e r e L 7 o f t h e n a c r o s s t h e c o u n t r y w i t h a ne n r o l l m e n L o f o v e r ' 3 ' 0 0 0 t r a i r r e e s ( c u r r e n t e s t i m a t e s r a n g e b e t w e e nt h i s f i g u r e a n d d o u b l e b h e n u m b e r ) . T h e I T s a r e r u n b y t h e i r l o c a lc o m m u r r i b i e s a n d a s s i s L e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t i n p r o v i d i n g s t a f f a n dI i r n i t e d r ; t r r d r : n L g r a n i - s .

T h e I ' f r ; w e r e e s t ; r b 1 - L s h e d t o p r c v i d e y o u t i r w i t h s k i l 1 s f o r . s e l fr e l i z r n c e i a i - i r r E r : t r r a l c o m m u n i b i e s . f n t h e e a r l ; r 1 9 8 0 s s o n e o f L h e mo f f e r e d b o l - t r ; r r t i s a n e r n d c r a f t c o u r s e s , b u t m o s t o f t , h e m h a v e n o wset t le ld f o r i . i re la t ber . l . {o re recent , l y some o f the rTs havei n i t i a l - e d l - e t ; h n i c i a n I e v e l c o u r : s e s . A p p l i c a n t s f , r o m t h e D i s t r i c r si n w h i c h i - h e I T s ; r . r e } o c a l e C a r e g i v e n p r i o r i l - y .

2 . 2 . + N a t i o n a l , T n d u s t , r i a i V o c a t i o n a l T r a i n i n g C e n t r . e s

T I l e r e a r e t . L r r e e } { a i . i o n a l i n d u s t r i a l Y o c a t i o n a l T r a i n i n g C e n t r e s( N M C s ) . ' I i r e s e ; r . r e o p e r a L e d u n d e r t h e N a t i o n a l i n d u s t r i a l a n dv o c e r l ; i o n a l T r a i n i n g A c l , b y m e ; r n s o f a t r a . i n i n g i e v y i m p o s e d o n a 1 ienp l -oyers e rnd are run by the } " {TTAT ' s D i rec l .o ra te c f inc ius t r ia i' l r a i n i n g ( D r r ) . T h e y a r e l o c a L , e d i n L h e t h r e e l a r g e s r u r b a nr : e n t . r e s , N a i r c b i . , ! { o m b a s a r ; : . n d K i s u m u . T h e i T C s i n M o m b a s a a n dKis t r inu are sponscr r r :d by DANIDA.

T h e N T V T C s t : r k e i n m o r e L h a n 1 , 0 0 0 t r ; r i n e e s p e r y e a r , m o s t o fw h o m a r e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l l e a v e r s a n d ; r r e b e i l g s p o n s o r e d b y t h e i re m p l o y e r s . T h e y o f f e r l - h r e e y e a r s a n d w i c h c o u r s e s l e a d i n g t o c r a f tc e r t i f i c ; r t e s . s L , u d e n t s ; r b t e n t i t h e c e n t - r e s f o r i 2 w e e k s i n a J . e a r ,

a n d s p e n d t h e r e s t o f t h e i r t i m e o n i n d u s t r i a l a t t a c h m e n t . T h ec e n t r e s a l s o c o n d u c t e v e n i n g c o u r s e s f o r s k i I I u p g r a d i n g o f s m a l l -sca le workshop owners and the i r employees .

2 . 2 . 5 N a t i o n a l P o l y t e c h n i c s

T h e r e a r e t h r e e N a t i o n a l P o l y t e c h n i c s ( N P s ) , a t E l d o r e t ,M o m b a s a a n d N a i r o b i ( K e n y a P o l y t e c h n i c ) . T h e i r i n t a k e c o m p r i s e sg r a d u a t e s o f c r a f t s c h o o l s , w i t h a m a j o r i t y o f s t u d e n t s s p o n s o r e db y d i f f e r e n t m i n i s t r i e s a n d p r i v a t e s e c t o r e m p l o y e r s , p l u s r m o r erecent ly , some who are se l f sponsored. The to ta l enro l lmen ' t i sa p p r o x i m a t e l y 9 ' 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s .

The NPs cur ren t ly o f fe r a w ide range o f courses a t Techn ic ianand H igher Techn ic ian leve ls ' Ias t ing two and th ree yearsrespec t ive ly and lead ing to Ord inary D ip lomas and H igher Nat iona lD ip lomas. 60% o f the cur r i cu lum is g iven over to t rade and theremain ing 4O% to suppor t ing sub jec ts . Most o f the graduates en terfo rmal sec tor employment .

W h e n t h e B - 4 - 4 s y s t e m b e c o m e s f u l l y o p e r a t i o n a l i t i s e n v i s a g e db h a t t h e N P s w i l I a l s o o f f e r t w o y e a r B a c h e l o r o f T e c h n o l o g yc o u r s e s ( 7 O % t h e o r y a n d 2 O % p t a c t i c a l ) f o r h o l d e r s o f d i p l o m a s o requ iva len . t qua l i f i ca t ions , as we l l as two year pos t -g raduatec o u r s e s ( 8 0 % t h e o r y a n d 2 O % p r a c t i c a l ) .

2 . 2 . 6 P r i v a t e a n d N o n - G o v e r n m e n t T r a i n i n g I n s t i t u t i o n s

There are many d i f fe ren t k inds o f p r iva te commerc ia l and NGOass is ted or opera ted t ra in ing ins t i tu t ions o ther than those a l readyre fer red to above. The NGO ass is ted ins t i tu t ions inc lude theC h r i s t i a n I n d u s t r i a l T r a i n i n g C e n t r e s ( C I T C s , o f w h i c h t h e r e a r es e v e n ) , C r a f t C e n L r e s , C o m m u n i t y C e n t r e s r R e h a b i l i t a t i o n C e n t r e s( i n c l u d i n g w o r k s h o p s f o r t h e d i s a b l e d ) a n d o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s I i k ethe t ra in i -ng schoo ls opera ted by the Undugu Soc ie ty in Na i rob i andT o t o t o H o m e I n d u s t r i e s i n M o m b a s a . T h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s t y p i c a l l yta rge t economica l l y d isadvantaged groups and o f fe r a r t i san and( e s p e c i a l l y t h e C I T C s ) c r a f t 1 e v e l c o u r s e s l e a d i n g t o t h e G T Tc e r t i f i c a t e s . E s t i m a t e s o f t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f s u c h i n s t i t u t i o n sand the bra inees w i th in Lhem are no t ava i lab le .

T h e w i d e v a r i e t y o f p r i v a t e t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d c o l l e g e sd e f y s i m p l e d e s c r i p t i o n . G i v e n t h a t s o m e o f t h e s e , l i k ee l - e m e n t a r y t a i l o r i n g s c h o o l s , o p e r a t e w i t h i n t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r ,i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n r e l i a b l e o r u p t o d a t e i n f o r m a t i o n o nt h e i r n u m b e r a n d e n r o l l m e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e M i n i s t r y o f M a n p o w e rDeve lopment and Employnent 23 r432 Lra inees were enro l led in p r iva tei n s t i t u t i o n s i n 1 9 8 4 . M a n y o f t h e s e t r a i n e e s w e r e e n g a g e d i nb u s i n e s s s t u d i e s , a n d a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e l a t t e r ( 6 4 % ) w e r erepor ted to be women - p resumably because there were fewer open ingsf o r t h e r n i n t h e p u b l i c l - r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s .

2 . 2 , 7 N a b i o n a l Y o u t h S e r v i c e

T h e N a t i o n a l Y o u t h S e r v i c e ( N Y S ) , w h i c h i s r u n b y t h e O f f i c e o ft h e P r e s i d e n t ' w a s e s t a b l i s h e d t o p r o v i d e v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g a n dd i s c i p l i n e d w o r k e x p e r i e n c e . I t w a s o r i g i n a l l y d e s i g n e d f o rpr imary schoo l leavers bu t has inc reas ing ly become an ins t i tu t ionf o r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l l e a v e r s . fn 1989 the NYS had a to ta le n r o l l m e n t o f 4 ' 6 0 0 , d i s t r i b u t e d b e t w e e n 1 6 N Y S t r a i n i n g c e n t r e s .T h e s e p r o v i d e t r a i n i - n g o f 4 - 5 y e a r s ' d u r a t i o n a t b o t h a r t i s a n ( G T T )a n d c r a f t l e v e l s .

2 . 2 . 8 P u b I i c S e r v i c e I n s t i t u t e s

T h e r e a r e a l s o a v a r i e t y o f t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t e s w h i c h a r eopera ted by d i f fe ren t b ranches o f the government fo r c iv i l servantsand pub l ic employees . Ava i lab le es t imates o f the i r number rangebetween 76 and 200. These inc lude the min is te r ia l and paras ta ta lt r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t e s a s w e I l a s t h o s e s u p e r v i s e d b y t h e D i r e c t o r a t eo f P e r s o r r r r e l M a n a g e m e n t ( D P M ) i n t h e O f f i c e o f t h e P r e s i d e n t , w h i c hc o o r d i n a t e s i n s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g d e s i g n e d t o u p g r a d e t h e s k i l l s o fthose a l ready ernp loyed. These government ins t i tu tes a re beg inn ingt o o f f e r t r a i . n i n g t o t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r a s w e l l a s p u b l i c s e c t o re m p l o y e e s . D P M s t - a L i s t i c s f o r 1 9 8 8 i n d i c a t e t h a t l - I r 0 0 0 e m p l o y e e sw e r e o f f e r e d b r a i n i n g i n d i f f e r e n b s k i l l s w i t h i n K e n y a a n d o v e r1 , 0 0 0 o u t s i d e t h e c o u n t r y .

2 . 2 . 9 T e c h n i c a l T e a c h e r T r a i n i n g

The supp ly o f teachers to pub l i c ins t i tu t ions is ther e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e T S C . I n 1 9 B g t h e T S C s u p p l i e d 1 , 8 9 4t e c h n i c a l t e a c h e r s , m o s t l y t o t h e T T r s , r r s a n d N p s . o n l y a v e r ysmal l number jo ined the YPs ( fo l low ing the takeover o f 67 yps bythe MTTAT) . Most YP teachers a re p r imary schoo l leavers w i th GTTGrade I f who have been t ra ined a t the Kenya Techn ica l - Teachers tC o l l e g e ( K T T C ) , a f u n c t i o n w h i c h i s n o w b e i n g s w i t c h e d t o t h e K a r e nc e n t r e f o r R e s e a r c h a n d r e c h n o r o g y ( c R T ) . T h e J z s g o v e r n m e n ts P o n s o r e d Y P s h n d 2 ' 0 6 7 t e a c h e r s i n 1 9 8 8 , l e s s t h a n a t h i r d o f t h ee s t i m a t e d 6 ' 8 2 5 i n s t r u c t o r s ( 2 L p e r Y P ) r e q u i r e d t o i n p l e m e n t t h eB - 4 - 4 a r t i s a n c o u r s e s .

2 . 2 . 1 O T h e M i n i s t r y o f T e c h n i c a l T r a i n i n g a n d A p p l i e d T e c h n o l o g y

T h e M i n i s t r y o f T e c h n i c a r T r a i n i n g a n d A p p l i e d T e c h n o r o g y( M T T A T ) w a s c r e a t e d i n M a r c h 1 g 8 B d u r i n g a r o u t i n e c a b i n e tr e s h u f f r e . r t s p o r t f o l i o i n c l u d e s t e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g p o l i c y ,t e c h n i c a l e d u c a t i o n a n d v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g i n t h e y p s , r r s , D r ra n d N P s . Before the c rea t ion o f MTTAT these were ther e s p o n s i b i l i b y o f d i f f e r e n t m i n i s t r i e s . Y P s w e r e u n d e r t h e c h a r g eo f t h e M i n i s ' l ; r y o f c u l t u r e a n d s o c i a l s e r v i c e s . T e c h n i c a leducat ion and Lechn ica l - t ra in ing po l i cy , the ITs and the Nps cameu n d e r t h e M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n , s c i e n c e a n d T e c h n o l o g y . T h e D r Tand techn ica l vocat iona l t ra in ing in genera l were ther e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f L a b o u r

T h e M T T A T i s a r s o c h a r g e d w i t h r e s p . n s i b i l i t y f o r J u a K a l id e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s . J u a K a r i ( r i t e r a r r y ' h o l = u r r ' ) r e f ; ; ;p r i m a r i l y t o p r o d u c t i o n a n d s e r v i c e o r i e n t e d i n f o r m a l s e c t o re n b e r p r i s e s r s o c a l l e d b e c a u s e m a n y o f t h e m o p e r a t e o u t d o o r s a n dw i t h a m i n i m u m o f s h e l t e r f r o m t h e e l e m e n t s . R " " o g n i t i o n o f t h i ss e c t o r a n d i t s e x p l i c i t i n c l u s i o n i n t h e r n i n i s t e r i a l b r i e f i s a ni n n o v a t i o n w h i c h c a m e i n w i t h t h e n e w m i n i s t r y . r n d e e J ; . r ; " ; - i ; ;i n c e p t i o n t h e M T T A T h a s p a i d r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t oi n s t i t u t i o n a l t r a i n i n g . r n s t e a d i t h a s f o c u s e d u p o n t h e p r o v i s i o no f i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , e s p e c i a l r y N y a y o s h e d s ( c o v e r e i w o r k s h o p s ) , f o rJ u a K a I i o r i n f o r m a l s e c t o r a . r t i s a n s .

2 . 3 I n f o r m a l S e c t o r T r a i n i n g

unt i r recent ly very r i t t te was known about apprent icsh ip ands k i l I a c q u i s i t i o n i n t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r . T h e f o l - I o w i n E i a c c o u n t i sb a s e d u p o n t h e i n f o r m a t i o n s u m m a r i s e d i n W a l s h ( f g g f ) a n d t h erepor t o f the ILO/SDSR survey ( 1991 ) o f apprent icesh ip in Mombasaa n d ( t h o u g h n o t d i r e c t r y r e r e v a n t h e r e ) D a r e s s a r a a m .

r n f o r m a f s e c t o r t r a i n i n g o r a p p r e n t i c e s h i p i n K e n y a i s n o t t h ew e r l - d e f i n e d i n s t i t u t i o n b h a t i s f o u n d i n w e s t A f r i c a . r t sboundar ies a re vague, and i t b rends impercept ib ly in to on- the- jobt ra in ing o f unpa id o r low-pa id workers . one o f the symptoms o ft h i s i s t h e a b s e n c e o f a s w a h i l i w o r d s p e c i f i c a r r y m e a n i n g" a p p r e n t i c e " a s o p p o s e d t o a " p u p i l " o r a n " a = l i s t a n t "

i n g e n e r a r .N o n e t h e l e s s r i t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t - t o r e c o g n i s e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p i n anumber o f fo rms rang ing f rom the embryon ic to the more fu l ryd e v e l o p e d , a c c o r d i ' g r - o f o c a t i o n a n d t y p e o f e n t e r p r i s e .

T h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s l a c k o f d e f i n i t i o n i s t h a t r e c r u i t m e n t t oemployment and sk i l l acqu is i t ion in the in fo rmal sec tor remainsvery much embedded in and dependent upon ex is t ing soc ia l ne tworksa n d o b l i g a t i o n s . A s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n o f a p p r e n t i c e s a r er e l a t e d t o o r h a v e s o m e o t h e r s o c i a l t i e w i t h t h e i r - e m p l o y e r s ( a n dt ra iners ) , and more o f ten than no t they are members o f the samee t h n i c g r o u p . G e n e r a r r y s p e a k i n g , t h e r o l e p r a y e d b y s u c h t i e sdec l ines in impor tance a 's the urban in fo rmal sec tor becomes moredeveroped and en t repreneurs have more oppor tun i ty to f reet h e m s e r v e s f r o m t r a d i L , i o n a r o b r i g a t i o n s . E v e n i n N a i r o b i , t h o u g h ,w h e r e t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r i s m o s t f u 1 l y d e v e l o p e d , t h e r e c r u i t m e n to f t r a i n e e s i s s t i l l f a r f r o m b e i n g d e i e r m i n e d p r i m a r i l y b y m a r k e tf o r c e s .

A s a r e s u l t i n f o r m a r s e c t o r t r a i n i n g i s o n r y b e g i n n i n g t od e v e l o p t h e f e a t u r e s w h i c h a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p p r e n t i c e s h i p a s af u l l y - f l e d g e d i n s t i t u t i o n . T h e m a j o r i t y o f e n t r e p r e n e u r s d o n o tc h a r g e f e e s f o r t r a i n i n g t h e i r a p p r e n t i c e s , n e i t h e r d o t h e y o f f e rt h e m w r i t t e n c o n t r a c t s . r n t h e m a n y c a s e s w h e r e t h e r e i s n o t e v e na v e r b a l a g r e e m e n t , e x i s t i n g s o c i a l t i e s b e t w e e n t h e e n t r e p r e n e u r sa n d t h e i r t r a i n e e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d s u f f i c i e n t t o c o v e r t h e i r m u t u a lo b r i g a t i o n s a n d r i s k s . r t s h o u r d b e e m p h a s i s e d t h a t p r a c t i c e

v a r i e s c o n s i d e r a b r y b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f a c t i v i t y a s w e l _ l a sb y l o c a b i o n ' r n g e n e r a l i t c a n b e s a i d t n * t a p p r e n t i c e s h i p i s m o r ef o r m a l i s e d i n t h e m o r e t e c h n i c a l t r a d e s l i k e r n o t o . v e h i c r e r e p a i r ,w h i l - e i t i s m o s t d i f f i c u l t t o d i s t i n g u i s h f r o m f o r m s o f l o w o ru r r p a i d l a b o u r i n l o w s k i L t a c t i v i t i " = i i k " t h e s a l e o f c o o k e d f o o da n d b e v e r a g e s i n r o a d s i d e k i o s k s

D e s p i t e i t s r e l a t i v e ] a c k o f f o r n a l i s a t i o n , i n f o r m a l s e c t o rt ra in ing is by no means a marg ina l ac t i v i t y . i f r the ava i lab leev idence ind ica tes tha t i t p rays a very impor tan t ro r_e in thei n f o r m a r s e c t o r a s w e r r a s i n t h e w i d e r e c o n o m y . r t d o e s s o b yabsorb ing and t ra in ing a s ign i f i can t and increas ing number o f theunemployed, and in some cases even prepar ing then fo - r enp loyment int h e f o r m a r s e c t o r ( s e e A n n e x z , r a u r " e ) . o n e r o u g h e s t i m a t e f o r1 9 B g s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e w e r e b e t w e e n 4 b r 0 0 0 a n a " g o r 0 0 0

o r e v e nmore t ra inees in the in fo rmal sec tor na t , ionwide ( inc lud ing on lyo f f - f a r m e m p l o y m e n t a n d e x c l u d i n g t h o s e i n t r a d i n g a c t i v i t i e s ) .Ersewhere i t has been es t imated tha t the in fo rmal s=ec tor p roducedj u s t o v e r 1 3 0 ' 0 0 0 t r a i n e d a p p r e n t i c e s d u r i n g t h e t w e r v e m o n t h se n d i n g i n J u l y / A u g u s t 1 9 9 0 ( y a r n b o 1 9 9 1 ) .

T h e m o s t c o n s e r v a t i v e o f t h e s e e s t i m a t e s , 4 b r 0 0 o t r a i n e e s ,e x c e e d s t h e m o r e r e c e n t f i g u r e s f o r t o t a ] y p e n r o r r m e n t ( s e es e c t i o n 2 , 2 . 1 ) . T h e h i g h e r e s t i m a t e s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e i n f o r m a lsec tor p roduces cons iderab ly more t ra inees than a l l o f the fo rmalt r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s p u t t o g e t h e r . M o r e o v e r , t h i s i s a c h i e v e d a tj u s t a f r a c t i o n o f t h e c o s t , a n d n o n e a t a f r t o p u b l i c f u n d s .

3. MAJOR ISSUIiS IN TRAINING FOR THE INFORMAL SECTOR

T h i s s e c t i o n c o n s i d e r s t h ee f f i c i e n c y o f e x i s i t n g t r a i n i n gr e l a t e t o t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r . f tt h e f i r s t o f t h e s e e x a m i n e s f o r m a lw h i l e t h e s e c o n d p a r t l o o k s m o r ei n f o r m a l s e c t o r i t s e l f .

r e l e v a n c e , e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n ds y s t e m s , p a r t i c u l a r l y a s t h e yi s d i v i d e d i n t o t w o m a i n p a r t s :

e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g t o g e t h e r ,c l o s e l y a t t r a i n i n g w i t h i n t h e

3 . 1 f s s u e s i n F o r m a l E d u c a t i o n a . n d T r a i n i n g

I b i s c o n v e n i e n t t o e x a m i n e t h e r e l e v a n c e , e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n de f f i c i e n c y o f f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g t o g e t h e r . T h i s i sb e c a u s e t h e v ( a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s ) a r e b o t hsubsumed under the same por icy f ram&ork , a re bo th in the processo f i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e g - 4 - 4 s y s t e m , a n d a s a r e s u l t s h a r e v e r y m u c ht h e s a m e p a t t e r n o f p o t e n t i a l s a n d c o n s t r a i n t s .

3 . 1 . 1 R e l e v a n c e t o t h e I n f o r m a l S e c t o r

How re levant i s the ex is t ing sys tem o f fo rmal educat ion andt ra in ing to the deve lopment o f the in fo rmal sec tor and the growthof employment and sk i l l s w i th in i t? There can be no doubt tha t thei n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e B - 4 * 4 s y s t e m , f o r l o w e d b y t h e c r e a t i o n o f am i n i s t r y ( l - h e M T T A T ) c h a r g e d w i t h c o o r d i n a t i n g p r e v i o u s r y d i s p a r a t e

p r o g r a m m e s o f L e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n gJ u a r K a l i d e v e l o p m e n t , h a s h e l p e dp o t e n t i a l o f t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o rd o n e b e f o r e .

T h e s L a t e d o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e B - 4 - 4 s y s t e m a r e ( a ) t o e m p h a s i z etechn ica l and vocat iona l educat ion a t the pr inary and secondaryl e v e l s s o t h a t a l I s c h o o l - l e a v e r s h a v e s o m e p r a c t i c a l k n o w l e d g e t oprepare them fo r se l f -employment , wage employment o r fu r thert r a i n i n g l e a d i n g t o t h e s a m e , ( b ) t o r e d u c e t h e m i s m a t c h b e t w e e nthe demand and the supp ly o f sk i l led manpower , and (c ) to mou ld thea t t i t u d e o f y o u t h t o t h e w o r l d o f w o r k . W h i l e t h i s d o e s n o t m a k ee x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r , ' i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h eemphas is upon techn ica l educat ion and t ra in ing fo r employmentinc ludes employment in the in fo rmal as we l l as the fo rmal sec tor .D a t a f r o m t h e r L o / s D S R s t u d y ( 1 9 9 1 ) o f a p p r e n t i c e s h i p a n d s k i l la c q u i s i t i o n i n d i c a b e t h a t f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n i s a s i g n i f i c a n tcomponent in the t ra in ing o f in fo rmal sec tor en t repreneurs andemployees . By fa r the major i t y o f employees are educated , many o fthem beyond pr imary schoo l , wh i le the i r eurp loyers ( theent repreneurs ) a re no t iceab ly be t t te r educated on averaEie ,s u g g e s t i n g t h a t e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l i s a np r e p a r a t i o n f o r s e l f - e m p l o y m e n t .

impor tan t fac to r in

S e s s i o n a l P a p e r N o . 6 o f 1 9 B B ( R e p u b l i c o f K e n y a 1 9 8 8 b ) f u r t h e remphas ised the prov is ion o f techn ica l and vocat iona l educat ion fo ra 1 l a t a r l l e v e r s o f e d u c a t i o n . A s m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d , t h et r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s i n t o p r a c t i c e h a s n o t b e e n i n s t a n t a n e o u s . S o m eo f t h e s p e c i f i c r e a s o n s f o r t h i s a r e d i s c u s s e d u n d e r t h e d i f f e r e n th e a d i n g s b e l o w . M o r e g e n e r a l l y , h o w e v e r , i t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a tt h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s g o a l o f u n i v e r s a l p r i m a r y e d u c a t i o n , a d v o c a t e d i nt h e 1 9 ? 9 - 8 3 D e v e l o p m e n t P I a n ( R e p u b r i c o f K e n y a 1 g 7 g ) , h a s y e t t oa t t a i n e d . T h e r e i s a l s o a s t a g g e r i n g l y h i g h d r o p - o u t r a t e i n t h epr inary schoo l .s . Near ly 60% o f pup i l s d rop ou t be tween Standard t -and Standard B ' w i l -h about one th i rd d ropp ing ou t in the f i rs t twoyears . fn each year more s tudents d rop ou t than f in ish Standard B.f t , h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d t h a t i n 1 9 9 0 a b o u t 4 8 0 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s w i l } h a v ed r o p p e d o u t a n d o n l y 3 8 0 ' 0 0 0 w i l l h a v e g r a d u a t e d . U n d e r t h e s ec i rcumstances i t i s apparent tha t the B-4-4 sys tem o f techn ica le d u c a t i o n w i l r n o t r e a c h m a n y y o u n g p e o p l e e v e n w h e n ( o r i f ) i tb e c o m e s f u l l y o p e r a t i o n a l .

T h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e M T T A T i n 1 9 B B a n d t h e e x p l i c i t i n c l u s i o n o fthe Jua KaI i o r p roduc t ive in fo rmal sec tor in i t s por t fo l io must ber e c o g n i z e d a s a m a j o r s t e p i n i n c r e a s i n g t h e r e l e v a n c e o f f o r m a lt r a i n i n g . F o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t e c h n i c a l a n d v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g a r et h e p r i m a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f a s i n g l e m i n i s t r y , w h i c h , m o r e o v e r ,i s charged w i th the deve lopment o f p rogrammes o f ass is tance fo r thei n f o r m a l s e l c t o r . A g a i n , h o w e v e r , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d r a w ad i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f p o l i c y a n d t h e i r t r a n s l a t i o ni n t o p r a c t i c e . r n e v i t a b r y , t h e l a t t e r l a g s b e h i n d . L e a v i n g a s i d et h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e M T T A T ' s o w n c a p a c i t y ( s e e s e c t i o n 3 . 1 . 3 . 4b e l o w ) ' i t i s c l e a r t h a t i t h a s i n h e r i t e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a w i d er a n E f e o f t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s w h o s e e x i s t i n g p u r p o s e s a n dprac t ices cannot be t rans formed or ra t iona l i zed overn igh t , even i ft h e m i n i s t r y w e r e t o g i v e t h i s t a s k ( i n c l u d i n g t h e i r m o d i f i c a t i o nt o s e r v e t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r ) t t r e h i g h e s t p r i o r i t y .

a s w e I I a s w i t h r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o rfocus a t ten t ion on the needs and

to an ex ten t wh ich had never been

N o n e o f t h e e x i s t i n g p u b l i c t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u b i o n s w e r e d e s i g n e ds p e c i f i c ; r I l y t o t , r a i n f o r e r u p l o y m e n t o r s e l f - e m p l o y m e n L i n t h ei n f o r m a l s e c t o r , e s p e c i a l l y t h e u r b a n i n f o r m a l s e c t o r . T h e m o s tre levant t -o the needs o f p r imary schoo l leavers and the sk i l - l sr e q u i r e d b y L r a i n e e s ' l i k e l y t o s e e k o r f i n d t l i e m s e l v e s i n s u c hemployment a r .e the YPs. The CITCs and o ther NGO ass is ted schoo ls( s e e s e c t - i o n 2 , 2 . 6 z r b o v e ) n l s o p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e a t t h i sIeve l , though they are fa r less i ,mpor tan t than the YPs in te rms o fthe i r bo ta l enro l lment and geogrerph ica l coverage.

T h e m i d d l e l e v e I t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e T T f s 'I T s , N I V T C s a n d N P s , t y p i c a l l y t a k e o n m o r e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o ll e a v e r s ( c l o s e t o l - 8 r 0 0 0 i n 1 9 9 0 ) a n d a r e n o t s o i m m e d i a t e l yre levant bo the in fo rmal sec tor , though graduates who fa i l to f indemployment in the fo rmal sec 'bor may we l l be absorbed by i t . fnth is contex t i t n igh t be no ted bhat IT g raduates are espec ia l l ys u c c e s s f u l i n f i n d i n g e m p l o y m e n t , p r e s u m a b l y i n t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r :t racer s tud ies have i r rd ica ted tha t on ly about 2% o f them remain ou to f work fo r over Lhree years . Unfor tunate ly comparab le daLa aren o t a v a i l a b l e f o r o b h e r t y p e s o f t r a i n i n g . T h e U r b a n L a b o u r F o r c eS u r v e y ( U L F S ) , c o n d u c t e d i n 1 9 8 6 , d o e s , h o w e v e r , p r o v i d e s o m ei n d i c a t i o n o f t h e s e c t o r w h i c h g r a d u a t e s o f d i f f e r e n t k i n d s a r el i k e l y t o b e e m p l o y e d i n . W h e r e a s a l m o s L a t h i r d o f e m p l o y e d Y Pg r a d u a L e s w e r e e m p l o y e d i n t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r , o n l y n e g l i g i b l enunber .s o f IT , NP and NYS graduates were , the vas t ma ior i t y o f themb e i n g e m p l o y e d i n t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r ( s e e A n n e x 2 ' T a b l e 2 ) .

I , Ih i Ie a tbenpLs are be ing made to o r ien t these ins t i tu t ions moret o w a r d s t h e n e e d s o f t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r ( s e e s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 1 b e l o w ) ,l i m i t e d p r o g r e s s h a s b e e n m a d e t o d a t e . T h i s c a n p a r t l y b eascr ibed to the facb tha t the deve lopment and imp lenenta t ion o fp ro€ f rammes necessar i l y lags beh ind the fo rmula t ion o f po l i cy .Whi Ie a re levant po l i cy f ramework has ernerged in the pas t fewy e a r s r L h e c h a l l e n g e i s n o w t o d e v i s e w a y s o f p u t t i n g i t i n t oe f f e c t ( a s u b j e c t d i s c u s s e d m o r e f u } l y i n s e c t i o n 4 b e l o w ) .

3 . 1 . 2 R e l - e v a n c e l - o W o m e n

Da'La f ron t ,he 1986 ULFS ind ica te tha t employment in thein fo rmal sec t -o r i s p roporb iona l l y more impor tan t fo r women than i ti s f o r m e n ( s e b s t a d 1 9 9 1 ) . At the same t ime women areunder represented in many o f the more techn ica l and produc t ive

a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n b h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r , a s w e l l a s i n t h e e c o n o m y a sa who le . These observa t ions lend fo rce to the arg lument tha tp r . o g r a m m e s f o r t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r m u s t g i v e s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t ot h e r o l e a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f w o m e n .

T h e l ( e n y a n e d u c a t i o n s y s b e m ' i s n o t g e n d e r b i a s e d , a t l e a s t i ni n t e n t . R e f e r e n c e h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m a d e t o t h e a d v o c a t i o n o fu n i v e r s a l e d u c a L i o n f o r a I l i n t h e 1 9 ? 9 - 1 9 8 3 D e v e l o p m e n t P l a n ( s e es e c t i o n 3 . 1 - . 1 a b o v e ) . N o n e t h e l e s s , i t r e m a i n s a f a c t t h a t i n 1 9 B ga p p r o x . i m a t e l y B 0 % o f K e n y a n m e n w e r e l i t e r a t e w h e r e a s o n l y 4 O % o fw o n e n w e r e . W h i l e t h i s g a p m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d t o n a r r o w o v e r t i m e tt h e r e a r e c l e a r l y a n u m b e r o f o b s t a c l e s w h i c h t h e e d u c a t i o n s y s t e ms b i I l h a s t o o v e r c o m e . T h e r e i s d e q p l y e n t r e n c h e d s t e r e o t y p i n g o fg e n d e r r o l e s i r r t h e h o u s e h o l d a s r + e l l a s i n t h e w o r k p l a c e . C e r t a i no c c u p a t i o n s a r e w i d e l y t h o u g h t o f a s s u i t a b l e f o r w o m e n ' w h i l e

1 0

o t h e r s , i n c l u d i n g n o s t o f t h e t e c h n i c a l t r a d e s , a r e n o t . T h ea v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t o c c u p a t i o n a l s t e r e o t y p i n g a l s oo c c u r s a t a l 1 l e v e l s o f e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g . I n d e e d i t s u g g e s t st h a t t h e e x i s t i n g s y s t e m i s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o r a t h e r t h a n m i n i m i s i n gt h e e f f e c t s o f o c c u p a L i o n a l s t e r e o t y p i n g a n d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .

T h e 8 - 4 - 4 s y s t e m i n t r o d u c e d p r a c t i c a l s u b j e c t s f o r a l l p u p i l sr e g a r d l e s s o f g e n d e r . L i t t l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n w a s g i v e n , h o w e v e r , t owhat wou ld happen wher r th is was imp lemented. S ince be fore Kenya 'sindependence in 1"963 the educat ion sys ten has fos te red genders te reo typ ing o f appropr ia te sub jec ts fo r s tudy . The major i t y o fteachers a re p roduc ts o f th is sys tem. A l though the educat ions y s t e m d i d n o L b a r w o m e n f r o m p u r s u i n g t e b h n i c a l e d u c a t i o n l i tc l e a r l y d i d n o t a d d r e s s t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e i r l o w p a r t i c i p a t i o n .Most cur ren t B-4-4 teachers taught in the o ld sys tem and, in theabsence o f reor ien ta t ion proE l rammes and care fu l l y des igned e f fo r tst o w a r d s p o s i t i v e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t i n m a n ycases they shou ld he lp reproduce the gender s te reo types wh ieh tothem are normal .

Occupat iona l s te reo typ ing is even more ev ident in the pub l ict r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . A s t u d y b y V A D A ( 1 9 9 0 ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h ee n r o l l m e n t o f w o m e n s t u d e n t s i n m a j o r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s i sgenera l l y much Iower ' than tha t o f men, a l though i t inc reaseds l i g h t l y b e t w e e n 1 9 8 5 a n d 1 9 8 9 . W o m e n t s e n r o l l m e n t w a s h i g h e s t i nthe YPs: 52% in th ree church-sponsored YPs and 30% in the twog o v e r n m e n b - s p o n s o r e d Y P s w h i c h w e r e s a m p l e d . W o m e n ' s e n r o l l m e n t i nsampled ITs was 27% of the to ta l and was genera l l y con f ined tobus iness educat ion , ca ter ing , garment mak ing and genera la g r i c u l t u r e . A s i m i l a r f i g u r e o b t a i n e d i n K e n y a P o l y t e c h n i c ( i nN a i r o b i ) , w h e r e w o m e n c o n p r i s e d 2 5 y " o f t h e s t u d e n t e n r o l l m e n t . I nMombasa Po ly techn ic , however , women compr ised on ly tL% o f thes t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n ( a d r o p f r o m 2 A % i n 1 9 8 5 ) : a l o w p r o p o r t i o nat t r ibu ted to the re la t i ve impor tance o f Is lam in the loca lc o m m u n i t y . The in f luence o f occupat iona l s te reo typ ing waspar t i cu la r ly c lear in the case o f K isumu NfVTC, where womenc o m p r i s e d a m e r e I % o f t h e e n r o l l m e n t i n 1 " 9 8 9 . T h i s w a s 'n o n e t h e l e s s , a n i m p r o v e m e n t o v e r 1 9 8 0 w h e n n o w o m e n w e r e e n r o l l e d .The propor t ion o f women enro l led in the two TTIs wh ich were sampledwas a lso low: B% overa l l and on ly 2% in techn ica l sub jec ts . Int h i s c a s e w o m e n t s l o w e n r o l l m e n t a l s o r e f l e c t s t h e f a c t t h a t t h eTTIs r zLS fo rmer Techn ica l Secondary Schoo ls , were des ignedpr imar i l y fo r ma le s tudents and in the absence o f su f f i c ien tr e s o u r c e s s t i l l l a c k b o a r d i n g a n d o t h e r f a c i l i t i e s f o r w o m e n .

A s r n i g h t b e e x p e c t e d , t h e l o w l e v e l o f w o m e n ' s e n r o l l m e n t i sr e p l i c a t e d i n s t a f f i n g p a t t e r n s . T e c h n i c a l w o m e n i n s t r u c t o r s i npar t i cu la r a re few and fa r be tween: most women teach bus inesse d u c a t i o n , c a t e r i n g , h o m e e c o n o m i c s , t a i l o r i n g r t e x t i l e a n d g a r m e n tm a k i n g . I n a s a m p l e o f 1 8 Y P s n o w o m e n w e r e t e a c h i n g t e c h n i c a ls u b j e c t s , w h i l e i n t h e T T I s a n d I T s w o m e n i n s t r u c t o r s w e r ea p p r o x i m a b e l y 3 - 4 % o f t h e t o t a l t e a c h i n g s t a f f . S i n i l a r 1 y ' i n t h eN P s l e s s t h a n 2 % o f L e c h n i c a l i n s t r u c t o r s w e r e w o m e n .

L 1

E f f o r t s t o c h a n g e t h i s s i t u a t i o n f o c u s u p o n t h e W o m e n i nT e c h n i c a l E d u c a t i o n ( W I T E D ) p r o j e c t a t K e n y a P o l y t e c h n i c i nNa i rob i . T t re p ro jec t i s sponsored by the Commonweal th Assoc ia t iono f P o l y t e c h n i c s i n A f r i c a ( C A P A ) w i t h f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e f r o m t h efLO and the Ford Foundat ion . I t i s based upon ex terna l counse l l inga i m e d a t m o t i v a t i n g g i r l s i n s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s t o e n r o l l i ntechn ica l sub jecbs aL bhe Po ly techn ic and o ther techn ica li n s t i t u t i o n s . I t i s t o o e a r l y t o a s s e s s w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e W I T E Dp r o j e c t w i l l h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t i m p a c t , a n d t h e r e i s c l e a r l y r o o mf o r o t h e r i n t e r v e n t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h i n t h e d i f f e r e n t p u b l i ct r a i n i n g i n s t i t u l i o n s t h e m s e l v e s .

In cont ra .sb , i t i s no 'Lab le tha t a la rge propor t ion o f theenro l lment in p r iva te t ra in ing ins t i tu t ions compr ises women. Th isis p resunab ly par t l y because o f the bar r ie rs they face in en ter ingpub l ic sec tor ins t i tu t ions and par t l y because the la t te r o f fe rre la t i ve ly few courses wh ich aL t - rac t women. T h i s d o e s n o tnecessar i l y mean tha t the pr iva te schoo ls p rac t ise pos i t i ved i s c r i n i n a t i o n i n f a v o u r o f w o m e n : i t m a y j u s t b e a f u n c t i o n o fthe fac t tha t they o f fe r more non- techn ica l courses (many o f themcommerc ia l ) wh ich are cons is ten t w i th woment s occupat iona ls te reo types . In the pr iva te sec tor on ly the NGOs are no ted fo rs p e c i f i c a l l y t a r g e t i n g w o m e n a s w e l l a s o t h e r e c o n o m i c a l l yd isadvantaged groups : ' a p rac t ice wh ich the major pub l i c sec tort ra in ing ins t i tu t ions and many o ther p r iva te ins t i tu t ions wou ld dow e l } t o e m u l a t e .

3 . 1 . 3 E f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d E f f i c i e n c y

Given the ex is t ing enphases o f fo rmal educat ion and t ra in ing 'd o e s t h e s y s t e m a c h i e v e i t s o b j e c t i v e s ? W i t h o u t r e l i a b l es ta t i s t i ca l da ta on the employment o r o therw ise o f g raduates a td i f f e r e n t l e v e l s i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o g i v e a d e f i n i t e a n s w e r t o t h i sg u e s t i o n . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , s u f f i c i e n t i n d i r e c t i n d i c a t i o n s t h a tt h e s y s t e m d o e s n o t f u n c t i o n a s w e l l a s i t m i g h t d o ' b u t i s b o t hi n e f f e c t i v e a n d i n e f f i c i e n t . T h e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s a r e m a n i f o l da n d , a s t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n w i l l i n d i c a t e , c l o s e l y i n t e r w o v e n .P e r h a p s t h e m o s t s e r i o u s c o n s t r a i n t u p o n t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s a s , w e l la s t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g i s t h e l a c k o ff inance. Desp i te the fac t tha t 38% o f the government budget i ss p e n t o n e d u c a t i o n ( 7 7 % o f t h i s o n t e a c h e r s ' s a l - a r i e s ) r 4 5 % o ne d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g c o m b i n e d , t h e r e i s s t i l I a n o t i c e a b l es h o r t a g e o f m o n e y f o r e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g . The need toimp lement B-4-4 has added to the f inanc ia l burden, and in many wayst h e s y s t e m i s s e v e r e l y o v e r s t r e t c h e d . T h i s h a s a n a d v e r s e e f f e c tu p o n t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e f o r m a l t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s t o m e e t t h e i re x i s t i n g o b j e c t i v e s , n o t t o m e n t i o n t h e i r c a p a c i t y t o s e r v e t h ei n f o r m a l s e c t o r . S o m e o f t h e m o r e i m m e d i a t e e f f e c t s o f t h i sp a t t e r n o f f i n a n c i a l c o n s t r a i n t s a r e c o n s i d e r e d b e l o w .

3 . 1 . 3 . 1 f n a d e q u a t e F a c i l i t i e s

T h e r e i s a c h r o n i c l a c k o f e q u i p m e n t a n d o t h e r f a c i l i t i e s i nm a n y p u b l i c t r a i n i n g i r l s t i t u t i o n s . T h i s m i r r o r s t h e s i t u a t i o n i nt h e ( p r i m a r y ) s c h o o l s w h e r e r 3 s a l r e a d y n o t e d ( s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . ! ) , i th a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d t h a b l e s s t h a n h a l f o f t h e f a c i l i t i e s r e q u i r e d

t 2

t o i m p l e m e n t t h e B - 4 - 4 s y s t e m a r e i n p 1 a c e . T h e p u b l i c t r a i n i n gi n s t i t u t i o n s h a v e f o u n d i t d i f f i c u l t , t o m e e t t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e n e wsys tem wh i le aL the same t i rne ca ter ing fo r the supp ly o f t ra inees( a s u p p l y w h i c h s h o u l d , i n t h e o r Y r b e i n c r e a s i n g w i t h t h e g r o w t h o ft h e l a b o u r f o r c e ) .

Very few YPs have workshops o f the requ i red s ize : cur ren tw o r k s h o p c a p a c i t y i s t y p i c a l l y 1 0 - 1 5 t r a i n e e s p e r s e s s i o n , ac o n s t r a i n t u p o n e n r o l l i n g l a r g e r c l a s s e s o f 2 0 o r m o r e w i t h o u tcaus ing overc rowd ing . Over the years the YPs have re l ied uponcont r ibu t ions f rom the communi ty , E iovernment and ex terna l donors top r o v i d e t o o l s a n d e q u i p m e n t . T h i s p r o v i s i o n h a s b e e n t a i l o r e dtowards meet ing the requ i rements o f the GTT b 'ased courses . The newB-4-4 ar t i san courses requ i re more equ ipment and t ra in ingm a t e r i a l s , a n d m a n y Y P s a r e f i n d i n g i t d i f f i c u l t t o p r o v i d e t h e s eas fas t as the imp lementa t ion s t ra tegy env isages .

Lack o f resor - r rces has led many YPs to gear the i r t ra in ing tothe produc t ion o f sa leab le p roduc ts . They cons t ruc t houses andother bu i ld ings in the communi ty , and make fu rn i tu re and c lo thesfor sa le . Th is has worked qu i te we l l in the contex t o f the GTTcourses , bu t there is a danger tha t the inc reased demands o f the 8-4 - 4 a r t i s a n c o u r s e s w i l l u p s e t t h e b a l a n c e a n d s o m e r e s t r u c t u r i n gw i l - I b e n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o p r e s e r v e t h e e x i s t i n g c o m b i n a t i o n o ft ra in ing w i th p roduc t ion . The marke t fo r YP produc ts and serv icescou ld a lso be improved i f they had more adequate equ ipment w i thwh ich to p roduce h igher qua l i t y goods than those tu rned ou t bythe i r in fo rmal sec tor compet i to rs . One advantage tha t the YPsa l ready have over o ther p roducers i s tha t they are in a goodpos i t ion , th rough bhe in f luence o f the i r Managenent Commi t tees andt h e l o c a l D e v e l o p m e n t C o m m i b t e e s , t o s e c u r e r e l a t i v e l y l u c r a t i v ec o n t r a c t s f o r t h e p r o v i s i o n o f p u b l i c u t i l i t i e s .

There are a lso inadequate techn ica l t ra in ing fac i l i t i es in theT T I s . B e f o r e t h e i r r e c e n t c o n v e r s i o n t o t h e B - 4 - 4 s y s t e m t h e y w e r eTechn ica l Secondary Schoo ls w i th a cur r i cu lum wh ich was 28%p r a c t i c a l a n d 7 2 % a c a d e m i c i n o r i e n t a t i o n . A s a r e s u l t t h e ytyp ica l l y have more c lassrooms than workshops, whereas the newc u r r i c u l u m r e q u i r e s t h e r a t i o s t o b e r e v e r s e d . M o r e o v e r , a l o t o fthe workshop equ ipment tha t they do have is ou tda ted and c lear lyinadequabe to teach a l l o f the requ i red techn ica l courses to thed e s i r e d s t a n d a r d . O n e r e s p o n s e o f t h e T T I s t o t h i s s i t u a t i o n h a sb e e n 1 , o o f f e r c o m m e r c i a l c o u r s e s w h i c h r e q u i r e v e r y l i t t l eequ ipmerr t and can f j I l up c lassroom spat :e . Another inher i tedp r o b l e m r t h e l a c k o f b o a r d i n g a n d o t h e r f a c i l i t i e s f o r w o m e ns t u d e n t s , h a s a l r e a d y b e e n r n e n t i o n e d a b o v e ( s e c t i o n 3 . 1 . 2 ) .

T h e p r o v i s i o n o f e q u i p m e n t a n d o t h e r f a c i l i t , i e s i n t h e I T svar ies depend ing upon the inputs f rom the loca1 communi ty . The ITshave a lso been suppor ted by the government and donor agenc ies andc u r r e n t l y m o s t o f t h e m h a v e f a i r l y w e l l - e q u i p p e d w o r k s h o p s , t h o u g hin some cases the i r mach inery i s o ld and breaks down regu lar ly .L i k e m o s t o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s , h o w e v e r , t h e I T s h a v e f e w f i n a n c i a lresources and as a consequence the i r workshops su f fe r f rom as h o r t a g e o f t r a i n i n g m a t e r i a l s . A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n o b t a i n s i n t h eNPs, whose egu ipment i s genera l l y adequate fo r cur ren t teach ingprogrammes. Adequate fac i l i t i es and equ ipment can a lso be found insome o f the NGO opera ted or ass is ted t ra i r r ing schoo ls , where these

1 3

i n p u t s a r e o f t e n p u r c h a s e d w i t h t h e h e l p o f o u t s i < l e d o n o ro r g a n i s a t i o n s . T h i s i s n o b b o s a y t h a t t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s c o u l d n o tbe improved and t t re NGO schoo ls expanded: indeed, the i r inadequatef i n a n c i a l b a s e i s o f ' b e n t h e m a j o r o b s t a c l e t o s u c h e x p a n s i o n .

3 . 1 . 3 . 2 S t z r f f i n g P r o b l e m s

T h e p u b J - i c t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s a l s o s u f f e r f r o m a n u m b e r o fs t a f f i n g p r o b l e m s . T h e r e i s a n a c u t e s h o r t a g e o f t e a c h e r s i n t h eYPs. f t has been es t imated tha t in the government -suppor ted YPs( w h i c h n u m b e r 3 2 5 ) L h e r e s h o u l d b e m o r e t h a n t h r e e t i m e s a s m a n yt e a c h e r s ( 6 , 8 2 5 ) a s t h e r e c u r r e n t l y a r e ( 2 r 0 6 7 ) . T h e r e i s a l s o as h o r t a g e o f t r a i n e d L e a c h e r s a t m o r e a d v a n c e d l e v e l s , i n t h ed i f f e r e n t i n s t i t u t e s : r n d N P s . T h i s v a r i e s , h o w e v e r , f r o m o n ec o u r s e t o a n o t h e r a s w e l l a s b e t w e e n i n s t i b u t i o n s ; a n d i n s o m ei n d i v i d u a l c a s e s o v e r s t a f f i n g i s r e p o r t e d .

I n a d d i t i o n t o L h e g e n e r a l s h o r t a g e o f s t a f f , t t r e r e i s a l s o a na c u t e l a c k o f L e a c h e r s a n d L r a i n e r s w i b h a d e q u a t e q u a l i f i c a t i o n sa n d e x p e r i e n c e L o i m p l e m e n t t h e 8 - 4 - 4 s y s t e m e f f e c t i v e l y . I n t h eY P s , f o r c . x z r m p l - e , t h e m a j o r i t y o f t e a c h e r s a r e p r i m a r y s c h o o ll e a v e r s w i t h G T T I o r I I , w h e r e a s l h e M T T A T w o u l d p r e f e r t h a t e a c hcourse shou ld have a t ' leeus t two teachers w i th secondary educat i -ona n d C r a f b f I o r G T T I . T h e r e i s t h e r e f o r e a c o n s i d e r a b l e n e e d t ou p g r a d e t h e s k i l l s o f t , e a c h e r s a n d r e o r i e n t t h e m t o 8 - 4 - 4 , a s w e l la s t o r e c r u i l - n e w ; r . n d n o r e h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d t e a c h e r s .

A s w e l l a s b e i n g u n d e r - q u a t i f i e d , m a n y t r a i n e r s h a v ei n s u f f i c i e n t l < r r o w l e d g e a n d e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r t o b ea b l e t o p r o v i d c e f f e ' c t i v e s e r v i c e s t o i t . F o r e x a m p l e , a s i t r e s u l to f t h e i r t r a i n i n g b a c k g r o u n d a n d c u r r e n t t e r m s o f s e r v i c e , m a n yt ra iners do no l ; have & prac t ica l g rasp o f mana.E lement and o thers k i I l s w h j . c h a r e r e q u i r e d t o o p e r a t e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r e n t e r p r i s e s .T h i s s u g g e s t s l - h z r t - t h e r e i s a l s o a n e e d t - o r e t r a i n a n d r e o r i e n tb r a i n e r s i n t h e p r a c L i c e s a n d a c t i v i t i e s r e l e v a n t t o i ; h e i n f o r m a ls e c t o r i f t . h e y a - r : e t o p r o v i d e a p p r o p r i a t e c o n s u l t a r n c y a n d a d v i s o r ys e r v i c e s .

M e a n w h i l e L r a i n e r s ' c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e i r w o r k h a s b e e n e r o d e d a sa r e s u l t o f b i g h t b u d g e t a r y c o n t r o l s a n d t h e c o n s e g u e n t l a c k o fL ra in ing suppor t rnaber ia ls as we l l as what many o f thern fee l a reinadequate leve ls o f renumera t ion . S ta f f mora le i s low and numberso f i n s b r u c t o r s a . n d l e c t u r e r s a r e l e a v i n g f o r a l t e r r r a t i v eemployment , i -nc iud ing employment in thc . p r iva te sec tor .

3 . 1 . 3 . 3 I n c r e : r s i n g C o s l - s a r r d D e c l i n i n g E n r o l l m e n t

There can be l i t t , le doubt bhat the f : r , c to rs ou t l ined above havea d v e r s e l y : r f f e c L e d t h e q u a r l i t y o f t r a i n i n g o f f e r e d b y m a n y f o r m a lt r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . A d o c u m e n t i s s u e d b y t h e M i n i s t r y o fP l a n n i n g a n d N a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t ( R e p u b l i c o f K e n y a 1 9 9 0 )acknowledges th is fac t and re fe rs t -o Lhe low and dec l in ing qua l i t yo f t h e Y P s a n d I T s w h i c h i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e i r d e c l i n i n ge n r o l l m e n t s . T h i s d e . c l i n e i n e n r o l l n e n t i s a l s o r e m a r k e d i n ar e c e n t s t u d y o f Y P s i n T a i L a / T a v e L a D i s t r i c t ( D A N I D A 1 9 9 0 ) . I t w a sa l s o n o t e d L h e r t Y P l e a v e r s w i t h G T T c e r t i f i c a t e s w e r e o f t e n u n a b l e

t 4

to f ind empJ-oyment w i thout be ing appren ' t i ced to an es tab l i shede n t r e p r e n e u r f i r s t . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n d r a w n f r o m t h i s i s t h a tparents w i l - l - be less than w i l l i ng to pay fo r bo th YP t ra in ing andapprer r l - i cesh ip i f i t ' tu r r rs ou t tha t the la t te r -a lone can lead toemployment : a c i rcudrs tance wh ich wou ld he lp to exp la in dec l in inge n r o l l m e n t

T h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r i s i n g c o s t so f t ra in ing coup led w i th i t s dec l in i r rg qua l i t y a re impor tan tfac to rs in the cur ren t pabtern o f under -enro l lment and i t sc o r o l l a r y , t h e u n d e r u t i l i s a t i o n a n d . / o r i n e f f i c i e n t u s e o fr e s o u r c e s . T e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g i s g e n e r a l l y m o r e e x p e n s i v e t h a nacademic educat ion , and the inc reased burden to parents and o thers(exacerbated by the demand fo r fac i l i t i es and equ ipment w i th wh icht o i m p l e m e n t t h e B - 4 - 4 s y s t e m ) i s a s e r i o u s d i s i n c e n t i v e t oe n r o l l m e n t , , e s p e c i a l l y w h e r e t h e q u a l i t y o f t , r a i n i n g i s s e e n t ohave dec l ine- 'd and the chances o f i t read ing to employment ( fo rw h a t e v e r r e a s o n s ) a r e l - e s s t h a n t h e y o n c e w e r e .

Y P e n r o l l m e n t h a s c r e a r l y d e c l i n e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s , a n de v i d e n c e f r o n a r e t ; e n t s u r v e y ( N g a r e l - 9 9 1 b ) s h o w s t h a t s o m e c o u r s e sh a v e l e s s L h a n 1 0 t r a i n e e s . T h i s d e c l i n e i s a t l - e a s t p a r t r ya t t r i b u t e d t - o a c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e i n t h e c o s t o f f e e s , t t t "s a m e s o u r c e c i t e s c u r r e n t f e e s o f b e t w e e n 1 , 8 0 0 K s h s . a n d Z r 7 5 OK s h s . p e r a n n u m , e x c l u d i n g a d d i t i o n a l l e v i e s f o r s t u d e n tr e g i s t r a l . i o n , t h e p r o v i s i o n o f f a c i l i t i e s a n d a v a r i e t y o f o t h e rp u r p o s e s . U n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s b a n c e s i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t s o m ep a r e n t s p r e f e r t o p l a c e b h e i r c h i l d r e n i n i n f o r m a l s e c t o rapprent i r :esh ip where the fees , i f they are pa id a t - a l r , a reg e n e r a l l y m u c h l o w e r a n d w i r l c o v e r t h e w h o l e ( g e n e r a r l y o p e n -e n d e d ) p e r i o d o f a p p r e n t i c e s h i p , d u r i n g w h i c h t h e a p p r e n t i c e m a ya lso be $ iven some cash earn ings and/or p rov is ions in k ind such asf r e e a c c o m o d a t i o n o r : m e a l s .

T h e T T f s a r e a l s o u n d e r - e n r o l l e d . C u r r e n t e n r o l l m e n t i n t h eT T r s i s o n l y t h r e e - q u a r b e r s o f t h a t e n v i s a g e d . o n e r e a s o n f o rt h i s , a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d a b o v e ( s e c t i o n 3 . 1 . 3 . 1 ) i s t h a t f a c i l i t i e si n t h e T T I s d o n o t m a t c h c u r r e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s . f f t h i s h a s n o tbeen enough t -o de ter some poten t ia l s tudents then recent inc reasesin fees have. These are now th ree t imes h igher than second.arys c h o o l f e e s , a n d h a v e i n c r e a s e d b e c a u s e o f t h e s h o r t a g e o f f u n d s ,e s p e c i a l l y g o v e r n m e n t g r a n t s , f o r t h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e t r a i n i n gm a t , e r i a l s a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f a c i l i t i e s w h i c h t h e T T I s l a c k .These fees are too h igh fo r some parents and po ten t ia l t ra inees ,and enro l lment hers fa l len as a resu l t .

T h e T T I s ' I i k e o t h e r m e d i u m - l e v e l i n s t i t u t i o n s , a r e a l s ou n d e r u t i l i s e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i r p o t e n t i a l f o r a t t r a c t i n gt r a i n e e s f r o m o u t s i d e o f t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r . W h i l e t h e i r m a c h i n e r ya n d t r a i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s a r e g e n e r a l l y s u p e r i o r t o t h o s e f o u n d i nt h e i n f o r m a r s e c t o r , l i t t r e a t t e m p t h a s b e e n m a d e t o a t t r a c tt r a i n e e s f r o m L h i s q u a r t e r ' . T T I m a c h i n e r y u s u a l l y I i e s i d l - e e v e r yeven ing f rom 5pm onwards , a l l day a t weekends, and fo r a who leth ree monLhs dur ing annua l vacat ions . I t n igh t be added tha t oneo f t h e d i s i n c e n t i v e s t o u t i l i s i n g t h i s s p a r e c a p a c i t y i s a n d h a sb e e n t h e f a c t b h a t i n s t r u c t o r s a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t o l f e r e d e x t r apayments o r over t ime fo r work under taken dr . r r ing such per iods .

1 5

The fTs have an even lower ra te o f enro l lment than * 'he TTIs :

a b o u t 6 O % o f t h e i r c a p a c i L y . I T f e e s a r e a s h i g h a s 1 0 ' 0 0 0 K s h s .per annum in some cases , a sum wt r ich many po ten t ia l t ra inees and

t h e i r f a m i l i e s s i m p l y . c a n n o L a f f o r d .

The NPs are perhaps be t te r u t i l i sed in t ,ha t they o f fe r even ing

c o u r s e s a n d s h o r t c o u r s e s d u r i n g t h e h o l i d a y s . T h e s e c o u r s e s a r e

m a i n l y g e a r e d t o f o r m a l s e c t o r t r a i n i n g , t h o r r g h s o m e e f f o r t s ( f o r

example in Mombasa) a re be ing made to suppor t smal l and in fo rmal

s e c t o r e n t e r p r i s e s . I n g e n e r a l i t i s d j - f f i c u l t f o r i n f o r m a l s e c t o r

en t repreneurs to : r f fo rd the h igh ra tes charged, and the sk i l l

improvernent courses wh ich are somet imes organ ised in the NPs ( . "

w e l l a s o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s ) t e n d t o h a v e a v ' e r y p o o r t u r n o u t .

T u r n i n g t o t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r i n s t i t u t i o n s ' s o m e o f t h e C I T C s

suf fe r f rom the same prob lems o f f inance, poor equ ipment and under -

enro l lment as the i r counterpar ts in the pub l ic sec tor . By

c o n t r a s t , s o m e N G O o p e r a t e d o r a s s i s t e d i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e u t i l i s e d

t o c a p a c i t y , a n d t h e d e m a n d f o r t h e i r t r a i n i n g s e r v i c e s f a r

o u t s t r i p s t h e i r a b i l i t y t o s u p p l y i t w i t h o u t f u r t h e r f u n d i n g f o r

e x p a n s i o n .

D e s p i t e s u c h e x c e p t i o n s , t h e o v e r a l l s , i t u a t i o n f a c i n g t h e

f o r m a l t r a i n i n g i n s L i t u t i o n s i s c l e a r l y a ' d i f f i c u l t o n e . T h e

e x i s t i n g s y s b e m i s n e i t h e r a s e f f e c t i v e n o r a s e f f i c i e n t a s i t

c o u l d b e , q u i t e a s i d e f r o m t h e q u e s t i o n o f i t s a . b i l i t y t o s e r v e t h e

i n f o r m a l s e c t o r a n d d i s a d v a n t a g e d g r o u p s w i t h i n i t . T h e r e a s o n s

for th is a r .e complex , bu t a t the most t ransparent leve l revo lve

a r o u n d t h e i s s u e s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s a n d p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n s . O t h e r

s h o r t c o m i r r g s o f t h e s y s t e m c o u l d b e a d d u c e d : t h e 8 - 4 - 4 c u r r i c u l u m ,

f o r . e x a m p l e , h a s b e e n c r i t i c i s e d i n s o m e q u a r t e r s f o r t h e m a l e -

o r i e n t e d a n d i n s u f f i c i e n l - l y d i v e r s i f i e d c o n t e n t o f i t s c o u r s e s a n d

i1 ,s cont inu ing or ien ta t ion towards examinat ions and fu r ther

e d u c a t , i o n r a l - h e r l , h a n e m p l o y m e n t . T h e m a i n d i f f i c u l t y r h o w e v e r ,

f o c u s e s u p o n t h e i n L e r r e l a t e d p r o b l e m s o f f i n a n c i a l c o n s t r a i n t ,i n a c l e q u a l . e f a c i l i t i e s a n d e q u i p m e n t , i n s u f f i c i e n t t r a i n e d s t a f f 't h e i n c r e a s i n g c o s t s o f t r z r i n i n g , t h e d e c l i n i n g q u a l i t y o f

t r a i - n i 1 g , d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e r r t , a n d t h e u n d e r u t i l i s a t i o n o f

a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s .

3 . 1 . 3 . 4 M i r r i s L e r i a l C a p a c i t y a n d C o o r d i n a t i o n

Before tu rn ing to see how in fo rmal sec tor t ra in ing fa res by

compar ison, a few words shou ld be sa id about the cur ren t capac i ty

o f t h e M T T A T , e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r m s o f i t s a b i l i t y t o c o o r d i n a t e

e f f o r t s t o t a c k l e t h e p r o b l e m s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e a n d t h e v a r i o u s

c h a l l e n g e s w h i c h l i e a h e a d .

A s a l r e a d y n o t e d ( s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 0 ) t h e M T T A T w a s o n l y c r e a t e d i n

M a r c h 1 9 8 8 . N o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , i t h a s s t i l l n o t r e a c h e d i t s f u l l

capac i ty . The MTTAT cur ren t ly has ius t two depar tments , the DIT

and the DTTAT (D i rec tora te o f Techn ica l T ra in ing and App l ied

T e c h n o l o g y ) . A 1 l t h e a u t h o r i s e d h e a d q u a r t e r s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t a f fp o s i t i o n s f o r 1 9 9 1 / 9 2 , 2 3 4 i n a l l , h a v e b e e n f i l l e d . A t P r o v i n c i a ll e v e l a l m o s t a l l a r r t h o r i s e d p o s i t i o n s , 5 5 o u t o f 5 8 , h a v e a l s o b e e n

f i l l e d . A t D i s t r i c t l e v e l , h o w e v e r , l e s s t h a n h a l f o f t h e

a u t h o r i s e d p o s i t i o n s h a v e b e e n f i I l e d , I 2 O p o s i t i o n s o u t o f a t o t a l

1 6

o f Z B O ( y a m b o 1 9 9 1 ) . T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e M T T A T d o e s r r o t y e L h a v e

f u l l y e f f e c t i v e m e a n s o f c o o r d i n a t i n g a n d m o n i t o r i n g t e c h n i c a l

t r a i n i n g a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l .

Another p rob lem wh ich remains to be tack led is the over lap in

func t ions and du t ies be tween the MTTAT and o ther min is t r ies : the

Min is t ry o f Indus t ry e rnd more par t i cu la r ly the Min is t ry o f Manpower

D e v e l o p r n e n t a n d E m p l o y m e n ' t . Y a m b o ( 1 9 9 1 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t i t i s n o t

c l e a r , f o r e x a m p l e , h o w t h e M T T A T c a n o p e r a t e e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h o u t

b e i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n v o l v e d i n m a n p o w e r f o r e c a s t i n g a n d p l a n n i n $ '

w h i c h i s s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e l a t t e r m i n i s t r y a n d t o

some extent the DPM

These observa t ions echo those in the cur ren t f i ve-year

d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n ( 1 9 8 9 - L 9 9 3 ) , w h e r e r e f e r e n c e i s m a d e t o t h e f a c t

tha t a l though there are a la rge number o f t ra in ing ins t i tu t ions in

t h e c o u n t r y , t h e i r c o o r d i n a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l i s s t i l l b e l o w

e x p e c t a t i o n s . T h e l a c k o f c o n s i s t e n t a n d u p - t o - d a t e o f f i c i a l

s t a t i s t i c s o n l u n b e r s o f t r a i n e r s , t r a i n e e s a n d e v e n t h e t r a i n i n g

i n s t i t u t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s i s a c l e a r r e f l e c t i o n o f t h i s . M o r e

s e r i o u s l y , i L e n c o u r a g e s t h e d u p l i c a t i o n o f e f f o r t a s w e l l a s t h e

u n d e r u t j - l i s a t i o n o f t r a i n i n g c a p a c i t y ( R e p u b l i c o f K e n y a 1 9 B g ) '

The c rea t ion o f the MTTAT represented a very impor tan t s tep in

t a c k l i n g t h i s p r o b l e m . A t t h e s a m e t i m e i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t

cont inu ing a t ten t ion t ,o the prob le rm h igh l igh ted in the p lan w i l l be

r e q u i r e d .

3 . 2 I s s u e s i n I n f o r m a l S e c t o r T r a i n i n g

3 . 2 . 1 T h e R e l e v a n c e o f I n f o r m a l S e c t o r T r a i n i n g

I t g o e s w i t h o u t s ; r y i n g t h a t i n f o r m a l s e c t o r t r a i n i n g o r

a p p r e n t i c e s h i p i s r e l e v a n t t o t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r , a n d i t s g e n e r a l

i i r p o r t a n c e i n t h i s r . e g a r d h a s a l r e a d y b e e n d i s c u s s e d a b o v e ( s e c t i o n

2.3 ) . A t the same t ime i t has to be remembered tha t in fo rna l

s e c t o r t r a i n i n g d o e s n o t h a v e a n y o b j e c t i v e s i n t h e s e n s e o f a

s ta ted or agreed programme, and as such cannot be expec ted to

c o n f o r m n e a t l y t - o t h e g o v e r n m e n t t s p r o g r a m m e f o r t r a i n i n g o r

p e r c e p t i o n o f i t s r o l e . T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m , i f i t c a n b e

descr ibed as one, i s very much the cumula t ive and in some respec ts

un in tended ou tcome o f dec is ions taken by the very la rge number o f

ind iv idua l acbors who are a par t o f i t . En t repreneurs take on and

t r a i n a p p r e n t i c e s f o r a v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s w h i c h a r e n o t

n e c e s s a r i l - y c o o r d i n a t e w i t h t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f f o r m a l t r a i n i n g

prograr .nmes. The f ac t tha t the overa . l - l ou tcome is in many respec ts

Lor r "o r r . . t t w i th na t iona l needs and in te res ts g ives v iv id tes t imony. b o t h e p o s i t i v e r o l e o f p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e a n d i t s c a p a c i t y f o r

s e l f - r e g u l a t e d d e v e l o p m e n t , w h i c h e v e r s e c t o r i t i s i n .

I n f o r m a l s e c t o r t r a i n i n g a b s o r b s I a r g e n u m b e r s o f s c h o o l

l e a v e r s a s w e l l a s t h e g r a d u a t e s o f f o r m a l t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s( s e e s e c t i o n 3 . 1 . 3 . 3 a b o v e ) . M o r e o v e r , i t d o e s s o a t r e l a t i v e l y l o w

c o s t t o b h e t r a i n e e s a n d t h e i r f a m i l i e s , a n d i s t h e r e f o r e o f

p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e i n m a k i n g t r a i n i n g a c c e s s i b l e t o t h o s e w i t h

l o w e r i n c o m e s . T h i s s h o u l d n o t * b e b a k e n t o i n d i c a t e , h o w e v e r r t h a t

I 7

t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m c o u l d n o t b e m o r e r e l e v a n t t h a n i t i s . w h i l e

there are no r .e l iab le es t imates o f the overa l l p ropor t ion o f

apprent ices who secure employment , there is ev idence to suggest

t t ra t the sys tem does no t sa t is fy the asp i ra t ions o f the la rge

number o f t ra inees who wou ld I i ke to s ta r t the i r own enterpr ises as

opposed to be ing enp loyed by o thers though i t nay we l l be tha t

t h i s r e f l e c t s t h e a b i l i t i e s o f a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s o p e n t o d i f f e r e n t

groups o f apprent ices raLher than any in t r ins ic shor tcoming in the

t r a i n i n g i t s e l f .

Whi le in fo rmal sec tor t ra in ing is genera l l y more read i l y

access ib le to low income cand ida tes than fo rna l t ra in ing t

s i g n i f i c a n t b a r r i e r s t o e n t r y s t i l l e x i s t . O n e o f t h e s e , e t h n i c

b i a s , h a s a l r e a r J y b e e n a l l u d e d t o a b o v e ( s e c t i o n 2 . 3 ) . I n t h i s

respect the informal system fares somewhat 1l torse than formal

=y=1"* , though i t appears tha t the ro le o f such ascr ip t i ve t ies i s

d imin ish ing where the ins t i tu t ion o f apprent icesh ip i s most

deve loped. The in fo rmal sys tem is a lso no t much more e f fec t i ve

than i t s fo r rna l counterpar t in counter ing gender b ias ' In many

in fo rmal sec tor occupat ions gender s te reo types remain very much in

fo rce , and i t i s unusua l to f ind women apprent ices in many

p r o d u c t i o n o r r e p a i r o r i e n t e d a c t i v i t i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e w h i c h a r e

?par t l y fo r the same reason) nos t read i l y assoc ia ted in the pub l ic

n ind w i th t t re Jua Ka l i : motor veh ic le repa i r , meta lwork and

carpent ry . There is no ev idence to suggest tha t th is gender b ias

wi I I d isappear o r even dec l ine s ign i f i can t ly in the immedia te

f u t u r e .

3 . 2 . 2 T h e E f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d E f f i c i e n c y o f I n f o r m a l s e c t o r

T r a i n i n g

The fac t tha t in fo rmal sec tor t ra in ing is s t i l l very much t ied

to the web o f ex is t ing soc ia l re la t ions and prae t ice has some

n e g a t i v e c o n s e g u e n c e s f o r i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d e f f i c i e n c y . W h i l e

the ex ten t to n" t t i "n th is i s the case var ies cons iderab ly accord ing

t o l o c a t i o n a n d t y p e o f e n t e r p r i s e , i t s g e n e r a l i m p l i c a t i o n i s t h e

same: i f apprent icesh ip was fu r ther deve loped and fo rna l i sed as an

i n s t i t u t i o n , t h e n i t c o u l d b e e v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t , b o t h

quant i ta t i ve ly and qua l i ta t i ve ly , than i t a l ready is .

A n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e i n e f f i c i e n c y o f e x i s t i n g p r a c t i c e i s

the t ime taken to t ra in ind iv idua l apprent ices . In some cases th is

takes much longer than i t wou ld to t ra in to the same leve l ( though

perhaps w i thout the same degree o f p rac t ica l exper ience) in a

? o " * r 1 t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n . O n e t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s i s t h a t

i n f o r m a l s e c t o r t r a i n i n g i s t y p i c a l l y c a r r i e d o u t u n s y s t e m a t i c a l l y '

and is o f ten s tuc tured around everyday bus iness ( inc lud ing the

preva i l ing pa t te rn o f cus tomers ' o rders ) ra ther than the need to

t ra in the apprent ice to car ry ou t spec i f i c tasks un t i l they can be

per fo rned w i thout superv is ion . In ex t reme cases where the

apprent ice s tays fo r f i ve o r more years i t may be d i f f i cu l t to d raw

. - i i1 r ia ing l ine be tween apprent icesh ip and cheap labour . A spec ia l

ins tance o f th is i s when the apprent ice is a fan i l y member des t ined

(perhaps) to take over the bus iness a t some unspec i f ied fu tu re

d a t e .

1 B

W h e n t h e t r a i n i n g o f a p p r e n t i c e s i s i n e f f i c i e n t i n t h i s w a y i ta f f e c b s t h e o v e r a l l o u t p u t o f t h e t r a i n i n g s y s t e m . I f t i m e a n dr e s o u r c e s a r e u s e d m o r e e f f i c i e n t l y a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f t r a i n i n g i smore focused Lhen cor respond ing ly more apprent - i ces can be taken onand t ra ined. The av 'a i lab le ev idence suggests tha t the in fo rmalsec tor can absorb many more apprent ices than are t ra ined aLpresent : indeed or r one es . t - imate the to ta l number o f t ra inees cou ldb e m o r e t h a n d o u b l e d s i n p l y b y f i l l i n g u p t h e e x i s t i n gu n d e r u t i l i s e d c a p a c i t y . I n s o m e c o n t e x t s ( a s r e v e a l e d b y t h e d a t af r o m M o m b a s a ) t h i s p a t t e r n o f u n d e r u t i l i s a t i o n s e e m s t o h a v e a r i s e nb e c a u s e e n t r e p r e n e u r s a r e e x p e r i e n c i n g d i f f i c u l t y i n r e c r u i t i n gcapab le apprent ices , a re f lec t ion o f the facL tha t many o f them aren o l o n g e r h a p p y t o t a k e o n t r a i n e e s p r i m a r i l y f o r s o c i a l r e a s o n s ,b u t a r e b e g i n n i n g t o p u t m o r e s t r i c t l y e c o n o m i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n sf i r s t .

In th is and o ther respecLs the in fo rmal sys tem is a l readym o v i n g t o w a r d s a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d e f f i c i e n c y ,a n d p r e s u m a b l y i t w i l l c o n t i n u e t o d e v e l o p i n t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n .f t a l ready complements and in some ways works be t te r than thef o r m a l t r a i n i n g s y s t e m . I t c e r t a i n l y d o e s n o t s u f f e r f r o m t h ecomplex o f seeming ly insuperab le p rob lems wh ich cur ren t ly a f f l i c tt h e p u b l i c t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t i n f o r m a lsec tor t ra in ing shou l i l p lay an inc reas ing ly impor tan t ro le in thef o r m u l a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g p o l i c i e s : a n y a t t e m p t t o i g n o r ei t s c o n t r i b u t i o n w o u l d s u r e l y b e i n g r a v e e r r o r .

REORIENTING TRATNING TOWARDS THE INFORMAL SECTOR

Examinat ion o f the cur ren t s i tua t ion o f educat ion and t ra in ingi n K e n y a i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r ( s e c t i o n 3 a b o v e )r e v e a l s a n u m b e r o f s h o r t c o m i n g s . T h e r e i s c l e a r l y c o n s i d e r a b l escope fo r improv ing bo th the fo rmal and in fo rmal t ra in ing sys tems.M o r e o v e r , g i v e n e x i s t i n g c o n s t r a i n t s u p o n t h e a l l o c a t i o n o ff i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s i n t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r , c o u p l e d w i t h t h e l o w c o s tand grea ter po ten t ia l fo r expand ing in fo rmal sec tor t ra in ing , i tw o u l d s e e m p r u d e n t t o d i r e c t i n c r e a s i n g a t t e n t i o n a t t h e l a t t e r .T h e s e c t i o n s w h i c h f o l l o w t a k e u p t h i s t h e m e i n t h e c o n t e x t o fc u r r e n t g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y , l o o k i n g a t s o m e o f t h e s t e p s w h i c h h a v ea l ready been taken and o thers tha t have been sugg les ted or n igh t bec o n s i d e r e d .

4 . L C u r r e n t G o v e r n m e n t P o l i c y

T h i s s e c t i o n o u t , l i n e s c u r r e n t g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y a s i t d i r e c t l ya f f e c t s e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g a n d t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h ei n f o r m a l s e c t o r . A t L h e o u t s e t i t s h o u l d b e s t r e s s e d t h a t t h i sp o l i c y i s e v o l v i n g , a n d i n s o m e r e s p e c t s i s e v o l v i n g v e r y q u i c k l y .T r a i n i n g p o l i c y h a s n o t b e e n c o n s o l i d a t e d i n t o a s i n g l e d o c u n e n t ,and a l though the MTTAT is now the t ra in ing min is t ry , no t a l lpub l i shed po l i cy s ta tements have been issued by i t . Indeed ' manyo f t h e m p r e d a t e i t s c r e a t i o n i n M a r c h 1 9 8 8 . T h e b a c k g r o u n d t o t h i ss i t u a t i o n h a s a l r e a r d y b e e n d e s c r i - b e d i n s e c t i o n 3 . 1 . 3 . 4 a b o v e .

1 9

T h e K a m u n g e R e p o r t ( R e p u b l i c o f K e n y a 1 9 B B a ) e m p h a s i s e d t h ep r o v i s i o n o f v o c e r t i o n a l a n d e n b r e p r e n e u r i a l s k i l I s a m o n g t h eo b j e c t i v e s o f K e n y a ' s t r a i n i n g p o l i c y . T h e c u r r e n t d e v e l o p n e n tp l a n ( R e p u b l i c o f K e n y a 1 9 B g ) m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t - t h e o b j e c t i v e s o ft h i s p o l i c y a r e t o n a b c h t h e s u p p l y w i t h t h e d e m a n d f o r 1 a b o u r ,engender C l rea .ber se l f re l iance, and prov ide adequate ind igenouss k i l l e d n a n p o w e r . I t a l s o s t . r e s s e s t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c o s t -shar ing t re tweer r t ra inees and the government . More recent ly , ap o l i c y d o c u m e n t j . s s u e d b y t h e M i n i s t r y o f P l a n n i n g a n d N a t i o n a lD e v e l o p m e n t ( R e p u b l i c o f K e n y a 1 9 9 0 ) h a s r e f e r r e d t o t h e " I a r g e

untapped po ten t ia l fo r t ra in ing in bo th the in fo rmal - and the fo rmals e c b o r s " . T h i s s i g n a l s a n e w i n t e r e s t i n t r a i n i n g w i t h i n t h ei n f o r m a l s e c t o r , n o b i n g t h a t t h i s t r a i n i n g i s b y n o m e a n s i n f e r i o rand l ,ha l - in fo rmal sec tor e r r t repreneurs migh t be g iven incent ives tot r a i n n e w e n t r a n l , s L o t h e l a b o u r f o r c e .

T h e N d e g w a R e p o r t ( R e p u b r i c o f K e n y a 1 g g 1 a ) d i s c u s s e s t h ef i n a n c i n g o f e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l . T h ef o l l o w i n g i s a b r i e f s y n o p s i s o f i t s m a i n a r g u m e n t . T h e c o s t s o feducat io r r and t ra in ing have a lways been shared be tween theg o v e r n m e n t , p a r e n t s r l o c a l c o n m u n i t i e s a n d p r i v a t e b u s i n e s s e s ,w h i l e e x t e r n a l d o n o r s h a v e m a d e s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h ed e v e l o p m e n t o f f a c j . l i l , i e s . N o n e t h e l e s s a n u m b e r o f p r o b l e m s h a v ee m e r g e d a n t l t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o e d u c a t i o n h a s g r o w nf r o m 3 3 % t o 3 B % i n f o u r y e a r s . T h i s h i g h f i g u r e a d d s s u b s t a n t i a l l yt o t h e g o v e r n m e n t t s d e f i c i t a n d p l a c e s a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n s t r a i n t o nt h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s a b i l i b y t o s t a b i l i s e t h e e c o n o m y . T h e g o v e r n m e n ta s s u m e s a v e r y s u b s t a n b i a l p r o p o r t i o n o f t o t a l c o s t s a t t h e p o s t -s e c o n d a r y l e v e l f o r t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g , t e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g a n du n i v e r s i t y e d u c a t i o n ( s e e A n n e x 2 , T a b l e 3 ) . T h e s e h i g hp r o p o r t i o n s s u g g e s t b h a t t h e r e i s s c o p e f o r g r e a t e r c o s t s h a r i n ga n d c o s t r e c o v e r y a t t h e s e l e v e l s o f e d u c a t i o n , c u s h i o n e d b ybursar ies fo r those who cannot pay .

E l s e w h e r e i t i s s t a t e d b h a t t h e E i o v e r n m e n t ' s i n t e n t i o n i s t or e d u c e t h e b u d g e r t c e i l i n g f o r e d u c a t i o n f r o m 3 8 % t o z g % . r t i sc l e a r t h a t u n d e r b h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s c o s t s h a r i n g w i l l h a v e t oi n c r e a s e c o n s i d e r a b l y r e s p e c i a l l - y i f s t u d e n t e n r o l l m e n t s g r o w o v e rt ime as t ,hey rn igh t be expec ted to . Indeed the Ndegwa Repor t a lsorecommends ra is ing the ra t io o f pup i l s to teachers in p r imarys c h o o l . s f r o r u 3 3 : 1 t o 4 0 : 1 . A n e x p a n s i o n o f t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e si s a l s o e n v i s a g e d b e f o r e t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y . T h i s i n c l u d e s a ni n c r e a s e i n t h e n u m b e r o f Y P s f r o m l e s s t h a n 6 0 0 t o 1 , 4 0 0 w i t h a ne n r o l l m e n t o f s o m e 1 5 0 r 0 0 0 t r a i n e e s . T h e N d e g w a R e p o r t a l s or e c o m m e n d s & s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n t e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g p l a c e sa v a i l a b l e b o s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l } e a v e r s a L t h e T T r s a n d r T s ,s u g g e s t i n g b h z r t t h i s c o u l d b e f i n a n c e d w i t h s o m e o f t h e s a v i n g sf r o m a p o s L p o n e m e n t o f t h e p l a n t o s t r e n g t h e n t e c h n i c a l e d u c a t i o ni n t h e p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s . r t i s a r g u e d t h a t t h i s m a yb e a m o r e e f f i c i e n t w a y t o a t t a i n t h e o b j e c t i v e s w h i c h o r i g i n a l l yi n s p i r e d t h e B - 4 - 4 r e f o r m s . M e a n w h i l e , t h e r o l e p r a y e d b y N G o s i ns u p p o r t i n g v o c a t i o n a l a n d t e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g ( f o r e x a m p l e i n t h eY P s ) i s c o m m e n d e d , a n d i t i s r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t s u c h e f f o r t s s h o u l db e e n c o u r a g e d .

2 0

The Ndegwa Repor : t fu r ther no tes tha t cur ren t a r rangements w i l l

no t le .d to the ach ievement o f the Kenyat s na jo r educat ion and

t r a i n i n g g o a l s b e f o r e t h e e n d o f t h e c e n t u r y . L i s t e d i n o r d e r o f

p r i o r i t y , t h e s e g o a l s a r e g i v e n a s ( 1 ) a g o o d q u a l i t y u n i v e r s a l

p r i m a r y e d u c a t i o n - , ( 2 . ) t h e L l i - m i n a t i o n o f a d u l t i l l i t e r & c Y r ( 3 ) a

c h a n g e d a n d m o d e r n i s e d c u r r i c u l u m a t t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s , a n d ( 4 ) a

v igo lous fo l low-up o f p r imary educat ion in vocat iona l t ra in ing

p"Jg" .m"=. In recogr r i t ion o f the fac t tha t the schoo l cur r i cu lum

is in dang ier o f tecoming over loaded and cou ld be fu r ther

r a t i o n a l i s e d , t h e N d e g w a R e p o r t a l s o w e l c o m e s t h e d e c i s i o n o f t h e

M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n 1 o i n i l i a t e a r e v i e w o f t h e 8 - 4 - 4 s y s t e m w i t h

the ac t ive invo lvement o f the Kenya Nat iona l un ion o f Teachers

(KNUT) . Reference has a l ready been made to the recommendat ion tha t

p lans fo r expand ing the techn ica l component o f the schoo l

Lur r i cu lum shou ld be reassessed in v iew o f the ser ious resource

c o n s t r a i n t s f a c i n g t h e c o u n t r Y '

A s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e , m o r e d i r e c t l y r e l e v a n t t o

t ra in ing fo r the in fo rmal sec tor , i s ou t l ined in the recent

s e s s i o n a l P a p e r N o . 2 o f s e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 1 o n S m a l l E n t e r p r i s e a n d J u a

Ka l i Deve lopment in Kenva (Repub l ic o f Kenya 1991c) ' Th is paper

s tems f rom t t t " * . r " t o f a spec ia t task fo rce se t up by the

g o v e r n n e n t i n M a r c h L 9 8 ? t o r e v i e w a l l p o l i c i e s t o p r o r n o t e t h e

i n f o r m a l s e c t o r , e s p e e i a l l y t h e r e g u l a t o r y e n v i r o n m e n t ' I t b e g i n s

by no t ing tha t in the cur ren t deve lopment p lan new employment

c r e a t i o n o v e r t h e f i v e y e a r p e r i o d 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 3 i s t a r g e t e d a t l - ' 9

m i l l i o n j o b s , o f w h i c h a b o u t 3 I % o t 5 8 ? , 0 0 0 a r e e x p e c t e d t o b e i n

t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r ' ( d e f i n e d t o i n c l u d e a l I e n t e r p r i s e s e m p l o y i n g

u p t o 5 O p e r s o n s ) . M o r e a c t i v e p r i v a t e s e c t o r i n v o l v e m e n t w i l l b e

r e q u i r e d t o r e a c h t h i s g o a l . T o d a t e ( t h e p a p e r c o n t i n u e s )

coord ina t ion has been poor and nuch o f the growth o f the in fo rmal

sec tor has been sponLaneousr espec ia l l y among the smal le r Jua Ka l i

en terpr ises . Very few smal l en terpr ises have graduated in to the

f o r m a l s e c t o r . T h e p a p e r t h e r e f o r e d i s c u s s e s m e a s u r e s d e s i g n e d t o

impr :ove the enab l ing env i ronment th rough deregu la t ion and the

p r o v i s i o n o f i n c e n t i v e s a n d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e '

S i g n i f i c a n t a t t e n t i o n i s a l s o p a i d t o g e n d e r i s s u e s ' T h e p a p e r

n o t e s t h a b w o m e n a r e s t i l l d i s a d v a n t a g e d d e s p i t e t h e i r a p p a r e n t

l e g a l e q u a l i t y w i t h m e n . I t i s a r g u e d t h a t w o m e n t s p a r t i c i p a t i o n

in the labour fo rce is cons t ra ined by the i r rnu l t ip le ro les and the

t r a r l i t i o n a l d i v i s i o n o f I a b o u r , a s w e l l a s b y t r a d i t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s

and deep- roo 'Led cu l tu ra l p rac t ices . These fac to rs have to be taken

in to account in p lann ing and programme des ign . I t i s a lso asser ted

tha t access to educat ion does no t guarantee success fu l

en t repreneursh ip , Lhough i t does enhance woments ab i l i t y to enbark

u p o n n o n - t r a d i i i o n a t e n t e r p r i s e a c t i v i t i e s , t o I i n k u p w i t h

t l chno log ica t innovat ion in p roduc t ion and to penet ra te in to

o r g a n i s a i i o r r = a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o p o l i c y o r

p" Ig" . *e deve lopment fo r the in fo rmal sec tor . The paPer suggests

! n . i f i n a n c i a l a n d e s p e c i a l l y c r e d i t o r i e n t e d i n t e r v e n t i o n s a r e

n e e d e d t o h e l p w o m e n . T h i s i s c o u p l e d w i t h a c a l l f o r t h e

deve lopment o f appropr ia te techno logy wh ich women ent repreneurs can

af fo rd and wh ich th "y " . t t learn to use and main ta in w i th ease '

2 1

W h i I e p r i o r i t y i s g i v e n t o c r e d i t , a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f t h ep a p e r i s d e v o t e d L o t . h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t r a i n i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n s . O n eo f t h e s e i s a p r o p o s e d r e v i s i o n o f t h e I n d u s t r i a l T r a i n i n g A c t s ot h a t b a n k s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t f i n a n c e i n s t i t u t i o n s c a n u s e t h eT r a i n i n g L e v ] F u r r d ( b o w h i c h t h e y a n d m e d i u m a n d - I a r g e s c a l e f i r m sc o n t r i b g t e ) L o l - r a i n t h e i r s m a l l s c a l e e n t e p r i s e c l i e n t s . I t i sa lsg s ta ted Lhat the MTTAT, in consu l ta t ion w i th the Treasury and

t h e D P M , w i l l e s t a b l i s h a s p e c i a l t r z r i n i n g f u n d f o r s m a l l s c a l ee n t e r p r e n e u r s w i b t r c o n t - r i b u b i o n s f r o m t h e g o v e r n m e n t , t h e p r i v a t e

sec tor : and l -he donor communi tY .

The paper fu r ther dec la res the need to p romote "a more dynamice n b e r p r i s e c u 1 t u r e " . T o t h i s e n d t h e u r i i v e r s i t i e s a n d o t h e rt r a i n i n g i n s b i t u t i o n s w i l l ( i t i s s a i d ) i n t r o d u c e e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i peducat ion in the i r degree and d ip lo rna proE i rammes. Meanwhi le theM T T A T , w o r k i n g i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h o t h e r r e l e v a n t o r g a n i s a t i o n s 'w i l l conduct per iod ic marke 'L surveys to ident i f y sk i l l s anda b i l i t i e s n e e d e d i n t h e s m a l l e n t e r p r i s e s e c t o r . I t w i l l a l s op r o v i d e . b r a i n i n g t o e n b r e p r e n e u r s a n d t h e i r e m p l o y e e s i n t h e c h o i c eand t l se o f new techno log ies , conduct marke t surveys to ident i f yo p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r p r o d u c t d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t r i d e n t i f y1 e w m a r k e t s i n r u r a l a r e a s , d e v e l o p m a s s m e d i a t e c h n i q u e s t od i s s e m i n a t e i n f o r m a t i o n o n s e l f - e m p l o y m e n t a n d e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p ,e s t a b l i s h r u r e r l b u s i n e s s c e n t r e s t h a t a r e a c c e s s i b l e t o w o m e n , a n dd e v e l o p c u r r i c u l a f o r a p p r e n t i c e s h i p c o u r s e s s o t h a t a n o r g l a n i s e da p p r o a c h t o t r a i n i n g c a n b e a d o p t e d . I t i s a l s o s t a t e d t h a tg r a d u a t e s o f a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p r o g r a m m e s ( i n t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r ? ) w i l lb e a c c o r d e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s r o n a c o s t - s h a r i n g b a s i s , t o c o n t i n u ea t t e l d i r r g s h o r t r e f r e s l r e r c o u r s e s p e r t a i n i n g t o s e l f - e m p l o y m e n t ten l ; repreneurs l t ip deve lopment and sk i l l s enhancement .

T h e p a p e r a l s o d i s c u s s e s t h e n e e d t o r e c r u i t p r o f e s s i o n a l l yq u a l i f i e d s t a f f , e s p e c i a l l y w o m e n , i n b o t h t h e p r i v a t e a n d p u b l i c

o r g a n i s a t i o n s w h i c h p r o m o t e e n t e r p r i s e d e v e l o p m e n t . T o t h i s e n dN G O s a r e t o b e e n c o u r a g e d t o d e v e l o p t h e i r t r a i n i n g f u n c t i o n s t oa s s i s t o b h e r a g e n c i e s i n s m a l l e n t e r p r i s e s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t o n ac o m m e r c i a l b a s i s a n d t o d e v e l o p s p e c i a l p r o g r a m m e s f o r w o m e ne n b r e p r e n e u l . s . T h e D P M , f o r i t s o w n p a r t , i s t o E i v e p r i o r i t y t ot ra in ing prog i rammes a imed a t smal l en terpr ise deve lopment andi d e n t i f y w o m e n o f f i c e r s f o r t r a i n i n g . P r o m o t i o n a l a g e n c i e s te s p e c i a l t y t h o s e i n t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r , w i l l b e c h a r g e d w i t h r n a k i n gg r e a t e r u s e o f e x i s L i n g e n t r e p r e n e u r s a n d a r t i s a n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y

w o m e n , i n t h e i r t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e s . I t i s p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e M T T A Tw i l l p r . o v i d e L r a i n i n g t o e n t r e p r e n e u r s a n d t h e i r e m p l o y e e s i nL e c h n i c a l a n d m a n a g e r i a l s k i l l s a s w e l l a s e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p , i na d c l , i l , i o n t o p r o v i d i n g a v a r i e t y o f e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s a n da s s i s t a n c e o f m o r e s p e c i f i c k i n d s . I n t h i s c o n t e x t i t i s s u g g e s t e dt h a t i t w o u l d b e m o r e c o s t - e f f e c t i v e ( a n d t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y ) t os e l e c t c l i e n t s w h o s e s m a l l e n t e r p r i s e s h a v e t h e h i g h e s t p o t e n t i a l

o f b e n e f i t i n g f r o m b h i s a s s i s t a n c e . O v e r a l l , a g r e a t e r a t t e m p t i st o b e m a d e t o d e v e l o p p r o g r a m m e s w h i c h a r e s e l f - f i n a n c i n g . T h i sc o n c l u d e s L h e r e l e v a n t p r o p o s a l s f r o m t h e S e s s i o n a l P a p e r .

2 2

4 . 2 R e d e f i n i n g T r a i n i n g

fn rev iewing these d i f fe ren t po l i cy s ta tements two genera lobserva t ions can be made. One, and no doubt the most impor tan t , i stha t a po l i cy env i ronment has deve loped in wh ich the ex is t ings y s t e m o f f o r r n a l e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g i s v i e w e d c r i t i c a l l y , w h i l et r a i n i n g f o r t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r i s s e e n i n a . m u c h m o r e p o s i t i v et igh t t t ra r r i t ever hars been be fore . The second observa t ion is tha tthe spec i f i c measures proposed do no t a lways go as fa r o r even takethe same course as the ana lys is in sec t ion 3 above suggests tha tb h e y n i g h t . f t s h o u l d b e r e c a l l e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e s e p r o p o s a l sare cu l led f rom documents wh ich have o ther , more genera l , purposesi n m i n d . W i t h i n t h e M T T A T a n d o t h e r a g e n c i e ' s i n v o l v e d d i s c u s s i o nis more sharp ly focused upon the re levant i ssues and poss ib les o l u t i o n s L o t h e m .

T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s f i n a l s e c t i o n i s t o e x p l o r e , a l b e i tb r i e f l y , s o m e o f t h e m o r e c o n c r e t e s u g g e s t i o n s t h a t h a v e a r i s e nw i t h a v i e w t , o r e d e f i n i n g t r a i n i n g s o t h a t i t i s m o r e a p p r o p r i a t eto the needs and po ten t ia l o f the in fo rmal sec tor .

4 . 2 . 1 . N e w U s e s f o r E x i s t i n g I n s L i t u t i o n s

I t i s w i d e l y a € l r e e d t h a t t h e e x i s t i n g p u b l i c t r a i n i n gi n s t i t u L i o n s p o s s e s s t h e c a p a c i t y , a t l e a s t i n t h e o r y , t o s e r v i c et h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r i n s k i l l u p g r a d i n g , p r o d u c t d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n ,qua l i t y improvement , and resezr rch fo r appropr ia te techno logy . TheMTTAT argues fo r a more f lex ib le pa t te rn o f t ra in ing l inkages asw e l l a s t h e n e e d t o i n c r e a s e t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h r o u g h t h ee x p a n s i o r r a n d m a x . l m u m u t i l i s a t i o n o f a l 1 t h e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o ft . r a i n i n g i n s l - i L u t i o n . T h e n i n i s t r y a l s o e m p h a s i s e s t h e n e e d f o r am o r e f l e x i b l e p a t t e r n o f a t t e n d a n c e s o t h a t t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s c a nb e u s e d f o r e x b r a c l a s s e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r . I t i s e x p e c t e d t h a tt h e y w i l l o r g a n i s e s h o r t c o u r s e s o n a f e e - p a y i n g b a s i s d u r i n g t h ee v e n i n g s a n d h o l i d a y s f o r i n f o r m a l s e c t o r a r t i s a n s a s w e l l a s f o rw o r k e r s i n t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r . T r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s h a v e a l s o b e e na d v i s e d t . o i - n . i L . i a t , e o t h e r a c l - i v i L , - i e s w h i c h w i l l - m a k e t h e m m o r e s e l fr e l i a n t : l - h e s e . i n c l u d e t h e s e t t i n g u p p r o d u c t i o n u n i t s , a s w e l l a sd o i n g o u t s i d e . r e s e a r c h a n d c o n s u l L a n c i e s w h e r e p o s s i b l e .

I n c o n j u n c t i o n w i i h t h i s o r i - e n t a t i o n t o w a r d s t h e i n f o r m a ls e c t o r ( o n a c o s t s h a r i n g b a s i s ) t h e M T T A T ' s t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n sa r e a l s o b e i n g e n c o u r a g e d t o m a k e m o r e p r o v i s i o n f o r t h e t r a i n i n go f w o m e n . T h i s i s t a k e n t o m e a n t h e p r o v i s i o n o f m o r e c o u r s e sg e a r e d l - o w a r d s w o m e n a n d w o m e n ' s a c t i v i t i e s , a s w e l l - a s e f f o r t s t ob r e a k d o w n e x i s t i n g p a t t e r n s o f g e n d e r s t e r e o t y p i n g i n i n f o r m a l a n df o r m a l s e c t o r e m p l o y m e n t . I n s o m e c a s e s , f o r e x a m p l e i n t h e T T I s ,i t a l s o r e < l u i r e s b h e p r o v ' i s i o n o f b o a r d i n g a n d o t h e r p h y s i c a lf t r c i l i t i e s f o r w o m e n .

H o w w i l l t h e s e i d e a s w o r k o u t i n p r a c t i c e ? M T T A T h a s a l r e a d yb e g u n . v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s t o h e l p o r i e n t t h e p u b l i c t r a i n i n gi n s t i t u t i o n s t o w a r d s L h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r . I n 1 9 9 0 a s k i l - l t r a i n i n gcourse fo r in fo rmal sec tor a r t i sans was conducted a t Karen CRT,w h e r e a n i n - s e r v i c e c o u r s e f o r - Y P m a n a g e r s a n d i n s t r u c t o r s w a s a l s oh e l d ( w i t h a n o t h e r p l a n n e d f o r 1 9 9 1 ) . T h e a i m o f t h e l a t t e r w a s t oin t roduce the new ar t i san courses in the YPs now suppor ted by the

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M T T A T . T h e s e c o u r s e s a r e g e a r e d t o t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e B _ 4 _ 4s y s t e m , n o t t o t h e G T T s a s t h e t r a d i t i o n a r y p c o u r s e s a r e . r no t h e r r e s p e c t s , t h o u g h , t h e Y P s r e q u i r e r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l eo r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d s t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r , g i v e n , t h a t t h e i r I i n k s t oi t a r e a l r e a d y f a i r l y c l o s e , a t l e a s t f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h emany t ra inees who move f rom one to the o ther .

Perhaps the most c ruc ia l ques t ion fo r the MTTAT is whether o rno t and how fo rmal - t ra in ing ins t i tu t ions a t c ra f t and techn ic ianlevers can bes t serve the in fo r r ra l sec tor . some ins t i tu t ions have' a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d s m a l l b u s i n e s s c e n t r e s , w h i l e t h e r r s - l a r g e l yi n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f a c h i e v i n g a g r e a t e " r . . = r " " o f f i n a n c i a l s e l fre l iance - have es ta t r l i shed produc t ion un i ts to enab le them to se l lcommodi t ies to the roca l communi ty . Th is capac i ty - r ,as ye t to befu l l y deve loped in the TTIs , one prob lem be ing the need fo r ex t rafac i l i t ies o ther than those used in everyday t - ra i . r inJ ( see sec t ion3 . 1 . 3 . 1 a b o v e ) . A n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y , w h i c h r e m a i n s l a r g e l yu n e x p l o r e d , i s t h a t t r a i n e e s i n i n s t i t u l i o n s l i k e t h e N T V T C s c o u l db e a t t a c h e d b o e n L e r p r i s e s i n t h e i n f o r m a r s e c t o r . r n t h e p a s tsuch a t tachments have normal ly been w i th indus t ry and the fo rmals e c t o r : a t p r e s e n t , h o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t a t t a c h m e n tp l a c e s f o r t r a i n e e s t o f i l t .

T h e m o s t o b v i o u s l i n k , h o w e v e r , i s f o r s o m e o f t h e p u b r i ci n s t i t u t i o n s t o o f f e r s k i l l u p g r a d i n € l c o u r s e s a n d o t h e r s e r v i c e s t oi n f o r m a l s e c t o r e n t r e p r e n e u r s a n d a r t i s a n s . s o m e i n s t i t u t i o n sa l r e a d v o f f e r s k i l l u p g r a d i n g i n e v e n i n j c l a s s e s o f o n e a n d a h a l fhours t dura t ion he ld over r . r i r r " month "per iod .

These courses arep o p u r a r w i b h p u b l i c s e c t o r e m p l o y e e s . -

u n r " l t " r . t i " b h e i r c o s t( 3 0 0 - 7 0 0 K s h s . p e r m o n t h ) , o . t " " t h e m t o o e x p e n s i v e f o r m a n yp o t e n t i a r c l i e n t s f r o m t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r . A n a r t e r n a t i v e t o t h i sw h i c h h a s k r e e n c o n s i d e r e d i s t o o f f e r s p e c i a l s h o r t c o u r s e s a t m o r emanageab le p r ices : exper ience suggests tha t courses o f up- ; " - ; ; ;w e e k i n l e n g t h a r e p o p u l a r w t h i n f o r n a l s e c t o r a r t i s a n s i f t h e y a r ereasonab ly p r iced . r t ha-s been suggested tha t the NrVTCs,c u r r e n t l y u n d e r u t i r i s e d , c o u r d b e r e a d i i y a d a p t e d t o t h i s p u r p o s e .

r f these s t raLeg ies are to be imp lemented. o r r any scare then i ti s c l e a r t h a b s o m e p r e p a r a t o r y * o r k w i l r h a v e t o b e d o n e . T h i si n c r u d e s t h e r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f i n s t r u c t o r s t o w a r d s g i v i n g c o u r s e sw h i c h a r e s u c c i n t , c a s t a t t h e r i g h t r e v e r a n d " . r , s a t i s f y t h eneeds o f in fo rmar - sec tor en t reprer r " r r " " o r the i r apprent ices . Mosti m p o r t a n t o f a r l , p e r h a p s , i s t h e n e e d t o e s t a b r i s h w i t h m u c hgreater cer ta in ty what exac t ry the t ra in ing requ i rements andc a p a b i l i t i e s o f p o t e n t i a l i n f o r r n a l s e c L o r c l i e n t s a r e . T h i s i sa l s o o n e o f t h e m o s t p e r t i n e n t o f t h e p r o p o s a l s m a d e i n t h e r g g ls e s s i o n a l P a p e r d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n 4 . - 1 a b o v e .

A s a n a r y s e d b y Y a m b o ( 1 9 9 1 ) , t h e M T T A T i t s e l f d o e s n o t r e q u i r ea n y n e w f r r n c t i o n s , b u t p r i m a r i r y a r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n o f i t s c u r r e n tt e r m s o f r e f e r e n c e v i s - a - v i s t h e M i n i s t r y o f r n d u s t r y a n d t h eM i n i s t r y o f M a n p o w e r D e v e l o p m e n t a n d E m p r o y m e n t ( s e e s e c t i o n3 ' l - ' 3 ' 4 a b o v e ) ' r t s e e m s m o s t f e a s i b r e a t p r e s e n t t o s t r e n g t h e nt h e m i n i s t r y ' s e x i s t i n g f u n c t i o n s . w h i l e t h e r e i s c e r t a i n f y r o o mf o r b e t t e r m o n i t o r i n g a n d e v a r u a t i o n , t h e e x t e n s i v e g a t h e r i n g a n d

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p r o c e s s i n g o f l a b o u r m a r k e t d a t a i s m o r e p r o p e r l y t , h e f u n c t i o n o ft h e M i n i s l - r y o f L a b o u r a n d t h e C e n L r a l B u r e a u o f S t a t i s t i c s . Y a m b oargues tha t under such c i rcumsbances i l - wou ld no t be prac t ica l fo rthe MTTAT to under take such t -asks i t se l f , except to ensure tha t i t sda ta requ i remer r ts a re sa t is f ied .

4 , 2 . 2 T r a i n i n g W i t h i n t h e I n f o r m a l S e c t o r

T t re a l te rna t ive to p rov id ing t ra in ing fo r the in fo rmal sec tori s t o s t r e n g t h e n t r a i n i n g b y i t , i n o t h e r w o r d s t o i n c r e a s e b o t ht h e e f f i c i e n c y a n d t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t t r . e x i s t i n g s y s t e m o fapprent icesh ip so thaL the qua l i t y o f t ra in ing is improved and thenumber o f t ra inees expanded. The in fo rmat ion presented in ear l ie rs e c t i o n s s h o u l d b e s u f f i c i e n t t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s i s p o s s i b l e ,no t to ment ion tha t i t p rov ides an a t t rac t i ve op t ion in v iew o f theobv ious f inanc ia l cons t ra in ts upon the expans ion ( i f no t ther e o r i e n t a t i o n ) o f t h e p u b l i c t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s .

The cha l lenge in th is case is to des ign appropr ia tei n t e r v e n t i o n s i n a f i e l d w h i c h i s l a r g e l y u n t e s t e d . M o s b o f t h ep ioneer ing work on t i r i s top ic has been and is be ing done by theI I , O / S D S R P r o j e c t b a s e d i n N a i r o b i . F o l l o w i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f i t s1 9 9 1 s u r v e y o f i n f o r m a l s e c t o r t r a i n i n g i n M o m b a s a a n d D a r e sSa laam, and drawing upon the exper ience o f work w i th in fo rmals e c t o r a r t i s a n s i n Z a n z i b a r , t h e I L O / S D S R h a s a l r e a d y o u t l i n e d ap i lob proE l ranme fo r execut ion in Mombasa, fo l lowed by o ther u rbancenLres in Kenya. The purpose o f th is p rogramme is to bu i ld uponins igh ts p rov ided by the ear l ie r survey and beg in by tack l ing thep r o b l e m s o f i n e f f i c i e n c y a n d u n d e r u t i l i s e d t r a i n i n g c a p a c i t y i ns e l e c t e d s u b s e c t o r s a n d e n t e r p r i s e s . I t i s , o f c o u r s e , t o o e a r l yt o s a y h o w t h i s p r o g r a m m e w i l l d e v e l o p : t h e f i r s t s t e p i s t oident i f y a g roup o f po ten t ia l c l ien ts and de termine the i r needs andc a p a b i l i L i e s i n m u c h g r e a t e r d e t a i l t h a n i s c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e .

A t t h i s s t a g e i t i s o n l y p o s s i b l e t o i n d i c a t e s o m e o f t h e b r o a dopt i -ons . One k ind o f in te rvent ion wou ld be to encourag ie theu t i l i s a t i o n o f s p a r e t r a i n i n g c a p a c i t v ( i n c a s e s w h e r e i t e x i s t s ) ,perhaps by prov id ing incent ives to enbreprenuers to take on moret r a i n e e s . A t r t h e s a m e t i m e i t n i g h t b e f e a s i b l e t o t a r g e tpar t i cu la r g roups who are under represented or face bar r ie rs ine n t e r i n g i n f o r r n a l s e c l - o r t r a i n i n g . T h e m o s t i n p o r t a n t o f t h e s egroups are womenr who are marg ina l par t i c ipants in many produc t ivea c t i v i b i e s d e s p i t e t h e i r o v e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n i n f o r m a l s e c t o re m p l o y m e n L i n g e n e r a l . W h e ' b h e r o r n o t i n c e n t i v e s c o u l d a 1 s o b ed e s i g n e d b o a d d r e s s o t t r e r i m b a l a n c e s , s u c h a s r e g i o n a l o r e t h n i cb i a s i n t r a i n e e r e c r u i t m e n t , s e e m s m o r e d o u b t f u l , t h o u g h m a y w e I Ib e w o r t h c o n s i d e r i n g .

A s a n a l t e r r n a t i v e o r i n a d d i t i o n t o t r a i n i n g m o r e a p p r e n t i c e s ,e n t r e p r e n e u r s m i g h t b e ' e n c o u r a g e d t o t r a i n t h e m m o r e e f f i c i e n b l ya n d t o h i g h e r s t a n d a r d s . O n e w a y t o d o t h i s m i g h t b e t o p r o v i d ea p p r o p r i a t e b a c k - u p t r a i n i n g t h r o u g h e x i s t i n g p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s ,perhaps in bhe fo rm o f even ing or weekend courses and modu les .Anot t re r wou ld be to p rov ide incent ives f o r t ra iners ' to p reparet h e i r a p p r e n t i c e s f o r t h e G T T s o r a r t i s a n / c r a f t c e r t i f i c a t e s i ncases where l -h is wou ld be appropr ia te . In o rder to improve theq u a l i t y o f t r a i n i n g a t , L e n t i o n m i g h t a l s o b e p a i d t o u p g r a d i n g t h e

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sk i l l s o f the er r t repreneurs themse lves . In the Zanz ibar p rogrammement ioned above carpenters were encouraged to improve thee f f i c i e n c y o f t h e i r t r a i n i n g b y f o c u s i n g u p o n t h e s t e p s i n v o l v e dand the t - ime they took to t ra in o thers to p roduce par t i cu la r i tems.T h i s i s o n e w a y o f ' s h o w i n g e n t r e p r e n e u r s w h a t c a n b e a c h i e v e d b ytak ing t ra in ing ou t o f the contex t o f everydery p roduc t ion , and a lsoa w a y o f u p g r a d i n g t h e s k i l l s o f o t h e r p r o d u c e r s .

O n e f i n a l s u g g e s t i o n , w h i c h i s l i n k e d t o a l l o f t h e s e p o s s i b l ei n t e r v e n t i o n s , i s t o o f f e r c r e d i t a s t h e i n c e n t i v e t o e n t r e p r e n e u r sto take on more apprent ices and improve the qua l i t y o f the i rt r a i n i n g . I n t h i s w a y t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f t r a i n i n g s y s t e m s c a n b eI i n k e d d i r e c t l y t o e f f o r t s t o a d d r e s s a n o t h e r m a j & J o n s t r a i n t t ogrowth in the in fo rmal sec tor

Th is i s perhaps an idea l f ie ld fo r NGOs and o ther agenc ies towork in . The NGos have a . good record o f se t t ing re levanto b j e c t i v e s , o f w o r k i n g w i t h d i s a d v a n t a g e d g r o u p s , o f b e i n g f l e x i b l ei n t h e i r a p p r o a c h a n d r e l a t i v e l y e f f e c t i v e i n t h e p r o v i s i o n o f l o wc o s t t r a i n i n g s e r v i c e s . M o r e o v e r , i t m a y w e l l b e p o s s i b l e t o f i n dappropr ia te ways to l ink in fo rmal sec tor t ra in ing to the serv iceso f f e r e d b y t h e p u b l i c t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s , a n d t h u s e s t a b l i s h au s e f u l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r b e t w e e n t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d o t h e ri m p l e m e n t i n g a g e n c i e s .

CONCLUDING REMARKS

r t shou ld be emphas ised tha t th is paper by no means representsthe f inar word on the d i f fe ren t sub jec ts i t touches upon. Th isa p p l i e s i n p a r t i c u l a r t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n ( i n s e c t i o n 4 a b o v e ) o fp o s s i b l e s t r a t e g i e s t o r e o r i e n t t r a i n i n g t o w a r d s o r o t h e r w i s e i nsuppor t o f l -he in f o rmal - sec tor and the c rea t ion o f employmentw i t h i n i t , . r n t h e a b s e n c e o f m o r e c o m p r e t e d a t a o n m a n y p o i n t s( a n d s o l - h e s p a r s i b y o f s t a t i s t i c s i n A n n l x 2 ) b h i s p a p e r c l a i m s t op r o v i d e n o m o r e b h a n a b a s i c d e s c r i p t i o n a n d s e t o f - g u i a e l i n e s f o rf u r t , h e r r e s e a r c h , d i s c u s s i o n a n d n o d o u b t e x t e n s i v e m o d i f i c a t i o n .r n d e e d ' i f i t - i s L o b e a L a r r u s e f u r , i t i s h o p e d t h a t r e a d e r s i na be t te r pos i t - ion to do so than the present au thor w i l l take upt h i s t a s k .

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ANNEX l- : LIST Otr ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIOI '{S

The fo l low ing acronyms and abbrev ia t ions appear in the tex t :

CAPA Commonweal th Assoc ia t ion o f Po ly techn ics in A f r i ca

C I T C C h r i s t i a n I n d u s t r i a l - T r a i n i n g C e n t r e

CRT Cent re fo r Research and Techno logy , Karen

DANIDA Dan ish In te rna t iona l Deve lopment Agency

D f T l ) i r e c b o r a t e o f I n d u s t r i a l T r a i n i n g

DPM Di rec l -o ra t ,e o f Personne l Management

DTTAT Di rec tora te o f Techn ica l T ra in ing and App l ied Techno logy

GDP Gross l )omest ic Produc tGTT Government Trade Tes tI { IT Harambee Insb i tu te o f Techno logyILO In te rner l , iona l Labour Organ isa t ionI T I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o l o g YKCPE Kenya Cer t i f i ca te o f Pr imary Educat ion

KCSB Kenya Cer t i f i ca te o f Secondary Educat ion

K I E K e n Y a I n s t i t u t e o f E d u c a t i o nKNUT Kenya Nat iona l Un ion o f Teachers

K s h s . K e n y a S h i l l i n g sKTTC Kenya Techn ica l Teachers Co l lege

MTTA' l l M in is t ry o f Techn ica l T ra in ing and App l ied Techno logy

N C C K N a t i o n a l C h r i s t i a n C o u n c i l o f K e n y a

NGO Non-Government Organizat ionNIVTC Nat iona l Indus t r . ia l vocat iona l Tra in ing cent re

NP Nat io r ra l Po lY techn icN Y S N a L i o n a l Y o u t h S e r v i c eS D S R s k i l l D e v e l o p m e n t f o r s e l f R e l i a n c e P r o j e c t

T S C T e a c h e r s t S e r v i c e C o m m i s s i o nT T I T e c h n i c a l T r a i n i n g I n s t i t u t eULFS Urban Labour Force SurveYU N f C E F U n i t e d N a t i o n s C h i l d r e n ' s F u n d

UNIDO Uni ted Nat ions Indus t r ia l Deve lopment Organ isa t ion

UNDP Uni ted Nat ions Deve lopment Programme

VADA Vo lun tary Agenc ies Deve lopment Ass is tance

WfTED Women in Techn ica l Educat ion Programme

YP Youth Po lYtechn ic

2 7

A N N E X 2 z TABLBS

TabIe E n r o l l m e n t s . i n t h e E d u c a t i o n a n d T r a i n i n g S y s t e m s 1 9 8 0 -

1 9 8 9

Type o f Ins t i tu t ion 1 9 8 0 ( ' o o o ) 1 9 8 9

Pr imary Schoo ls

Secondary Schoo ls

U n i v e r s i t i e s

Pr imary Teacher Tra in ing

Secondary Teacher Tra in ing

3 , 9 2 7 . 0 0

3 9 9 . 0 0

8 . 4 0

6 . 9 0

2 . 5 0

5 , 3 8 9 . 0 0

6 4 1 . 0 0

2 3 . 4 0

1 5 . 5 0

4 . 5 0

Youth Po ly techn ics

Techn ica l T ra in ing Ins t i tu tes

I n s t i t u t e s o f T e c h n o l o g y

NIVTCS

Nat iona l - Po ly techn ics

Nat iona l Youth Serv ice

1 9 . 5 0

8 . 6 0

0 . 2 6

0 . 6 0

3 . 0 0

3 . 0 0

4 0 . 0 0

8 . 0 0

4 . 6 0

1 . 0 0

5 . 7 0

3 . 0 0

s o u r c e : Repub l ic o f Kenya 1-991a

2 B

T a b l e 2 : Type o f Employment by Type o f Tra in ing

( fo r Respondents in Employment on ty )

Type o f Tra in ing

Men %

F S I S

Women %

F S I S

Tota l %

F S I S

By a f r iend or re la ' t i ve

Apprent icesh ip

Youth Po ly techn ic

I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o l o g y

N a t i o n a l P o l y t e c h n i c

N a t i o n a l Y o u t h S e r v i c e

4 7

7 2

6 7

91"

9 5

1 0 0

5 3

2 8

3 3

4

2

0

I

1 5

B O

L 0 0

9 3

1 0 0

9 1

B 5

2 0

0

I

0

3 7 6 2

7 0 3 0

6 9 3 1

9t_ 4

9 4 3

1 0 0 0

FS = Formal Sec tor employmentfS = In fo rmal Sec tor enp loyment

s o u r c e : U L F S 1 9 8 6 ( i n S e b s t a d L 9 9 1 )

2 9

T a b l e C o s t s o f E d u c a t i o nGovernnent Share o f

and Tra in ing per S tudent andF inance

Tota l governmenta n d p r i v a t e c o s tp e r s t u d e n t ( K s h s . )

Government cos ta s % o f t o t a l

P r i m a r y S c h o o l s

Secondary Schoo ls

U n i v e r s i t i e s

Pr imary Teacher Tra in ing

Secondary Teacher Tra in ing

6 0 0

2 , 1 0 0

7 2 , 5 O O

1 3 , 0 0 0

3 8 , 7 0 0

2

4 4

6 2

B 4

9 6

Youth Po ly techn ics

T e c h n i c a l T r a i n i n g I n s t i t u t e s

I n s t i t u t e s o f T e c h n o l o g Y

N a t i o n a l P o l y t e c h n i c s

4 , 3 0 0

8 , 0 0 0

1 4 , 0 0 0

1 4 , 0 0 0

4 2

5 7

2 0

B 5

s o u r c e : R e P u b l i c o f K e n Y a 1 9 9 1 a

3 0

RBFEITBNCtrS

D A N T D A ( 1 9 9 0 ) t iPoly techn ic Programi 'ne ,N a i r o b i .

I L O , / S D S R P ' o j e c t ( 1 9 9 1 )and Dar es Sa laan, d ra f t repor tS e I f R e l i a n c e P r o j e c t , N a i r o b i ,

N g a r e , D . N y a g a h ( 1 g g 1 a ) heand Tra in ing Sr rs tem, work ingm i s s i o n , S e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 1 .

epor t o f the Ta i ta -TaveIn terna t iona l Deve lopmentD a n i s h A g e n c y ,

by the r l ,o Sk i l lS e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 1 .

sDeve lopment fo r

paper p repared fo r theEdILOlMTTAT

In te res tN g a r e D . N y a g a h ( L 9 9 L b ) T h e c a p a c i t y . t h e c a p a b i r i t y a n dt e d t i o a f

Conv l v o tow r v l f o rwork ing paper prepared f or the r lo / r . l t rar * i==iorr ,S e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 1 .

N a i r o b i ,

R e p u b l i c o f K e n y a ( 1 9 2 9 )P r i n t e r , N a i r o b i .

D e v e l o p m e n t P l a n 1 g ? g - 1 g 8 3 , G o v e r n m e n t

R e p u b l i c o f K e n y a ( 1 9 B B a ) R e p o r t o f t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l Work inE

f r, l

Part t i o Man ndB e y o n d ( ' K a m u n g e

R e p o r L t ) , N a i r o b i .

Repub l ic o f Kenya ( 1 9 B B b ) S e s s i o n a l p a p e r N o . 6 o f l g g g o n

R e p u b l i c o f K e n y a ( 1 9 9 0 ) E m p l g v m e n t P o l i c y o v e r v i e w : D i s c u s s i o nP a p e r ' M i n i s l - r y o f p l a n n i n g a n d N a t i o n . l o " r . " r " p r " . t , N a i r o b i .

R e p u b l i c o f K e n y a ( 1 9 g 1 a ) o e v e r o p n e n t a n d g n t i n K e n y a :

and f o Ne o n d ,N a i r o b i , M a r c h .

Repub l ic o f KenyaP r i n t e r , N a i r o b i .

( 1 e 8 e ) , Government

t e Tr' t i o he , repor t o f theP r e s i d e n t i a l c o m m i L t e e o n E m p l o y m e n t ( t r . r a " g o r . r t ' ) , t t a i r o b i ,J a n u a r y 1 9 9 1 .

R e p u b l i c o f K e n y a ( 1 9 9 1 b ) E c o n o m i c s u r v e y 1 g 9 1 , c e n t r a l B u r e a u o fS t a t i s t i c s , M i n i s t r y o f P l a n n i n g a n d N a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t , N a i r o b i .

R e p u b l i c o f K e n v a ( 1 9 9 1 c ) S " e s s i o n a l P a p e r N o . 2 o f 1 g 9 1 o n S m a l _ IB n t e r p r i S e a n d J u a K a l i D e v e l o r r m e n f . . i n K e n v a N a i - ^ ! , ; e ^ - + ^ - r - ^ -, . N a i r o b i , S e p t e m b e r1 9 9 1 .

S e b s t a d , J e n n e f e r ( 1 9 9 1 ) I n * " . ' = t r o a o " r " r a t r * " r " r , o r . t " = t =of th . 19BB Rr"" l , rd 1986 u" ! .n L.bo" Fo""" s , r " . . " r=, d ; ; f t ; ;o" tto the Long-Range P1-ann ing un i t , M in is t "v -oT-p t *Gg and Nat iona lD e v e l o p m e n t , N a i r o b i .

V A D A ( 1 9 9 0 ) A h P a p e r o n W o m e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n TEducat ion in Kenva, repor t by Vo lun tary Agenc ies Deve lopmentA s s i s t a n c e t o D A N f D A , N a i r o b i , M a y 1 9 9 0 .

3 t

W a l s h , M a r t i n ( 1 9 9 1 ) I r r f o r m a l S e c t o r T r a i n i n A i n K e n r r a r w o r k i n gp a p e r p r e p a r e d f o r t h e I L O / M T T A T m i s s i o n , N a i r o b i , M a y 1 9 9 1 .

y a m b o , M a u r i ( 1 " 9 9 1 ) . T r a i n i n A i n K e n y a : C u r r e n t a n d F u t u r e R o l e so f MTTAT, work i lg pa le r p repared fo r the ILO, /MTTAT miss ionr May1 9 9 1 .

th is paper p repared fo r the rLO, /MTTAT by Mar t in wa lsh , oc tober 1991

3 2