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EDUCATION FOR THE RURAL D WELOPMENT CATALYST:
LEARNlNG FROM THE AGA KHAN RURAL SUPPORT PROGRAMME AND THE UNIVERSITY OF GUELPH
A Thesis
Presented to
The Faculty of Craduate Studies
of
The University of Guelph
"Y
TANK ALI KHAN
In partial fulfilment of requirements
for the degree of
Master of Science
DeCernber, 1998
Q Tarik Ali Khan, 1998
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EDUCATION FOR DMLOPMENT CATALYSTS:
Learning from the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme and the University of Guelph
Tarik Ali Khan University of Guelph, 1 998
Advisor: Dr. Farokh Afshar
Catalysts are key figures in the rural dwelopment proces throughout the world. While some advocate for political change through a process of community ernpowerment and conscientisation, others serve the more conventional agenda of the developrnent agency. This case sû~dy of the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (Pakistan) and its 'social organisersr, shows how di is latter role has a less political, yet equally substantial, impact in certain contexts. The impact of a capacity development program involving AKRSP catalysts at the University of Guelph as a second case midy is assessed. The chief impact was increased self-confidence, while there was some additional improvement in critical abilities and secioral skills. This study condudes that such programs require rigorous candidate seledon, ongoing collaboration between the agency and die university, and above all, a broader learning process approach. Findings and recommendations specific to the AKRSP-University of Guelph collaboration are included.
For my parents,
Aliya and Tàsaddq Ali Khan,
who have given me everything.
This study would not have been possible without the support of a number of individuals in Pakistan and Canada. I am grateful to die Ceneral Manager and the three Regional Programme Managers of the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme who extendeci their facilities and logistical support to me. Pnor to the research, Khaleel Teday, was kind enough to offer me a four-month intemship at AKRSP Baitistan in die fail of 1997. In addition, a number of people in the d i r e AKRSP regions offered me their friendship, support, and a roof over my head. Specifically 1 owe thanks to Nazir Ahmad and Ghulam fi ussain in Baltistan, Caroline Miller-F orbes, Catherine Archer and Muhammad Aslam in Gilgit and Sardar Nawaz Khan and Mujeeb ur Rehman in Chitral. In Guelph, Faith Oro was kind enough to w i s t me with resources and illustrations for this thesis.
Financial support from die Canadian international ûevelopment Agency (CIDA), the School of Rural Planning and Development (SRP&D) and the Centre for International Programs (CIP) at the University of Guelph made this research possible. I am grateful to Crazyna Beaudoin at the Canadian Bureau for International Education (CBI E) for her cooperation in administering îhe ClDA funding.
Special thanks go to my advisory cornmittee members, Dr. Sally Humphries and Dr. Farokh Afshar. As my research advisor and Coordinator of the Diplorna Program in IRDP, Farokh, in particular, provided me with ongoing feedback and support throughout my MSc. program.
I owe thanks to my wife, Sangye Dolma Khan, who has offered me her support in wery way imaginable. And to our son, Kanm Ali Khan (the best of rural dwelopments), who began his joumey in the Northem Areas of Pakistan.
Lady 1 would like to thank the rural development professionals who participateci in d i is study. They continue to stnve to improve living standards for the residents of this unique part of the world.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Abbreviatiom List of Figures Clossay of Urdu/Hindi Temis
PART I : 1NTRODUCnON
2. CATALYST THEORIES AND CASES
3. METHODOLOCY 3.1 Background to Research 3.2 Research Coais 3.3 Two Case Studies 3.4 Respondent Bias 3.5 Researcher Bias 3.6 mer Biases and Limitations
PART 1 t : AKRSP CATALYSTS : CASE STUDY #1
4. CONTEXT 4.1 Northem Pakistan 4.2 Brief History 4.3 The Aga Khan Rural Support Programme
5, AKRSP'S SOCIAL ORGANISERS SO internship
Entv Techniques Qualities of the ideal Catalyst Catal yst S kil ls Obstacles to the Catalyst's Work Women Catalym Current Directions in Women's Organisation Challenging or Confoning to Traditional Structures?
v vi viii
6. CATALYST BACKGROUND 6.1 Rural Origins 6.2 Covemment Schooling 6.3 University Education 6.4 Cornmon Cround 6.5 Staff Development at AKRSP 6.6 Professionai Developrnent for Catalysb
7. THEDlMlNtSHlNGCATALYST 7.1 TheLeamingProcessatAKRSP 7.2 New Diredons in Social Organisation
PART III : THE MID-CAREER PROGRAM : CASE STUDY #2
CAPAClTY DEELOPMENT FOR CATALYSTS 8.1 The id-Career Program in International Rural
Development Planning 8.2 Program Objedives
ASSESSING THE 1MPACl OF TRAlNlNG 9.1 Key Quesb'ons
THE SRP&D EXPERIENCE 10.1 Seledon of Candidates 1 0.2 Pre- Depamire Preparation
MID-CAREER PROGRAM ACTIWTIES 11.1 Courses 1 1.2 Field Visits 11.3 Grades
RESULTS : TRANSFORMED PERSPECTIVES 1 2.1 Re-Entry into the AKRSP Work Environment 12.2 Promotion and Advancement 1 2.3 Confidence 12.4 Knowledge and Specific Sectord Skills 12.5 OtherSkik
12.5.1 Cornputers 12.5.2 Presentation 12.5.3 Report Wnting
iii
12.6 lmproved Linkage Capacity 12.7 Tangible Behaviour Change
13. RMSlTlNG KEY QUESTIONS
1 4. FURTHER COLLABORATION WlTH SRP&D
PART IV : CONCLUSIONS
APPENDICES Appendix A: AKRSP Mid-Career Program Aiumni Appendix B: Summary of Finding and Remmmendations Appendix C: Social Organiser Job Description (1 995-1 997) Appendix D: Interview Schedule for Development Catalysts
List of Abbreviations
AKDN AKES AKFC AKRSP BRAC ClDA FMU GM HRD HRMC I DRC II RR-AR0
IRDP JMM LDO LSU MER NRSP PARD PLC RPM SO SRP&D TLP TSU VO VSO WID WO
Aga Khan Dwelopment Network Aga Khan Education Services Aga Khan Foundation Canada Aga Khan Rural Support Programme Bangladesh Rural Advancement Cornmittee Canadian lntemational Development Agency Field Management Unit Cenerai Manager Human Resources Development H uman Resources Management Commitîee International Development Research Centre I ntemationaf l nstîtute of Rural Reconstruction - Afnca Regionai Office International Rural Development Planning Joint Monitoring Mission Local Development Organisation Leaming Support Unit Monitoring, Evaluation and Research National Rural Support Programme Pakistan Academy for Rural Development Participatory Learning Centre Regional Programme Manager Social Organiser School of Rural Planning and Development Training and Leaming Program (in Social Organisation) Training Support Unit Village Organisation Volunteer Service Overseas Women in Development Women's Organisation
List of Figures
Approaches to Rural Change The Rural Deveiopment Catalyst: A Taxonomy Map of Pakistan (Political) I ndia-Pakistan Border: h h r n i r Area Profile of the Northern Areas and Chitral The 4gh imam of the lsmaili Muslims, Prince Karim Aga Khan AKRSP Operations Area: The Five Disbids of the Northern Areas and Chitral. AKRS P-assisteci Productive Physical Infrastructure (PPI) projects: an imgation channel. Newly developed land through imgation is then subdivided. Link roads are another commonly chosen PPI. AKRSP-intduced new varieties of wheat AKRSP Organisational Chart The Role of AKRSP Catalysts An AKRSP catilyst ('social organiser') addresses a village organisation 010) meeting in the Shigar Valley, Baltistan. Wazir Chulam Haider, a longstanding social organiser, addresses a VO meetihg with technical staff. Troubleshooting Summary Women Catalysts AKRSP women's social organiser, Zakia Karim, conducts a WO meeting Kuisoom Farman, a fernale catalyst speaks on the importance of poultry as an income-generating enterprise for women. Male Catalysts AKRSP FMU-Wise Map of the Northern Areas and Chitral AKRSP Organogram (1 996) Changing Catalyst Roles at AKRSP AKRSP and The Leaming Process Appropriate Training for Catalysts Graduates from die University of Guelph's Mid-Career Program in IRDP at the AKRSP Core Office in Ciigit Number of Mid-Career Students Enroled per year. Proportion of Mid-Career Aiumni from Parb'cipating Organisations Assessing the impact of Training Mid-Career program Logic Mode1 Dipiorna Coordinator, an AKRSP studenf and AKFC representative at major p rofessional pa per p resentations.
11 -2 AKRSP social organisen Nazir Ahmad and Mohammad lqbal on a 134 field trip.
1 1.3 AKRSP Women's Coordinator, Kulsoom Farman, presents her major 136 professional paper to faculty and peers.
12.1 Mohammad Da qat, a former RPM, daims SRP&D direcdy contributed 143 to his capacity as a rural development consultant
12.2 Pmng his major professional paper into practice, Ali Mohammad 148 retumed to fom linkages.
12.3 Change in Position after Complethg the Mid-Career Program 149 12.4 Examples of Behaviour Change in Mid-Career Program Graduates 152 1 3.1 Key Questions and Results Matrix 153
Clossary of UrduIflindi Terms
k P r
@air mard
gram sevak
gram udpg
langar khana
madrassa h
Mehtar
Mir
Raja
salwar kameez
samaj seva
sifaris h
swadeshi
sooth
Forced labour
Men from outside a woman's kin group or village.
Village-level Worker (1 ndia)
Village cottag industries
Place for free offenng of food
lslamic school
Hereditary feudal d e r of Chitral
Hereditary feudal d e r of Hunza (incl. Cojal)
Hereditary feudal rulers of the Balti valleys (Rongdu, Skardu, Shigr, Khapalu and Kharmang) as well as Yasin, and Punial in Chizar distria
The unofficial national dress of Pakistan: baggy pants with a long matching shirt (usually made of comn).
Social work
'Recommendation' for employment (based on one's 'connections')
Nationalism
viii
PART I : INTRODUCTION
Khuda ne aaj tak us qaum ki halat nahin badli Na ho jis ko khayaal, khud apne badalne ka.
(Cod has not changed the situation of any society that has not k e n willing to change itself.)
-Ailama iqbal (quoted by Nazir ~hmad, AKRS P catalyst)
1. INTRODUCTION
On a summer aftemoon in 1997, I was one of many men eating lunch in a srnall
restaurant in the crowded bazaar of Skardu (pop. 70,000), hi@ up in the Karakoram
mountains of Pakistan. At the front of the spartan eatery was a TV showing the latest
episode of The Bold and the Beautiful, an Amencan soap opera broadcasted by satellite
from Hong Kong. Although the program was in a foreign language, the bearded audience
was transfixed. When a blonde actor suddenly grabbed his equally blonde female
counterpart for a drarnatic kiss, the restaurant fell silent f rom the back of the renaurant
came a vulgr curse and the restaurant owner hurriedly changed the channel to
something Iess provocative.
In the era of satellite TV, global communications, and global trade, why such shock over
a hamless kiss? The anwer lies in the pace of change. The patrons of d i i s restaurant had
corne from oudying communities to the local metropolis of Skardu, probably to bring
back imported g d s to their families. Seeing satellite TV for the first time, they would
Iikely never forget the day they saw two white people pressing dieir mouths against each
other.
Increasingiy, rural cornmunities in the so-called Third World are k i n g forced to
accommodate more economic, social, and technological changes han pehaps ever
before. However, unlike their urban counterparts who Iive doser to the loci of change,
managing these changes may be more difficult With greater isolation, fewer resources,
and marginalisation from the nation state, rural communities can benefit from interaction
with a change agent or catalyst. Whether th is figure is a local innovator or employed by
an agency, her funciion is to jumpstart the dwelopment process, to motivate and
sb'mulate planned change that is ideally guided by local residents.
This diesis explores a case study of such planned change in cornmunities in the
mountainous regions of Northem Pakistan, where once isolateci and self-suffident rural
communities now find themselves facing poverty and marginalisation (Khan 1 998). It
specifically examines the agency catalysts employed by the Aga Khan Rural Support
Programme, who have succeeded in mobilising communities to corn plete cooperative
infrastructure projects and adopt other interventions geared to restoring a sustainable
rural economy.
As field pracütioners, these men and women, known as social organisers, occupy the
nexus of the development process, negotiating between comrnunity needs and the
agenda of foreign donors. Beginning in 1 982, AKRSP catalysts played a key role in the
spread of ib program and projects to rural communities. Their job was to motivate
comrnunities and spread the AKRSP message of rural uplik This study first examines
their de, in terms of tasks, s kills required, obstacles they face, and the qualities
which make an ideal catalyst in this contsd
Today the AKRSP catalyst's role is changing. Communities have come to accept or rejed
AKRSP interventions and die primary task of motivation is complete. Many catalystr now
find themselves in field management roles as AKRSP's ernphasis shifted from social
organisation to service provision in 1995. In many ways, the AKRSP field manager
remaim a potentially important catalyst, trusteci by communities, and highly skilled
as a mobiliser. 1 thus refer to them in this thesis as cataly~ts-turned-managers.
Discussion of catalyst leaming needs in the context of this thesis therefore includes
those of catalyst-turned-managers. AKRSP has recognised that the management role
demands enhanced planning and managerial skills as well as a deeper understanding of
rural Mual dynamia and the larger processes of development
How can the professional capacities of agency catalysts and catalyst-hirned-
managers be further devdoped? 1 n this thesis, 1 argue that both catalysts and catalysts-
tumed-managers need to be part of a broader learning process within the organisation,
radier than serving as simply program impiementers.
Formai leaming programs at universities may be able to respond to these leaming needs.
The second case study in this research project is die ten-month Mid-Career Program in
International Rural Deveioprnent Planning (IRDP) at the University of Guelph, Canada.
This Mid-Career Program began on an aperimental bais in 1992 for AKRSP staff. It has
expanded to indude staff from other non-govemrnent organisations (NGOs), such as the
Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC) and the Aga Khan Housing Boards
(AKHB) of india and Pakistan. To date, howwer, most program graduates have been
AKRSP catalysts, and more recendy catalyst-himed-managers.
The second part of this study thus se& to determine whether the Mid-Career
Program has been successhil in meeting catalyst learning needs, and what have k e n
some of the overall effects of the program on parücipating AKRSP staff. I believe
these two case studies can offer instructive lessons to other NCOs and universities
(and NCOuniversity partnerships), as d l as development practitioners engaged
in social mobilisation and staff development.
This study begins with an oveMew of catalysts from a variety of contexts and
idedogies, as 1 examine how people are motivated to impmve their circumstances.
1 argw that the AKRSP agency catalyst offen a non-poliücal avenue of improvement
which has been appropriate for the rural poor of this sensitive (and disputed) part
of Pakistan. 1 establish that the catalyst plays a key role in the initial process of rutal
development.
1 then analyse what should be done after communitïes have been mobiliseci and
programs expla id. This study fills a gap in the anilable knowledge about mal
devdopment catalysts, by analysing the evoluthn of AKRSP, and the consequent
changing d e s for catalysts. The Mid-Career Progam offers catalysts the chance to
devdop their capacities to plan and engage in retlecüve rural dewlopment pracüce
both as catalysts as dl as catalyst-tumed-managers.
What appears to be lacking at AKRSP is a broader learning proces appmach to
capacity development and program developrnent. I pmvide an instructive case on
how catalyst capacities can be further developed using such an approach thmugh
a combination of in situ training and a university program such as the recently
upgraded Craduate Dipiorna Program in IRDP at the University of Guelph. I then
examine what pedagugical challenges this pmes for educaton.
Ultïmately, the question is whether there is an appropriate 'fit8 between catalyst
learner needs and the education provideci at a Western university. 1 conclude that
this fit does indeed exkt between the two cases, but that there are a number of key
areas for program improvernent. ~ f f d v e collaboration will depend on cornmitment
to a leaming procpcs approach at A#RSP as d l as at the University of Guelph.
2. CATALYST THEORIES AND CASES
Conscientkacion: A Spanish term for the learning process by which persons corne to understand their (ofien severely disadvantaged) social and economic situation in relation to the broader society, and to se& new avenues for personal and community improvement.
- from "Local Heroes, Global Change" (Soudi Cardina ElV Network and Wodd Dewlopment Productions)
"Development", as both a concept and an academic discipline, emerged after World
War II, as a way of fonulating the 'reconstructed' nation state (Hamdi 1 996). Some
aspects of development thus included centralised (often five-year) planning, technobgy
transfer, and interventions which were wholly dependent on foreign aid. Although this
approach has not changed entirely, it has recendy been challenged by non-
hierarchicaVpartiupat0ry approahes to development (Chambers 1983, Burkey 1 993)
that seek to direcdy involve the rural and urban poor in finding solutions to their
problems.
A key figure in the participatory mode1 is the village level development worker, al=
known as the change agent (Burkey 1993) orcatalyst (Uphoff et al. 1998, Khan and Khan
1992). Other ternis such as "animator", "facilitator" (Burkey1993:76), "cadre" (Uphoff
et al. 1998:45), similarly underscore the role of these figures as intermediaries between
the agency (e.g., development organization) and the rural comrnunity.
Proponents of this participatory process stress that the most important role of the catalyst
is to stimulate cri tical awareness or conscientizacion (Freire 1 970: 1 7, South Carolina ETV
Network and World Development Productions. 1990:9, Burkey 79:1993) among the
rural poor. The transfomational or liberative objectives of this kind of dwelopment
have also been referred to as the 'quest for community self-expression.' (Alliband
1983:ix), with cuundess examples of communities and marginaliseci groups seeking
greater political rights and access to resoutces due to the mobilising work of catalysts
(National Film Board 1 988). A catalyst challenges the rural poor to * . . . question their
wumptions so that they can understand their situation and gain the self-confidence to
imagine a better life for themselves" (South Carolina €TV Network and World
Development Productions. 1 990:9).
The role and expectations of the catalyst dius differ depending on the context and
ideology of the implementing dwelopment agency. It has been pointed out ba t the
catalyst can be " . . . frorn the communities themselves or from cities or other regions;
they can be part of a govemment buteaumcy that is adopting a new approach and new
tasks, or the staff of a nongovemmental organization (NGO), cooperative, bank,
university, or researdi instituten (Uphoff et al. 1998:46). There appear to be dear
differences between these agency catalysts and the catalyst who strhes for political
change by conxi.entising the rural poor to eventually challenge the status quo (see Figure
2.2).
No discussion of social change in developing countn'es is complete without some
mention of Paulo Freire's approadi to adult Iiteracy (Freire 1 970). In Pedagogy of the
Oppresseci (1 970) Freire r a i d the idea of conm'entazacion, a means of liberating the
poor oppressed masses of the South through critical self-awareness. Steeped in the neo-
Marxist ideology which ilourished in Latin Amerka, both Freire's work and that of
Gandhian and Christian catalysts can be seen as overdy poliücal. Their aim was to
challenge the injustices of the status quo through a "broad dispersal of power and
wealth-generating resources, community wide improvement, and gradua1 bansformation
of past social and economic patîerns" (Alliband 1 983:9).
Distinctions have been made between 'development' shaped largely by the capitalist
donor aid-driven mode1 and 'liberation'. Freirefs critique of 'development' as a tool for
neo-colonial oppression can be viewed alongside the Iiberation dieology movements of
Latin Amena (Goulet 1 971 ). A key example here is the Christian 'base communities' of
Brazil which relied on highly motivated priest cdtalysts in the 1960s. Alliband refers to the
development M. liberation dichotomy as mral development vs. community development
(1 983). 1 prefer to cal1 thern conventional and libemtive approaches to rural change
(see Figure 2.1). The examples of Freire and the liberation theology movement in Latin
Amenca thus provide us with strong critiques of die dominant mode of development
practice. These stniggles were thus based on Marxist and Biblical visions of equality
which the rural poor could understand (Berryrnan 1987:73).
In South Asia, the catalyst first appean in the 'mmmunity development' movement
which had iîs rom in Rabindranath Tagore and Mahatma Gandhi's nationalist visions of
village-based development Christian missionaries also becarne active in trying to
stimulate rural development during the pre-1947 colonial era. 60th Candhian gram
semkr (village-lwel workers) as well as the missionaries *ove for social change through
the u plift of 'untoucha ble' low castes and overall economic improvement through village-
based cottage industries (Alliband 1 983:lO).
Like the piest catalysts of the liberation ttieology movement in Latin Amerka, the gram
sevak was motivated by spiritual conviaieon. Gandhi's interpretation of nationalisrn
(swadeshi) urged social service (samaj seva), and rural development through village
cottage industries (gram udyog). Candhian work towards the uplifûrtent of untouchable
low castes is mikingly sirnilar to the Freirian and liberation thedogy's challenge to
traditional structures of oppression. Similarly, the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement
relied on monk catalysts to inculcate a spirit of Buddhist social justice and social service
in the rural areas of Sri Lanka ( Korten 1980:486-488).
While Candhian development fl ourished in india for a short pend after independence,
neighbouring Pakistan adopted a more conventional dwelopment approach diat was
dependent on donor aid. The approach was distindy non-political, fmsed largely on
farming extension. india and Latin America had a histoty of grassroots activism and leftia
movements. 1 n Pakistan, where the feudal elite and military bureaucracy have niled since
1947, such diings were immediately sus- In general, communism has k e n rejected
for k i n g anti-lslamic, and there are few recent exampies of popuiist grassrook lslamic
movements (other than the lranian Revolution of 1979). It should come as no surprise
that leftist movements have been cnished, and rural land refom opposed by feudal elites
since Pakistan began.
Figure 2.1 Approaches to Rural Change
Li berative Development
Conventional Development
Emp hasis L
Holistic change, conscientiracion,
Economic growth Capitalist
Approach
( Basir of Change
Approach
Community- based
1
Agency- based
1 Institutional Base 1 Local htitutions 1 lrnported institutions
1 Clientele 1 ~oorer Clients 1 ett ter-off clients
(Ideological Change)
Modemization through &al change
(Adapted frorn AlJiband 1 983:Z)
Another type of community development movement was spearheaded by the US in die
1 950s and 1960s (Korten 1 980). Community developrnent officers referred to as change
agents, or animateurs (in Francophone countries) and pmmotores (in Spanish-speaking
countnes) were the precursors to rural development catalym who emerged in the 1970s
(Uphoff 1998:53).
As part of the American community dwelopment thrust, the Pakistan Academy for Rural
Development's projecîs at Cornilla became important examples of how basic
infrastructure, cooperatives and training centres for farmers (Khan 1 985, Khan 1 996, and
Stevens 1976) muld improve rural livelihoods. However, catalysts were 'model' famiers
sekded for training by PARD.
PARD's Daudzai projects in West Pakistan in the 1970s developed social organisers as
catalysts. Their task was to mobilise the communities and explain the rutal development
program (Khan 1980) like true extension agents. This model was fuher adapted in the
Orangi Pilot Project in Karachi (Khan 1996) and the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme
in the Northem Areas of Pakistan (Khan 1992), which have now been recognised as
instructive examples of rural developrnent success (Uphoff 1998). All three programs
note how the model farrner or village activist is a key innovator. He or she is w h I cal1
a natural catalyst (Khan 1997), who emerges from the cornmunity to take on a
leadership role. But the latter two programs also relieci on trained agenq catalysts
(social organisen) who could offer social guidance and work closely witti staff providing
tedinical guidance.
It has been suggested that successful rural dwelopment projects throughout the world
are based on a leaming procas approach that strives for community self-relianœ radier
than a formula or blueprint approach (Korten 1 980, Uphoff 1998:19-44). The former
is charactensed by botiorn-up organisational development Korten noter that successful
programs were not pre-designed but '. . . emerged out of a leaming process in which
villagers and program personnel shared their knowledge and resources to mate a
program which achieved a fit between needs and capaciües of the beneficiaries and
those of the outsiders who were providing die assistance" (1 980:497).
Another aspect of the learning process approach is careful study prior to and during
program design (Koiten 1980:497). In the case of OPP, its founder first spent a
preliminary year leaming imrnersed in die community (Khan 1 998:20, Uphoff 1 998:25).
After initial study, AKRSP directed its efforts tayards the creation of eglitarian village
organisations (VOS) that could chart die course of developrnent for the community.
AKRSP's founder insists that a VO-based mode1 is grounded in past rural developrnent
successes from nineteenth œntury Europe to post-war japan to Comilla in the former
East Pakistan. He strongly beliwes thatthis mode1 should not be deviated from (S.S. Khan
1998, pers.comm). Yet I argue that agency catalysts such as those found in AKRSP must
adopt a genuine leaming process approach rather than k i n g mere implementers of a
blueprint model.
In contrast with the liberative movements, the AKRSP approadi aims to include elites.
The risk with such a venture is that elites will dominate the development process,
subverting the rural masses to their will according to traditional patterns of oppression.
As we shall see in sedons 5.2 and 5.3, the initial work of AKRSP catalysts depended on
local dites and religious figures. Their acceptance was actively soliated. However, as
I indicate in section 5.9, 'elites' has a different meaning in the Northem Areas of Pakistan
where AKRSP operates. With no strong feudai power or grossly unjust land distribution,
elites tend to be respeded community leaders and religious figures rather than oppressive
landowners. Thus it may be possible to bring about rural development through
established social structures rather than political upheaval (Korten 1 980:495).
Social circumstances and regional geopolitics have required Pakistan to adopt non-
confrontational approaches to development su& as AKRSP. Its model is now k i n g
replicated throughout Pakistan and other partsof South h i a (Khan, pers. comm.) possibly
because it prod uces results without direatening the status quo. Nwertheiess, this thesis
argues that for the AKRSP program to geciuinely addrers the needs of the rural poor,
it must have a deeper analysis of the social situation and respond to specific
community conte& rather than simply implementing a formula approach.
Recendy two in-depth analyses in the AKRSP program area have concluded that the
organisation's social analysis has been insufficient, failing to recognise the existence and
value of traditional institutions (Wood 1996, MacDonald 1994) and creating
unsustainable interventions that can put communities at risk (MacDonald 1994:260).
They suggest that is because AKRSP has relied on a formula appmach, rather than an
iterative ieaming approach. My own work widi AKRSP catalysts at the University of
Guelph compels me to agree with this observation. Wood and MacDonald note that
catalysts, untrained in social analysis are at the heart of this lad< of sustainability.
Inerestingly, the corporate s x t o r in the West has also used the terni 'change agent'.
Pundits of management science and organisational development have stressed the need
for a change agent who can administer change to an organisation (Crossman 1974,
Humn 1994), maintaining its dwelopment with parallel changes happening in the
outside world (Grossman 1974:lO). These change agents can also be mced to Freud's
vision of the therapist-helper and the 'qualified' professionals of behavioural science who
pointed out ways of deriving increased performance from workers (Crossman 1 974: 1 1 ).
What is worth noting in the example of corporate catalysts is how similar they are to
agency catalysts at organisations Iike AKRSP. Regardless of the bottom-up hetoric, diese
catalysts serve the agenda of their organisations.
When is the catalyjcs role fulfilled? As 1 shall demonstrate in Part II, once the initial work
of introduction and catalysing is complete it is easy for the agency (Le., AKRSP) to
become a s e ~ k e provider, thus rendering the catalyst red undant U p hoff questions this
kind of resignation to a senn'ce provision role, daiming that the catalyst's ultimate role is
to assist community self-reliance (1998:34-35). He also provides us with a useful
definition of the catalyst function:
If staff are to administer and manage, and paraprofessionals are to transfer appropriate kno wIedge and technology to users, ca talysts are to mobilize and motivate rural people. Catalysts induce people to organize, or, if there are already organizations, they help make these stronger and more effective. The concem is not so moch with eficiency or expertise as with empowennent. But the aim is not just to bolster people's ability to make clairns on government or other outside sounes for fonds, as it is sometimes proposed. Rather, it is to create self-management capacities that can support self-reliant development.
(Uphoff 1998:53)
It is important to note that while much of the rhetoric of some organisations may be
awareness raising or conscientisation, as one =ample involving the mobilisation of
landless squatter women in the Philippines showed (National Film Board 1988), the end
result may amount to demands from govemment or NCOs for resources or funds.
Korten has oudined three leaming process stages in the evolution of a development
program. What dim'nguishes each stage is the emphasis on learning to be efféctive,
learning to be efficient, and leaming to -and (1 980:499-500). Some organisations
move progressively through each stage. If they shift prematurely into the next stage,
howewr, the result a n be proprn failure. We shall rwisit the three stages and where
AKRSP fits into them in the Conclusion &on.
In addition organisations committed to the leaming process approach possess an adaptive
quality that allow them to continually 'fit' their activities with the needs of their
beneficiary grou ps. This is done by k ing diree actions: embracing error, planning wifh
people, and linking knowledge with action (Korten 1980:498). To what degree do
AKRSP and its catalystr fulfill these fundamental criteria of a learning organisation?
Figure 2.2
Catal yst L Natural Catal ys t
Freirian Catal yst
Liberative Catalyst
A~-Y Catalyst
'%="cl' Catal yst- turned Manager
The Rural Development Catalyst: A Taxonomy
Example Role
Model famer VO manager (AKRSP)
Leader l n novator Conflict resolve r
- teacher -facil itator - community cfw, worker
monk
-Pol itical -Conscientiser
- Gram sewk - Christian
pnest -Buddhist
-Conscientiser -Spiritual/ Social justice guide
AKRS P social orgnisen (SOS)
ffiowledge and
Motivator lmplementer Confl k t resolver
AKRSP FMU Managers
Skills Needed
Service provid er. Planner and manager of projects.
-
Basic management, conflid resol ution, sacial network and capacity to forrn Iinkages.
Understanding of conscientizacion Critical awareness Facilitation skills
-Communication -Understanding of conscientliacion -Gand hian/ Liberatiod Budd hist theology principles -Facikation skik -Critical awareness
Communication Confi ict R e d ution Social organisation/ analysis
Social analysis Analytical skills Planning skills Understanding of larger development processes.
Appropriate Training Program
Requires litde training . Basic management and leadership training help.
Adult eduation program.
Gand hian comm. dev't training (e.g. ashram, gram
udyog) -'Christian base' training -S hramadana camp training
SO întemship Training and Leaming Program CTLP) SRP&D Mid- Career Program
TLP SRP&D Mid- Career Program
What kind of learning is appropriate for catafjrsts?
One challenge to the catalyst's effectiveness is an inadequate knowledge of maadevel
or global issues (Burkey 1993:82). How can this knowiedge gap be filted so that the
catalyst has an understanding of the larger contexts of developrnent, rather than simply
the micrulewl! Most rural dwelopment approaches recognise the role of modem
tedinoiogy in improving the lot of the rural poor. An ongoing relationship between
univenities and development programs can be seen in many successfui dwelopment
projech (Uphoff 1998:31) such as the Comilla program's reiationship with Michigan State
University (Stevens et al. eds. 1976:123), and OPP with Dawood Engineering College in
Karachi (Khan 1996). In both cases, academia provided technical advice to the
programs. I t has been further argueci that social scientists a n buiid capacities by
transferring action-research m i s to the agency and on to the rural pmr. These toois can
aid in the identification of probiems and appropriate solutions for nirai clients (Korten
1 980:501).
In this thesis 1 argue that cataiyst training must involve not only the necessary
motivational and communication skills. Both catalysts and catalyst-turned-managers
require sound analytical and planning skills that can empower and encourage self-
reliance among the rural poor. In their central d e , both can contribute to long-term
rural development if they are part of a broader leaming process appmach within
their agency.
mer fifteen years of first relying moatly on catalysts, then on catalyst-turned-
managea, a c u r m t analysis of the AKRSP case offers hvo examples of intensive
training program involving catalysts. I suggest that a combination of these two (one
a six-week in situ social analysis course and the other a ten-month Mid-Career
Program in International Rural Development Planning) oHer catalysts and catalysts-
tumed-managers important leaming expeciences in the areas of analysis and
planning. Howwer, both program require the enhancement of effecüve hcilitation
and an understanding of conscientazacion.
This research thus attempts to build on Our understanding of catalysts and their role
in the rural development process. It is intended to fiIl a gap in the available body of
knowledge about appropriate training for the catalyst, especially in ligM of a rapidly
changing rural context and indeed, a rapidly changing world.
3. METHOOOLOGY
3.1 Background to Research
The idea for di is research emerged from my own work with development catalysts
studying at the University of Guelph. From January to ~ p n l 1997 1 had the opportunity
to work for the university as an International Rural Dwelopment Program (IRDP)
Assistant The ten-month IRDP program for mid-career professionals has been offered by
the university's S c h d of Rural Planning and Developrnent (SRP&D) since 1992. M y
responsibilities ranged from helping students understand their assignments for graduate
courses, to helping them develop a research project, to orienting hem to Canadian
university l ife.
Over the course of my work, I began to develop lasting friendships and an empathy for
their learning challenges. As individuals whose leaming foundation was laid in rural
Pakistan's poorly funded govemment schools and urban universities, the leap to North
Amencan-standard graduate studies was difficult These were exacerbated by the faû
that many of them were retuming to the dassroorn afkr many years, in a foreign culture,
and separated from their families and communities.
Two crucial questions developed out of my work with them:
0 What do development catalysts do ?
ii) How, ifat al, can unkrsity pmgtams meet their education and training needs?
3.2 ResearchCoals
This research is exploratory and bas4 on a qualitative research rnethodology which
examines catalysts from the Aga Khan Rural Support Program (Pakistan) as one case
study, followed by the ten-month Mid-Career Program in IRDP at the University of
Guelph as a second case study.
Goals
1 . To examine a leaming environment for catalysts in a rural dwelopment program.
2. To find ways of improving the exisb'ng education program for catalysts.
Objectives
1. To compare the role of agenq catalysts in the Aga Khan Rural Support
Programme (Pakistan) with catalysts from other global contexts who work under
other ideological principles.
2. To identify die leaming needs of AKRSP catalysts.
3. To review a mid-career leaming program for AKRSP catalysts.
4. To detemine whether the program mets learner ne&.
5. To detemine areas for further education collaboration between AKRSP and die
School of Rural Planning and Development at the University of Cue!ph.
Data collection was mmpleted from January to ~ p d 1 998 using the qualitative research
tediniques highlighted below.
3.3 Two Case Studies
With fifieen years of field experience using local catalysts, AKRSP seemed to be a rich
source of information and an ideal case for a study of catalysts. Similarly, the Mid-Career
Program in l RDP at the University of Guelph, while not designed specifically for catalysts,
had signifiant experience since 1992 in working with catalysts (and more recendy,
catalysts-tumed-managers). Most of AKRSP's paiû'cipants in the program have been
catalysts. The SRP&D case study thus examines the program as it d a t e s to catalrts
and their learning needs.
Before commencing formal data collection, I completed a four-month internship with
AKRSP Baltistan. This allowed me to p i n an insider's perspective on the AKRSP
organisational culture and a chance to familiarise myself with the larger environment of
the Northem Areas of Pakistan. My intemship was therefore my chief entry point It
involved completing two research assignments for AKRSP's Learning Support Unit (LSU).
The assistantship at SRP&D and the intemship at AKRSP gave me some insider familiarity
with both organisations. They also allowed me to acquaint myself with catalym. 1 learned
much. My relationship with my subjects deepened and I began to meet more catalysts,
some of whom had completed the ten-month SRP&D program and some who had not.
A case study rnethodology was used for this research to examine the context-spedic
aspects of AKRSP and die leaming experienœ at SRP&Drs Mid-Career Program. Most
data was collecteci at AKRSP's three regional programme offices (Baltistan, Cil@ and
Chitral) as well as the Core Office in Gilgit from January to April 1998. Additional data
was collected in Guelph, Canada from June to September 1998.
The approach was qualitative and exploratory, with more attention paid to participant
iteration than quantifiable indicators of program success. There was enough relevant
qualitative data to develop a signifiant impact assessrnent of the Mid-Career Program.
In order of their use, specific techniques are listed below.
Informal Study
From August to Decernber 1997 1 worked as an intem at AKRSP Baltistan's Regional
Programme Office. This allowed me to gain an insideh perspective on AKRSP as a
working and leaming environment for dwelopment practitioners. It also helped me get
acquainted with the mountainous environment of the Northem Areas and its physical
constraints. Various research assignments hel ped me guge the catalysts impact as wel l
as the pace of change in the Nordiem Areas.
Participant Obsenmtion
After a four-month intemship widi the Leaming Support Unit (LSU) atAKRSPfs Baitistan
regional program office, 1 was well acquainted with the catalyst working environment and
organisational of AKRSP. I now began to more consciously observe former and current
catalysts at work. Additional observations were made of two other 'retumeesf from
Guelph and one who was preparing to depart for Guelph.
SernEStructured l ntemWews
In-depth interviews in Urdu and English were conducted with
AKRSP Core Office Staff
1 Credit and Saving Manager
2 Human Resources Developrnent (HRD) Staff
1 Policy and Research Manager
AKRSP Regionai Programme Offices (Cil& Chitral and Baltistan)
2 Regional Programme Managers (RPMs)
1 Monitoring, Evaluation and Research Manager
3 Leaminflraining Support Unit Managen
3 Field Management Unit (FMU) Managen
3 Social Opnisers (SOS)
1 Loan Recovery Officer
2 Social Analyst/Managers
2 Women's Coord inators
2 former Regional Programme Managers ( now consultants with 0 t h NGOs)
TOTAL: 23
Of this total, 1 7 were men and six were women.
12 had cornpleted the SRP&D Mid-Career Program in IRDP.
16 (1 2 male, 4 fernale) were catalysts at some point in their careen.
An interview schedule was used to address key questions (see Appendix D). However,
interviewees were enowraged to beyond these questions and made to feel cornfortable
enough to recount experienœs they felt relevant to their work.
Key Informant lnteMews
Interviews were held with Shoaib Sultan Khan, the founder of AKRSP, and his mentor,
Dr. Akhtar Hameed Khan. The former is currendy a senior advisor to a UNDP South Asia
Poverty Alleviation Programme that replicates the AKRSP model in other contexts. He
was intervieweci at his Islamabad office. Akhtar Hameed Khan now heads the Orangi
Pilot Project in Karachi. Interviews were also held with Dr. Farokh Afshar, the
Coordinator of the SRP&D Mid-Career Program. Atthe suggestion of Shoaib Sultan Khan,
Dr. Afshar first initiated die Mid-Career Program in I RDP at the University of Guelph with
the assistance of the Aga Khan Foundation Canada (AKFC).
Questionnaire Suneys
AKRSP's General Manager (CM) and a diird RPM were intervieweci through open-ended
mail-out q uesüonnaires.
3.4 Respondent Bias
A comparison of observations made of AKRSP staff currendy in the program and
graduates rwealed a tendency among the latter to recall pnmarïly the positive aspecb
of the program. They admitted that it was often dificult for hem to recall some of the
difficulties they had faced. More recent gradua~s and diose currendy in the program
tended to be more critical-
3.5 Researcher Bias
Admittedly, k i n g an employee of both case study institutions (SRP&D and AKRSP) raises
important questions of bias on my part It can be argueci diat 1 may have k e n simply too
dose to my subjectr to be able to maintain some objectivity. 1 feel, howwer, that my
degree of involvement in botb institutions and the daily life of some of my subjectr
allowed me a unique degree of intimacy. This intimacy has been the foundation of a rich
' insider' experience.
Similarly, one might ask was there a conflict of interat in wrking for both AKRSP and
SRP&D? At no time did I feel that pressure from either organisation compromised rny
ability to frankly state my findings. In fact, SRP&D faculty and the Mid-Career Program
Coordinator encouraged me to be critical in my assessments. To their aedit, AKRSP8s
senior management were equally honest, and open to critiusrn and potentially
provocative questions.
1 did notice, however, an important bias emerging at the beginning of the research
period. Having worked closely with AKRSP staff in the Mid-Career Program, I had a
strong sympatby for tbeir position as leamers and as middle management staff. Upon
hearing their grimances about AKRSP, it was easy for me to take their side and assume
that they were the 'victims' of organisational politics. 1 addressed this bias by intewiewing
AKRSP senior management and other staff who had not been in the Mid-Career Program.
These interviews allowed me to see other perspectives other than simply those of
cataiysts who had b e n through the Guelph program and to obtain a more objective view
of the organisation's intemal dynamio.
3.6 Other Biases and Limitations
In Pakistan, my mobility was shaped by the AKRSP work schedule. I travelled in AKRSP
vehides, was introduced to local residents by AKRS P staff, and much of my mposure was
to AKRSP p r o j e in AKRSP-initiated village organisations. I was exposed to AKRSP's
literature, its cadre of consultants and researchers. This kind of immersion in an institution
that produces its own information and justifies its owm existence so effectively, can lead
one to believe that AKRSP was and is the sole development actor in the region. For a
more balanced view, 1 am grateful to AKRSP's regional programme managers (RPMs).
They pointed out that AKRSP is part of a larger process and that other key forces and
actors are also at work in northern Pakistan.
Another bias I obsewed in myself and my subjects is one that emerges from studying
devdopment at university. 1 t is assumed b a t academic leaming with its req u ired written
research assignments, cornputer and Engiish skills, will help anyone develop
professionally. As a Program Assistant I had observed catalysts attempting to
communicate and master a series of completely new skills. In cornpaison with Canadian
graduates -dents, they had obvious handicaps, particularly fluency in Engiish. The rare
opportunity to study in a Western university, with its facilities and apparent
sophistication, suggested to them if they could overcome their handicaps, they would be
able to take advantage of the best repository of knowledge on rural development In
odier words, the asuirnption may exist for those who study at universities that univenity
is the best place for study.
This bias is relateci to one which I cal1 develocentrism, the belief that dwelopment
organisations or non-govemment organisations (NGOs) are the chief forces that bring
change to an a ra - AKRSPs RPMs were qui& to point out that the Pakistan A m y was an
wen larger devdopment actor and employer than AKRSP, and that religious parties were
equally important and vocal agents of change. 1 had to remind myself to %tep out' of
AKRSP and recognise these other catalysts.
The communities of the Northern Areas are, to varying degrees, closed to outsiders.
Sedusion of women (purdah) is an important organising nom in the rural areas of
Pakistan. My ability to enter the private household sphere of women was severely
Iimited. AKRSPs regional programme offices in Baltistan, Chitral, and Cilgit, however,
provided me with a rare opporhinity to arnrnunicate and work alongside the small (yet
growing) section of educated local women. 1 would have prefemd more female
perspectives in ai is research, and a more in-depth analysis of the female catalyst 1 can
only hope that this inevitably gender-biased analysis will be complemented someday by
specific research on female catalysts by a female researcher.
Finally 1 spent the bulk of my ten month internship and research sünt in Baltistan, which
differs from the rest of AKRSP's program area. Most Baltis belong to the Shia (lthna
ashari) sect and the Nubkshi Sufi tradition. My greater familiarity with the culture and
environment of Baltistan than the other two regions may be rdecbed in my analysis.
PART II : AKRSP CATALYSTS : CASE STUDY #1
The term catalyst cornes fmm chemistry. Social actors, when introduced into certain community settings, can be seen as analogous to certain substances that, when put into a chemical solution, precipitate or accelerate a reacîion that changes the nature of that solution. Social catalysts change the nature of the social situation like chemical catalysts alter a physical one.
4.1 Northern Pakistan
Nesded in the highest mountain ranges of the world, the mountain communities of what
is now northern Pakistan were once important jundons along the trade routes of Central
Asia. Situated in the collision zone berneen the Himalaya, Karakoram, Hindu Kush and
Pamir mountain ranges, diese communities have been on the frontiers of Asia's larger
empires for centuries.
The total area of the Northem Areas of Pakistan and Chiml is approximately 69,200 sq.
km. The rural population, setded in 1,230 villages, numbers more than one million. Lying
in a partial min shadow, the area receives very litde precipitation. Farming the and
rnountain slopes is impossible without irrigation from glaaal mel~ater. Communities
have subsisted for centuries on a combination of cropping and livestock. The choie of
crops varies, depending on the altitude of the community. At lower altitudes, two cereal
crops <;in be hawested in one season, while at higher altitudes only one crop is possible
and livestock is a key liveli hood source.
For centuries, villages supplemented their subsistene farming economy through trade
with neighbouring kingdoms in Central Asia. In the nineteenth enhin/, portering for
colonial nilers became an additional source of income. Traditional mde routes have
k e n closed s i n e 1 948, when the area became part of Pakistan. Today the area occupies
a sensitive border area with Afghanistan, India, China, Russia, and former Soviet republia
like Tajikistan ( s e Figures 4.1 and 4.2). There are a number of outstanding border
disputes in the region, notably between india and Pakistan. There is a trickle of mde with
China and Afghanistan, but most links are with the urban plains of Pakistan.
Figure 4.2
(United States Central Intelligence Agency, University of Texas Libraries web site)
34
4 1 BriefHistory
In the 1840s the Dogra raja of Jammu annexed bhmir , Baltistan by defeating local
rulen and gained nominal control over Gilgit The Dogras are remembered for their
oppressive rule. In k h m i r and Baltistan they exacted heavy taxes from rural residents
and maintained a systern of forced labour known as begar. The British allowed the
Dogras to maintain their formal control over the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir and
placed their own Political Agent in Gilgit, which became a listening post in the 'great
gamet of intrigue with imperial Russia. The Dogras, in tum, CO-opted the local rulers
(mirs, mias and mehtars) who paid an annual îrïbute in exdiange for the right to mle at
the local level.
Figure 4.3 Pmfile of the Northern Areas and Chitral
Number of Households
l ndicator
Landholdings per 1.78 ha household
Gilgit
Size of Household
ütency (Male)
(Khan and Khan 1992)
ChitraI
8.4
Baltistan
7.7 5.8
When British 1 ndia was partitioned into I ndia and Pakistan in 1 947, the Dogra Maharaja
refused to join either nation. He first toyed with the idea of independence, refusing to
sign accession to either state. However k i n g a Hindu king, he ultimately acceded to
Hindu-majority India, without consulting his state's werwhelmingly Mushm majority.
Pakistan did not accept this accession and both nations went to war. At the same time,
the British-wmrnissioned Giigit Scoutr and the Maharaja's own Mushm troops stationed
near Gilgit revdted. Through 1948 diey fought to liberate Gilgit and Baltistan from
Dogra/Indian rule and join Pakistan.
In 1949, a UN-brokered ceasefire agreement was signed between india and Pakistan.
Two subsequent wars broke out (in 1965 and 1971) and a UN-monitored ceasefire line
known as the 'Line of Control' still divides Jammu and Kashrnir between the two
countries. Tension mer b h m i r continues to this day and both nations regularly flex their
military might in this area refend to as "disputeci territoiy".
The district of Chitral, was a princely state like those in the Cilgit Agency (Hunza, Nagar,
Yasin and Punial) which resisted ruled Oogra rule and was eventually subjugated by the
British. At the time of Partition its der, the mehtar, pledged allegianœ to Pakistan,
offering military support for the liberation of Baltistan in 1948. Pakistan in tum allowed
Chitral to s<ia as a princely state under the mehtar until 1970 when it was merged with
the North West Frontier Province (NWFP).
Absorption into the nation state of Pakistan in 1 948 brought litde change to these isolated
communities. The British Political Agent at Cilgit was replaced by a Pakistani one and the
area and feudal rulers were allowed to continue their despotic mie without any
dernocratic refom. GifgitAgency and Baltistan were renamed the 'Northern Areas' (NAs).
However, the constnicîion of the Karakoram Highway in the late 1970s, linking
Islamabad to Western China, brought rapid transformation through greater contact with
the urban plains of Pakistan. At the same time Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
abolished the feudal system. Howewr, die democfatization of die area remains
incomplete. Today, due to the 'disputed territory' status, the residents of the NAs do not
enjoy the basic righb of other Pakistanis. These indude the right to vote and the right to
redress in a higher court of law. This is a source of growing frustration, particularly among
educated youth. In 1997 demonstrations were stageci in principle NA towns such as Gilgit
and Skardu to demand full constitutional rights (Khan 1 998, Sokefeld 1998). These were
followed by anests. The Pakistan Amy continues to keep a watchful eye
As a result of an improved transportation and communication infrastructure, today there
is increasing access to aie health and education facilities of the urban plains. The
population has increased to the point where the small land holding of the average
household, which range from -69 to 1.78 ha (Khan and Khan 1992:16), cm no longer
sustain die population. Households n w complement their subsistence faming with
eamings from tourism and rernittances from down-country labour.
The acüvity of non-govemment organisations (NGOs) in these re@ons, partïcularly those
working within the Aga a a n Deveiopment Network (AKDN) is high. Established in 1 982
at the request of the Aga Khan, the 4gh imam of the lsrnaiii Muslims, AKRSP operates
within this tight network. In addition to the lsmaili sect, there are Shia (Ithna ashari) and
Sunni Muslims in almostequal numbers. There have been instances of sectarian tension,
sometimes leading to violence. Wth the appearanœ of the AKDN institutions in the early
1980s came suspicions of a plan to create an lsmaili nation called 'Nuristan', by linking
neighbouring lsmaili communities in Central Asia. While this may seern implausible, there
were clearly suspicions that the underlying intent was to convert non-lsmailis to the
lsmaili sect
Figure 4.4 The 4gh imam of the lsmaili Muslims, Prince Karim Aga Khan, has inspired a number of dwelopment programs which assist the rurd residents of the Northern Areas of Pakistan.
Leftïst movements have been viewed with similar suspicion in Pakistan, in part because
of a perceiveci Maixist direat to Islam, the Soviet crushing of lslamic culture in Central
Asia, and perhaps most importandy, Pakistanrs history of patronage from the United
States during the Cold War. I therefore suggest that, with its neo-Marxist ideology, a
full Freirian approach would not be accepted in fakistan. At the same tirne, the
catalysts in this case, have much to learn h m the approaches that rdy more on
participation, a leaming pmcess, and awareness building or conscientisaüon.
In view of the political sensitivïty of the region, for a development agency to be
effectimve, it must be caieful to not become inadvertendy associated with political
movements that threaten the delicate sectarian balance in the region, or Pakistan's
national security interesb. As we shail see, AKRSP has succeeded in this respect,
largdy due to the skill of its catalysts.
4.3 The Aga Khan Rural Support Programme
AKRSP was established in 1982 in the Cilgit region of the Nordiem Areas of Pakistan by
Shoaib Sultan Khan, a renowned former Pakistani civil sewice officer who drew on a
number of sources for his rural development work. The first of these was Akhtar Hameed
Khan whose Comilla proje- at the Pakistan Academy for Rural Development (PARD)
in the 1950s and 60s had drawn widespread acdaim. A.H. Khan's integrated approach
cornbined cooperative infrastructure proje- (irrigation channels, flood em ban kments,
link roads) with local skill training centres. In particular, it stressed die n e 4 for
cooperative effort on the part of rural residents in addition to technology transfer.
Shoaibsultan Khan devdoped AKRçPscooperative (rather than capitalistor communist)
model, drawing on his add itional experience at PARD's Oaudzai program in the 1 970s
and his four years with the Mahaveli ûevelopment Project in Sri Lanka.
Beginning in Pakistan's Northem Areas, AKRSP's four objectives were to:
7. Raise the incomes and guality of life of about one million rnostly poor people in the high mountains and isolated regions of northern fafistan.
2. Deelop institutional and technical models for equitable development.
3. €volve sustainabIe, longqerm strategies for productive management of natural resounes in a fragiIe environment.
4. Demonstrate approaches and packages that can be replicated elsewhere.
(Khan and Khan 1992:35)
AKRSP daims to have met the first objective by contributing to a doubling of rural
incomes in the past ten years. Some of its institutional and technical models are k i n g
recognised as failing to address increasing inequities in the rural social environment
(Wood 1997)' and in extreme cases contributing to inequity (MacDonald 1994). AKRSP
attempts to meet its third objective through its Naturai Resource Management (NRM)
which began in 1995 by integrating Agriculture, L i v W and Foreshy sections.
Regarding replication, one regionai programme manager explained tbat AKRSP needed
to swiftly prove its potential for replication in order to influence policy makers in
Pakistan. The creation of the National Rural Support Programme Sarhad Rural Support
Programme, the (SRSP) in the North West Frontier Province ( W F P ) , and in 1998 the
Punjab Rural Support Programme (PRSP) are exarnples of an 'RSP' movement that has
been given recognition by federal and provincial govemments, particularly that of Prime
Minister Nawaz Sharif. Shoaib Sultan Khan is now a senior advisor to the UNDP's South
Asia Poverty Alieviation Programme which promotes the AKRSP model through
demonsûation sites in Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and the Maldives.
It is worth noting here an important aiticism of the last objective. Uphoff argues strongly
that replication is overemphasised by development professionals and policy makers and
leads to sdf-deception. He insists a leaming process rather than the blueprint approach
ensures long-term su- through reiiance on rural people (1 998:24). Simiiarfy there
is mnvina'ng evidenœ diat the more successful rural development programs such as the
National Dairy Developrnent Board (NDDB) in india and the Bangladesh Rural
Advancement Cornmittee (BRAC) began slowly, embedding leaming mechanisms in their
organisations (Korten 1 980).
The first sïep in the AKRSP approach is to explain the program to villages and
encourage them to f o n village organisations NOS). Through a series of three dialogues
between a community and AKRSP, villagers fom dieir VO. It is intended to be a
cooperative organisation, designed to indude al1 male community members. The V U
identifies a productive physical infrastructure (PPI) project sudi as an irrigation channel
or link road, and AKRSP provides technical guidance from its engineers. Formai ternis of
parhiership between AKRSP and the VO are agreed upon during the dialogues. AKRSP
provides an initial grant to pay for the material costs of die PPI as well as to compensate
villagers for their construcb'on labour at market rates VO rnembers in tum contnbute
money during their meetings towards collective savings in local banks. This is intended
to create village capital for future projects.
In the beginning, another condition was that each VO would have to select an
appropriate candidate for training by AKRSP in agriculture, liv- and forestry
im provement AKRSP also developed a series of extension packages, to assist farmers in
increasing the produdon and value of limited f a n remmes. The VO specialist was
pardy responsible for their dissemination. The AKRSP development mediodology is thus
a combination of social guidance and technical guidance. It also offers certain pre-
packaged solutions to address community n d s , focusing on public works and income
generation by capitalising on available natural resources. The process was underway.
Requiring villages to contribute savings and participate in training as conditions for
pamership with the agenq has been noted as an effedjve means of ensuring the build
up of community resources (Uphoff 1 998:36-37) and counters dependenq on the
agency. Akhtar Hameed Khan wams of this langar khana or 'free lunch' tendency in
Pakistan (Khan 1998:20).
Women's Organisations &VOS) were mon encxiuraged by AKRSP aiong similar lines,
except that their initial projects were generally not infrastructure-related, but more related
to their household activities. Vegetable seed and poultry packages were examples of WO
packages. Some of the more conservative cornmunities, particularly non-lsmaili
communities (Sunni, Shia), were resistant to the idea of women's organisation.
After establishing itrelf in the Cilgit region in 1982, AKRSP spread its activities to Chitral
in 1985, Baltistan in 1986 and Astore in 1993. It is thus now operating in the five
federally administered districts of die Northem Areas (see Figure 4.5) and Chitral. The
latter, although part of NWFP, is more historically and culturally tied to the NAs. For
simplicity's sake, it shall hereafter be referred to under the rubric of the 'Northern Areas'.
Figure 4.5 AKRSP Operations Area: The Five Districts of the Northern Areas and Chitral. (AKRSP 1997)
AKRSPrs founder, Shoaib Sultan Khan, has oudined the following key assumptions and
conditions on which its organisationai model was based:
The rural poor as individuals (or individual households) lack the capacity and resources to change their harsh ph ysical and social circumstances.
The poor know their needs and priorities, but lbe in a system of constrainü Ni which their choices are limited or even nonexistent. They can well define their needs and are prepared to mobilize their resources.
The poor must form a legitimate and credible ViHage Organization NO) in partnership with a support organization of outsiders, in this case the AKRSP- The organization of the poor must be based on equal participation by members of each VO. The terms of partnership are clearly stated: reciprocal obligations are identified and accepted, and a mechanism for enforcernent of agreed sanaions is established.
The pattnership of two organizations - V O and AKRSP - must be baseci on reciprocal obligations, of which the primary obligation is of the poor to establish equity capital through whatever initial savings each member can contribute to the VO's savingr hnd. The other part of their obligation is to elect and appoint two V O members as Pmident and Manager,, who are among the village activists, enjoy the confidence of the members, and are accountable to them.
The entry point for the outside support organization - in this case the AKRSP - as a catalyst must be determined by a clearly defined need of the VO. The purpose here is to invest in activities that will have a di- impact on the weltare of the target gmup on a continuing bais and amund which members can be giued to the VO. Individual inwiwment and participation in the collectie or common infrastructural and productive activities is a basic condition of success.
The institutional capacities in the village are built before introducing technical change by identifyng the village activists who are able and willing to work for the organization.
The support system should aim at pacùages of inputs and services for the V O that it c m manage and that have a direct impact on pductivi ty and equity. The members should danelop specialized skills usable for the beneft of d l in the VO.
The support systern should not m a t e dependence of the poor on outsiders, but initia te a self-sustaining pmcess of development withou t outside support. The aim is to produce capacity for self-dance.
The organization of the poor should act not only as a delivery system but also as a pressure group to demand fmm the institutions of the state those services and infrastructures that at cannot establish through its resources. It can also make moe effmive the delivery of services by public and private sector agencies.
A final ~quirernent needed for the AKRSP mode1 to work well is that it depends on pamcipaîion and k ib i l i ty , because a rigid, buureaucratic, and centralized management appmach with a fixed ex ante design or plan is a sure way to failue.
(Khan and Khan 1992:32-34)
Some staff fdt bat this AKRSP vision had been lost since the departure of its charismatic
founder in 1995. It has k e n suggested that one of the weaknesses of some programs is
reliance on a charismatic figure such as an Akhtar Hameed Khan or a ~ohammed
Younus, the founder of the Grarneen Bank in Bangladesh (Uphoff 1998).
These assumptions are in keeping with many of the principles of self-assisted
dedopment. 1 suggest that one key point is missing: the learning pmcess. The need
for staff to leam, rathet than merely implement according to the assumptions is
crucial. For as these assumptions change according to the changing rural context? the
catalyst must fully understand them as well as the rural context.
Figure 4.6 AKRSP-assisted Productive Physical 1 nfrastnicture (PPI) projeds such as irrigation channels turn the arid r n o ~ n ~ n s into arable land.
Figure 4.7 Newly developed land through irrigation is then divided equally among village households.
48
Figure 4.8 AKRSP provides technical guidance and a one-time gant for link roads, such as this one in ~altistan, another commonly chosen PPI.
Figure 4.9 AKRSP-introduced new varietis of wheat.
49
S. AKRSP'S SOCIAL ORGANISERS
To initiate a process of economic and social change in rural communities, AKRSP relied
on local people from the Northern Areas to explain its program principles, motivate, and
manage the implernentation of its development packages. AKRSP's founder, Shoaib
Sultan Khan, pointed to two essential catalysts: the village 'abivist' and the AKRSP-
employed Social Organiser (50). This study deals with the latter, the key figure in
AKRSP's program of planned change.
The current description of the social organiser's job objective is "to organize
communiaes at the village levd in order to manage resources coiiectivdy" (AKRSP
1996, see Appendix C). The SO was the main field actm in AKRSPs activities. Based in
field offices called Social Organisation Units (Sous), each SO worked closely with an
engineer and an accountant The SOU was amuntable to one of the three District
Programme Offices (now called Regional Programme Offices), who were amuntable to
the management group, the Ceneral Manager, and ultimately, a Board of Diredors (see
Figure 5.1).
SOS were what Shoaib Sultan Khan called the 'eyes and ears of the organisation'.
Catalysts intewiewed describeci the extraordinary energy and cornmitment that were
initially required of h e m as they moved from village to village explaining the AKRSP
philosophy and the terms of partnerships with AKRSP. They broke the ground for AKRSP.
Akhtar Hameed Khan, one of the inspirations behind AKRSP, referred to the SO role as
that of transmitters (ia., fmm the agency to the community), observers, mobilisers,
and team members (Khan 1985:340-2).
Here the divergence from the Freinan and religiously motivated catalysts mentioned in
Section 2 becornes dear. While the SO's three dialogues with the village sought to
identify issues of local concem. the solutions available were invariably along the lines
of infrastructure assistance rather than political encouragement. Partnership was
cemented by a PPI. In contrast, consider the following description of a conscientizaâon
workshop:
&se communities use a methodology bas& on questions. In addition, the people a h acquire some simple categories of analysis. At a weekend course, after they have pooled their own perceptions of an issue such as land tenure, a discussion leader may provide them with some statistics that enable them to appreciate where their experience fa into the larger context of their country as a whole. Or there may be a whole session on class differences, with the people pmviding their descriptions of the various classes. Using their own perceptions, the discussion leader might then take a marker pen and draw theirsociety in the fonn of a pyramid. Critics might denounce this as instiling class antagonism; others might counter that it simply means helpingpeople systematize what they haw a l d y o b s e d and experienced. (Berryman 1 987:73)
Assuming that the community's solution would have to be organisational and technical,
AKRSP's SOS avoided diese issues and mobilised villages according to the three key
prinuples of the AKRSP approach:
1. Organisation
The SO assisted in the formation village organisations (VOS) and women's organisations
(WOs). They faalitated V,WO eledon of their own President and Manager, resolved
inherent conflicts within die community, and darified the conditions of partnership with
AKRSP. Their workwas recognised by AKRSP's founder and senior management as k i n g
acûemely important in t e n s of helping communities develop a vision of their future
development
2. SaMng5
Convinàng villagers to regulariy contribute their precious saving to a community account
was difficdt The concept was entirely new to these communities whose members had
nwer used banks. The SO had to allay fears that the money would be misappropriated.
In addition, the charging of interest or usury (smth) is forbidden in Islam. Conseivative
communities were resistint in some cases to keeping their saving where this would be
colleaed. When AKRSP developed its credit program later on, diere was resistance to
taking bans on which interest would be charged.
3. Training
Recognising that the local econorny was still largely based on primary resources such as
agriculture, livestock and forests, AKRSP trained members of each VO to be extension
'specialists' or master trainen Although the candidate for training was always seleded
by VlWO members tbemselves, it was the SO who ensured that the access to training by
technical staff was provided. Livestod< vaccination, knowledge of impioved seed
varieties, tree nursery management, and basic accounting are but a few of the areas that
AKRSP offereâ training in.
In sum, the AKRSP approach builds on previous attempts in Pakistan to dwelop a
successful rural development model. It does not have the overt political ideology of
India's community developrnent mwement or the Christian base communities of Latin
Amerka, but nevertheless embraces a cooperative spirit rather dian the stncdy capitalist
growth approach of earlier RD programs.
Figure 5.2 The Role of AKRSP Catalysts
training savings organisation
5.1 SO Intemship
Upon k i n g hired, SOS participateci in a 3-6 rnonth internship pend, under the direction
of a senior SO, before commenangtheir field work with full responsibilities. Senior SOS
had received training through PARD and its Daudzai pilot projed in the late 1970s.
Intems would accornpany them in their three dialogues with each VO and simply
observe. They also read literature on the AKRSP approach. Once the senior SO felt
confident in the SO's abilities, the latter would be promoted to the position of 'Satellite
SO' .
Male and female SOS pointed out that through this intemship pend diey leamed how
to enter a comrnunity and establish mn through meetingwith village elden and religious
leaders. They learned how to organise people. SOS dairned that they were careful not
to associate diemselves with any politid party or movement
Figure 5.3 An AKRSP catalyst (4social organiser') addresses a Village Organisation (VO) meeting in the Shigat Valley, Baltistan.
56
Most SOS expressed gratitude to AKRSP founder, Shoaib Sultan Khan. As General
Manager, he aaompanied many of hem to VO dialogues. They learned from his way
of resolving confiicts, darifying the program and defdy communicating with vil lagers.
Working dosely with the GM was an important part of their intemship.
5.2 Entry
The communities of Baltistan and Gilgit region were exploited by despotic rule for
centuries. An insenire existence due to scarce resources, a harsh physical environment,
the threat of warfare in pre-modem times has contributed to a sense of isolation and
defensiveness in these communities. Cender segregation amrding to Islam's pudah
system also reflects how these communities are 'dosed' to the outsider. For obvious
reasons, outsiders are regarded with suspicion. To mobilise villages, AKRSP fint had to
win their trust This was done through the local caûilyst, or social organiser, who entered
a community, explained the AKRSP principles and attempted to motivate villagers, often
by first convincing key leaders.
5.3 Techniques
60th male and fernale catalysts highlighted wmmon techniques for mobilising the rural
poor. Upon entry into a community, they al1 daimed that the moa effective way to
establish trust and convey the AKRSP message was to approach a local digious leader
or village dder and gain their confidence. One social organiser recalled how rather than
first speaking about the program, he went wery day to pray in the mosque of a particular
community. When the imam noticed him and asked him what brought him to thevillage,
he began to explain. After allaying the imam's suspiaons, he was encouraged to speak
in front of the congregation about the propm.
Thus key figures like imams were important stakeholders whorn local catalysts knew must
first be won over. This approach highlights the political nature of the catalyst's work and
the potential for misunderstanding. Al1 catalysts intervieweci noted the need for
sensitivity, parb'cularly women staff. They felt that their abilin/ to establish trust with
village leaders depended on an introduction by a male SO, the reputation of their family,
and their ability to conduct themselves modesdy and without violating existing purdah
noms.
5.4 Qualities of the ldeal Catalyst
Former social organisers highlighted a number of key personal qualities that they felt a
catalyst should have.
Honesty is a fundamental quality. A number of social organisers pointed outthatvillagers
are shrewd judges of charaber. If an SO violated the trust of villages in any way, her
entire work would be undermined. Similarly new SOS Mon discovered thatcommitment
to keeping one's word was important Fernale SOS recalled that WO members would
rernember each and every promise the SO made and if these were not kept, the SO's
credibility was Io* SOS also pointed out the importance of k ing committed to AKRSP
as an organisation, and to its principles of rural dwelopment They claimed that a person
who did not understand these prindples would be an ineffective catalyst
Understanding the local envilonment is essential. Social orpisers originated from
these communities. They could speak the local languages and inîeracî appropriately
amrding to local aistoms. Those without di is understanding, it was noted, could not
exped to be aMe to address the issues and challengps that are specific to the local
context Communities were also l e s willing to accept the advice of 'outsidersf who did
not understand and respect the local con- For example, in conservative Sunni and
Shia communiües, an inability to comprehend the influence of the local religious leader
(imam or ulema) could easily lead to failure.
Having a strong social network in one's area of operation is a considerable advantage.
Entry into a comrnunity was often achieved by presenting oneself to the village leader
and imam as die son or daughter of so-and-so. lndicating one's family, Iineage, and
home village contnbuted to greater acceptance. For example, one SO from a hereditary
wazir (govemment official) dan from die feudal era, found that his familyfs reputation in
neighbouring villages helped him enter a comrnunity as a recognised figure. He also
recalled having leamed much about conflict resdution from his father.
Figure 5.4 Wau'r Ghulam Haider, a longstanding social organiser, addresses a VO meeting with AKRSP technical staff.
60
Patience was seen as an important quality. Working in remote communities where
üansportation and communication links are weak, the work of social organisation is slow.
Numerous conflicis exist at the village-level and these are brought to the fore when the
community is forced to work cooperahvely. Resolving such conflicts and simply listening
to variety of stakeholder views requires patience.
Imparüality was noted as an important quality and method for maintaining trust with
rural comrnunities, particularly ones which were divided by disputes. The catalyst was
careful not to appear to be in the camp of any particular group. A nurnber of catalysts
gave the example of refusing offers to dine with partialar families. Although such a
refusa1 is considered to be highly anti-social in the Northem Areas, the catalysts felt they
would be perceived by other community members as k ing partial to the host families.
One SO explained that this refusal was based on his understanding and commitrnent not
deviate from AKRSP prinuples.
With a legacy of k i ng exploitecl by colonial bureaucracy, catalysts were encouraged to
adopt a people-first, non-bureaucratic approach. This example was set by AKRSP's
founder Shoaib Sultan Khan who sat on the ground with villagers during meetings and
spoke to AKRSP staff and the poorest of villages with equal respect
5.5 Catalyst Skills
ln addition to qualities which make an ideal catalysf social organisers pointed to a
number of skills which were essential to the catalyst's work.
Anabtical Skiils
The organiser is a facilitator for die community. A variety of stakeholders approach
him with varying demands. The catalyst must be able to assess situations, gauge the
positions of competing stakeholders and provide accurate information to AKRSP. This
then allows for appropriate decision-making.
Communication Skills
With Iow literacy and only recent access to education, the language of the development
NGO was foreign to these communities. One Regional Programme Manager (RPM)
underxored what 1 cal1 develocentricisrn, in which donors often fail to realise just how
discrete these languages and worldviews are. The SO was meant to be the bridge
between the two.
As a catalyst, he had to =plain the principles and objectives of AKRSP over and over
again. Here it was important that the catalyst know the local language. While Pakistanfs
national language, Urdu, was observed to be important in the workplace (Le. AKRSP),
particularly for communicating with non-local staff and down-country training institutes,
the local vemacular was the catalyst's lingua franc- with communities. This was found
ta be more so with women catalysts. It is only with the recent growdi of govemrnent
x h o d s that rural women have learned how to speak Urdu. Older women tend to speak
their own local languages (Shina, Burushaski, Wakhi, Balti and Khowar).
The ability to speak before a large audience was obviously an essential part of their
communication skills. For some, the opporhinity to leam this came in their university
programs. involvement with political parties on campus in Karachi and Lahore exposed
them to public speaking. m e r s had received specific instruction in giving semons
through formal lslamic studies. One catalyst noted how his father's role as a local leader
had exposed him to elocution, as well as traditional group facilitation, from childhood.
A num ber of cacilysts pointed to the significance of lis tening. They noted bat they had
been tau@ how to speak to communities in their training, but that they had to develop
listening skills on their own. Other catalysts pointed to the value of body language. This
was particularly important in conveying a neutral stance in ternis of political, religious,
and group affiliation to the comrnunity.
O~anisational/Motivational S kills
These skills were acquired iargely through the catalyst's intemship experience. They
listened intendy as senior social organisen attempted to convince communities of their
potential for developrnent The 5 0 would ofkn d ixuss dianges happening outside the
region, the potential for the development of greater education, health and infrastructure
faa'lities. She would point out the difialties of rural Iife and the possibility that these
problems could one day be solved. In many ways the catalyst's fate in the community
depended on their ability to motivate.
Conflict Remlution Skills
Rural society is a cornplex world of individuals and interestgroups with cornpethg needs.
û f k n the catalyst would enter a cornmunity which had been divided, in some cases for
years, by group rivalries a d outstanding disputes. Adopting a cooperative PPI was
difficult and, in some cases, impossible without full consensus and an agreement to
cooperate within the village. This required the SO to be an adept facilitator who couid
resolve outstand ing conflich. These conflicts often involved local elites. Radier than
ignoring or challenging hem, the AKRSP approach was one in which the catalyst tried
to indude them in the process.
leaders hi^ Skills
Most catalysts were observeci to be leaders in some sense. Participant obsewation found
thern to be respected cornmunity mernbers who were consulted for advice. This was not
merely because they had received 'university education (communities often had a
number of educated men), but more because they appeared to have proven their ability
to bting positive results through dieir leadership.
Lin kage Formation Skills
One of the hallmarks of sustainability, according to Shoaib Sultan Khan, was the VOrs
ability to chart its own course of dwelopment independent of AKRSP. The catllyst was
seen as k i ng able to initiate fundamental linkages with other govemment and non-
government organisations. This would reduce dependence on AKRSP and encourage the
VO to be a dynamic organisation that could link with other service and resource
providers. The S O was a fundamental bridge between the VO and other institutions (see
Figure 5.2).
Linkage formation is also something the SO encouraged VO Managers to do. Some of
the most successful VOS maintained strong linkages witb other Pakistani service
organisations su& as the Social Assistance Program (SAP) which builds village schools,
the Family Planning Asdation of Pakistan (FPAP), the Northern Areas Public Works
Department (NAPWD) and other AKDN organisations offering health, education,
housing, and cultural preservation services.
Non-lsmaili cornmunities have formed linkages with other support organisations within
their own seb. For example, the M a d e Foundation (Kuwait) offers similar services in
predominandy Shia Baltistan. Linkages have al- been f o n d with other international
organisations such as the World Consenration Union (IUCN) and Volunteer Sewice
Overseas (VSO), an organisation that provides communities with teacher-trainers from
the UK and Canada. One characteristicof a successful indigenous or natural catalyst like
a VO Manager is his ability to form and maintain such linkages which are beneficial to
the community (Khan 1997). AKRSP SOS claimed that it was they who first motivated
diese nahiral catalysts to continue their work.
5.6 Obstacles to the Catalys~s Work
A number of obstades beset the catalyst as he or she attempts to enter a community for
the first time. B e b are the obstacles that catalysts highlighted, followed in some cases
by solutions which they felt would address or remove the obstacle.
Suspicion
This was the fint reaction on the part of villagers. Mernones are stil l fresh of the Dogra
den of Jammu who colonized Baltistan. They imposed forced labour and heavy taxes
on the local populace and as a result, officiais have corne to be regardeci with fear and
mistnist
Due to the equal distribution of three lslamic sects (Sunni, Shia and Ismaili) in the
Northem Areas, each group is wary of attempts to convert îheir rnembers to the other
m. The Aga Khan is the spiritual and temporal leader of the lsmaili se^ Thus when
the Aga Khan Foundation began ta offer its development programs such as AKRSP to
non-ismaili communities, there was dear resistanœ based on the fear that the prograrns'
ultimate goal was to convert partiapants to the lsrnaili sed
Solution
Trust was gined by first adopting a nombureaumatic approach upon entry into the
community. Catalysb wore the local Pakistani dress (salwar kameez), radier than pants,
and conducted themseives according to local aistom, deferring to elders and religious
leaders. AKRSP's General Manager, Shoaib Sultan Khan, took the lead by making a point
of sim'ng on the ground in VO meeting instead of a chair. fie shook hands and spoke
with the poorest of villagers and beated them with the utmost r e s p e Catalysts noted
how impressed they were by these simple acb. Many dairned they had acquired their
methods through watdiing Shoaib Sultan loian.
To allay fears of conversion, it was important that the catalyst be a trusted local from
the same rdigious sect. This would add to their uedibiiity. Most catalysts indicated that
having a strong social network was essential in the establishing of ma For ewample,
a Shia catalyst whose father was a respeded community member would be more readily
received in a Shia communitythan an outsider. In non-lsmaili areas, the faci that catalysts
themselves were not lsmaili and had no fear of being converted, provided living proof
to rural people that there were no underlying motives behind AKRSP's entry.
Opposition h m Local Elites
While it has been noted that most villages in die ~orthern Areas possess a high degree
of relative equality, elites related to former feudal rulers or the eme'ng modem political
leaders. In some cases they opposed AKRSPrs work simply to prwent their fellow
villagers from gining resources. They had grown accustomed to their own privilege and
other villagers k i n g dependent on them.
Solution
The response of the catalyst was, in the first case, to serve as neutral arbitrators who
could resolve confiicts. in the second, catalysts would encourage elites and other
potential troublernakers to participate, explaining to them h m they could benefit from
AKRS P projects. The solution, therefore, was to co-opt or ind ude the elite in the process.
Ceographic Consfranb
The basic challenges of traveling and communicab'ng auoss the highest mountains in the
world, when the infrastructure has been developed only on a small =le, present a major
constraint The mountains are geologically unstable (Le., earthquakes and landslides are
common) leading to blodcages on major arteries such as the Karakoram Highway. Many
communities are inaccessible by road and of those that are, their access is blocked during
the winter. The entire region of Chitral, for example, has no road acres due to high
snowbound passes for six months of the year. Flights in and out of al1 three regions are
often cancefed due to bad weadier.
Many communities living away from the major roads do not have elecbicity or phones.
Conveyhg a message can take days. One can imagine how much longer it takes to
convey the message of rural development which requires time, patience and reiteration.
SoIution
It was felt that the effective catalyst was one who would be willing to reach the village
by any rneans. Some rode motorcycles while others walked for days, sleeping in village
houses and moques.
Failure to lmplement Development Packages
Some obstacles aise after the VO-AKRSP partnership has k e n formed. These have to
do with the VO's inability to keep to its part of the agreement 1 n some cases, villagers
lost interest in their PPI and it was abandoned or not cornpleted on time. Once AKRSP
began b offer d i t facilities for VOS and individuals, default became a problem.
Similady, althougb regular VO saving was a requirement for working with AKRSP, some
villagen were not interested and would not contribute. In other cases village specialists
trained by AKRS P in agriculture, livestock and foresûy were found to be not working.
Soldon
These implementation issues would require the catalyst to be more shrewd. One former
catalyst suggested rnethods such as deducting payment for VO loan default from VO
sa vin^, and drawing on community profits from other advities sudi as tree nursery sales.
ioan default continues io be a major concem for field staff.
Inabiliv of V W to UncEer~th~d Program Prinà'pIes
The introduction of an extemal organisation like AKRSP having contraduai agreements
with communities was somediing new for rural residents. The program's purpose and
logic had to be explaineci rnany times in some cases. Women social organisen, in
particular, noted that they had to repeat over and over again h m thr program worked.
They atbibuted bis to the high rate of illitetacy arnong women and the fact that they had
led largely house-bound Iives, with no contact with su& organisations.
Solution
Cleady repeat the program's principles as many times as necessaty.
ln& and lntrwilage Contlicts
Another obstade was inner conflia within the community. As in any community, land
disputes and other outstanding conflicts were sources of strong division. For a community
to adopta cooperative projeci like a PPI, it was important that many of these disputes be
resolved, parb'cularly where the sharing of rmurces such as irrigation Channel water was
concemed. Various groupings dong political, kin and elite lines could be frusûating for
the catalyst ûying to achieve consensus or cooperation. One SO noted diat 'if you meet
with a partïcular leader in a village, his opponents are automatically against you."
In some cases, conflids would anse because of AKRSPs intervention. Disagreement wer
the division of new land from irrigation, failure of some community mernbers to rneet
their obligations to repair and maintain irrigation channels are examples of post-PPI
conflib. There were also rare cases in which the VO Manager or President would
misappropriate funds. These cases required arbitration from the SO.
SoIuüon
The social organiser is a resolver of conflicis.
Figure 5.5 Troubleshoothg Summary
Obstacle
Suspicion
Opposition from Local Elites
VO Faiiure to lmplement Packages
lnability of V/WO to Understand AKRSP Principles
inter and 1 ntra-Village Conflicts
Solution
Adopt a non-bureaucratic approach. 'Local' catalyst: speaks same language, same religious se& Rely on one's own social network.
- -- -
More effort travei on foot if necessary.
Pressure community with withdrawal of assistance. - . - - - --
Patience needed. Repeat prinaples over and over and stick to one's word.
Act as a conflid resolver, peacebuilder.
I m plications for Catalpt Training
Hands-on training in social organisation, entry, appropriate conduct
Conflict Resolution training needed .
- - - - -
Motivational training needed.
Communication/ Analyticd S kills training
Communication/ Analytical S kills training
Conflict Resol ution training needed.
One Regional Program Manager pointed out that the village is not a singe entity but a
group of people with often conflicting interests. He felt that NGO staff often suffered
from dewlocentncism (my terrn), the belief that development ideology is at the entre
of thing. He believed diat, on the conirary, rural communities regard NGO development
activities as projects, which are of possible benefit to them. As one might expect,
village& own aspirations and self-intetests prevail at the centre of their worldview.
5.7 women Catalysts
While the same skill and quality issues apply to women catalysts, there are some factors
which make their situation and role clearly distinct from that of male catalysts.
In the rural areas of Pakistan, die division between the male-dominated public sphere
and the female-dominad private or household sphere is referred to as purdah. While
Ismaili women enjoy greater public mobility, purdah remains a powerful social nom in
Sunni and Shia communities. Again, die local catalyst was the one best equipped to
negotiate the fine balance between intmdua'ng AKRSPs women's dewlopment packages
and respdng existing noms.
The initial reaction in many non-lsmaili areas was that AKRSP was a corrupting influence
on local women. The sight of men and women driving together in AKRSP vehides and
the thought of wornen k i n g trained by ghair mard, or men from outude their kin group
or village, was unacceptable. Opposition to AKRSPfs inteiwntions continues in some
areas and AKRSP has leamed to take a cautious approach to womenfs development
AKRSPs Women in Dwelopment N I D ) program began as an experimentai initiative
and is now al1 tbree regional programme offices have WID (AKRSP Chitral refen
to its program as a Gender and Developrnent or GAD &on). Womenfs Social
Organisers (WSOs) were trained first by male SOS. The male SO in t rodud his female
counterpart to the VO and encourageci members to let their female family members fom
their own women's organisation (WO).
Figure 5.6 Women Catalysts
îatal yst
Yasmin Karim
Culistan 1 badat
Kulsoom Farman
**
Zakia Karirn
Shakeela Bibi
'* Prefened to not have real name used.
The female SO's job was not only to motivate women, and encourage hem to save, but
to also provide them with technical training for income generating activities such as
poulûy rearing and vegetable faning. In recent years, the WID program has expanded
to provide basic literacy and nurneracy courses as well as traditional birth attendant
training for women. However, with men dominating the public sphere and the
marketplaœ, the pace of social organisation around economic activities for women
appears to be siower.
l
Education
* B.Comrn.
*MA
* BA
* BA
* BA
* MA
Year Joined
1 983
1 985
1986
1 989
1 993
1994
Female catalysts undemred the difficulties of working in a male dominated
environment at AKRSP. They claimed that their ability to fundon as effective catalysts
depended largdy on the willingness of their regional pmgram manager or field
74
Current Position
TSU Coordinator
Cender Coordinator
Women's Coordinator
Social Organiser
Social Organiser
Cender Coordinator ' Indikates 'pivate' degrees wfiich w r e obtained througi correspondena! courses as opposed to aüendanae in university dases.
manager to encourage them and prm-de them with the necessary transportation to make
field visits. They felt that there was still much work to be done with rural women in ternis
of basic mobilisation and awareness raising. They also felt that opposition h m local
religious leaders had k e n exacerbated by some instances in which non-local women
staff flouted purdah noms. They worked in an environment in which miasm and the
direat of &al sandion were constant Most were proud of the fact that their husbands
and other family members supported their work.
Resistance from local male staff also hinders their w o k These 'opposers' feel diat
'Westemisationt of rural women will lead to a corruption of lslamic values. Other staff,
induding one longstanding social organiser, insisted that a separate women's program
was not necessary given social conditions in the NAs. They point4 out that the
organisational unit is the famiiy, and that the concept of individual spending for women
was foreign, since rural women did not frequent the marketplace. Proponents of this view
were confident that diere was a just division of resources between ail members at the
household lwel.
Figure 5.7 AKRSP Social Organiser, Zakia Karim, conduds a WO meeting.
Figure 5.8 Kulsoom Farman, a female catalyst, speaks on the importance of poultry as an income-generating enterprise for women.
76
5.8 CurrentDirectionsinWomen'sOrganisaüon
In some parts of the program area, the role of the female SO differs litde from that of her
male counterpah While îhere are examples of women taking on manageriai roles (one
was an FMU manager in the Gilgit region for two years), fernale SOS generally do less
'liaising' work such as linkage formation with govemment agencies, higher level conflict
remlution (e.g., inter-village), or infrastructure project dialogues. Their work can involve
activities as simple as discussing with rural women what can be done to improve their
l ives.
Given the lower levels of literacy (see Figure 4.2) and Iimiteâ public mobility for women,
the work of female SOS remains more basic, but no les important Their presence is
needed on a more regular basis to nurture WO developrnent and to voice the needs of
women. The delicate task of institution building for women, in a Society where such
organisations are completely new, requires ongoing assistance from the female SO.
Instru~on in bookkeeping, record keeping, and fostenng women entrepreneurs are also
key areas of acüvity. Female SOS have also requested training in conflict resolution.
In general, women catalysts are constrained by Iimited education oppoiainities. Although
diere were no enroiment restrictimons on hem in down-country universities, women are
hindered by the same la& of educational resources as men, compounded by restrictive
social noms such as purdah which prevent rural families from seeing the value of women
k i n g educated to enter the public workplace. This situation is changing, in part due to
die spread of down-country modem values, as well as the leadership of die Aga Khan in
Ismaili areas (where female education is süongly promoted).
At the same time. the 1998 Human Deveiopment Report for South Asia has noted that
low primary enrolrnent levels for girls (25%) in Pakistan is more due to a lack of political
cornmitment and consüous pol icy effort rather than religious faciors such as purdah. In
comparîson, other Muslirn countries like Bahrain and boast higher enrolment levels
Tunisia, 100% and 96% respectively, CThe News, April 6, 1998).
Regardless of die causes, most women catalysts claimed they had demanding roles at
home. Their responsibilities induded caring for children, husbands, and extended family
members, cooking, cleaning and orher household tasks. These lirnited their ability to go
on study leave or complete their higher education goals. The faci that al1 interviewees
had completed univenity degrees via the 'private' or correspondenœ route (see Figure
5.6), radier than through dassroom attendance, is evidence of this constraint
5.9 Challenging or Confoming to Traditional Structures?
In Sections 5.2 and 5.3 1 have indicated how cmperation with key comrnunity figures
or die local elite was essential to the SOfs work. This raises some important questions:
The failure of the community development movement in the 1950s and 1960s was due
in part to the failure to challenge elite power. Catalysts instead established alliances w ih
village el ites who took advantage of development proje- and simultaneously excluded
the poor (Kortefi 1 980:482)
1s the AKRSP cataw ctwptea by the ekte?
Why does the SO refuse to chalfenge elite power?
To annrver these. the tenn 'elite' must first be clarifiecl in the context of the Northern
Areas. Unlike the rest of Pakistan, the communities of the Northern Areas exhibit a high
degree of economic homogeneity which has been aürïbuted to a steady disintegration
of feudal power since the nineteenth century (Khan 1 992:2). Residenîs are quick to point
out that most households own land, and that there are few landless members of soa-ety.
The majority of rural households own between 0.8 and 2 hedares of land, depending
on the region. Since the forma1 dissolution of the princely States in the 1970s, the
influence of the feudal aristocracy has decreased to the point where it is negligible.
Local disputes are traditionally resolved through a meeting of the jirga. or council of
village elders. The jirga may be dominated by respectrd dans. In Shia communities
imams are important religious figures respeded for their leaming and consulted on
matters relating to islamic jurisprudence. In Ismaili communities, members active the
local representative of the ismaili Council which reports direcdy to the Aga Khan is
influential. In his research on avillage in the upper Braldu Valley of Baltistan, MacDonald
points out points out that traditional anangemenîs have e x i d particularly around the
shanng of common resounes such as water, pasture land and fore= long before the
amval of AKRJP. These involve the role of a rotating village head and established niles
of household responsibility or tum-taking (1 994).
I would agree with this analysis that in this area of Pakistan, traditional leadership
is not by definition oppressive. On the contrary, traditional leadership and
arrangements are often highly egalitarian. The target of an 'oppressiveelite' as &sts
in Latin America or areas of Pakistan where feudal powr structures remin stmng
(e-g., rural Sindh), or highly stratified societies can be dismissed from this
discussion. The catalyst's work, therefore, does not need to be overtly political or
conhntational in this context.
GNen this condusion, it is not surprising then that the AKRSP SO would choose to first
contact these focal points of local leadership. But what else can a catalyst do to assist
VO self-reliance? The analytical tools that enable a catalyst to logically monitor,
evaluate and retlect on his or her successes and failures in the field have ken, in my
opinion, neglected until very recedy at AKRSP.
AKRSP dweloped an irnpressive system of assessing VO self-reliance callecl the
Institutional Matunty Index. Hwwer, based on 1 20 indicatm, diis attempt to quantify
organisational processes was considered to be too time-consuming. it was also aiticÏsed
for attempting to quantify social change (Narayan and Ebbe 1997:40). 1 would add that
it left the al1 important leamhg pcocess in the han& of technicians at AKRSPfs
Monitoring and Evaluation &on radier than enabling the catalyst to betîer undentand
his/her changing field context
As I hall explain in the following chapten, chere is sb'll a need for consûentising work on
the part of AKWP catalysts.
6. CATALYST BACKGROUND
6.1 Rural Ohgins
The villages of die Northem Areas consist of small dusters of subsistence farming
households. While in earlier time, these cornmunities rnay have b e n more mobile, the
colonial era was rnarked by Iimited mobility as feudal rulers restrided travel and
maintained control over their subjects. increased mobility occurred with the
dissolution of feudal power in the early 1970s and the completion of the ail-weadier
Karakoram Highway. This made travel to down-country urban centres for trade and
education much easier.
Participant observation rwealed that most AKRSP local staff appear to be among the first
generation of N o h e m Areas youth to receive university edumtion down-country. A
number of interviewees noted that their parents were either illiterate or had received litde
formal sdiooling beyond the primary level. Traditional village schooling was camed out
in madmsahs or reiigious sdiools. Here literacy in Arabic and Persian was taught rather
than in local languages. Thus the current generation of AKRSP staff was among the first
to be exposed to comprehensive govemment sdiooling in die medium of Urdu,
Pakistan's national language, as well as English.
6.2 Government Schooling
Pakistan's govemment schools tend to be poorly funded and administered men by South
Asian standards. The statistics tell the story. With 50 million illitente adults (60%
fernales), 1 0 miilion children not attending primary xhool, and an official literacy rate
of 38%, Pakistan suffers from a la& of govemment invernent in the education sector
Uhe News 1998:11). The atmosphere of apathy in government schools is refleded in
hi@ rates of teacher absenteeisrn. For example, surveys of gwemment schools in the
Pakistani province of Balochistan found one-fifth of teachers missing (The News
1 998:11).
In recent years resource shortages have prornpted the creation of more private schools,
particulariy in urban areas. Exduding senior managemenf al1 AKRSP staff intewiewed,
particularly locals from the Northem Areas, had received government schooling for la&
of any affordable alternatives. In addition some had also received their pre-university
schooling in madrassahs or majored in islamic Studies in university.
The govemment school system throughout South Asia is charaderÎsed by rote iearning,
die memorisation of large portions of text which are regurgitated in standardised
examinations, then often prompdy forgotîen.
6.3 Universityhlucation
Most AKRSP staff cornplete degrees (either BA/B.Sc or MA/M.Sc) from universities in
tities such as K a d i , Lahore, or Peshawar. One inteiviewee dairned that this was due
to the availability of part-time jobs for students, particularly in Karadii, and relatively easy
admission standards. These standards suffered further during the 1980s when political
strife maneci campus life. Karachi University bore the bnint of violence between rival
political parties and ethnic groups.
More recendy, the religious Jamaat-i-lslami party has corne to dominate campus life at
the University of die Puniab (Lahore). Student m*kes, intimidation of faculty members,
and even armed conflict contributed to a general detenoration in the quality of higher
education in Pakistan since the 1980s. Some catalysts recalled that the appearance of
weapons on university campuses in the 1980s coincided with increases in instances of
cheating on examinations. They recalled cases in which faculty and -dents were
physically threatened.
6.4 Common Cround
They pointd out that generally die highest achiwen in university from the Nordiern
Areas qualify for the Pakisûini Civil Service or professions su& as Medicine or
Engineering. The vast majority obtain depes in the social sciences, humanities and wen
Islamic studies, for which there are few jobs. With a generally common levd of
schooling, qualification, and English ability, and high unemployment, competition for
jobs in NGOs is hi&. Employment and promotion in many Pakistani organisations
depends on the recommendation (sifarish) of those in power rather dian the merit of the
candidate. This makes one's soda1 nehr~ork an important factor in job security.
Ali the catalysts listed in Figure 6.1 below joined AKRSP as social organisers. Most were
later promoted to management positions as the catalyst role diminished.
Figure 6.1 Male Catalysts
Miraj Khan
Catalyst
Shah Karez
MA (Emnomics) L.L.B.
Year Joined
1983
1 Ali Mohammad 1 1984 1 *BA (History)
Education
MA (Pol itical Science)
Mohammad lqbal
1 Wazir G. Haider 1 1985 1 MA (Islamic Studies)
1 984
1 MA (Politid Science)
MA (Sociology)
1 Mohammad Alam
1 Chulam Hussain 1 1986 1 *MA (Political Science)
1 986
Mo hammad Ibrahim
(Social Work)
Current Position
Nazir Ahmad
AKES Consultant
Credit and Saving Manager (Chitral)
* lndicates 'private' degees which were obtained through mrrespona attendanœ in university dases.
1989
F MU Manager
MA (Geography)
FMU Manager
F MU Manager
LSU Manager
Social Organiser
TSU Manager (1 997)
MER Manager n e courses as opposed
6.5 Staff Devefopment at AKRSP
AKRSP offen numerous training opporhinities to its staff. These include:
a) I n-house training
b) Training with Pakistani organisations
c) Study tours
d) Longer programs abroad
Staff noted that short courses at the Pakistan Instihite of Management (Karachi and
Lahore) were Ia@y ineffective due to their k i n g designed for avil servants whose
bureaumatic development approadi differed from AKRSP's. Workshops at other rural
development NGOs su& as the National Rural Support Programme (NRSP) were found
to be more valuable. In general, they suggested that in-country training programs needed
to be more partiapatory and more specific to the AKRSP and Northem Areas contexts.
Study tours to other dwelopment NGOs in South Asia such as the Bangladesh Rural
Advanœment Commitîee (BRAC) were Iargely regarded as ineffective. Participants were
sent on such tours without preparation, specific study objectives, or follow-up upon
return. The study tours were treated more as holiday trips.
The most widely appreciated training experience was an in-house course in
Communication and Anaiyb'cal Skills. This ten-day intensive course introduced them to
new techniques that encouraged refledion and problem solving. Some noted, however,
that with litde follow-up or refresher courses on the subject, the benefits won faded. This
was a general criticism of al1 training courses: l a d of follow-up evaluations or refresher
courses contnbuted to a lack of continuity in training.
6.6 Professional Devdopment for Cataiptr
Howwer, al1 catalysts and c-lysts-himed-managers noted that an effective learning
experience was an AKRSP training course in Communication and Analytical Skills. This
ten-day intensive course introduced them to new tediniques that enauraged reflection
and problem solving. They noteci, however, that with litde follow-u p or refresher courses
on the subjecî, the benefits Mon faded. This was a general critiasm of al1 training courses
for catalysts and catalysts-himed managers: the la& of follow-up e~luations or refresher
courses contributed to a lad< of continuity in training.
Exceptions to this were the two longer intensive leaming progtams: the ten-month Mid-
Career Program in International Rural Dwelopment Planning at the University of Guelph
and the Training and Leaming Program in Social Organisation offered by the University
of Bath.
From their own p e r ~ p ~ v e s , the leaming needs of AKRSP catalysts varied. Those with
a more comprehensive education background who occupied senior management
positions had morespeafic skills-based needs such as projectdesign, comparative miam
credit -dies, program waluation, or cornputer training. However social organises and
FMU managers identified a number of common areas which needed attention. These
included:
Analytical S kills
lmproved English Ability
Report Wnting
Lin kage Capaüty
Catalysts who had just cornpleted a recent Training and Leaming Program in Social
Organisation course felt that their needs lay in action research and social analysis. Fresh
from the course and with its research assignments in progress, they felt that this was dieir
most urgent learning requirement Howwer, two senior management members
questioned the value of trying to make researchers out of catalysts and catalyststurned-
managers. Leaming the art of linkage formation was their prirnary need, they claimed.
7. THE DIMINISHING CATALYST
What does a rural development program do with its catalysts once its message has been
transmiüed ta the people and communities have b e n mobilised? 1s the catalyst
redundant? Can they be re-trained and re-integrated into the organisation? The AKRSP
case raises these important questions as fundamental to the wolution of any agency that
uses catalysts.
In 1995, AKRSP underwent a series of major organisational changes. Its credit program
had expanded to die point where the three Regional Programme Offices could no longer
serve hundreds of VOS and individual loanees. The decision was made to decentralise
the credit program so as to allow 'doorstep' facilities to VOS. 'Field Management Unit9
(FMUs) replaced the original Social Opnisation Units. FMUs were designed to offer
technical services for agriculture, livestock and forestry (now cumulatively called Nahirai
Resource Management) in addition to 'doorstep' aedit There are 14 FMUs, spanning
the program area (see Figure 7.1)
The shift to FMUs coincided widi a depaiture from the original social organisation thru*
Recognising that the initial need for transmission of the program's prinaples and
mobilisation was complete, the number of SOS was reduœd. This was done by
tansferring the more comptent SOs to middle management positions (e.g., FMU
Manager, Trainingkeaming Support Unit Manager) and by laying off remaining SOs
through a 'golden handshake' scheme which induded a sewrance pay package.
The golden handshake scheme created a sense of insecurïty and displaczment among
the former SOS who remained. They had once been what the General Manager
describeci as the "king and queens of AKRSP" holding considerable autonorny and
decision-making power within the organisation.
The architects of decentralisation frorn senior management claimed that al1 staff would
be SOS, in die sense of k i n g sensitive to the social aspects of VO development Some
FMUs retained an amal male SO. The change was that the S O was no longer the chief
field agent or catalyst. He was on par with other FMU staff and under the direcüon
of the FMU Manager (see Figure 7.21, whom I cal1 a catalyst-tumed-manager. The
SO no longer enjoyed the same authority or proximity to the CM. The catalyst-tumed-
manager, was limited by a lack of managerial skills. n i e decentralisation coincideci with
an incfeasing emphasis on seMce provision. 1s this the fate of any organisation, once
the initial mobilisation is complete?
Many former catalysts beliwed that not everyone could be an SO. The example was
given of technical staff (e.g., agriailturists) who would not take on the respansibility of
conflicî resolution because it neither was in dieir job description nor had they had
previous experienœ in it One catalyst felt strongly that the limited experience of
technical staff in the realm of social awareness made hem unfit for SO work.
Figure 7.1 AKRSP FMU-Wise Map of the Northem Areas and Chibal
lg f f f i f iUf ip ! t r l i l i o e n i r r o
Figure 7.2 AKRSP Organogram (AKRSP 1 996)
I Finance I 1 Personnel & Administration 1
-
Naturel Resource Management
Mountain Infrastructure 8 Engineering
1 Savinos 1 I Training Support 1
I I finance I
Enterprise Devalopment
1 Field Management Unît: FMU Manaer 1
Monitoring, Evaluation 6 Research
Adminlstration/Personnel
Akhtar Hameed Khan pointed out that in die case of the Orangi Pilot Project in Karachi,
the SO's task was to merely organise lane dwellers for the initial pro+ The catalyst
could either be the OPP-trained SO, or a msted local lane dweller who had time and
was willing to organise people. Akhtar Hameed Khan daims that his fle>rigble model, in
which the catalyst is nota bound employee of the organisation but a concemed atken
who eventually relinquishes the catalyst role, has proven both successful and less cosdy
than the agency-employed catalyst Khan's approach was similar to I ndia's community
development movement which sees the development of the self-helpklf-reliance factor
as an essential indiçator of success (Alliband 1 983:ix-x).
Shoaib Sultan Khan recalled another reason for catalyst redundancy over time. Many
natural or indigenous catalysts, such as village managers, began to supercede SOS in their
ability to motivate, form linkages and achieve tangible results. Although less educated,
some were highly adept at managing their communities and accessing resources from
govemment and non-govemmental organisations. Retireci army servicemen p r d to be
particularly good leaders, managers and linkage brokers (Khan 1997. This is in keeping
with the general rural development emphasis on dweloping the minority of 'progressive
farmers' Alliband (1 983 :3).
Similarly the timely downloading of responsibilities from catalyst to VO manager suggestr
that genuine development of local institutional capadties has occurred. Uphoff reminds
us that
. . . catalysts are not atternpting to change people and cornmunities so much as to facilitate their emergence as self-managing and empowered agents. The newer concept implies that the cataiyst wiii be withdrawn at some point, but the pnxess of transformation will go on. In some pmgrams, this is what happens, yet the continuity of egort may be proHematic. Maintainhg some connection between the pmgrams and communities is advisable. /tbnipt, cornpiete removal is not necessary and is destructhe of reiationships that have k e n built up; hawever, the locus of initiative should shifi. (1 998:54).
7.1 The Learning Pracgs at AKRSP
SOS recalled the intense demands of their work during the first decade (1 982-1 992) as
the program spread. They noted how fittle time diey had to refled One recalled how he
was lu* to get a newspaper once a week to read at his Social Organisation Unit There
were few training opportunities, other than the occasional technical training or study tour
to other NCOs. As their role changed to one of management, new training opportunities
began to anse.
However, partiapation observation at AKRSP Baltistan revealed that there is litde follow-
up or impact assessrnent of training experiences. This was confirrned by a Joint
Monitoring Mission UMM) to AKRSP in 1997 which noted the need for a systematic staff
development propm that included staff development plans, a focus on adult ducation
and training, and ongoing monitoring of impacts OMM 1997: 79-88). Interviewees
claimed that study tours to other NGOs in Pakistan and other countries tend to be
ineffective due to a lack of preparation and follow-up. Often in dwelopment
organisations, training opporhinities tended to be offered rather as a 'perk' or reward for
performance ((IRR-AR0 1998) and the fit between the program and the leamer is
ignoreci.
The opporhinity for academic study in the West arose with the establishment of a training
Iink with the School of Rural Planning and Dwelopment (SRP&D) at the University of
Guelph in 1992. In the second year of this ten-month program, senior social
organiser/managers attended. By the third year (1 994-1 9951, the emphasis was on the
increasingiy redundant SOS.
Another direction for the catalyst is to develop linkag- between VOS and other
government and NGO actors. Shoaib Sultan Khan aplained that this was his intention
in forming the link with SRP&D. He feit at the time that exposure to the Western
academic institution, and the network of resources in a developed country like Canada,
would help a catalyst become an innovator and broker of linkages. AKRSP Chitral's
regional program manager added that the SRP&D program helped the catalyst
understand the wodd and rnindset of the donor.
More recendy, the JMM observed the following training needs for AKRSP staff:
FMU Managers Technical staff
Al1 staff
Management, staff appraisal Improvernent of tedinicd skills, social development skills Specifying their new a h r decentralisation, &al development skills and tools as identified by Prof-Wood's consultancy (see below) Women's role in the development process, development of a common understanding of 'participation' in AKRSP, ranging from: cooperation in AKRSP activitie to supporting self-determined, participatory village development processes.
UMM AKRSP 1 997:86)
These suggestions confirm my daim that th- is süll need for work in the area of
conscientisation. Encouraging women's em powemient, facil itating the participatory
learning process and as has been suggested, assisted community self-rdiance are
al1 parts of an essential leaming process that need further work phof off 1998).
M o n 7 2 shows us that AKRSP is ptepan'ng to embark on this journey.
7.2 New Direcüons in Social Organisation
Under the decentralisation, it has become impossible for one SO to reach the 200-300
VOS within their FMU area. Similarly village lwel workers (VLWs) in India's National
Community Development Programme were seen as having too many tasks, with too
many villages to cover, inadequate training, and rapidly fluctuating priorities (Alliband
1 983:ix). Ail of these concems were expressed at AKRSP as wek Some remaining social
organisers were disillusioned with their current role. Now under the authority of FMU
Managers (their former SO colleagues), they fek their role was undear. Should they try
to cover al1 the Vos? tiow much authority did they have to facilitate change under die
new regime? Had bey, in fact, become redundant?
Uphoff notes diat social infrastructure rquires maintenance as much as physical
infrastructure does, and that catalyst roles must shift to: training community members and
new staff, monitoring and evaluation, conflid resolution, and troubleshoob'ng (1 998:55).
Recognisingthat the original 5 0 rde is no longer completely relevant, AKRSP is revisiting
social organisation. Former SO staff are also king sent to train die staff of other rural
support programme throughout Pakistan and in Tajikistan, fulfilling AKRSPs initial
replication objective.
In 1996 a consultancy by Prof. Ceof Wood from the University of Bath recognised
increasing income and social differentiation in the AKRSP programme area, and a
consequent need to re-analyse AKRSP's assumption that a cooperative V/WO was the
best vehicle for change. It challenged AKRSPfs assumption of an institutional vacuum b a t
ernerged after the dismanding of feudal powers in the 19705, claiming instead that
traditional institutions had continued to resolve local disputes, religious issues and that
resource sharing arrangements had aciually remained intact (Wood 1997).
Participatory workshops with AKRSP staff redefined SO roles. It was felt that 5 0
responsibilities should indude:
Reactivation (where appropriate of dormant VOs)
Troubleshooting ( k t mort con flict resolu tion, management advice)
Supporting the dedopment of various cluster initiatives (both geographic and functional)
Strategic planning and hstitutional hperimentation (analpis of socioeconomic and natural resource trends, w o r h g with viIIage activists as co-analysts, action- research on institutional initiatives around commercial activity, natural moune management, new infrastnctutal provision, case studies of such initiatives for wider dissemination, monitoring and advisory inputs).
lden trfying indigenous innovations and gwd practice (for appropria te replication or at least sharing of principles in other situations, including the formation of local NGOS)
Continuous support for other ÇMU staff in implementation (via both VIWOs and new institutional arrangements)
Functioning as Master Trainers for other ÇMU staff and capacity building among villagen (training of village activists as co-analystr).
lmplernenting and Monitoring new AKRSP initiatives
Developing linkges with other organisations (e-g., govemment, A D N , N C a , other initiatives linked to national and donor agencies).
(Wood 1 996: 10-1 1 )
Wood's chief aiticism of the AKRSP approadi was bat, like Cornilla, it had becorne
stuck in a formula approach that could not respond to more diverse or dynamic social
situations. The SO role is k i n g revised furdier airough an ongoing Training and Leaming
Program (TLP) in Social Organisation developed and co-led by Prof. Wood. This intensive
six-week in situ course was designed to train catalysts and other staff in the social analysis
toois bat wuld help develop a more targeted approach to equity issues such as
addressing the needs of wlnerable and marginalid groups within a mmmunity.
The TLP course's six modules cover the following topic areas:
1. Socioeconomic and Cultural Change in the Programme Area
2. Livelihood ûynamics
3. Social Organisation Theory
4. NGOs and Rural Dwelopment in the Subcontinent
5. Tds , Techniques and Developing the Art in Social Organisation
6. Analysis of Entrepreneurial and Employment Options
The TLP course incorporates key features of Korten's iearning process approach,
particularly the Iinking of knowledge to acüon, through a social analysis approadi.
Civen Professor Wood's long association with NCOs such as BRAC in Bangladesh, it is
not surprising that key elements of BRAC's success as a leaming organisation (Korten
1 980) are king introduced. By 1 976 (five years after its founding) BRAC had adopted
a people-cenbed approach that incorporatd social analysis and action-research into its
1 O0
work with the rural poor, itr targeted beneficiaries (Korten 1980:490).
Shoaib Sultan Khan, countered that the original formula has been tested over time in
many cultura! contex& It requires no revision. AKRSP Chitral's RPM, Masood ui Mulk,
insists that the original approach was flexible mugh to allow for diverse
arrangements, but that AKRSP's monitoring system simply did not account for them.
There is widespread agreement arnong AKRSP policy makers that the original focus on
the VO was both necessary and highly effective to galvanise cornmunity interest and
support at the outset But there is now aiw, agreement that AKRSP's relationship with
communities must be flexible enough to include emerging interest groups and institutions
in the local =ne, in addition to the V/WO. Youth groups, amy ex-servicemen societies,
and small 'women's action groups' (in areas where there is opposition to WO formation)
are examples of diese new institutions.
As the TLP redefines AKRSP's social deveiopment
redefinition. AKRSP's Cenerai Manager has noted
agenda, the SO role awaits further
that SOS were still needed to liaise
with communities, although witb betîer analytïcal and conflict resolution skills.
In sum, the AKRSP social organiser's role has evolved from that of catalyst to manager
and now to action-researcher (see Figure 7.3). Questions still remain as to whether he/she
101
has the ability to carry out the latter two roles. Although some basic managerial training
has been provided to FMU Muiagen, some inteni- felt that the weakest link
in the post-1995 organisatio~l structure was poorly trained FMU Managers. It
appeared that h i l e highly fit for catalyst's wurk, some SOS did not have the
managerial skills needed to plan and coordinate the techniml seMces offered by
a Field Management Unit.
A more stn'king example of a lack of fit is the case of SOS who have been made
TrainingLeaming Support Unit Managers at the RPOs. With Iitde or no knowledge of
adult education or program planning, two former SOS admitid that they felt unfit for
their new roles. Both needed considerable assistance with basic managerial tasks. Unlike
BRAC which recopised the importance of adult education eady on, AKUSP's reliance
on largely economic interventions may thus have limited long-term impacts.
Crib'a of TLP daim that the catalyst cannot acquire the skills needed to be social analysts
or action researchers. They suggest that the TLP training is a waste of time and money.
The emphasis on participatory action research, howewr, suggests that the social sciences
can be demystifiecl and effectively used as tools by catalysts (Korten 1980:501). The
ultimate goal is to train the rural poor in the use of such tools to identify their own
problems and develop their own solutions.
1 02
Figure 7.3 Changing Catalyst Roles at AKRSP
r . Cataiyst
> Motivation W Mobilisation > Conflid
Resolution >Organisation
w o Formation)
Manager
I 1 >Management
>Service 1 Provision Linkage 1 Formation
I I
Act ion Researcher I 1 >Social
Anaiysis 1 >More
responsive, ! targated 1 service . provision I
il Can catalysts be re-tained for managerial and research roies in a dwelopment
organisation?
i i Instead, shouid aiey be let go, once their catalyst work is complete?
The answer to these questions may lie in AKRSP's absorption into the rural sœne of the
NAs. inte~*ewees gave exampies of the difficulty in implementing the 'golden
handshake' scheme and the political factionalkm that resuited in the AKRSP workpiace.
The JMM also noted the high degree of job insecurity that followed this xheme UMM
1997:86) With catalysts originating from the beneficiary communities in the NAs, and
some holding considerable political dout at the local level, the organisation may have
k e n compelled to retain and re-train catalysts for other roles rather than risk further
insta bility.
It is usefui here to examine how, based on my own observations, AKRSP fits into Korten's
Three Stages of the Leaming Process which has been applied to other rural developrnent
programs (1 980).
Figure 7.4 AKRSP and The Learning Process
Stages of Program Development
Stage 1: Learning Q Be Efléctive
- 0 d o p i n g a wo&ng progam modei in the setüng of a village levd leaming iaboratory. -Reçource intensive -Requires freedom from administrative constrain ts -Invoives learning about mmmuniiy dynarnics -Finding the tentative 'fit' between benefiaaties and p r o p n rnodd
Stage 2: Learning to Be Efficient
-Reduang input requirements needed for results -Important adVities routinized, extraneous adivities diminated -Some loss of effediveness -Refining the 'fit'
Stage 3: Learning to @and -Expansion of organizational capacity -1ncreased attention to enwring 'fit' - N d to refine fit to changing d a 1 environmen t
AKRSP -- -
Stage 1: Learning to Be E i k t ï v e (1 982-1 995) -Modei developed through village leaming and past experÎences from other prog-ams (Cornilla, Daudzai etc) -Resourœ in tensïve -Flexible model using SOUS: room for error -More emphasïs on implementation, prograrn expansion and replication -Tentative 'fit' found through PPWO corn bination -University Guelph program begrns (1 992)
Stage 2: Learning to Be EffiUent (1995- ) -0ecentrdisation to FMU system to make credit and technical seMces more effiaent and accesible -'Golden Handshake' downsizing scherne -Les emphasis on social organisation
Stage 3: Learning to @and
-1 997: Attempts to improve the 'fit' through action-research and social analysis training CTLP)
Emphasis on rapid expansion throughoutthe NAs, replication, and output targets from the outset has cost the program in terrns of developing a leaming culture. Adaptation in the field demands inteption between managers, researchers, and catalysb. Yet FMU-level skills and inteption of FMU advities remain weak. This shiftto FMUs rnay have been premature. Today the learning process is being re-introduced through TLP.
(Adapted from Korten 1980)
AKRSP appears to be in transition between Stages 2 and 3. In Part III 1 shall argue that
a genuine learning proceu approach which will ensure di is transition involves a
combination of TLP and the University of Guelph's Mid-Career (now Graduate Dipioma)
in IRDP, and an overall mmmitmentto the printiples of the approach: embhng enor,
planning with the people, and linking knowledge to action. AKRSP e m b d error to
some degree through its original flexible SO model. The linking of knowledge to action
is k i n g addressed to some degree through the TLP course. But the planning wïth the
people element has not been addressed.
The second case study in this project assesses the impacî of the Mid-Career Program
which atternpts to respond to the needs of AKRS P staff, particuiarly catalysts, most of
whom have now becorne citalyst-hirned-managers.
PART III : THE MID-CAREER PROGRAM : CASE STUDY #2
A Social Organiser joins AKRSP after graduating from a Pakistani university. From then onward he or she is an 'action' person, working on the front lines of dedopment. Bot they have no theoretical base for they work and no time for reflection. At they get a chance to reflect, compare, and lin& cheory to pmctice. This refiection brings a clarity of vision. Considering questions Iike what is dedopment ? Where is it coming from ? What is social organisation? These broaden the -dent's horizons. They help them conceptualize things and introduce the idea of planning. But the net effkct is an increase in confidence and selfeeem. T M inferority complex is destmyed.
- Mutabiat Shah, AKRSP Credit and Savings Program Manager
8. CAPACITY DMLOPMENT FOR CATALYSTS
How can catalysts be provided with an effective learning experience that develops
their pmfessio~l capacitiest
As mentioned in the overview of catalyst cases and theories (Section 2) , rural
development catalysts there are v a t ideological differences in programs that employ
catalysts, ranging from F reirian catalysts on the feft to corporate change agenk on the
right As a result their learning needs are envisioned differently (see Figure 8.1).
Discussions m'th catalysts and AKRSP senior management revealed that for the
agency catalyst (i.e., social organisers), communicaüon, conflict resolution, and
soagal analys is s kills are important learning needs. For the agency catalyst-tumed-
manager (Le., FMU, T/SU Managers), there is a need to develop capacities, such
that he/she can couple the above skills with planning skills that require an
understanding of larger detelopment processes.
1 have argued, howwer, that the key is to awid the tendency to train the catalyst to
be soldy an implementer as this has consequemes in ternis of program impact on
the rural poor. This second case study on the Mid-Career Rogiam in International
Rural Devdopment Planning at the University of Guelph and its impacî on AKRSP
catalysts will demonstrate that a leaming pmcess approach, which has sdf-rdiance
as its goal for rural communiües, is an appmch with high potential for long-tenn
impact AKRSP, however, has until very recentiy not linlred the pmgram with a
broader learning procgs within the organisation.
Specific findinp and remmmendations for improved collaboration between AKRSP and
SRP&D were submitted by the author to both organisations in a report tided Building
Pmkssional Capacity: An Impact Assessrnent of the Mid-Career Pmgram in International
Rural DeveIopment Planning in September 1998. A summary of these finding and
remmmendations are prwided in Appendix B.
Figure 8.1 Appropriate Training for Catalysts
Gram Sevak* Monk CatalyWf Priest Catalyst***
Agency Catalyst (eg, AKRSP social organisers)
Agency Catal ys t- turned Manager (e.g, AKRSP FMU Managers)
Role
--
Leaders hi p, innovation and stabilising in the nird community.
Pol itical Conscientiser
Spiritual Guide/ Community developer
Motivator l mplementer
Se~*ce provider. Planner and manager of projeds.
c 8 Frorn Gandhian community developmen
Knowledge and Skills Needed
Basic management, contlict resoluthn, social network and capacity to form lin kages.
-.
Communication Understanding of conscientisation principles Faalitation skills Critical awareness
Understanding of spirihial prinuples of self-help (e.g., Gandhian, Buddhist, l i beration theology) . Communication Conflict Resolution Social organisatiordanalysis
Soàal analysis Analytical skills Planning skills Understanding of larger development processes.
t ( ** From the Sarvodaya ~hramadana Movemen t (Sri LanM *** From the Christian base communities (Brazil, Latin America)
Ap p rop riate Training
Requires litde training . Basic management and leadership ûaining help.
Re! igious/ Community dwelopment training.
S O lnternship TLP SRP&D Di ploma Prograrn in l RDP
TLP SRP&D Di ploma Prograrn in IRDP
8.1 The Mid-Career Program in Intedonal Devdopment Planning
Discussions in the Northem Areas between AKRSP founder Shoaib Sultan Khan and Dr.
Farokh Afshar from SRP&D led to the initiation of the Mid-Career Program in 1 992.
According to Khan, the purpose was to enable local middle management staff to dwelop
the capatity to f m linkages between nrral cornrnunities and other dweloprnent adors.
Contact with these such as researchers, govemment agenaes and NGOs, could begin
through exposure to the university environment in the West
Khan indicated that this study experience was not intended to turn development field
practitioners su& (e.g., social organisers) into academia, but M e r to build their
capacity to facilitate linkages b e e n rural communities and organisations offering
technical expertise. He felt strongy that exposure to the univenity environment would
build confidence and enhanœ analytical and communication sla'lls. These would imprwe
herhis ability to lobby on behalf of rural communities and improve the quality of
technical packages accessible to the rural people of the Northem Areas.
But are linkages and access al1 that is required?
Is facilitating linkagpc the same as Korten's bottom-up 'planning with the people'
(1980)t
Figure 8.2 Graduates from the University of Guelph's Mid-Career P q i a m in IRDP at the AKRSP Core Office, Cil&
Dr. Farokh Afshar, the Coordinator of the Mid-Career Program, recalled discussions with
Khan regarding the refledve capacity of Maal opnisen. Khan noted how SO field
joumals tended to be largely desaiphive in content He wanted SOS to be able to think
analytically and critically. Afshar refers to diis as retlective pracüce. The aim of die
program is thus to produœ reflective practitioners, diose who c m "critically reflect on
their experienœ, on the experienœ of others, and on the latest in knowledge and skills
that would improve their praciiceM (SRP&D 1 998:l).
When Nazeer Ladhani, Director of the Aga Khan Foundation Canada (AKFO agreed to
fund the initiative, the program began on an experimental bais with two AKRSP senior
management staff as the first students in 1 992. AKFC began to accept candidates from
the Bangiadesh Rural Advancement Commitîee (BRAC) in 1994 and the Aga Khan
Housing Boards (AKHB) in 1996. The largest proportion of shidentr however, has been
from AKRSP (see Figure 8.3).
Figure 83 Number of Mid-Career Students Enrolled per Year
Aga Khan Rural
support Programme
Organisation
1 Total Enmlled
Bangladesh Rural Advancement Cornmittee
Aga Khan Housing Boards
(India and Pa kistan)
Figure 8.4 Proportion of Mid-Career Alumni* from Participaüng Organisations
I -p I BRAC 1 AKHB 1 Total
Number of AIurnni
* Graduates up to June 1998 Percentage 61 1 30 1 9
82 Programobjectives
In sum, the capaaty building objectives of the SRP&D Mid-Career Program are:
1 00%
1. To develop critical analysis skills (mitical thinking, listening, and
communication),
14
2. To improve participants' ability to effedively plan and manage rural
development projects and prograrns (id. faulitating linkages).
(tndia and Pakistan)
2 7
3. To offer participants s p d c sectoral skills (e.g., environmental impact
assesment, projeci financial analysis, program evaluation etc.).
23
1
Intewiews revealed that some senior management and human resources personnel were
not fully aware of tbese objectives. This may be due to the absence of regular and direct
communication between SRP&D and AKRSP management at the three regional
programme offices.
While initially AKRSP sent senior management staff, the majority of participants since
then have ben social organisers. Shoaib Sultan Khan's hope was diat die 5 0 could
dewlop the ability to fom linkages between VMlOs and other organisations and that the
experience of studying in a university in the West would generally expand the ~talyst's
vision of development
9. ASSESSING THE I M P A a OF TRAINING
A recent workshop on impact Assesrnent of Training held at the International lnstitute
of Rural Reconstrucîion - Afnca Regional Office (IIRR-ARO) produced a useful diagram
for guging the impact of training for local development professionals (Figure 9.1) and
raises the dificuit questions of how b attribute changes in mime (e.g., Mid-Career
Program graduate) behaviour to a particular trainingfleaming experience, and then how
to demonstrate that the behaviour change translated into a positive effect on clients (e.g.,
the rural poor).
Figure 9.2 explains the logic model of the Mid-Career Program. Program effectiveness
a n be assessed in ternis of inaeased knowled~, skills and attitude change on the part
of participants. It rwisits the original assumptions and objectives of the Mid-Career
Program, providing the logical links between its a&vities and the ultimate benefit it
should have. Bearing in mind that it is sometimes diffinilt to amibute the higher level
effects sdely to the training program (Cummings 1997:591, Robinson et sl. 1998: 807),
it is still a useful starting point
It is assumed that a benefiaai training program will lead to a tangible behaviour change
in trainees. This should then influence the trainee's performance and professional
praaice, and have a positive effect on society in the long run. This long-tem effect is
generally referred to as Yimpact*.
However, an attempt to evaluate these long-tem mcietal benefits of the Mid-Career
Program may be somewhat premature as it only bqpn in 1992. It is alw, important to
remember that AKRSP did not request me to conduct an 'evaluation' of die program.
Thus while evaluation litwature tends to distinguish over time between outputs, effects,
and ultimately impact as a long-ten objective, 1 instead use the term 'impact' loosely
to refer to the general observable changes or effectr on program participants. Impact
in this general sense is more akin to immed iate output and intermediate effect (see
Figure 9.1 ).
Figure 9.1 Assessing the Impact of Training
How do we know that the How do we know and How do we know and
'irnmediate outpur resutts in what factors support or what factors support or
change of job behavioufl hinder that translation ttmder that translaüon
What fadors support or hinder 1 process?
prncess? that benslation process?
Figure 9 2 Mid-Career Program Logic Mode1
Societai Benefits (To Northem Areas Residents)
Behaviour Change (in M-C. P. Graduates)
Knowledge Skills
Attitudes
Mid-Career Program Activities Masters-kvei cou rses
Field Trips Major Professional Paper
(Adapted from Frarnst 1998)
9.1 Key Questions
Data from semi-structureci and key informant interviews was collected according to the
following key questions:
1. What is the education background of the rural dweloprnent professionals frorn
AKRSP who have attended the Mid-Career Prograrn?
2. How has their experienœ at the University of Guelph improvd their professional
3. Haw applicable were SRP&D courses to their professional work?
4. In what dher ways has the program transforrned their lives (e.5, attitudes,
worldview)?
5. How have they reintegrad into their organisation upon return (i.e., how have
their new skills been used)?
6. How have AKRSPs training and staff development priorities changed since the
program began in 1982, and since its collaboration with SRP&D began in 1992?
7. How d w s the Mid-Career Program fit into current training directions at AKRSP
(e.g., the Training and Learning Program in Social Organisation)?
8. What are some of the current perceptions of the Mid-Career Program among
senior management at AKRSP?
9. How can a more effective collaboration be fostered between SRP&D and AKRSP
to further the capadty building needs of AKRSP?
1 O, THE SRP&D EXPERIENCE
10.1 Selection of Candidates
Potential candidates are first identifid by the three Regional Programme Managers who
then submit their recommendation to the Human Resources Management Cornmittee
(HRMC). The HRMC consisb of the three RPMs, the General Manager, and the Human
Resources Development Program Manager.
White initially only two candidates were sel& in 1992, it has recendy become
pradice to choose one candidate from each region (Gilgit, Chiml and Baltistan) in order
to ensure parity and equity. Seledon can be a contentious issue and interviewees
contend that there have been cases of selection based on the candidate's political
influence within die organisation. In some cases, this was coupled with a la& of
understanding of the purpose and demands of the program on the part of senior
management, leading to participants whose lwel of Engfish and general motivation was
inadequate for Masters-level courses.
Poor sdection is a cornmon ptobiem in development organisations. A recent impact
assessment of training in African NCOs notes that, "Training waiis also used to punish
and dislocate people or as an incentive for good behaviour. Therefore impact assessment
is useiess if seledon of trainees is based on mkeria which are not related to content and
needs." (IIRR-AR0 1 998:5)
SRP&D faailty expressed frumtion widi inappmpriate candidates and seek a wider
pool of candidate applications from which to seleci, as some are rejected for medical and
personal reasons during the processing period. Weak English and low motivation on the
part of inappropriate candidates appeared to consume excessive amounts of time from
the Diplorna Program Coordinator, Assistant, and other faculty. AKRSPs Ceneral
Manager daimed that after the first three groups of participants AKRSP "sent candidates
who could not deal with the demands and opportunities at the University of Guelph."
Despite this, however, even the weakest candidates daimed to have benefitted greatly
from the Program.
The AKRSP General Manager outlined three criteria for seledion to the Diploma
Program:
i) Graduate of AKRSP's Training and Learning Program in Social Organisation.
ii) Cood Englis h language skilis.
iii) Able to cope with the demands of a Western univers*.
The first of these criteria supports my argument that a leaming process approach requires
reflection and carefully measured steps. Catalyst participation in a program like the
Mid-Career Program should ideally be preceded by the six-week intensive TLP
Uirough which the catalyst begins a process of action-research inquiry, and
importandy, research exercises which culminate in analytigcal written work. Mid-
Career Program graduates noted the difficulty of suddenly leaving their field context,
k ing transporteci to Guelph, and the having to adjust to the Canadian environment and
simultaneousiy M.Sc-kvel courses.
103 Pre-Departure Preparation
Located at the AKRSP Core offiœ in Gilgit, the HRD -on is responsible for proœssing
applications to the SRP&D Diploma Progam, in addition to other programs at
universities abroad. Liaising with AKFC in Ottawa and SRP&D is an essential part of this
process.
Retumees complained of a lack of preparation prior to departure. They daimed that
Iitde, if any, information was provided to hem regarding the Diploma Program, the
University of Guelph, or Canada itself. Many participants corne direcdy from field
placements (e-g., in FMUs). 75% of AKRSP's SRP&D graduata had not visited a
Western country prior to their SRP&D experience. Those who had were primarily
senior managers who attended SRP&D from 1 992-1 994.
There has been litde in the way of pre-departure training offered to staff- In 1996, some
121
partiapants were provided with an English language training course through the British
CounUl in Islamabad. Similarly in 1998, a memonth intensive English course taught by
a British VSO instnibor was offered at the AKRSP Core Office. Participants found these
courses to be very helpful and felt they had helped improve their performance at
SRP&D.
As AKRSP n w sends catalyst-tumed-managers (e-g., FMU Managers) who have not had
such exposure, the need for cornprehensive pre-departure training and is high. The
potential for adequate preparation is limited to some degree by the demands of their
current jobs and the lengthy visa clearance and application process. However, AKRSP,
will benefit from well-prepared candidates.
11. MID-CAREER PROGRAM ACTIVITIES
The ten-month program at SRP&D consish of four graduate (Masters level) courses, a
major professional paper, and numerous field visits. All participants are required to take
International Rural Dedopment Planning (IRDP) as a core course.
11.1 Cou~ses
Mid-Career students are required to take four graduate level courses during their ten-
month program. While ocmsionally students take courses frorn other departrrtents such
as Rural Extension and Sociology, generally take courses offered by SRP&D. Nine Mid-
Career Program graduates commented on the positive and neetive aspects of each
course. International Rural Development Planning is a core course requirement as is the
Major Professional Paper. Other courses listed below, such as Quantitative Research
Methods were less relevant to participants' work and few interviewees (2 out of 9) had
taken it A summary of participant comrnents are listed below in addition to standard
descriptions of each course. While interviewees were asked about the applicability of the
course to their work there was a tendency to respond in terms of how much they felt
they had lwned (i.e., new material), or enjoyed the course.
1. International Rural Devdopment Planning (IRDP)
This course presents the xope and nature of international developrnent planning and
alternative roies for development planners; has a rural ernphasis; reviews the evolution
of development planning from macroeconomic beginnings to more integrated local
planning approaches; examines die development planning process and its organisational
and spatial dimensions; compares policy, program, projeci, sedoral and integrated area
planning; and compares rural development planning in market, mked and state-driven
societjes. Case studies from AKRSP, BRAC, the Sulawesi Rural Development Program
(Indonesial, Angola, the Philippines and Huron County, Ontario.
Positive Aspects
This course was valuable in that it introduced participants to an ove~*ew of planning and
its theoretical background. Examples from other global contexts allowed hem to
criically compare the AKRSP approach with that of other organisations for the first time.
Group assignments provided opportunities for interaction with Canadian and other
international students along with mutual learning.
In ternis of skills, the course required that participants leam how to structure writing, and
do presentations. The instnibor's farniliarity with the AKRSP/Nordiem Areas
context made die course more accessible.
Negalive Aspects
Understanding and comparing projects without seeing hem was difficult Some felt the
course needed a pradcal component for better understanding of projects and prinaples.
The reading and overall workload was found to be too heavy.
2. Project Ddopment
This course introdues -dents to the prinaples, procedures and methods in
developing a project It -amines the p r o j e cyde: identification, preparation, appraisal,
implementation/supe~sion, monitoring and evaluation. It gives an understanding of the
major methods involved and teaches selected mediods in social, finanaal, and ecological
analysis. The focus is on the international, rural con- and on srnail projects: small
industries, small physical infrastructure and social projects.
Positive Aspects
The content of d i s course was found to be highly relevant It offered AKRSP staff the
chance to compare AKRSP's project cycle with other approaches. They felt diey had
gained analyb'cal skills and leamed about feasibility issues and projeci design and
feasibility issues that were applicable to their work. it serveci as an important introduction
to general proposa! writing for many. The group work component of this course was also
a p p reciated.
Negaüve Aspects
Heavy reading and workload made the course difficult Participants with no background
in financial analysis found the course particularly challenging.
3. Pmgam Evaluation
An advand seminar dealing with the theory and practice of program waluation
focusing on public sector programs in agriculture and rural developrnen& international
and domestic case studies.
Positive Aspects
RPMs and MER graduates felt this skill-based course had direct relevance to their work
wh ich involves the design, review and implementation according logid frarnework
anaiysis (LFA). Other staff found logic models and LFAs could be usefui in other
applications. They felt this course improved their critical capacities and also offered them
a sense of what outside evaluators (e.g., World Bank) do.
Negath Aspe&
No significant negative aspects.
4. Community Economic Devdopment
Theones and perspectives of local emomicdevelopment, partiailady community-based
planning for rural economic development Economic dewlopment widiin a cornmunity
dewlopment framework, and challenges of sustainable development Interdisciplinaiy
perspectives and alternative approadres to professional planning pradce, strategic
planning, management and organizational desigddwelopment issues. Alternative
economia paradigms (to die neo-classical) are examined. includes international case
stud ies.
Positive Aspects
introduced the linkage between community and economic dwelopment using a
comparative approach. tnduded guest speakers and field visits. Participants learned how
to identify, respond to interest groups.
NegativeAspects
Mody Canadian examples provided. Participants found dieir own lack of awareness of
the European/North American cultural context to be a limitation.
5. Tourism and Recmtiion Planning
This course is intendeci to instnict the student in the principles of planning for recreation
and tourism dedopment Ernphasis is placed on the economic and &al benefits and
costs that accrue from tourism and recreation developrnent Planning principles are
applied to this c o n t a
Positive Aspects
lntroduced participants to concepts of tourism and ecotourism planning for the fim time.
Many found the opportunity to reflect on the potential of tourism development in the
Northern Areas inteMng.
Neetive Aspects
With litde work in the area of t w r i s r n or emtourism planning, partitipants found this
course l a s applicable once they had retumed.
6. Environment and Devdopment
This course examines the problems and potential for ecologially sustainable
development in the context of rural dewlopment planning particulady in Third World
environments. The course ffltically examines the stra-c planning approaches and
methods which involve the interaction between social sy~bems and natural ecosystems
in the contwt of planned intervention and change in rural environments.
Positive Aspects
The 'environment' as a dwelopment issue and environmental approaches to
development planning were new to most participants. As another new knowledge area
they found this course interesting.
Negative As*
Some participants found the course diffÏcult without a basic science background. They
noted that it was not suffiaendy related to the AKRSP context for diem to do applicable
exerases, espedally as global environmenh differ so much. Reading were found to be
too heavy.
7. Quantitative Research Methods
Anaiysis and application of standard quantitative, statistical and cornputer-bas4
tediniques utilized in rural planning and development Problems of data collection,
analysis and interpretation.
Positive Asecfs
This less cornmon choice was well received as a course in which the partiapant leamed
how to analyse variables, quantifiable indicators, and demographic data.
Negative Aspects
There was no direct relevanœ to the work of any participants. Continuity of leaming was
limited by the unavailability of key sobre (e.g., SPSS) at AKRSP.
8. Major Pmfessionai Paper
The paper focuses on the major interest area of the student, likely one he or she will
retum to pradce in after graduation. It incl udes a review of the international literature
and experience on the topic, and compares h i s with the personal experience of the
-dent and his/her organisation and work con- Where appropriate, for example
when the student is returning to a specific organisation or place of work, the -dent is
encouraged to develop a work plan aamining how to apply, what is proposed in die
paper and/or what was leamed in the program, to the work context the student is
returning to.
The student writes the paper in the form required for a professional report or for a
publication in a refereed journal (although publication is not required). The student will
also make an oral presentation for aitique of the paper M o r e the advimy cornmittee
and faculty of SRP&D.
Positiw Aspects
Participants appreciated this independent exercise as a chance to review literature, other
experiences in rural development and compare them with the AKRSP con- Owrall
it conûibuted to an imprwement in their mpauty to write aitically vs. desniptively.
N e g a h As-
There was a lack of available information in =me topic areas (e.6, aedit, non-formal
education) at the University of Guelph libraiy.
Dr. Afshar fek that the major professional paper contributed to reflective praciiœ, noting
the difference b e e n students* ability to identiv problems and articulate solutions in
this final assigrment in cornparison to their first assignment a short written refiedve piece
in the IRDP course. My own experïenœ as a Program Assistant confimis that there is
indeed improvernent between these two papers. However, 1 disagree in the degree to
whicb refIedve practice can be refiecied in written assignments. Gien the many years
of rote leaming, weak English skills, and their implementer roles at AKRSP, I noted a
stmng tendency for partkipants to rdy far more on the words of others in their
mitien assignments than their own experience.
Figure 1 1.1 Diploma Program Coordinator Dr. Famkh Afshar (lefi), AKRSP student Mahmood Isa Khan (centre) and Hussain Jeewanjee fmm AKFC, at major professional paper presentations.
In general, partiapants with weak English found class lectures difficult to fully
comprehend. The reading and written assignment workload for some courses was higher
than participants e x p d . The weaker their English, the more difficult these two tasks
are.
Most courses (exduding IRDP and PD) are lacking in s<amples that can be applied
directly to the Northern Areas. While IRDP and PD refer to AKRSP contexts, AKRSP case
study materials are not up to date. Althougti the Coordinator has worked in the Northern
Areas and other faculty have extensive developing world experience, graduates felt that
faculty had insufficient knowledge about the changing Northern Areas context
11.2 Field Visits
AKRSP staff are exposed to a ~ r i e t y of field experiences through study t w r s of rural
regions, visk to Canadian international (e-go, CIDA, AKFO and local development
organisations. (e.g., Huron County Business mainstream and 'alternative'
farms (e.g., Mennonite, organic), and participation in professional and academic
conferences organised by the Canadian Association for Studies in international
Development, South Asia Partnenhip, and the Ontario Rural Counul.
Refemng to this exposure, Mid-Career Program graduate Miraj Khan recalled a visit to
AKRSP from Pakistan's development guru, Akhtar Hameed Khan:
"When 1 was an SO, Khan Sahib encouraged us to take village advim dwn-country,
to expose hem to more developed environments, to open their eyes. I see the field trips
in the Mid-Career Program as a similar kind of exposure for us." Field trips al- fulfill
Shoaib Sultan Khan's objective to expose the catalyst to technical and organisational
expertise amilable in the West
Figure 11.2 AKRSP social organisers Nazïr Ahmad and Mohammad Iqbal, along with BRAC colleagw Cunendu Roy, visit a dairy hrm in nid Ontario, 1995.
Some interviewees noted the difficulty in linking projects and organisations in the
'dweloped' world with their local AKRS P context The sale and extent of facilities to for
such initiatives were simply not available, they claimed. There is still need to identiv
and develop field expiences that date to the AKRSP context and h m which
catalysts can dnw information, knowledge and pracb0ces applicable to this context.
Conferences, however, offered a unique opportunity for catalysts to meet and leam from
Canadian and international niml developrnent experts. Many noted this as a highly
empowering experience for them. Participants agreed that some of the conferences and
field trips contributeci to a more global understanding of rural development issues. This
confimis the value of mutual leaming in the program (Afshar 1992).
11.3 Grades
Mid-Career student performance in terms of grades can be misleading. The Program
Coordinator pointed out that many SRP&D courses consist of a major group work
assignment Working dosely with their M.Sc dassmates, studentr share the responsibility
of witing and presenting on a particular assignment topic This contributes to an
environment of mutual leaming (Afshar 1 992). However, editing assistance from M.Sc
students can potentially infiate the individual's grade.
Dr. Afshar further added that with upgrading of the Mid-Career Program to Graduate
Diplorna status, marking would becorne more sbingent Grades for 1 997-1 998 Mid-
Career Program -dents ranged from 75% (B) to 88% (A), with rnost students achieving
between 78% (B + ) and 82% (A-). He insisted, however, &at p d e s are not the point
of the program.
There has also been a danger of plagiarism in written assignments. One faculty member
135
notd in an evaluation of student performance bat the stuclent 'did not understand the
need to give credit to other authors." This is likely an outcome of the rote leaming
background which SRP&D faculty have not given sufficient attention to. Dr. Afshar
underscored the need for faculty to be more wary of this tendency.
Figure 11 3 AKRSP Women's Coordinator Kuîsmm Farman presents her major professional paper to faculty and p i s .
12. RESULTS : TRANSFORMED PERSPECTIVES
12.1 Re-Entty into the AKRSP Work Environment
Some graduates recalled aperiencing a period of disiilusionment upon retum. Having
left the cornforts of Canada and the support of SRP&D behind them, they felt frustrated
with the paœ of change in k i r own communities and the bureaumatic processes of
AKRSP,
Often retumees felt dieir new skills were not appreciated or further nurtured in the
organisation. There is no process of debriefing upon retum, nor is there the opportunity
for retumees to share their leaming experience dirougti a fonnal presentaüon to their
organisation. One interviewee felt that la& of encouragement may be due to petty
jealousies on the part of odier staff memben.
12.2 Promotion and Advancernent
The managers (RPMs) of AKRSP's regional programme offices are faced with the
challenge of how to re-adjust the retumee in their organisation. Most expected some sort
of promotion which they attained within a year of their retum (see Figure ). While AKRSP
poi iq does not guarantee promotion based on completion of the Mid-Career Program,
there has been a general trend of position change upon return.
One RPM was critical of those who prornoted graduates immediately upon return,
137
daiming it set up unrealistic expedations of advancernent He noted that there is liale
room for vertical movement within AKRSP. While the SO could be promoted to Manager
of an FMU, movement beyond could only be horizontal such as becoming Manager of
a seaion (e.g., Leaming Support Unit). Thus the position changes listeci in Figure reflect
this horizontal movement, in some cases, rather than promotion.
Promotion from catalyst (SO) to middle management also became more cornmon in and
a k r 1 995. AKRSP had achieved high program merage and established its credibility
witfi the rural communities of the Northem Areas. it decentraliseci its credit and technical
seMces into Field Management Uni& and its top Maal organisers were transfened to
middle management (e-g., FMU Managen, T/LSU Managers). Most remaining SOS were
either absorbeci into AKRSPts technical sections or dismissed through its "golden
handshake" scheme. The end result was a shik from a social organisation orientation to
a management orientation.
The same RPM claimed that immediate promotion to manager status would be
unproductive, as partiapation in the Mid-Career Program did not guarantee that the
retumee was capable to be a manager. Another RPM pointed out that some staff viewed
the Mid-Career Program as a step towards promotion, without any sense of the benefits
of the propm. In f a 6 program beneh were found to be highly underestimateci by staff
who had not been to Guelph. Having seen the seledon of inappropriate candidates,
some staff were convinceci that the Mid-Career Program was undemanding and of low
standard.
12.3 Confidence
Dr. Afshar has added that the propm impact should be considerd fim on the lwel of
confidence, recognising empowerment as the beginning of a leaming process. Faculty
and M.Sc pers in te rad with them as equals. Being on a first-name bais with faculty,
open discussion seminan and group work helped shape a non-hierarchical pedagogy
which al1 participants appreciated. Many explained how their inferiority cornplex was
destroyed as they leamed to find their own voice and reœived validation of their yean
of field experience at SRP&D. All graduates indiated that their confidence increased
greatly because of the Mid-Career Program.
While the translation of knowledge and skills into action i e behaviour
change/imprwed performance) may be difficult to assess, there were many examples of
additional changes in attitude. Ali participants daimed they had becn transformeci in
some way by the program. Shah Karez daimed that he retumed from the Mid-Career
Program a "changed person".
Al l Mid-Career Program grad uates noted a significant increase in thei r confidence and
self-esteem. For both senior management as well as field-based social organisen, di is
new opportunity to reflect on the prinaples of rural development, examine comparative
examples from other Third Worid contexts contributeci to a deeper understanding of
devdopment. The RPM for Chitral felt that this was one of die k t outputs of the
program. He wanted his staff to understand the world and language of the international
donor mrnmunity. He believes that the middle management field pracîitioner is the
bridge between the dismete worlds of the rural community and the donor. He is
saîisfied that the Mid-Career Program helped his staff bridge this gap.
For other partiapants comingfrom traditional lslamicschding, the mposure to the non-
Muslim culture of the West was an eye-opening experience. Their old prejudiœs of the
'immoral We-st' were shattered as they gained an appreciation for other cultures,
religions, and secular demma'es.
A number of graduates felt a noted increase in their motivation to devdop
professionally. Chulam Hussain, a former FMU Manager, began to seek out other
training opportunities in his new role as LSU Manager at AKRSP Baltistan. He mon found
himself enrolling in workshops on Training Needs Assesment and Croup Faditation at
the National Rural Support Program {NRSP) in Islamabad. His predecessor, Nazir Ahmad,
had similarly sought out leaming s<periences that would improve his LSU capauty as
well as the possibility of completkg the M.Sc at SRP&D.
12.4 Knowledge and S p i f i c Sectoral Skills
Disaete areas of knowledg are generaily accessed dirough SRP&D courses. Areas
indude international nid dwelopment planning, project development, program
evaluation, environment and dwelopment, community economic development, tourism
and recreation planning in amdance with the courses listed in Figure 6.
Although partiapants' knowledge increased significandy in areas that they were
previously unfamiliar with, detemiining whether this knowled~ has translated into
tangible sectoral skills is difficult For example, although 7 out of 9 interviewees had
taken program evaluation, only one was found to be working in an MER ~ecb-on. Taking
environment and dwelopment as another example, diere were no cases of a Mid-Career
program graduate k i n g given a role in AKRSP's Natural Resource Management section
a k r havingcompleted this course. Participants' sectoral skill background before entering
the program shapes their ability to grasp new disciplines and skills in SRP&D courses.
Civen catalysts' cornmon educaüon background (noted in S e d o n 6), the gap
behem prior learning in Pakistan and M.= level courses in Canada is
considerable. It would be unrealistic to eqmt this gap to be completely bridged in
a ten-month program. Regardles of their grade achievement, participants do not
alwiiys acquire the sectotal skills (e-g., financial analysis, environmental impact
assessrnent etc.) offered in SRP&D courses to the extent that they can confidently
use them in th& work context at AiœSP.
Two participants who returned to be appoint4 managers of TraininULeaming Support
Units dairned that had they known what their new position would be dunng their course
of study at SRP&D, they would have taken courses more specifically related to adult
leaming from the Dept of Rural Extension Stucfies at the University of Guelph.
At the same time, the four senior managers who attend4 SRP&D during die first two
program years dairned that diey fmd leamed specîfic sectorai skills which had
contributed significandy to their professional developrnent For example, Mohammad
Darjat, a former RPM, felt that the Mid-Career Program had improved his ability to
design projects, mite proposais and work in other development mntexts. He has
practiced these skills as a consultant in ~fghanislan and at the time of interviewing he
had completed a one year consultancy for a UNDP/Govemment of Nepal projed that
repficates the AKRSP mode1 in Nepali cornmunities living on the periphery of national
parks. Dajat dairned that his experience in the Mid-Career Program had direcdy
contributed to his career developrnent beyond AKRSP.
Mid-Career Rogram are ofken undear about what their position will be
upon retum to AKRSP and are given positions undated to the extent of knowledge
and skills thqr may have acquired in the Mid-Career Program. RPMs and T/LSUs
should develop strategic staff development plans (al= recommended by 1997 Joint
MonitDnng Mission bo AKRSP). Where possible, Mid-Career Program partiapants should
be informeci (prior to departure) of their position upon return so they can select SRP&D
courses accordingiy.
Figure 12.1 Mohammad Darjat (lefi), a former RPM daims SRP&D directly conbibutd to his capacity as a nird devdopment consultant
143
Similady, Shah Karez (1 993-1 994)' another former RPM who is now a consultant planner
with the A g Khan Education Services (AKES), claimed that he was more able to intepte
IRDP concepts in his work. He felt that specific analyücal and planning skills remained
an important part of his professional practice. Shah's counterpart, Miraj Khan (1993-
1994) who is now a Manager of AKRSP Chitral's Credit and Saving daimed that
the sectord skills he dweloped in pmgram evaluation were still k ing used. Miraj noted
that he uses evaluation matrices (which he learned at SRP&D), to evduate credit
products.
It is important to note here that both Shah and his counterpart, Miraj Khan, had received
training in die rural development model prior to AKRSP from its founder Shoaib Sultan
Khan at the Pakisîan Academy for Rural Development This coupled widi other training
experiences abroad (University of iowa, University of Manchester) and a higher level of
English fiuency made dieir ability to acquire sectoral skills greater than students who
followed.
Senior mana~ment aqoired more sedora1 skik because of their extensive rural
development background and Engiish abilities. One current RPM suggpcted that the
program was more geared to someone with his capaaty and responsi bility for program
planning. Assuming Diplorna Program courses are appropriate for senior management
personnel or field praditionen who have had previous training, senior management
should be encouraged to upgrade through SRP&D's Diplorna or M.Sc programs.
12.5 0th- Skilis
Participants daimed that die Mid-Career Prograrn also required them in develop skills
in areas which they had felt weak in prier to amval.
12.5.1 Computem
Many parüapants had never used a cornputer before they attended the Mid-Career
Prograrn. Under the guidance of the Mid-Career Program Assistant, ail learned how to
use basic word processing and spreadsheet sofhyare to the point where diey could
produce a written assignment wiaiout assistance. Most daimed that they continued to
use cornpubers regularly in their work at AKRSP.
1 2.52 Preseritation
The developrnent of communication skills is part of the id-Career Program's critical
analysis objective. The ability to deady express one's ideas in front of an audience is an
important professional skill. Many participants found this to be a partiailady empowering
experience, some using visual aids such as overhead and slide projedors for the first
tirne. Faculty provided feedback on how to improve presentation style and delivery.
1253 Report Writing
With every course having three to five written assignments, participants leamed haw to
analyse and structure ideas into a dear concise written piece. For later participants,
specific weekly classes were provided in English writing and speaking. They did not feel,
howwer, that these courses contributeci significandy to improvements in their writing as
mu& as written assignments, with feedback from the Mid-Career Program Coordinator
and/or Assistant,
12-6 lmpmved Linkage Capacity
The ability to broker sound linkages between comrnunities and other support
organisations depends in part on the participanfs autonomy within AKRSP. For example,
SOS who became T/LSU Manager noted that dieir contact with communities was now
limited to involvement only in die planning of training programs. These training programs
were detenined to a large degree by their RPOfs technical secti*ons under the direction
of die RPM.
By 1998 there were numerous instances of local catalysts who had emerged from village
organisations to broker linkages on their own. An AKRSP found that army officers had
become important community leaders, for example, and formed linkages without the
assistance of AKRSP (Khan 1997).
Thus there were only a few examples of Mid-Career Proprn graduates who had forrned
effective linkages. One was Ali Mohammad, a social organiser who attendeci SRP&D in
1995-1 996. The son of a local imam (deric) Ali was in the perfed position to motivate
conservative S hia communities in Nagr that had been resistant to development
initiatives. At SRP&D, he wrote his major professional paper on the Naunihal
Development Organisation, a local development organisation (LDO) in Nagar. His paper
induded a detailed work plan. Upon return, he -me involved with Naunihal as an
advisor, providing hem assistana from AKRSP, and assisting Naunihal's linkages with
other international NGOs. Ali Mohammad attributes his motivation and ability to
conceptualise linkages to his experienœ at SR?&D.
Similady, Nazir Ahmad, an SO from AKRSP Baltistan who aitendeci SRP&D from 1994-
1995, retumed to a position as Manager of the Leaming Support Unit Working closely
with four emerging LDOs in Baitistan (induding the Kadiura Development Organisation
and TSKYN, an LDO led by youth from his own village of Toqrangah), Nazir faalitated
their linkages with other organisations such as the Canadian Hi& Commission in
Islamabad, Volunteer SeMce Overseas (VSO) and AKRSP.
Figure 12.2 Putting his major professio~l paper into practice, Ali Mohammad returned to form important linkages between local development organisations in
Nagar and other NGOs.
Figure 12.3 Change in Position after Completing the Mid-Career Program
Position Prior to Mid-Career
Prognm
Regional Programme M a a l P
Position within 1 Year of Return
Current Position (as of May 1998)
Mid-Career Program Graduate
- -
Mohammad Darjat* Regional Progmmme Manager
Unknown: UNDP consultant in Nepal in 1997
M i t and saviltg5 Program Manager
Chiid and Savings Program Manager
Shah Karez R e g i d Programme Manager
Consultant w/ Aga Khm Education services (Chitridl
Miraj Khan Senior Social Organiser
Senior Social Organiser
Credit and Sarings Manager (Chitd
Nazir Ahmad Social Organiser Lsaniing Support Unit (SU) Manager
Monitoring, Evaluation and W (MER)
I Mohammad lqbal Social Oiganiset Tmining Support
SodOlganker FMU Manager
FMU Manager
1 A6 Mohammad FMU Manager
Sartaj Quadir Women's Social Organiser
Gender and ûedopment Manager
Muhammad Ashm Social Organiser
Learning Support Unit (SU) Miinageer
Leaining Support Unit (ISU) Manager
M a l Organiser Training Support Unit USU) Manager
Manager Punjab R u d support Programme (Multnn)
-
1 Mohmmad Ibrahim Social Organiser
12.7 Tangible Behaviour Change
Changes in job status and responsibility do not neœsarily reflea an inaease in
capacities. Similarly, a change in attitude may not necpssarily translate into a tangible
behaviour change. However, some participants dairned that they had experienced a
distinct transformation of their professional pracüce. Figure 12.4 notes these changes as
evidence of professional dwelopment which c m be a ü r i b d , to a large extent, to the
Mid-Career Progam. Partiapants statements were corroboratecl through participant
observation, feedbad from their peers and material evidenœ (e-g., reports they had
written etc.).
There are l ikely more cases of significant behaviour change, both within these ind ividuals
as well as other graduates, but these examples appeared prominent during the research.
Khaleel Teday, a former RPM and current TLP Coordinator pointed out that some were
capable to begin with, but added that several staff members had developed not just in
ternis of promotion, but in terrns of professional capaaty.
An individual's leaming process is influend by a nurnber of factors, rather than one
leaming experience. Yet participants themselves indiated that these examples were
reliable proof that the Mid-Career Program has yielded results. The change, they felt, had
been translated into action. Their acüons benefitted AKRSP and, assuming AKRSP is an
effective agent of dewlopment, uftimately the residents of the Nordiem Areas.
Figure 1 2.4 notes important examples of catalysh who felt their skills had translated into
a distinct change in their professional prabice. While job change is not necessarily an
indication of impmved capacity, many these catalysts had taken on new responsibilities
in areas which demanded upgrading of skills. Most significandy, they were al1 inter&
in a long-term leaming process approach and applying dieir experience at SRP&D to
their professional practice.
In addition to seledon of inappropriate candidates, howwer, another reason why
there were not more visible examples of tangible behaviour change is the absence
of a bmader leaming process approach at AKRSP. This is refleded in the lack of pre-
departure preparation and follow-up in the case of the Mid-Career Program. The TLP
course shom that there are signs of change, however. Pre and p s t TLP assignments
contribute to the continuity of the learning process.
Figure 12.4 Examples of Behaviour Change in Mid-Career Program Crad uates
Mid-Career Program Graduate
Mohamrnad Darjat
Mutabiat Shah
I Shah Karez
Miraj Khan
Nazir Ahmad
Ali Mohammad
Position Before Mid- Career Program
- -- - -
Regional Programme Manager
Regionai Programme Manager
Senior Social Organiser
Social Organiser
-- -
Social Organiser
FMU Manager
Examples of BehaMour Change
- Plans for communities, repl idng the AKRSP mode1 through the UNDPIHMCN Parks and People Projecî Nepal - Projecî proposal and report writing.
- Pianned and executed AKRSP's decentral isation of cred it services dirough FMUs
- Education planning consultant for the Aga Khan Education Services (Chitral).
Credit and Savings Manager (Chitral) - Plans and Evaluates Credit Programs. - Board member with the Aga Khan Heaith Services.
- Supporteci the creation of Participatory Learning Centres (PLG) in Baitistan - Formed linkages between TSKYN (an LDO) and other NCOs - Case study reporh'ng for MER &on. - Planned for the provision of Traditional Bi& Attendant and Basic Literacy/Numeracy courses for women. -
- Assists strategic planning for LDOs in Nagar. - Facilitates lin kages between these LDOs and international NGOs.
- Plans for training programs at Leaming Support Unit
13. RMSiTlNC KEY QUESTIONS
Key Questions -- - -
1. What is the education background of the rural development professionals from AKRSP who have attended the Mid-Career Program?
- - - - - - - - - - - -
2. How has their experience at the University of Guelph improved their professional ca pacities?
- - - - -- - -
3. How applicable were SRP&D courses to their professional work?
- - - - - - - -
4. In what other ways has die program ûansformed their Iives (e.g., attitudes, worldview)? -
5. How have they re-integrated into their organisation upon return (i.e. how have their new skills b e n used)?
- Low quality gwemment schooling in the Northern Areas (fint in Urdu with later introduction of English medium) - Generally BA or MA from Pakistani universities.
- lncreased sedora1 knowledge in areas such as environment and development, program evaluation, projed development, comparative approaches to rural development, burism planning and community economic development - Less evidence of translation of knowledge into impmed sectoral skills. - Clear evidence of changes in am'tude, motivation and ability to understand development - improvement potential limited by poor selection of candidates with weak English, low motivation, lack of study foundation.
- Greater applicability for senior managers. - Applicable courses indude IRDP, project development, program evaluation.
- Broadened horizons vis a vis work ethia, non-Musiim cultures, rural developrnent, personal growth.
- Changing roles (e.g., S O to FMU or T/LSU Manager)/prornotions - Some cases of frustration - Tasks assigned do not use or build on skills learned at SRP&D. - Expectations of promotion unmet
Key Questions
--- -
6. How have AKRSPs training and staff development priorïties changeci sine the program kgan in 1982, and since its collaboration with SRP&D began in 1 992?
--
7. How does the Mid-Career Program fit into aiment training directions at AKRSP (e.g., Training and Leaming Program in Social Organisation)?
8. What are some of the current perceptions of the Mid-Career Program among senior management at AKRSP?
9. How cm a more effective collaboration be fostered berneen SRP&D and AKRSP to further the capaaty building ne& of AKRSP?
- l ncreased em phasis on rnicrmçredit, natural resource management, and social analysis.
- TLP offers a focused course in social analysis adon research that is highly relevant to the changing dynamio of die Northem Areas. SRP&D can potentially complement TLP with specific training in prograrn/project planning, monitoring and evaluation.
-- --
- Unclear understanding of program objecîbes, methods and results in some cases. - Mixed reviews of Mid-Career Program effectiveness. - Negative impression left by weak candidates who did not demonstrate tangible behaviour change.
- SRP&D faculty should visit the Northem Areas to conduct a detailed Needs Assessrnent at AKRSP. - SRP&D and AKRSP should develop an action plan to match the Diploma Propm with the capacity development needs of AKRSP. This plan could include follow up in situ courses for alumni in the NAs, the indusion of more NAs-related content in Diploma Propm courses. - intemships at AKRSP for SRP&D M.Sc students. - Further M.Sc study option for q ual ified AKRSP staff.
14. FURTHER COLlABORATION WiTH SRP&D
lmproved collaboration depends to a large degreeon communication and understanding
between partner organisations. All intehewees felt that greater familiarity with the
Northem Areas environment and AKRSP would help shape courses that were more
relateci to their working reality. Below are a few suggestions for refining the Diploma
Program through the darification of capacity building focal points at AKRSP. Refining the
focus of the SRP&DAKRSP partnenhip will ultimately be up to the two organisations.
Cornpiementing Social Anaipis Training
The six-week Training and Leaming Program (TLP) in Social Organisation offered by Prof.
Ceof Wood from the University of Bath is an effective in situ course that trains managers
and other staff in social analysis and action-researdi. AKRSP's General Manager, Stephen
Rasmussen has suggested that full use has not b e n made of the SRP&D program in
recent years and that SRP&D can design a program that is more rigorous, and that builds
on skills and knowledge acquired in the TLP.
For this to be realised, SRP&D faculty must gain a deeper understanding of the Nordiem
Areas and AKRSP contexts. Ali participants hail from these hivo contexts and this cornmon
orientation requires greater awareness from faculty in order for the Dipiorna Program to
be more responsive to their needs.
Pmject Planning and Design
Training in international project planning and design can be a key complement to TL?.
SRP&D's extensive experience in this area can be tapped to its full potential through a
more responsive Diploma program that is refined in coordination with HRD, RPMs and
the TLP Coordinator.
MoSc lntemships at AKRSP
M.Sc students from SRP&D can offer their skills as developing praaitioners and
researchers. Regular internships will provide a healthy flow of information between
AKRSP and SRP&D and balance their partnefihip.
M.% Opportunities for AKRSP Staff
AKRSP staff, including Mid-CareedDiploma Program graduates can benefit from the
M.Sc. program in Rural Planning and Development at SRP&D. Candidates can meet the
English language academic and professional requirements for admission should be
encouraged by AKRSP and SRP&D to further develop their apacities and attain the
appropriate accreditation of an M.Sc
All of these areas for collaboration can be developed so as to make a strong link
between researdi and action. As I have argued throughout this paper, the key,
however, is in maintaining a learning process approach in al1 acanües.
15. SUMMARY INSICHTS
Having only begun in 1992, it is dificult to conclude that the Mid-Career Program has
not only k e n of benefit to catalystr, but has consequendy made a dear impact on the
lives of the rural poor in the Northem Areas of Pakistan. It has clearly, however, built up
the self-confidence of participants. An important learningfoundation has therefore been
laid. It has provided catalysts with a deeper understanding of developrnent and the world
and language of the donor community.
it was difficult to gauge the degree of critical awareness or reflective capaaty it has
imparted as participants were invoived in their implementer roles at AKRSP at the time
of data colleciion. Similady, there is no indication that those who possessed this refledive
capacity did not possess it before entering the program. But, returning to the self-
confidence issue, empowerment has led to, or translated into, tangible behaviour
changes. Consider the evidene of catalysts who have taken on new areas of
development pradœ, had the courage to apply their skills outside of AKRSP, and
embarked on a self-direbed leaming process with awareness and motivation.
Acquiring secioral skills depends, to a large degree, on previous education and familiarity
with the skill or discipline in question. For this reason, the Mid-Career Program would
benefit from having a dearer understanding of çatalyst and catalyst-tumed-manager
leaming needs and sedord skill areas. ideally the propm should then be tailored to fit
diose needs, as opposed to incorporating the catalyst into a standard M.Sc program
which may have many cornponents bat are not relevant to the catalyst's work context
As can be e x p d , program impact also depends on appropriate selection of
candidates, prior preparation, and the opportunity within the organisation to continue
the leaming process. AKRSP has been revisiting issues of social organisation, social
analysis and adon research through its TLP course. The new Graduate Diplorna Program
in IRDP should be aware of these new areas, and complement TLP to provide catalysts,
catalyst-turned-managers, and other AKRSP staff with a more integrated leaming
experience.
In order to provide a genuine iearning pr-s approach, critical refledon, dialogue and
experiences which conxientise the leamer should be encouraged. University prograrns
wtiich over-emphasise grades, production of written assignments, al1 at a high
pressure pace, may not provide the ideal experience in this respect. In fact, they may
contribute to further institutionalisation of the cataiyst, and eliminate the flexibility
and field enthusiasm needed for catalyst work
Hoi~ww, distance fmm one's culture and society, time for refldon, instructive
field expetiences, and exposure to a different culture and way of approaching work,
can p d d e a critically transformathe experience. Many catalysts claimed that they
had been thus hnsformed by their experience at the University of Guelph.
The overall success of the Mid-Career program depends on its integration in a
broader leaming pcocess approach at AKRSP. The energy and enthusiasm devoteci
to the TLP program and renewed interest in collaboration with SRP&DPs Diplorna
Pmgram on the part of AKRSP senior management, are signs that AKRSP is now
committing itrdf to a leaming ptocess approach. This will hopefully mean a more
consdous, planned shifi to Korten's Stage 3: Leaming to hpand (see Figure 7.4).
PART IV : CONCLUSIONS
The role and fundion of catalysts are shaped by a given culture and society. In Latin
America, where leftist movements have k e n popular challenges to an oppressive status
quo, a catalyes work may be overdy political, airning to conscientise the margihalised
rural pmr. The role of catalysts thus depends on both ideology and agenda of those
wishing to take action.
In contacts where religious and leftist struggles have not succeeded, such as Pakistan, a
more conventional approach appears warranted. The agency approach, adopted by the
Aga Khan Rural Support Programme demonstrates how agency catalysb can successfully
mobilise the rural poor to work mperatively and develop capaaties for rural people to
improve their standard of livingthrough the regeneration of a sustainable rural economy.
Catalysts thus play a key role in the process of rural change. However, in order for
them to have a sustainable long-tem impact, they mist be part of a broder
learning process approach rather than simply sewing as implementers of agency
programs.
The role of agency catalysts such as the AKRSP social organiser appears to be shaped by
the evolution of the programme and its activities. Many catalysts now find themselves in
1 60
middle managerial roles (cataiyst-tumed-managers) which require a considerable amount
of capacity development in areas such as planning, social analysis, and a generally
deeper understanding of the development proces. While these remain cunent dirwmons
and outcornes from its original thnist, intensive targeted training will have to be provided
to tum the agency-catalyst from an implementer to an innovator and critical pradtioner.
AKRSP founder Shoaib Sultan Khan pointed out that once the dewlopment message has
been spread, the need for catalysts diminishes. However, this case also suggests that the
role of the catalyst can evolve to becorne management and action-research oriented.
Current diredions in social organisation at AKRSP are attempts to prove that the catalyst
can be effectively recast in the roles of manager and action-researcher. Time and further
study will tell whether this cm, in fab, be achiwed and ultimately be of benefit to rural
communities.
Effective capacity development for catalysts depends on the role of the catalyst as well
as the extent and nature of prior training. In the AKRSP example, both catalysts and
catalyst-tumed-managers have traditionally k e n trained to implement without
signifiant attention given to analysis and critical thinking. A combination of the six-week
Training and Learning Program (TLP) in Social Organisation currendy k i n g offered at
AKRSP through the University of Bah, and the ten-month Mid-Career (now Graduate
Diplorna) Program in IRDP at the University of Guelph, can provide catalysts and
catalyst-tumed-rnanagers with a substantial leaming expenence. Building on experience
and training gradually, this combination would follow a leaming process approach that
enables the catalyst to be a genuinely reflective ppractitioner.
Effective training for catalysts at univenities in the West also depends on education
background prior to the training experience. For example, catalysts with poor English
were not able to take full advantage of the university experience. Taking the TLP course
beforehand should ensure that the appropriate groundwork is laid prior to embarking n
university studies in the West
Despite k ing unable to take full advantage in the pst, AKRSP social organisers have
gained in a number of key ways such as attitude transformation, improvement of
presentation, writîen, and computer skills. Most importandy, they have gained in temis
of confidence and self-esteem. This is ttie foundation of a leaming process approach. It
is this sense of empowerment which, ideally, the catalyst would then pass on to the rural
communities he or she works with. One key element of the leaming process approach
is 'planning with the people' (Korten 1980:498). This element appears to have k e n
abandoned in favour of channeling agency resources and staff time into more
conventional actkities such as distribution of technical packages.
This research highlights die various types of catalysts, key figures in the process of rural
change. Foaising on the agency catalyst, the AKRSP case study fills a gap in the available
knowledge about catalysb and irnportandy, what constitutes appropriate education for
a catalyst. The Mid-Career Program case study at the University of Guelph is a step
towards addressing the leaming needs of field pradtioners from the developing world
by ensuring that there is a suitable 'fit' between university leaming and effective rural
development practiœ.
Through its activities such as courses, field trips, and major professional paper, I conclude
therefore that the program has cfearly had a positive impact on AKRSP catalysts. This
impad is most dear in tems of confidence and attitude change, and les so in tems of
speafic secbral skills. improved programming at SRP&D, through more activities more
tailored to the AKRSP-Nordiem Areas context will iead to a more program that is even
more responsive to learner needs.
However irnproved programming must also take place at AKRSP where catalysts and
catalyst-turned-managers will benefit from selecb'on based on merit and preparation
prior to the program through the TLP course, as well as preparatory English classes.
Refining the program in these ways will contribute to a learning process approach. It is
this approadi which catalysts must bing to their important work of empowering and
assisting self-reliance for the rural poor.
EPILOCUE
During my fieldwork in the Northern Areas and since the research was completed, there
were calls for a stronger partnership between the School of Rural Planning and
Development and the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme. AKRSPs human resource
development staff, senior management and Mid-Career Program gaduates al l highl ighted
the importance of a doser collaboration, which they suggested should begin with an
S RP& D faculty visit to the Nordiem Areas.
Upon retuming to Canada, I completed an Impact Assessrnent of the Mid-Career
Program for SRP&D in July 1 998. The report was timely in that it assessed the strengths
and weaknesses of the program over the past six years, just as it was k i n g upgraded to
the more stnictured and amedited Graduate Diploma Program. lt was also provided to
AKRSP at a time when the organisation itself chose to rwiew the rnerits of the program.
Readng positively to the report, AKRSP has sine initiateci plans for a long-awaited
SRP&D faculty visit to the Nordiern Areas in 1999.1 am confident that this kind of doser
contact will help AKRSP set its staff development prionties, ensure more appropriate
candidate seledon for the program, and enable SRP&D faculty to respond more to
AKRS P's leaming needs.
It is gratirying to note that this research is already having a positive effecî and 1 sincerely
hope bat it has contributed to a strengthening of the leaming process at AKRSP and a
collaboration with SRP&D that uitimately benefits the people of the Nordiem Areas of
Pakistan.
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Khan, Akhtar Hameed. 1997 (October) Interview. Karachi, Pakistan.
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Khan, S hoai b Sultan. 1 998. (March) Interview. Islamabad, Pakistan.
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Kuriakose, Anne T. 1996. WO Develo~rnent An Invesb'mtion of Orpanisational and l nstitutional Issues in Chitral Rdon. AKRSP Policy and Research. Ciigit, Pakistan.
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Wood, Geof. 1996 "Developing the Art and Avoiding the Totem: A Strategy for Social Organisation in AKRSP (Overview and Recornmendations)". AKRSP Cil@/ Centre for Development Studies, University of Bath, U K.
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APPENDIX A : AKRSP Mid-Career Program Alurnni
1 992- 1 993 ~ohammad Darjat Mutabiat Shah
1993-1 994 Shah b r e . Miraj Khan
1994-1 995 Nazir Ahmad Mohammad iqbal
1995-1 9% Ali Mohammad Sartaj Quadir
1996-1 997 Mohammad Ibrahim Sardar Nawaz Khan Mohammad Adam ChuIam Hussairi
1 997-1 998 Mahmood isa Khan Kulsoom Farman
1998 -1 999 (current students) Mohammad Karam Shah Makeen Raja Safdar Khan
APPENDIX B : SUMMARY OF FINDINCS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
(From Building Professional Capacity: An impact Assessment of the Mid-Career Pmgram in International Rural Dewlopment Planning submitted to the School of Rural Planning and Deveiopment at the University of Guelph, and the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme. Septem ber 1 998.)
Finding 7 There is litde follow-up or evaluation of the impact of training experiences at AKRSP. Study tours are ineffective due to lack of preparation and follow-up.
Recommendation 1 Preparation and post-evaluations of training experiences will contribute to more comprehensive leaming. Study tours can be more productive if participants are given infornation, tour objectives, and encouraged to reflect and present on what they have learned to their colleagues upon retum.
Finding 2 There is insufficient literahire and communication frorn SRP&D that explicidy outlines die objectives of the Mid-Career Program that is effecîively brought to the attention of AKRSP senior management
Recommendation 2 SRP&D should produce a more detailed information package that States the objectkes of the Diploma Program in International Rural Dwelopment Planning and revisit these objeciives in dialogue with AKRSP.
Finding 3 Poor selecîion on the part of AKRSP has resuited in some inappropriate participants in the program who could not make optimum use of the Mid-Career Program.
Recommendation 3 Candidates must be carefully saeened and recommended for admission to the Diplorna program based on their abilities (Engiish, cornputers etc.) and most important their motivation to leam and work hard. Those involved in the selection process at AKRSP should be fully acquainted with the purpose, content, and demands of the Diploma Program. ldeally a hogram 'retumee' should be fomally induded in the selection and pre-departure preparation process.
Finding 4 The current AKRSP policy of requiring diat one candidate be selecîed from each of the three regions (to ensure parity) results in weak candidate selection.
Recommendation 4 The AKRSP General Manager has oudined three criteria for selection to the Diploma Program:
i) Graduate of AKRSPfs Training and Leaming Program in Social Organisation.
ii) Good English language skills.
iii) Able to cope with the demands of a Western university.
Fulfiliment of this criteria should ensure proper seleaion. AKRSP should ensure they continue to provide a pool (more than three) of top candidate applications to SRP&D to allow for backup candidates.
finding 5 With the exception of periodic English language courses, pre-departure preparation has been minimal in the past Participants are often unprepared when they amve.
Recommendation 5 Selected participants should receive an intensive needs-based English course which focuses on dear communican'on and analyticai readingand wnting. SRP&D isalso willing to offer this intensive kind of course with the assistance of AKFC. Additional topics could include dweloping a research topic, report writing, and basic cornputer use.
Finding 6 Late se ldon of candidates has limited the possibility of adequate pre-departure preparation.
Recommendation 6 Considering the visa processing and medical screening delays from the Canadian High Commission in Islamabad, the seledion process should begin earlier (e.g., January for the upcoming Fall semester). Confirmed seldon well in advance will allow for smooai pre- deparhire training.
Finding 7 In general, partiapants with weak Engiish found dass lectures dificult to fully comprehend. The reading and written assignment workload for Mme courses was higher than partiapants expebed. The weaker their English, the more clifficuit these two tasks are.
Recommendatr'on 7 The new Craduate Diploma Program requires bat candidates have an IELTS xore of at least 6.5. If AI<RSP staff do not achieve this score, they should be provided with intensive English language classes in Pakistan. They should then be re-tested. Only candidates who can meet the English standard requirernent should be given final acceptance.
Finding 8 Most courses (exduding IRDP and PD) are lacking in examples that can be applied diredy to the Northem Areas. While IRDP and PD refer to AKRSP contexts, AKRSP case study materials are not up to date. Although the Coordinator has worked in the Northem Areas and other faculty have extensive developing wodd experience, faculty in p e r d have insufkient knowledge about the changing Northem Areas c o n t a
Recommendation 8 Faculty should visit the Nordiem Areas to learn more about its general environment and relevant rural development issues. Course materials should have case studies that are direcdy applicable to the Northem Areas c o n t a This will make the Diploma Program more responsive to AKRSP staff needs.
Finding 9 Lack of a formal debriefing/presentation on dieir SRP&D experienœ contnbutes to a sense of discouragement for graduates upon return to AKRSP.
Recommendation 9 Retumees should be encouraged to forrnally present on what they have learned at SRP&D. Their major professional paper can be of particular value in sb'mulating discussion within the three regional programme offices (RPOs). This can be arranged by the Tmining/Leaming Support Units at the RPOs.
Finding 70 AKRSP opinions of the quality of the Mid-Career Program have suffered from poor candidate selection and inadequate communication between SRP&D and AKRSP.
Recommendation 70 SRP&D faculty should offer a presentation at AKRSPto oudine the benefits, dernands and academicstandards of the new Diploma Prograrn in IRDP. As mentioned, AKRSP should ensure seledon of only the best candidates.
Finding 7 7 Mid-Career Program participants are often undear about what their position will be upon return to AKRSP and are given positions unrelated to the extent of knowledge and skills diey may have acquired in the Mid-Career Program.
Recommendation I I RPMs and T/LSUs should dwelop strawc staff dweloprnent plans (also recornmended by 1997 Joint Monitoring Mission to AKRSP). Where possible, Mid-Career Program participants should be informed of their expected retuming position, so they can select SRP&D courses accord ingly.
Finding 12 Senior management acquired more sectoral skills because of their extensive rural development background and English abilities. One a m n t RPM suggested that the program was more geared to someone with his capacity and responsibility for program planning.
Recommendation 12 The Diploma Program courses are appropriate for senior management personnel or field practitioners who have had previous training. Senior management should be encouraged to upgrade through SRP&D's Oiploma or M.Sc programs.
Finding 13 There are only a few examples of Mid-Career Prograrn Graduates who formed linkages between rural aimmunities and other organisations upon retum.
SRP&D can provide training in linkage formation through more training in projeci proposal wrïting and praaikal exercises which require students to liaise with organisations in Canada.
APPENDIX C : Social Organiser Job Description (1 995-1 997)
Job Objective: To organize communities at village leuel in oder to manage resources collectitnely.
Reporthg ResponsibiIiw to FMU Manager
Major Dutrges -V/WO formation -Conduct dialogues with V/WOs -Liaise between AKRSP professionals and VIWO mernbers in order to faulitate die adivities undertaken by such professionals in the field in collaboration with V M s . -To strengthen and develop existing V/WOs to improve planning, irnplementation and sustainability of social development -To conduct and attend V/WOs' meeting -To help identify the needs of VMlOs and communicate the same to AKRSP -To plan and report periodically on hidher own activib'es during the year -To facilitate the seledon of V/WO representativei for Speâalists' trainings -Any other job related acîivity as assigned by the supetvisor from time to time.
Qualifications At least graduate (BA/BSc) with some expetience in social work.
APPENDIX D
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE K I R DEVELOPMENT CATALYSTS
Name:
Position (region) :
Education level:
SRP&D Year:
Date:
Describe your job as a catalyst and its responsibilities.
What End of training did you receive (e.g. S O internship, Satellite intern)?
What techniques did yw employ (savine, organisation, training)?
What are the m a t essential quaIities/skills for an effective catalyst?
What obstacles does a catalyst face in his/her work? How are these solved?
Was the original SO mode1 effective? How?
What changed for the SO with the decentralisation in 19953 Was this a good or bad change? Describe.
Describe the in situ trainings you received.
What were some of the strengths of these trainings?
What wre their weaknesses?
How could they be impmved in future?
ABROAD 9. Describe the overseas trainings you have received (courses, workshops etc)?
1 0. Strengths (course material, environment, support)?
12. Did the university program (SRP&D) meet your learning needs at the time? How?
a) Courses
b) Academic guidance (insbucton
d) Environment
13. Did p u r job position change upon your retum?
a) Describe p u r current job and ib responsibilities?
14. How appropriate was the program to your job upon your retum?
a) Did the job you were given on return make full use of the knowledge and skills you acquired at the uniwrsity. -lain
15. How supporüve was your organisation of your leaming experience?
a) How could AKRSP have made better use of p u r newly acquired skills?
16. What in your leaming process continueci after you returned?
a) What did not continue after leaving the univwsity environment?
17. What cultural differences/barn*ers inhibited your leaming experience?
a) What differences contributed to your learning?
b) Could the knowledge/skills you acquired at SRP&D have been offered in situ. How?
18 (4.3) How a n univerrity programs (e.g., SRP&D) be improved to better suit your needs?
20. How can your organisation better support/collaborate with the univeisity (SRP&D) afier your return? (e.g, follow-up, communidon, alumni OF.)
20 a) How did the SRP&D course compare with other study abroad experiences yw are aware of?
21. What do p u fed are your c u m t leaming needs?
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