EDUCATION AS A COMPONENT

OF LAW ENFORCEMENT PROFESSIONALISM:

THE CONCEPT AND ITS MEASUREMENT �9

by

Reed Adams

ABSTRACT

The lack of empirical studies of educat~n as a strue- t u ~ variable within theoret ical models of p~ fess iona l - iz~tion was disucssed. Also, a scale designed to m e a ~ e education as a component of the concept of law enforcement as a profession was dev~oped. Interpreted ~ valid and r e l i ~ l e , the scale was employed in a s~rvey of No~h C~o- l ina l~m enforcement pe,'~onnel. Although i t w~ ~ncluded that many l~m enforcement per6onnel did not iden t i f y eduea- t ~ n as an ~Zement of the concept of la~ enforcement as a profession, a minority strongly endowed education. Law enforcement personnel overwhelmingly preferred criminal j ~ - rice ~ i ~ a o v ~ those of o t h ~ d ~ p ~ e s , ~ d ~ y anticipated p ~ t i ~ p a t i o n in criminaZ j ~ t i c e educational p r o g ~ . I t wa~ concluded the conceptu~s of educa- t ion as a component of law enforcement as a profession was emerging. However, such ~nceptu~lizat~on was not f e l t to be pervasive within the law enforcement community.

Introduction

One aspect of the recent changes experienced by higher education has involved the expanded role of education in applied criminal justice settings. Prestigious bodies, at both the state and national level, have called for education to be employed as a means of improving law enforcement, in- cluding the use of academic degrees as cr i ter ia for employ- ment (Adams and Auten, 1977; Advisory Commission on Inter- government Rel ati ons, 1971 ; Governor' s Mutual Assistance Program for Criminal Justice, 1973; Katzenback, 1967; Peterson, 1973; Police Foundation, 1972). Some law enforce- ment agencies have increased the educational qualifications associated with career positions (University Research Corp., 1975; Weber, 1973). Police educational levels have risen signif icantly in recent years (Hoover, 1975). Also, there

22

is growing evidence that many indiv iduals ident i fy criminal just ice curr icula as the most appropriate educational exper- ience for individuals desiring a career in the criminal just ice system (Beto and Marsh, 1974; Brantingham, 1972; Cocks, 1974; Hoover, 1975; Myren, 1975; NCCJTSC, 1975). For these and other reasons, academic degrees have been widely accepted as an important factor in the professional izat ion of police work (Gambino, 1973; Geary, 1970; Muehleisen, 1970; Webb, 1971; Weiner, 1976; Welty, 1974; Wicks, 1974). Moreover, considerable resources have been invested in academic criminal just ice programs designed to serve em- ployees of the criminal just ice system (Adams, 1976; Foster, 1974; Green, 1972; Hermandez, 1975; Hoover, 1975; IACP, 1978; Karman and Klyman, 1974a, 1974b; Myren, 1970; Senna, 1974; Wool and McKernan, 1976). Although some have argued the contrary, criminal just ice has become accepted by many scholars as an academic d isc ip l ine and has been concept- ualized as of fer ing law enforcement personnel professional opportunit ies s imi lar to those offered by schools of law and medicine for legal and medical pract i t ioners (Adams, 1976; Dussault and Borgent, 1977; Misner, 1978). Yet, i t is equally clear that the educational structure of criminal just ice and the subt let ies of criminal just ice as a social science and professional f i e l d have not yet been c l a r i f i ed to the degree t yp ica l l y found in more mature f ie lds (Misner, 1978), such as c l i n i ca l psychology.

A commitment to higher education as one of several c r i t e r i a for membership has uniformly developed in the case

REED ADAMS

Dr. Adams ~s an assocLate professor in the De- partment of Criminal Justi~e at the U~ive~sity of North Carolina at Charlotte. He earned h i s Ph.D. in ~ n o l o g y from Florida State Unive~dZy in 1971; his M.A. in ~o~iology from the U~vers i ty of Maryland in 1967; and h~ B.A. in ~ychology at the University of Noah Carolina in 1961. Dr. Adams has many in- teres t s -- in~uding criminal j u s t i ce education -- and i s currently president of the Southern Asso~- a t ~ n of Criminal Just ice E d u c ~ (SACJE).

23

of mature professions (Bopp, 1977; Feuille and Juris, 1976; Hall, 1976; Misner, 1978; Welty, 1974). Also, there is much to suggest that some law enforcement personnel have identi- fied education as a crucial component of their own pro- fession (Hoover, 1975). Moreover, some individuals for- mulating abstract conceptualizations of the nature and process of professionalization have not only included edu- cation as a structural variable, but have applied their models to law enforcement (Welty, 1974; Hall, 1976). Yet, individuals within law enforcement remain divided on the role of education in their profession (Ball, 1974; Beckman, 1976; Erikson, 1975; Feuille and Juris, 1976; Hudzik, 1978). Similar conditions previously prevailed in other professions, for example, when individuals became attorneys by "reading law" (an apprenticeship). I t appears as though law enforce- ment presently faces a crucial dilemma, previously resolved by other f ields, involving i ts fundamental nature.

The Contemporary Literature

The concept of the profession has received consider- able attention in the social science l i terature (Moore and Rosenblum, 1970). Scales designed to measure the att i tud- inal and structural variables comprising the professional model (Hail, 1976; Wilensky, 1964) have been developed, in- cluding the application of the Hall/Snizek scale to law enforcement (Mil ler and Fry, 1976). Also, previous works have concerned the distinction between the process of pro- fessionalization, and the structure and nature of a pro- fession (Weiner, 1976). Attention has also been directed at the impact of education on police performance (Smith, ]976; Weiner, 1976). However, a review of the l i terature revealed that l i t t l e has been done to investigate the edu- cational assumptions underlying the concept of law enforce- ment as a profession. Even in the l i terature concerned with the generalized concept of a profession, l i t t l e has been done to quantify education as a structural variable. Hall (1976, p. 486) refers to i t as one of the "relat ively simple variables." A study of social workers' concept of their social work degree as an element of their profession noted "there is no l i terature related to attitude of stu- dent's education to on-the-job relevance" (Golterman, 1975).

Kreps and Weller (1975) identif ied the fact that pro- fessionalization is both a process and a condition, and alternately an independent and a dependent variable. From a

24

national sample of 139 police departments serving cities of 50,000 or more, they found education to be a strong deter- minant of professionalization, but that ". general know- ledge characteristics of professionalism (elgl, college training) are not related to the use of knowledge for re- cruitment, training, and promotional evaluation" (Kreps and Weller, 1975, p. vi) . Education was found to be struc- tural ly isolated.

Mil ler and Fry (1976) studied the effects of educa- tion on the professionalization of 136 law enforcement officers in three law enforcement agencies. They measured educational attainment by type of academic degree held, total number of college credits, and the number of credits directly related to law enforcement. Professionalization was measured by Hall's professionalization scale. Finding the relationship between the two variables to be insigni- ficant, they concluded that education might not have the effect of increasing professionalization. Also, they correlated professionalization and police rank and found no substanci al rel ati onshi p.

Some writers have argued that law enforcement is a developing profession, of which education is one compo- nent (Hoover, 1975; Weiner, 1976), while others have taken opposing views (Hudzik, 1978; Mil ler and Fry, 1976; Weiner, 1976; Weltz, 1975, 1978). Yet, no empirical study con- cerning the measurement of education as an attitudinal or structural component of the concept of law enforcement as a profession was located.

An effort to resolve such issues could usefully in- clude the measurement and assessment of educational com- mitment, or the degree to which individuals act or believe they wi l l act to increase their own or others' part ici- pation in programs of higher education. Such a commitment has been recognized as a component of other professions and as so defined could be taken as one measure of the pro- fessionalization of law enforcement. Also, educators may wish to assess the impact of their programs or employ an index of future demands for criminal justice education. Finally, such a measure would provide a means of empiri- cal ly studying educational commitment.

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Research Questions

A study was undertaken to address two questions:

I. Can a scale be developed to quantify the educational components of the concept of law enforcement as a profession?

2. How may the law enforcement community be characterized in regard to the educa- tional component of the concept of law enforcement as a profession?

In regard to the second research question, i t was hypo- thesized that a positive association would be found among attitudinal and behavioral components of the variable "law enforcement professionalism," i ncl udi ng professional status and educational level.

Method

A Likert type scale (Edwards, 1957) was devised as a means of quantifying educational commitment by law enforce- ment personnel. Development of the scale occurred in three separate phases.

Phase 1

A group of police officers and criminal justice stu- dents, selected on the basis of their accessability, was administered a questionnaire of 81 items dealing with edu- cation and law enforcement. Comparing high and low scoring groups, the scale was reduced to the 15 items producing the highest t-values (6.44 - 12.76).

Phase 2

Phase 2 was carried out with the help of four police officers in a medium size police department in a southern city, with the sanction and support of the police chief. The scale was administered to al l uniformed officers at the rank of sergeant and below.

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The 128 subjects were each rated by the four police of f i cers/researchers as "committed to education," "opposed to education," or "undetermined." Unless there was unanimity among the four judges concerning a subject's classif ication, the subject was judged to be "undetermined." Forty-one subjects were rated as "committed to education," forty-one as "opposed to education" and the remainder (46) were "undetermined." As the four judges had worked with the subjects as fel low police officers for several years, they had observed many instances involving verbal comments and behavior indicating the position of their colleagues on the issue of criminal justice education. None of the subjects knew they had been rated by the judges.

The scale was given to each subject with a cover let ter displaying the subject's name. Instructions required that each subject remove the cover le t ter , sign i t , and give i t to one of the four police officers/researchers. The questionnaire was not to be signed but was to be placed in a box. Questionnaires were administered at the time of "rol l cal l , " and appeared to have been completed under conditions that were constant for al l administrations of the scale. Also, the questionnaire appeared to the sub- jects to be anonymous, and was labeled as such. However, all subjects received a questionnaire with a pinhole located in a predetermined location on the last sheet, so that categories of respondents could be identif ied. There was no evidence to suggest any of the subjects were aware of the pinhole. Responses identif ied by pinholes to be of the "undetermined" category were discarded. The "committed to education" and "opposed to education" groups were compared. Only six of the items reached stat ist ical significance (p_(.05) in a one-tailed t- test.

Phase 3

The police officers and the author, on the basis of their experience, devised thirty-one additional scale items which were added to the six items reaching stat ist ical significance in Phase 2. After a period of a year and a half the new scale was administered in the same police department in the same manner as that described in Phase 2.

Comparing the "committed to education" and "opposed to education" groups by use of a one-tailed t - test (n=102), twenty-one items were found to distinguish the groups at the p_< .05 level of stat ist ical significance. The f i r s t

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four questions were the only items found to be s tat is t ica l ly significant in all three phases. ~ The re l iab i l i t y of the scale, determined by the odd-even item method and corrected by the Spearman-Brown formula involved a correlation between items of .92. Also, the scale was administered to 63 stu- dents enrolled in criminal justice classes at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte and readministered to the same 63 subjects after a one month interval. The correla- tion between the two test scores of .68 (p< .001) indicated the stabi l i ty of the scale.

Phase 4: Implementation: A Survey

All law enforcement personnel in North Carolina were required by State law to be certi f ied by the North Carolina Criminal Justice Training and Standards Council. The l i s t of those personnel in the Council f i les was assumed to con- stitute the population of North Carolina law enforcement personnel. A random sample of 150 individuals was drawn from the population of 20,000. The 150 subjects were mailed a questionnaire which including the scale, with a cover letter from the Associate Director of the Council. A second mailing was sent out one month after the f i r s t with a second cover let ter asking those who had not responded earlier to submit their anonymous questionnaire. The second mailing included a second copy of the questionnaire and a second addressed, stamped envelope. One hundred and seven individuals responded, producing a response rate of 71%. As no information was available on the 43 nonre- spondents, no judgments could be made regarding any biases introduced by their absence. Most of the respondents were white males, between 25 and 50 years of age. The bulk of respondents (48%) described themselves as "line off icers," while the remainder described themselves as "supervisors" (22%), "administrators" (5%) or "other" (25%).

The demographic characteristics of the respondents were consistent in some respects with those of the North Carolina law enforcement system as reported in a 1976 survey (Nichols, 1976) of al l police and sheriffs' agencies. The similarit ies between the two studies suggested the random sampling process produced a sample}the characteristics of which may have reasonably approximated those of the popu- lat i on.

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Results: Aspects of Educational..Involvement

Scale Development

The relationship between an individual's expressed intent to pursue graduate education and the individual's educational commitment scale score was investigated as one indicator of scale val idity. The categories were ranked from close psychological proximity to graduate education (enroll now) to distant psychological proximity (never en- ro l l ) . The scale scores were categorized as low (0 - 42), medium (43 - 63), and high (64 - I05). A positive and significant association between those variables was found (Gamma = 0.47, Z = 2.51, p< .Ol). These relationships were considered to be consistent with an interpretation of the scale scores as an indicator of educational commitment.

A varimax rotated factor analysis, described below, of the responses to the scale items identified four factors. The factor loadings are in parenthesis following the item numbers. Factor I, comprised of scale items 5, (.66), 7, (.54), g, (.67), I I , (.65), 13, (.63), 15,(.5g), 16, (.76) and 20, (.64) appeared to represent "educational benefits," or the degree to which individuals attribute the development of abstract, generalized ski l ls to the educational process. Individuals ascribing to this aspect of educational commit- ment would expect college educated law enforcement officers to be better public servants and to more adequately achieve abstract goals of social control and justice. Factor I I , comprised of items lO, (.61), 17, (.55), 18, (.75) and 19, (.74), seemed to represent "professional advancement," or the association of educational and career success. Factor I I I , involving "educational hierarchy" and comprised of items l , (.70), 2, (.56), and 3, (.77) that were maintained throughout all three phases, identified levels of academic degrees as providing varying intensities of educational effects on professionalism. An off icer with a bachelor degree, for example, would be expected to be more professional and desirable a law enforcement off icer than an officer with an associate degree. Factor IV (item 4, (.56), "educational support," represented a generalized support of education for law enforcement personnel, and was the last item consistently reaching stat ist ical signi- ficance in item analysis of al l three phases of scale development. The remaining items were assumed to contri- bute to the generalized concept of educational commitment and to the re l iab i l i t y of the scale.

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Characteristics of Law Enforcement Personnel

Thirty-one percent of law enforcement personnel in the sample held a college degree. A 95 percent confidence interval placed the proportion of college educated law enforcement personnel between 21% and 41%. Of the 17% of law enforcement personnel enrolled in a college level pro- gram at the time of the survey, most (89%) had selected criminal justice as a major. A 95 percent confidence inter- val placed the proportion of law enforcement personnel en- rolled in university coursework at the time of the survey between 7% and 26%. Most respondents enrolled in an under- graduate curriculum were in associate degree programs and none of those had selected a major other than criminal j usti ce.

Table 1

Educational Commitment Scale Scores and

Law Enforcement Rank

Rank

Low

High

Scale Score

Low Medium r ~

17 29

7 9

High

3

12

Total

49

28

24 38 15 77

Gamma = .475 Z = 2. 508 p .01 (one- ta i led tes t )

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Seventy-two percent of the sample indicated an interest in graduate study in criminal justice. A 95 percent con- fidence interval placed the proportion of individuals anticipating enrollment in a graduate program to be within the interval of 62% and 81%. As the number of individuals anticipating graduate study exceeded the number holding degrees or presently enrolled, i t may be that the lat ter data were conservative estimates of the interest in under- graduate criminal justice education.

The majority of respondents fe l t criminal justice curricula were "more desirable" than those offered by other academic disciplines. Only 6% fe l t criminal justice pro- grams were "less desirable" than other programs. A 95 percent confidence level placed the proportion of individuals reporting criminal justice programs to be more desirable than other curricula to be within the interval of 52% to 72%.

The respondent's scores on the educational commitment scale (~ = 50.28; s = 16.17) suggested the personnel of the law enforcement system in North Carolina may vary consid- erably in their commitment to educational services. This was consistent with the findings of Kreps and Weller (1975). A 95 percent confidence interval placed the mean educational commitment level to be within the interval of 47 to 53. A uniformly favorable response to all 21 items would produce a score of 105, while a middle position on all items (a 3 on the scale of I-5) would produce a score of 63. The average response, then, may be assumed to be in the low to middle range, neither strongly supportive nor strongly negative. A histogram indicated a negatively skewed, t r i - modal distribution. Also, scale scores were unrelated to age (r-- 0.14, p<.09).

Educational Components of Professionalization

The professional education scale was observed to be a reliable measure. Also, there was evidence of the scale's val idity as an indicator of educational commitment.

Although i t was hypothesized an increase in profes- sional status would be associated with an increase in educational level, there were no significant educational differencies among statuses as measured by law enforcement rank. This was consistent with the work of Mil ler and Fry (1976). However, a substantial and s ta t is t ica l ly signi- ficant association was found between educational commitment

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scale scores and law enforcement rank (see Table l ) .

Discussion

The responses to the scale suggested there was wide variation in the degree of educational commitment held by personnel of the law enforcement community. A considerable proportion of law enforcement personnel maintained a con- servative position regarding higher education, while a minority were strongly supportive. Although i t seemed reasonable to assume the former represented a traditional position (the "old guard") and the latter were the inno- vators (the "young turks"), directly involved in the changes of recent years, there was no relationship between scale scores and age. Also, educational behavior (enroll- ment and existing academic degrees) and scale scores tended to be low, while expectations (anticipated graduate enroll- ment) were high. I f scale scores actually measure educa- tional commitment, this would suggest that law enforcement personnel may state an intent to enroll in graduate edu- cation programs without an actual belief in education as a process of personal or professional enhancement. Rather, affirmative responses to questions regarding anticipated enrollment may simply reflect a defensive means of handling one's self image in changing times.

Although no association was found between law enforce- ment rank and level of education, scale scores and law enforcement rank were found to be positively related. The former may have existed prior to the development of the association between rank and support of education.

The data indicated a large number of law enforcement personnel, for whatever reason, expressed a desire to enroll in criminal justice programs. The interest in graduate criminal justice education was of particular significance. The findings suggested graduate programs wi l l continue to be util ized and supported by law enforcement personnel. Also, the findings indicated law enforcement personnel desire criminal justice programs, rather than those of other disciplines. This finding is significant, given the d i f f i - culty criminal justice programs have experienced in ob- taining a secure position in the academic community (Adams, 1976; Fike, e t .a l . , 1977; Legins, 1970). I t indicates that i f higher education wishes to attract large numbers of

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students from the criminal jus t ice community, i t w i l l most l i ke l y be successful with criminal jus t ice curr icula--aca- demically sound, relevant, applied but not technical , and pragmatic. That this can be done without sac r i f i c ing aca- demic r igor is clear from the experience of other d isc i - plines (Adams, 1976; Misner, 1978) such as c l i n i ca l psycho- logy or business administrat ion. I t is reasonable to con- clude that univers i t ies and colleges a l locat ing resources to departments of criminal jus t ice w i l l receive a substan- t i a l return on the i r investment. Moreover, such an invest- ment can contribute s i gn i f i can t l y to the qual i ty of l i f e in our society. That i s , a f ter a l l , what higher education is suppose to be about.

Footnotes

1Early drafts of the paper were reviewed by Harry E. Allen and George Windholtz. Harry E. Allen has provided several valuable cr i t iques of th is project since i t s incept ion, addressing issues at both the empirical and the theoret ical levels. Special thanks are due to the police o f f icers who assisted with the study, to Scott Perry of the North Carolina Criminal Justice Training and Standards Council Staf f , who assisted with the sampling, and to Chief John Fairc loth, charasmatic Director of the Council who i n i t i a l l y proposed the study, and to Robert Lassi ter , Jr. Only the author is responsible for the f ina l dra f t .

2The 21-item scale, the survey data from phase 4, the scale development data from phase 3, the demographic character is- t ics of the sample, and a comparison of those character is t ics with those reported in Nicholas (1976), are avai lable to interested researchers. See NAPS document no. 03712 for 15 pages of supplementary material . Order from NAPS c/o Microfiche Publ icat ion, P. O. Box 3513, Grand Central Stat ion, New York, New York 10017.

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