EducationPerspectivesEducationPerspectives

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Education Perspectives

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Vol.4 No.1 January 2015

ISSN 2279-1450

Research and Development Branch Ministry of Education

Sri Lanka

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1,500 (2015) Savinda Graphic Systems (Pvt) Ltd

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Education Perspectives

Guidance: Mr. Upali Marasinghe Secretary, Ministry of Education Advisory Review Board: Dr. R. Senathiraja Dean, Faculty of Management, University of Colombo Prof. Marie Perera Senior Professor, Department of Humanities Education, Faculty of Education, University of Colombo Prof. M. Karunanithy Former, Department of Social Science Education, Faculty of Education, University of Colombo Dr. T. Kalamany Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Education, University of Jaffna Dr. G. Kodituwakku Former Deputy Director General, Faculty of Planning & Research, National Institute of Education Mrs. Kumudu Seneviratne Lecturer, Department of Science and Technology Education, Faculty of Education, University of Colombo Editor Ms. C.M.P.J. Tillakaratne Education Perspectives is a bi-annual publication and publish articles in English, Sinhala & Tamil. It is published by the Research and Development Branch of the Ministry of Education, Sri Lanka. The views expressed by the authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policies of the Ministry of Education. Copyright @ Ministry of Education, ‘Isurupaya’, Battaramulla. ISSN 2279-1450 It is a condition of publication that research articles submitted to this journal have not been published and will not be simultaneously submitted or published elsewhere. By submitting a manuscript authors agree that the copyright for their article is transferred to the publishers, if and when the article is accepted for publication. The copyright covers the exclusive right to reproduce and distribute the article, including reprints, photographic microforms or any other reproductions without permission in writing from the copyright holder. The editor invites feedback on papers published in this journal. All correspondence should be addressed to the Editor, Education Perspectives, Research and Development Branch, Ministry of Education, ‘Isurupaya’, Battaramulla or to the following e-mail address j.tillakaratne@moe.gov.lk and a copy to j.tillakaratne@gmail.com

Acknowledgement: The contribution & guidance given at all stages by Mr. Anura Dissanayake, former Secretary of Education is greatly acknowledged.

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Notes for Contributors

Research articles can now be submitted The Education Perspectives invites research articles and special issues on specific topics of interest to national audience of education. Articles of high quality educational research will be accepted. How are articles assessed? Articles are subject to a review process by a well-known panel of academics who are experts in their relevant field of education. Recommendation of the review board is a must for publication of the article. How should articles or papers be submitted? All submissions should be made via j.tillakaratne@moe.gov.lk and a copy to j.tillakaratne@gmail.com or through registered post to the following address: Editor Education Perspectives Research and Development Branch Ministry of Education ‘Isurupaya’ Battaramulla Guidelines for authors:

The article should not exceed 6000 words Abstract should be about 150 – 200 words There should be minor & major key words The article should include the following :

Introducing the problem / research background / nature rationale Literature review / theoretical and practical background A brief description of methodology The result of the study supported by relevant data Discussion of findings / Recommendations

Reference should be arranged in alphabetical order and conform to the style recommended by the American Psychological Association.

Avoid footnotes. If there are any, it should be separately numbered and added to the end.

Statistical tables should be included at appropriate places. Longer statistical tables should be numbered and given at the end as annexes.

Fonts to be used Sinhala-FM Malithi Tamil-Baamini English-Cambria

Calling articles for January 2016 issue: The deadline for articles for (Vol.5 No.1) will be on or before 30th September 2015.

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Education Perspectives

Contents Page No.

1. Summaries of Articles

2. Mapping Educational Specialist Knowhow (MESH): The Building of a knowledge management system for research informed practice Naomi Flynn(2), Larissa Mclean-Davies(3), Richard Procter(1), Sarah Younie(1) (1)De Montfort University, Leicester, UK (2)University of Winchester, UK (3) Melbourne University, Australia Corresponding Author: Sarah Younie, syounie@dmu.ac.uk

3. The Post-Development State, Education and Societal Development: Singapore’s Experience

Prof.S.Gopinathan, Adj.Prof, Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, Singapore. Edmand Lim, Teaching Fellow, National Institute of Education, Singapore.

4. Agents For social reproduction: The exponential growth of Sri Lankan International Schools Virandi Wettewa, PHD Candidate, University of Sydney, Sydney

5. The Impact of Teaching Methodologies on Soft Skills Development – A Study Based on Schools at Jaffna Zone Mrs. S. Srisundarajah, M.Phil. Research Student in Education, University of Jaffna, Jaffna Dr. (Mrs.) A. Sathiaseelan, Department of Education, University of Jaffna, Jaffna 6. Investigation of the factors affecting performances in Mathematics in G. C. E. (O/L) in the Ambagamuwa Educational Zone (Nuwara Eliya District –Tamil Medium) Sathasivam Amirthalingam, President, Jaffna National College of Education, Kopai 7. wOHdmkh flakaø lr .;a mr®fhaIK ixialD;shla tï' tï' fifkúr;ak" Y%S rdyq, cd;sl mdi," lgq.iaf;dg 8. tlf;F khfhzj;jpy; khztHfs; ,iltpyfy; Students Dropouts in Nothern Province Kadampeswaran Manimarrphan, Assistant Director of Education, PDE, Nothern Province,Jaffna “To Remember me……..”

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Summaries of articles

This volume, the articles could be categorized into four groups. 1. Research (3), methodology (2), education & development (1) and educational issues (1) –drop outs. The authors who have contributed to this journal have focused on four major areas that impact education. These address some of the critical aspects which educational authorities have been concerned about over the decades in their attempts to improve the quality aspects of teaching learning and the significance of education in development.

The articles on research reflect the importance of depth understanding of education through studies that are focused on educational development. Though research plays a critical role in development, in most other disciplines, its value is yet to be seen in the field of education in Sri Lanka. Although there are over hundreds of researches conducted for higher degrees, the impact of these studies have not been felt as it should be. Understanding the significance of research and finding of these research can make a significant positive difference, for the country as a whole. Due recognition should be given to research studies in education by the relevant authorities. Evaluations should be also considered as an important segment of research since it attempts to evaluate what has been done over a period and the need for orienting any shortfalls.

The invited article on “Mapping Educational Specialist Knowhow (MESH):” describes mapping educational specialist knowhow (MESH), an evaluative report on the development of the mesh guide project. These guides are research summaries for supporting teachers in developing evidence based practice. In this, writers present an overview of the MESH initiatives progress to date. In the United Kingdom, teachers should engage more actively with research and teachers should be well supported by online supporting materials that are evidence based. This initiative started based on the OECD report to suit transform and customize learning in schools for the 21st century. The original thinking started from the work of Leask, Jones, Proctor and Younie, who have been researching digital technologies for last 20 yrs. MESH guides (research summaries relevant to this particular context) is available and free access is granted for teachers & educators.

The invited article on “The Post-Development State, Education & Societal Development” describes how education directly contributes to economic development in Singapore by maintaining a skilled labor force. Singapore and its education system, one of the major success stories of post-colonial societies, where education is used as a primary vehicle for socio-economic transformation. The Singapore government have been proactive and strategic in promoting skills for future economic needs since 1965 and encouraging people to invest in themselves. Other than its strategic location, the government skill formation program has been the major reason for their economic success. Some of the studies have highlighted, the place Singapore has afford to the state, in economic activities, as opposed to the market. Education policy was used to align schooling to economic imperatives with a strong emphasis on developing human capital both the expansion of education opportunities and skills development were given priority. The

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article further describes the development of education via three phases (survival, efficiency & ability driven) align with the industrial development. The survival phase is from 1959 to 1978, the efficiency phase from 1979 to 1996, the ability phase from 1997 onwards. Singapore is widely accepted for its efficient economy, the government’s capacity to plan for long term events and to implement policies successfully as well as their commitment to run a corruption free administration. Some describe Singapore as the ‘Switzerland of Asia’. Today, their per capita income is around us $ 55,000 (World Bank).

The article on “Agents for Social Reproduction” explores rise of international schools, established under the company act and the alternate mode of private schooling option. This study brings out the government concerns and various stakeholder perspectives. The study used mixed method study, conducted in four contrasting international schools from four different provinces using deviant case sampling. Theoretical background is explored based on the works of Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital (social reproduction theory) as well as global identity formation.

The article on “ The Impact of Teaching Methodologies on Skills Development “ highlight the impact of teaching methodologies on soft skills development and the study based on schools in Jaffna zone. The study revealed with the exception of lecture method, the other methodologies such as discussion, team work, creativity, questioning, practical work had positive correlation with soft skills development. Soft skills development is inevitable to produce a productive workforce. The labor market requires highly talented workforce with soft skills. Therefore the education system is most responsible for inculcating those skills to fit the world of work. The study found that a large proportion of students enter the labor force without following any proper skills development program. Therefore specific training & skills development program to improve soft skills, team work, communication, leadership, problem solving and entrepreneurial ability of students, enables them to be high runners in the job market.

The article on “Investigation of the Factors Affecting Performances in Mathematical in G.C.E. (O/L)” examines the factors affecting student performance in mathematics in G.C.E. (O/L) in the Hatton educational zone, Nuwaraeliya district. The study identified four influential factors as variables in mathematic performance of students as follows. 1. Policy related-teacher appointment, student /teacher ratio & resource allocation 2. School related-teacher utilization, teacher allocation, supervision, and school based development program 3. Teacher related-commitment, planning, innovation, teaching methods and strategies 4. External-Supervision, seminars, workshops, evaluation and parent support. The study recommended education policy should be rectified to regularize supervision and feedback. Also it recommends the provision of continuous training programs for the teachers to improve efficiency of training of teaching mathematics.

The article on “A Qualitative Education Through Research Culture” describes the importance of maintaining a research culture in the education system. Research is

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defined as careful investigation to re understand or examine the facts or to search for new facts or to modify older ones in any branch of knowledge. Nevertheless, through research new inventions have been introduced to education, are not significant. Research is helpful to improve the existing situations at policy to school level. The writer highlight the importance of a national program for the development of quality education consolidating both theoretical and practical researches, at all levels of education.

The article on “Students Dropout in Northern Province” examines students’ dropouts, in the Northern Province. According to the writer, survival rate of the students from grade 1 to 9 is 71%, in the northern peninsula. The writer highlight if the relevant authorities do not take immediate action, large number of students will drop out from the system, even without completing the compulsory education. Therefore writer suggests in depth study on this, before facing a serious impact to the society.

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Mapping Educational Specialist knowhow (MESH): The Building of a Knowledge Management System for Research Informed Practice

Naomi Flynn (2), Larissa Mclean-Davies (3), Richard Procter (1), Sarah Younie(1)

(1) De Montfort University, Leicester, United Kingdom (2) University of Winchester, United Kingdom

(3) Melbourne University, Australia Corresponding author: Sarah Younie, syounie@dmu.ac.uk

Abstract

This invited article the authors present an evaluative report on the development of the MESHGuides project (http://www.meshguides.org/). MESHGuides’ objective is to provide education with an international knowledge management system. MESHGuides were conceived as research summaries for supporting teachers’ in developing evidence-based practice. Their aim is to enhance teachers’ capacity to engage actively with research in their own classrooms. The original thinking for MESH arose from the work of UK-based academics Professor Marilyn Leask and Dr Sarah Younie in response to a desire, which has recently gathered momentum in the UK, for the development of a more research-informed teaching profession and for the establishment of an on-line platform to support evidence-based practice (DfE, 2015; Leask and Younie 2001; OECD 2009). The focus of this article is on how the MESHGuides project was conceived and structured, the technical systems supporting it and the practical reality for academics and teachers of composing and using of MESH Guides. The project and the guides are in the early stages of development, and discussion indicates future possibilities for more global engagement with this knowledge management system.

Keywords: Educational knowledge management system, research engagement, online publishing, evidence informed practice, professional development

Introduction: Mapping Education Specialist knowhow (MESH) is an international project working to provide research summaries to teachers. MESH is part of a larger knowledge management strategy under the governance of Education Futures Collaboration (EFC), which is a charity and was set up by education sector organisations in the UK and internationally. The original thinking for MESH arose from the work of Leask, Jones, Procter and Younie, who have been researching the use of digital technologies to inform the teaching profession for the last 20 years. MESH addresses current concerns in the UK that teachers should engage more actively with research (BERA/RSA, 2014) and that in order to do this they should be well supported by online support materials that are evidence-based and research-informed (DfE, 2015, p. 18).

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The stimulus for the growth in interest in developing a research-informed teaching profession came from an OECD report identifying a need to transform and customise learning in schools for the twenty first century (OECD/CERI, 2007); the rationale being that teaching draws on the knowledge base of its own profession in order to develop self-improving enhancement of its own practices. The OECD report set a context for educational reform that embraces the notion of teachers who engage with research in order to make the best pedagogical choices they can in the classroom. In turn this demands that educationalists across the sector seek practical ways in which research can inform teaching, and how the knowledge-base that might support this is best presented (Leask & Younie, 2013). The rationale for MESHGuides (www.meshguides.org) is that it acts as an innovative tool for supporting knowledge-rich and evidence-informed teaching through the publication of on-line research summaries. These act as guides for teachers and other classroom practitioners seeking to support their teaching and potential classroom research. MESHGuides build on UK and international initiatives and research on how to harness the power of digital technologies to support teaching as an evidence-based profession and to develop teachers’ research skills (OECD 2009). In a number of countries early investments by governments in web-based repositories for teacher knowledge were lost when there was a change of government (Younie and Leask, 2013). This led to the realisation that an education-sector run organisation that was independent of government was needed to allow for the building and sharing of knowledge unconstrained by changes in government. In essence, MESHGuides is currently developing readily available and free access for teachers and educators to research summaries relevant to their particular context.

The development of MESH has involved considerable work at a strategic level, at a technical level and at the practical level of writing the guides since 2011. In this article we present an overview of the MESH initiative’s progress to date. The paper starts by identifying the problems of teachers accessing research data, followed by the complexities of developing systems for supporting the teaching workforce through digital technologies; next the paper considers the technical aspects of setting up an online publishing arena, followed by consideration of the composition of MESHGuides for two different areas of teaching and learning. We conclude with reflections on the strengths of the MESH approach for knowledge mobilisation (Levin, 2013) and we consider future global directions.

1. The management of MESH Guides’ content: editorial boards

The MESH Guides initiative provides a global knowledge management strategy through a website (www.meshguides.org) that can be accessed by teachers, researchers, policymakers and teacher educators. This provides online access to research summaries in education, which are free at the point of access. It uses a systems approach, designed to engage educators in building and updating the evidence base for practice. MESHGuides operate like a professional association with volunteers taking on leading

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roles in developing and quality assuring research summaries in their own specialist areas. It is designed to be managed as a professional association, managed by members, in order to ensure sustainability. MESHGuides does three things:

● Connecting educators with summaries and sources of educational research ● supporting professional judgement with evidence ● providing feedback loops so practitioners can inform academics fostering

partnership working The MESHGuides website enables research to be accessible at the touch of a button, as any Internet enabled device provides access to the guides, which act like knowledge maps. This means that the widespread uptake of mobile technologies will enable practitioners as well as academic researchers to connect to a large body of knowledge, in the form of previously published research, which can support their own professional practice and foster teachers as research-informed. MESHGuides provide a summary or overview of research, in any given topic or area, represented in the form of an online guide, which are like multimodal maps or pathways, or like a graphical flowchart; an example of a current MESHGuide currently in composition is that focused on the learning and teaching of English as an Additional Language which is explored later in this article (Figure 1). Figure 1: MESHGuide for Teaching English as an Additional Language The long term aim is to have a completed A to Z index, which covers all curriculum subjects and areas of educational interest, alongside key concepts and generic issues, such as assessment, pedagogy, Special Educational Needs (SEN), threshold concepts, barriers to learning and so on, so that the index is searchable by key term. The use of an A to Z index mirrors how the successful Map of Medicine is organised for the medical profession to access research evidence. The Map of Medicine is a freely available resource, which can be accessed to inform doctors, other healthcare professionals and patients of medical research and treatment options. The current organisation for the production of MESHGuides is by curriculum subject, with each subject having an editorial board of expert academics and teacher practitioners who review the guides once they have been written and submitted. The guides are then subject to blind peer review and an editorial process, which provides a quality assurance process that is the same as print publishing of educational research. Thus MESHGuides are a form of online publishing and are subject to editorial scrutiny prior to publication on the MESHGuides website. This approach utilises advances in web 2.0 technologies, which provide opportunities for collaborative knowledge building and publishing, and which are subject to the same

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quality assurance processes as print publishing. Specifically, these technologies enable professionals (academic researchers and teacher collaborators) to publish swiftly and easily, which alongside the development of online networks, enable future and further peer challenge of those very publications. This online peer challenge enables an ongoing interrogation of the research that is published, in a way that makes the knowledge-base dynamic, as comment boxes on the published MESHGuides allow the reader to provide feedback. Such interaction creates a dynamic feedback loop from collaborative creation of a MESHGuide to publishing online on the MESHGuide website to teachers engaging internationally with the research, and providing feedback on that research with respect to what works (or does not work) for them in their specific context. This feedback then informs the development of further research such that the knowledge-base builds over time for the teaching profession. These affordances of web 2.0 technologies, to publish and interact and give feedback can be done both effectively and efficiently with respect to both time and cost. This vision of creating translational research in education, which MESHGuides are developing, aims to extend and deepen teacher’s professional knowledge for practice. Currently, the MESHGuides have been accessed by 142 countries across the globe (Figure 2). Figure 2: Image from Google Analytics demonstrating the current reach of MESHGuides As already noted the MESHGuides are developed through subject specific editorial boards, which oversee each MESHGuide that is produced. This participatory process allows academic researchers to contribute to a range of guides within their area of expertise and to both network and interact with teacher practitioners in the same field. Thus collaboration is between researchers and teacher practitioners, who have a dynamic expertise between them, which links theory and practice and aims to end the perceived hermetically sealed circle, in which research resides behind a paywall of academic journals normally read almost solely by other academics. Such paywalls prevent teachers having their practice informed by research, unless they can access the research databases behind university libraries, which normally requires payment of course fees (Pearce et al., 2010). In contrast, the vision of the MESHGuides is to be free at point of access and provide an overview of educational research on a given topic with reference to previous published research, thereby mapping the terrain to inform teachers’ future practice and research. The rationale for adopting a web 2.0 technology to publish the MESHGuides as research summaries for teachers is about creating easy and free access to the research. Not only is the research that is published in journals lengthy to read and expensive, there is also the issue of the time delay between the data collection and final publication date. Pearce et al (2010) identify this as the 'journals crisis' (Edwards and Shulenburger, 2003; Willinsky, 2006; Cope and Kalantzis 2009; all cited in Pearce et al., 2010) in which they refer to long time delays between submission and publication, and the increasing subscription costs which culminate in an expensive model of publication. Significantly

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they discuss the business model for this traditional form of publishing and identify that the journal market in 2004 was worth $65 billion US dollars and was dominated by 12 publishing corporations. Thus, when it comes to making research accessible to practitioners, the business model ''restricts access to those working within the universities and research institutes that can afford to pay the subscriptions'' (Pearce et al., 2010, p38). MESHGuides founder members’ philosophical approach is one of democratic open access that engenders the notion of the 'open scholar'. The open scholar ''is someone who makes their intellectual projects and processes digitally visible and who invites and encourages ongoing criticism of their work and secondary uses of any or all parts of it - at any stage of its development'' (Burton 2009, cited in Pearce et al., 2010, p, 41). Our shared vision is one of 'open scholars' with a moral purpose to enhance teachers’ professional practice through access to the knowledge base that can lead to research-informed practice. 2. The systems and software for MESHGuides: technology

development,

The MESH Guides site has been through a number of developmental iterations and is using a Drupal instance (https://www.drupal.org) on our own servers as the current platform. Drupal is a free and open source content management framework written in PHP (a server-side scripting language designed for web development). This platform provides an excellent programming interface for developers, which allows the site to be modelled to the exact needs of the project. Drupal also has a good user management interface. This allows very fine-grained control over which roles can be set up for the various users and exactly which permissions can be set which allow users to edit and publish content on the site. This has an excellent fit with the model of editorial boards that the MESHGuides project uses and which was introduced above.

Editorial boards are open to both academics and practitioners to join as peer reviewers of guides once they have been submitted in draft. Practitioners are encouraged to review so that they can provide a practice-based perspective. Editorial boards facilitate the development of a professional dialogue between colleagues around practices within a field allowing for reflection on practices. Examples of these professional conversations can be seen further on in this article in the sections presenting early work with guides on clinical teaching and on teaching pupils with English as an additional language. Thus it is hoped that “lived examples of implementation” (Black and Wiliam, 1998, p.15) as practice can be developed and linked to the MESHGuides in composition.

Each editorial board has an editor account on the platform which allows the editorial board to edit their own MESHGuides and no others on the platform. The use of Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) to create images on the platform also allows editorial boards control over both the images to be used and the content to be displayed next to

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the image. Once an editorial board has finalised a MESHGuide it is passed on for final checks and proof reading before the guide can be published. At this point editorial boards may need to respond to any queries that may be raised in the final quality assurance process. Again the Drupal platform allows for all these roles to be added and the permissions to be set up for each role. This flexibility means that the publishing workflow of each MESHGuide can be replicated or changed on the platform by the site administration.

One issue of having a knowledge management project that is international is that editorial boards need to be aware of the international audiences for their work and thus editorial boards need to consider the contextual setting of their work. To this end, each editorial board has recruited members from across the world, and where possible, aims to have academic and practitioner representatives from each of the UNESCO regions, providing a global perspective. 3. Use of Google Analytics

Google Analytics (GA) has been used extensively on the MESHGuides site (Procter and Leask, 2014) to provide data as to the number of users the site has, where these users are accessing the site from and which guides they have a particular interest in. In the year April 2014 to April 2015 the MESHGuides main site (http://www.meshguides.org), which is used to disseminate information about the project and provide an index of the available guides, had been accessed overall by 7,201 unique users who have generated 25,983 page views in 10,031 sessions (Table 1). Table 1: Data on users of the MESHGuides website

Title Date Sessions Users Page views

MESHGuides site April, 2014 to April 2015

10,031 7,201 25,983

These data are based on users accessing the MESHGuides website for the project and do not include data on the usage of individual MESHGuides, this is covered in more detail below. GA also shows that in this time users of the MESHGuides website have come from 142 different countries including users based in Sri Lanka. Table 2 below shows the top ten countries that have accessed the MESHGuides website by number of sessions.

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Table 2: Top ten countries accessing the website by number of sessions

Country Sessions Percentage (%)

UK 4, 803 47.88

USA 1,275 12.71

Australia 984 9.81

Brazil 303 3.02

Pakistan 291 2.90

Canada 198 1.97

Philippines 169 1.68

India 132 1.32

New Zealand 132 1.32

Germany 83 0.83

It can be seen that the UK, USA and Australia occupy the top three positions but that four of the following five positions are occupied by the countries Brazil, Pakistan, Philippines, and India. This demonstrates that the format has appeal in countries where English may not be the first language and that the approach of MESHGuides has potential international appeal. MESHGuides as a knowledge management system for teachers is keen to support users in countries where access to and resources for educational research by teachers may be very limited. Of course this does not negate technical problems with access to web based resources but this method of publishing was selected to reduce the cost to the MESHGuides’ project in disseminating material. Equally the unique approach using both images and textual content, and linking to other resources on the web, lends itself to the use of the web for this project. This innovative methodology was developed by the MESHGuides project to disseminate research to the teaching profession internationally. Google Analytics also provides data on the number of sessions for individual guides. Table 3 below shows the top five guides that have been accessed in the last year. This provides some insight into which areas are of most interest to users.

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It can be seen in table 3 that the Spelling MESHGuide has been accessed by 851 unique users viewing 4,745 pages in 1,106 sessions. This is followed by the guide on the use of iPads in the classroom with 2,720 page views. Even MESHGuides that may have a limited appeal have generated over a thousand page views. GA allows more fine grained analysis of user's interaction with individual guides which has previously been carried out for example on the Spelling guide (Harrison, Leask, Procter and Younie, 2014). Overall these data show that international users (teacher practitioners and academic researchers) are interested in MESHGuides. The approach may be a useful way of disseminating research knowledge to an international audience and provide focus for continuing professional development (Jones, Procter and Younie, 2015, forthcoming). The above sections have highlighted both the moral purpose of providing research summaries to teachers as part of an international knowledge management strategy and the technical thinking that has been involved in the creation of the MESHGuides website. This includes the development of a network of academic and practitioner authors and reviewers who have come together to be involved in the process of generating research summaries for the global teaching profession. The following two sections discuss the practicalities of developing MESHGuides in the areas of clinical teaching and the teaching of pupils who have English as an additional language. Each vignette highlights the practical issues that are involved in the creation of a MESHGuide. Overall it can be seen that this form of publishing research is as complex and rigorous as writing for traditional print media and that it requires the same peer-review quality assurance process.

Table 3: The top five MESHGuides accessed 2014-15

Title Sessions Users Page views

Spelling 1,106 851 4,745

Using iPads 471 360 2,720

Mathematics and AfL 355 303 1,683

Neuromyths 260 180 1,484

Reluctant Writers 246 177 1,329

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4. An account of using MESH to develop a frame work for disseminating clinical teaching approaches

Clinical Teaching - a local and global concern The development of a MESH guide for clinical teaching has been initiated by academics involved in the pre-service Master of Teaching at The University of Melbourne, as part of a research project into the ways in which clinical approaches to teaching assist teachers to improve practice through the development of clinical professional judgement or reasoning (Kriewaldt and Turnidge 2013). Over the past decade, there has been increasing international interest in the concept of clinical teaching (Alter and Cogshall 2009). This approach, which appropriates concepts from medicine, has been used particularly with regard to the development of pre-service teacher preparation courses (Burn and Mutton 2013). While each of the programs differ, concepts such as a close partnership between the university and the site of practice (the school); sustained support on placement; and the development of professional, clinical judgement are some of the key attributes of these initiatives (McLean Davies et al, forthcoming), which can be broadly understood in the context of a ‘practicum turn’ in teacher education (Mattson et al 2011), and the desire to improve the quality of teacher preparation and the impact of pre-service teachers on student learning (Darling-Hammond and Baratz-Snowdon 2005; Darling-Hammond 2006). The following section will offer a brief account of the development of this MESH guide in the context of this project and the impact that, at this early stage, it has had on those working in the Master of Teaching program, particularly with regard to facilitating essential professional conversations about praxis. This will be followed by an outline of the ways in which the guide will be developed in the next stage of the clinical judgment project –through the involvement of school-based staff and teacher educators in other Australian states and overseas. By showing the ways in which the MESH Clinical Teaching guide is being created alongside the research and engagement agenda of those working in the Melbourne Graduate School, it is hoped that colleagues in Sri Lanka will see ways in which the development of guides stemming from a research and teaching agenda can be used to enhance practice locally and globally. The Clinical Teaching Project In 2013, a small group of staff involved in the Master of Teaching and related programs received internal funding for a project to support research into clinical teaching, and look particularly at the ways clinical judgement is developed through the clinical Master of Teaching Program at the University of Melbourne, which commenced in 2008. Those involved in the project—key program leaders and practicum coordinators across the primary and secondary streams of the Master of Teaching—constituted the project team. While some projects and scholarship had been undertaken with regard to the Master of Teaching (see Dinham 2013, Kriewaldt and Turnidge 2013, McLean Davies et

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al 2013, Redman 2013), this project represented a coordinated initiative to bring research associated with different aspects of the clinical program together. The new team was divided into three sub-groups: one working on a literature review of Clinical Teaching (which is in preparation for publication); a second group developing the MESH Guide on Clinical Teaching, drawing on the existing research and scholarship undertaken by team, and key learning from 7 years of the clinical partnership with schools; and a third group responsible for collecting qualitative data from Teacher Candidates, school-based staff and other key stakeholders on their understandings of clinical judgement. While it was initially thought that the MESH guide would be key part of the project, it has become clear that it is central to our intention of undertaking translational research (McLean Davies et al forthcoming) with a high impact on the practices of teachers and teacher education, and that it serves as a space for both disseminating and generating research. The Clinical Teaching MESH Guide: teacher educator professional learning and research

It is important to note that while groups one and two started at the same time, but were separate, they soon joined together, with the work on the literature review of clinical teaching informing the design of the MESH guide and vice-versa. Although the audience focus for MESHGuides is on their function once created and available to an international audience, we found as writers that the activity of putting together, debating and contesting a framework for the MESH guide assisted the project team to sharpen their understandings of Clinical Teaching research and praxis. This provided the opportunity for the necessary collegiate ‘nexus’ conversations that support teacher educator professional learning.

Debate and discussion over the framework for the MESH guide on Clinical Teaching took place from July – September 2014. During these fortnightly conversations, the academic team drew on the work done towards the literature review of clinical teaching, testing this against the philosophies and practices inherent in the Master of Teaching program to inform a robust design for the MESH guide, effectively coalescing research and ‘self-study’ in a way that furthered their own professional learning (Loughran, 2014). In September - December 2014 presentations at international conferences in the UK and Australia provided opportunities to receive feedback, which will be considered in further iterations of the guide. As we commence the next phase of the project, the MESHGuide framework will serve as a catalyst for conversations about Clinical Teaching with school-based staff and principals and early childhood centre directors. Critical conversations with these key school staff will further inform the development of guide, and the text and resources that sit behind the categories identified. In addition to this, the current editorial team will be expanded to include colleagues from other Australian and overseas institutions--such as the University of Glasgow, where clinical approaches to teacher education are also

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appropriated and employed (Conroy et al 2013; Menter et al 2012). As the Clinical Teaching MESHGuide is populated, modified and developed, it is anticipated that it will become a key resource for both pre-service teachers in clinical preparation programs, and for in-service teachers and school leaders as they consider the affordances of a clinical approach to teaching for the development of teachers’ professional judgement and pupils’ learning. 5. Developing a MESHGuide for the Teaching of English as an Additional Language

This section outlines the development of a MESHGuide for the teaching of English as an additional language (EAL) (Figure 1). Like the MESHGuide for Clinical Teaching it has been constructed in response to perceived need in the teaching profession. Understanding effective pedagogy for the teaching of EAL learners (children whose first language is not English) in schools in England has become an issue of growing importance in recent years because the number of pupils in the UK school system whose home language is not English has grown significantly: from 7.6% of the school population in 1997 to 16.2 % in 2013. Alongside this growth in the numbers of EAL learners is the acknowledgment that there is insufficient research from which teachers can identify effective pedagogy for teaching English to non-native speakers (Andrews, 2009; Murphy, 2015) and that funding that was traditionally in place to support their teaching has been reduced considerably (Strand, Malmberg and Hall, 2015). It is important to reflect on the fact that the linguistic and political context of the use of English in England is different from that in Sri Lanka. In England there is an assumption that pupils in school must speak English as a first language in order to succeed educationally, and bilingualism is uncommon among British-born native-speakers. Conversely Coperahewa (2009) explains that post-colonial Sri Lanka is a multilingual society with a plurality of major languages, where the place of English as the second language taught in schools has complex historical and political roots. The authors of MESHGuides work on the assumption that their publications will have an international reach, and that acknowledging differences in context for the teachers who may access the guides has a crucial part to play in their future success. Thus this paper focuses on early stage creation of the EAL MESHGuide with teachers in England but it is hoped that there will be an opportunity to work with colleagues in Sri Lanka to develop its use in a Sri Lankan context. The EAL MESH Guide structure and the role of participant teacher practitioners The aim of the EAL MESHGuide was to address the issues raised earlier; that is for teachers to access research summaries through the creation of an on-line MESHGuide for the teaching and learning of EAL that would support evidence-based practice (Levin, 2013). The composition process involved teachers informing the content from the ground up and evaluating it through small-scale action research. The Interviews prior to

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writing the guide, at the planning stage for the action research, and at the end of the project, provided feedback to inform the drafting and subsequent re-editing of content. It is intended that the MESHGuide will potentially serve teachers effectively because it was written as a collaborative act between practising teachers, specialist teacher advisors for the teaching of EAL and an academic with a research interest in the teaching and learning of EAL. This co-construction of content and collaborative knowledge creation is an essential feature of MESHGuide composition, which can be understood as communal constructivism (Leask and Younie, 2001). This potentially makes MESHGuides responsive to their audiences in ways that support knowledge mobilisation as a reality rather than an ambition. The participants in the project were two specialist teacher-advisors who co-authored the guide with the academic, and a group of teachers in schools in the south of England in an area that had recently experienced a rise in the numbers of EAL learners in school. There were six teachers and a learning support assistant from four primary schools (pupils age 4 – 11) one teacher and a learning support assistant from a large secondary school (pupils age 11 – 16 years). The teachers were selected for their experience teaching children with EAL and were identified as appropriate for the project by the teacher–advisors who had worked alongside them to support their EAL learners. A review of existing research into the teaching of EAL was undertaken by the co-authors in preparation for the research-basis supporting the MESH Guide’s content. In this way, early decisions about the research informing the guide mirrored those involved in the Clinical Teaching guide. Interviews were undertaken with the participants in order to identify what teachers might find most useful in terms of the guide’s content and its structure. The results of the literature search and the outcomes of the interviews were then combined to inform the drafting of the MESHGuide. Interim Project Outcomes of the EAL MESHGuide At the point of writing this article the EAL MESHGuide is still under trial by the participants in the project, but the outcomes of the initial interviews with them, and the subsequent design of the MESHGuide are reported here. Coding of the initial interviews revealed some key themes in terms of what teachers would find potentially valuable in guidance for EAL teaching that is published in an on-line MESHGuide, and these were: That guidance should reflect current features of the curriculum for English

(which in England means a particular focus on the teaching of phonics and grammar)

That guidance should present teachers with research in an accessible way that is matched to practical examples

That the guide should lead teachers to well-regarded, web-based resources which the authors endorse

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That the guide reflects the needs and curriculum content of EAL learners of different ages, of different languages, of different levels of fluency and at different stages in their education.

In reflecting on the interviews the co-authors devised a structure that took account of teachers’ requirements and which also reflected our agreed principles from research (this draft structure is presented at Figure 1). In order to make research accessible we chose to present introductory sections making clear the key findings that support classroom practice for EAL learners so that we could make links to these in the later sections, thus giving the MESHGuide some coherence in its design and in its core messages for teachers. In responding to teachers’ requests that the MESHGuide represent children learning English at different ages and stages we focussed on children’s different levels of fluency in English. In this way sections of the MESHGuide could be used to support teachers with children of any age because English fluency is the starting point for planning support rather than the nature of the curriculum which in England is specified centrally for each phase of education. Section content blends accessible summaries of research with links to practical activities, often on other websites that the co-authors endorse. The co-authors met some challenges in creating the MESHGuide for EAL, in particular, how to make research accessible to busy teachers and how to provide information that was succinct and yet could adequately inform both classroom practice and potential classroom research. The initial pilot version of the MESHGuide therefore contains information presented in different ways for teachers in order that we can draw on their feedback to revise and redraft towards final publication on the MESHGuide website. Perhaps most interesting as an outcome for the authors, and an outcome shared with the authors of the Clinical Teaching MESHGuide, was the opportunity to reflect on what really matters in terms of teachers’ subject knowledge for teaching EAL learners. We look forward to dialogue with other practitioners on how a MESHGuide supports this professional analysis of what works in the classroom. Furthermore we invite academics and teachers in other countries to take part in our research which will inform the EAL MESH Guide’s future content, indicate how the guide might look different for teachers in different countries, and support teachers globally in action research to improve their practice for EAL teaching. 6. Conclusions and future plans for MESH as a global knowledge

mobilisation initiative This review of MESHGuides development to date demonstrates the potential for MESHGuides to provide a unique public space between subject experts, academics and classroom practitioners. Furthermore, to produce research summaries and resources that are based on the best evidence available from both research and from practice. Thus MESHGuides aim to reduce the distance between theory and practice in the field of education. Although examples presented above have involved teachers and academics

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working face-to-face, other editorial boards developing MESHGuides have an international make up and thus types of interactions around guides are carried out through online tools such as Skype and Google Hangouts. Thus teachers and academics internationally are able to contribute to guides beyond the limits of their own face-to-face networks (Procter, 2014). For Sri Lanka, involvement in the MESHGuides knowledge management project would facilitate the vision outlined by Chinthana (2010 p. 72), in which he states that Sri Lanka can be transformed to be the 'Pearl of the Asian Silk Route once again, in modern terms... [to] develop our motherland as a ... Knowledge Hub, serving as a key link between the East and the West.' Whereby, most importantly, “the education system should not be focused on the next ten years but should be focused on the next century (Mahinda Chinthana 2010 p. 72)”. MESHGuides have potential use as a dynamic resource for continuing professional development; allowing for inter-professional dialogue around the development of improvements in and understanding of what matters in teachers' practices. Most importantly, as the OECD (2009) highlights, the teaching profession needs to actively engage with its own knowledge base in order to create a self-improving system that knows the efficacy of its own practices; MESHGuides expedite the realisation of this vision. Acknowledgments The Education Futures Collaboration (EFC) was set up in July 2010 by Marilyn Leask, Sarah Jones, Richard Procter and Sarah Younie, who went on to establish the Education Communities platform in August 2010, the MESHGuides initiative and RaDaR groups in 2011, which are all governed by the EFC. The EFC has been further developed since June 2012 through the support of founder universities, subject associations and other partners, and was awarded charity status in 2014. Founder members can be viewed here: http://www.meshguides.org/sponsors/. The production of this research paper, was carried out voluntarily by the authors. Larissa McLean Davies wishes to acknowledge the contributions of the following Melbourne Graduate School of Education colleagues in phase one of the Clinical Teaching project: Daniela Acquaro, Babak Dadvand , Nicky Dulfer, Jeana Kriewaldt, Christine Redman, Suzanne Rice and Glenn Savage. Naomi Flynn wishes to acknowledge the work of her co-authors Sarah Coles and Chris Pim of Hampshire’s Ethnic Minority and Traveller Achievement Service in constructing the MESHGuide for EAL.

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REFERENCES Alter, J. and J. Coggshall. 2009. Teaching as a clinical practice profession: implications for teacher preparation and State policy. New York: New York Comprehensive Center and National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality. Andrews, R. (2009). Review of research in English as an Additional Language (EAL). London: Insititute of Education/TDA BERA/RSA. (2014). Research And The Teaching Profession: Building The Capacity For A Self-Improving Education System, Final Report Of The BERA-RSA Inquiry Into The Role Of Research In Teacher Education. London. Black, P. and Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the Black Box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. London: School of Education, King's College London. Burn, K., and Mutton, T. 2013. Review of Research Informed Clinical Practice in Initial Teacher Education. British Education Research Association (BERA). http://www.bera.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/BERA-Paper-4-Research-informed-clinical-practice.pdf Conroy, J., M. Hulme and I. Menter. 2013. ‘Developing a ‘clinical’ model for teacher education’. Journal of Education for Teaching: International research and pedagogy 39(5): 557-573. Coperahewa, S. (2009). ‘The language planning situation in Sri Lanka’. Current Issues in Language Planning, 10(1), 69 – 150. Chinthana, M. (2010) Vision for the Future: the development policy framework, Government of Sri Lanka. DfE. (2015). A World Class Teaching Profession: Government Response. Sheffield: Department for Education. Darling-Hammond, L. and J. Baratz-Snowden. 2005. A Good Teacher in Every Classroom: Preparing the Highly Qualified Teachers our Children Deserve. San Francisco: John Wiley and Sons. Darling-Hammond, L. 2006. ‘Constructing 21st-century teacher education’. Journal of Teacher Education 57(3): 300-314. Dinham, S. 2013. ‘Connecting clinical teaching practice with instructional leadership’. Australian Journal of Education 57(3): 225-236.

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Drupal is open source software maintained and developed by a community of over 1,000,000 users and developers. Available from https://www.drupal.org, (accessed 21.05.15) Harrison, C., Leask, M., Procter, R. and Younie, S. (2014). ‘Evaluating a resource for online teacher professional development across four continents: the MESH Guide to Spelling’. Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research as part of the symposium, 'Technology Enhanced Learning: Focusing on the teacher', September 2014, Porto. Kriewaldt, J. and D Turnidge. 2013. ‘Conceptualising An Approach To Clinical Reasoning In The Education Profession.’ Australian Journal of Teacher Education 38(6):102-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2013v38n6.9 Leask, M. & Younie, S. (2013). ‘National models for continuing professional development: the challenges of twenty-first-century knowledge management’. Professional Development in Education, 39(2), 273-287. Leask, M., and Younie, S. (2001) ‘Communal Constructivist Theory: pedagogy of information and communications technology & internationalisation of the curriculum’, Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, Vol. 10, Nos 1 & 2, pp117 –134. Levin, B. 2013. ‘To know is not enough: research knowledge and its use.’ Review of Education, 1 (1): 2-31. doi: 10.1002/rev3.3001 Loughran, J. 2014. ‘Professionally Developing as a Teacher Educator’. Journal of Teacher Education 65(4) 271-283. Mattson, M., T.V. Eilertson, and D. Rorrison, eds. 2011. A Practicum Turn in Teacher Education. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. McLean Davies, L., Dickson, B., Rickards, F., Dinham, S., Conroy, J., Davis, R., (forthcoming – accepted February 2015). ‘Teaching as a clinical profession: translational practices in initial teacher education – an international perspective’. Journal of Education for Teaching: International research and pedagogy.

McLean Davies, L., M. Anderson, J. Deans, S. Dinham, P. Griffin, B. Kameniar, J. Page, C.Reid, F.Rickards, C.Tayler and D. Tyler 2013. ‘Masterly preparation: Embedding clinical practice in a graduate pre-service teacher education programme’. Journal of Education for Teaching: International research and pedagogy 39 (1): 93-106. Menter, I., V. Baumfield, M. Carroll, B. Dickson, M. Hulme, K. Lowden, and W. Mallon. 2012. Glasgow West Teacher Education Initiative Evaluation Report. Glasgow: University of Glasgow.

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MESH provides a sustainable system using resources already in the education system to generate, quality assure and update evidence-based summaries written for educators. Available from http://www.meshguides.org/ (accessed 21.05.15) Murphy, V. (2015). A systematic review of intervention research examining English language and literacy development in children with English as an Additional Language (EAL). Oxford: University of Oxford Department of Education. OECD. (2009). Creating Effective Teaching and Learning Environments: First results from Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) Paris: Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development. Paris: OECD Publishing. OECD/CERI. (2007). Evidence in Education: Linking Research and Policy. Paris: OECD Publishing. Pearce, N., Weller, M., Scanlon, E. And Ashleigh, M. (2010) 'Digital Scholarship Considered: How New Technologies Can Transform Academic Work', in education,16 (1): 33- 44. Procter, R. (2014). Teaching as an evidence informed profession: knowledge mobilisation with a focus on digital technology. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, University of Bedfordshire. Procter, R. and Leask, M. (2014). 'Translational Research and Knowledge Mobilisation in action – Educators' responses to MESH Guides'. Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association conference as part of the symposium, 'Translational Research and Knowledge Mobilisation - strategies from the Campbell Collaboration and MESH (Mobilising, Managing and Mapping Educational Specialist knowhow)', September 2014, London. Redman, C. 2014. ‘The Melbourne Graduate School of Education Master of Teaching: A Clinical Practice Model.’ In Successful Teacher Education: Partnerships, Reflective Practice and the Place of Technology edited by M. Jones & J. Ryan, 11-30. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Strand, S. (2015). English as an Additional Language (EAL) and educational achievement in England: An analysis of the National Pupil Database. Oxford: University of Oxford Department of Education. Younie, S. and Leask, M. (2013) Teaching with Technologies: The Essential Guide, Maidenhead: Open University Press.

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23

The Post-Developmental State, Education and Societal Development: Singapore’s Experience

S. Gopinathan

Adj.Prof, Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, Singapore.

Edmund Lim Teaching Fellow, National Institute of Education, Singapore.

Email: s_gopinathan@ymail.com

Singapore and its education system are justly regarded as one of the major success stories of post-colonial societies using education as a primary vehicle of socio-economic transformation. It has little to start with, neither in 1945 when World War II ended and the decolonization process started, nor in 1965 when it became independent following failure of merger with Malaysia. The fifties and sixties were challenging years. Singapore was poor, with no natural resources or advantages save a good location on a trade route through the Straits of Malacca linking East and West, a smallish port economy and proficiency in English amongst a small number of inhabitants. The population was ethnically diverse and there were tensions between English-educated elite supportive of the colonial power and the non-English educated (Gopinathan, 1974, 2007). The education system mirrored this ethnic diversity. The system was a four media of instruction system. On the mainland, a Communist-led insurgency threatened the newly independent state of Malaya. Chinese-medium students in Singapore were influenced and radicalized by Communist ideology and the island was wracked by riots, communal tension and strikes. When merger was proclaimed in 1965, Indonesia labelled it a colonial plot and threatened retaliation. The prevailing political wisdom of the time was that Singapore had to merge with Malaya to be a viable state and to lessen ethnic tensions. The merger (1963-1965) failed due to differences in political ideologies and how to solve problems of development. The Malaysian elite chose a race-based approach with affirmative action for the Malays as central to its policies while Singapore chose a meritocratic model. The challenge for Singapore in 1965 was to build a viable state based on equality of opportunity, meritocracy and to prioritize economic development to grow the economy in order to build needed infrastructure- housing, education, health, transportation network etc. The schooling and training system had to enhance the human capital available and through school-based socialization enhance social cohesion via understanding and appreciation of differences and to build strong attachments to state and nation and to the vision of equality and progress the state embodied. Before we begin on accounting of the education policies that contributed to Singapore’s transformation, we need a framework to understand socio-economic transformation. Singapore shares similarities with South Korea and Taiwan in post-war socio-economic transformation. In 1993 the World Bank issued The East Asian Miracle: Economic

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Growth and Public Policy seeking to explain this transformation. This had been preceded by A. Amsden’s Asia’s Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialisation (1989). This was followed by Appelbaum and Anderson’s States and Development in the Asia Pacific Rim. What these studies have in common is the place they afford the state (as opposed to the market) in economic activity. As developmental states have relative autonomy from vested interests, they are able to harness markets to serve their needs, support industries deemed to be essential to economic transformation, among other policies. Education policy was used to align schooling to economic imperatives with a strong emphasis on developing human capital; both expansion of education opportunity and skills development were given priority. This paper seeks to chart the development of Singapore education via four phases, paying particular attention to Singapore’s education responses to the challenges of globalisation. The three phases are the survival phase from 1959 to 1978, the efficiency phase from 1979 to 1996, the ability phase from 1997 onwards. A major reason for Singapore’s success in moving away from a low-skill, low-wage economy was the government’s pragmatic (as opposed to an ideological) orientation to policy, and ability to move quickly and decisively. Impending challenges were seen as opportunities (Goh & Gopinathan, 2008). Survival Phase In the survival phase, the focus was on educating each child till at least primary school. Schools were rapidly built and teachers were employed and trained. The need to develop a high quality education system to boost economic competitiveness and social cohesion was recognised. English was used as the medium of instruction. The first Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Kuan Yew (2011) stated, “I knew English would give us the best entrée into the developed world: America, Britain, Canada and New Zealand, probably large parts of Europe because their companies would use English. And the Japanese coming here would use English. So it gave us the best advantage.” Bilingualism was also implemented in schools so all students would also learn their mother tongue languages. Mr Lee said, “If we were monolingual in our mother tongues, we would not make a living. Becoming monolingual in English would have been a setback. We would have lost our cultural identity, that quiet confidence about ourselves and our place in the world.” (Lee, 1998). Bilingualism continuous to be a major component in the Singapore education system providing a common language for local and international communication, as well as social cohesion, while enabling the students to stay rooted to their ethnic cultures through their mother tongue languages. The People Action Party’s 1959 Election Manifesto identified industrialization as the key economic approach to modernization. As those were no industries to nationalise, large western multinationals were welcomed, and an export-oriented industrialising strategy was adopted. Proficiency in English was vital to this effort. The education system

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became oriented towards economic and national development purposes. Efforts were made to enhance various aspects of education, including vocational, technical and industrial training. For instance, the National Industrial Training Council was set up in 1968. In 1969, the Faculty of Engineering was established at the University of Singapore. More vocational institutes were established. The Singapore Polytechnic also increased its enrolment of students significantly from 2,642 in 1966 to 8337 in 1980. In the 1960s, another post-secondary institution was the Ngee Ann Technical College which later became Ngee Ann Polytechnic. In 1970, Nanyang University and the University of Singapore merged to become the leading National University of Education (Law, 2008). Efficiency Phase The efficiency driven phase began in 1979. The requirement for schools to be bilingual imposed great demands on students for neither English nor Mandarin, the Mother Tongue for the Chinese was spoken at home. Curriculum demands were unrealistically high and teachers were unable to provide the differentiated instruction that was required. The result was semi-lingualism and high attrition. As the industrialisation strategy was at risk, a radical policy initiative, ability based streaming, was introduced. The panic over failings in the system soon dissipated. By the mid eighties’, Singapore had sorted out its issues. A continuing emphasis on talent identification and development led to the introduction of a Gifted Education Programme in some primary schools in 1983 and 1991 respectively. Stellar economic growth provided resources and justification for further investment in education. Two additional polytechnics were established in the1990s, as were Nanyang Technological University and the Singapore Management University. Singapore was careful not to expand university education too quickly, investing instead in high quality and industry relevant technical education. By the end of the 1990s Singapore had developed a ‘bridges and ladders’ system of education provision. This ensured that while the system was a tracked one, ample opportunities existed for transfers and upgrading. Just as Singapore had succeeded in mastering the industrial economy and built a well aligned education and training system, it had to respond to the advent of globalisation. Other countries in Southeast Asia had enormous potential to compete, given large populations and natural resources; their low-skill, low-wage economies could undercut Singapore. Singapore had no choice but to seek to ride up the value chain by working the education and training system one more suited to a more global and knowledge based economy. Ability Driven Education It did this by adopting some neo-liberal prescriptions for education (Mok& Tan, 2004). The system was seen as overly standardised and centrally controlled thus denying the system variety and flexibility. The independent schools (government schools with autonomy) initiative was both a step towards decentralisation and a continuing

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emphasis on talent identification and development. These schools were the crème de la crème of the system, they were not privatised. Entry was highly selective, open only to be academic best. Further policies followed in the 90s with an emphasis on competition and choice. A school ranking system was introduced and niche schools e.g. schools emphasising sports, performing arts, science and mathematics, science and technology, etc. were established. This deliberate effort towards diversification was justified on the grounds that under conditions of globalisation, a wider definition of ability was required and that the system’s preoccupation with academic ability hindered the promotion of creativity, problem solving and other 21 century competencies. In 1997, Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong unveiled the Thinking School Learning Nation policy and initiative, signalling the start of the ability driven phase. This was primarily an effort to change pedagogy. The four main focus areas were critical and creative thinking, use of information technology in education, national or citizenship education and administrative excellence. MOE sought to develop an education system that prepared the young for the knowledge economy, by developing innovation and creativity. It sought to recognize, develop and reward a variety of talents, as well as to offer a range of choices and pathways for students (Hogan & Gopinathan, 2008). The specific initiatives included the integration of thinking skills into the curriculum and lessons and introduction of interdisciplinary project work. To enhance school leadership, autonomy and support, the school cluster system was introduced. Teachers were given an entitlement of 100 hours of training a year. School leaders were provided additional leadership training to help them lead their schools as learning organizations. There were substantial investments made into the use of IT in schools and various lessons. Discussion Education in the Post-Developmental State The 2011 OECD correctly pointed out the factors that contributed to the successful education system in Singapore. 1) A forward-looking, integrated planning system. 2) Close links between policy implementers, researchers and educators. 3) Policies with the means to implement them. 4) The advantages of small scale. 5) Commitment to equity and merit. 6) A strong focus on mathematics, science and technical skills. 7) Human resource management which matches the system demands. 8) A system which is continuously being improved. It could be argued that Singapore’s societal and educational development has to a large extent been progressive and beneficial. Singapore today is a high income country with a per capita GDP of some US$55,000 (World Bank). It is widely admired for its efficient

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economy, the government’s capacity to plan for long term and to implement policies successfully, as well as commitment to run a corruption-free administration. Its citizens are well-housed and well-educated. It could be regarded as the ‘Switzerland of Asia’. Education development too has been impressive. A very high proportion of students complete 10 years of education and over 75% are in some form of post-secondary education. Its universities are world class as are its technical institutions and polytechnics. In international comparisons in TIMSS, PISA and PIRLS, Singapore students invariably rank in the top 5. The key question facing the developmental state is whether it can survive the onslaught of globalisation. Globalisation expanded the reach of big corporations, allowed for greater mobility of capital and talent and for a greater variety of public goods like education to be tradable. Though the Singapore economy had always been an open one, globalisation forced it to be even freer and pressure increased on the state to be less dominant and directive. Indeed, the soft authoritarian Singapore state had now to contend with a growing and well educated middle-class with the democratisation of information weakening the power of the dominant technocratic class of politicians and bureaucracy to dictate policy. Growing prosperity led to declines in the birth rate, necessitating expansion of migrant labour. This in turn led to both an increase in income inequality and growing concern over increasing diversity. The middle class is still aspirational but increasingly restive and there are calls for greater consultation, transparency and a strengthening of the social safety net. This discomfort which resulted in the worst electoral showing by the dominant People’s Action Party in 2011 suggests a desire for greater democratisation. Today, Singaporeans are anxious and uncertain. As one of the world’s most open economies, it is vulnerable to global economic shifts. With a small population base, it has had to welcome migrants but this caused discontent among some citizens. The middle class is well educated but anxious about economic opportunities for its children. As with many other developed economies, Singapore has had to grapple with increases in income inequality and concerns that social mobility has slowed (Ng, 2015). Concerns over religion-based radicalization have also contributed to feelings of insecurity. The key education policy responses seem principally to be designed to address the issue of inequality. Though the achievement gaps between the three dominant ethnic groups have declined, the Malay-Muslim community is still underperforming, over-represented at the technical colleges and under represented at the universities (Tan, 1997). The government has now recognised the value of early intervention and has invested quickly in improving provision and quality. It has also expanded the scope of financial provision for needy students. Another initiative has been to increase places in universities, the government had long insisted that universities had to be high quality institutions and that an industrialising economy required a steady supply of high quality middle level manpower, best provided via technical institutes and polytechnics. But existing differentials in status and income between diploma and degree holders led many diploma holders to seek upgrading opportunities at their own cost, creating resentment

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in a policy U-turn the government has now increased university provision to 40% of the cohort, up from around 28% now. The education responses suggest that while the directive power of the state has weakened somewhat, it is by no means the case that the state has lost legitimacy or capacity. This is partly due to the state’s proven capacity to manage the economy well, to significantly raise living standards, to be prudent and able to accumulate large surpluses, to remain true to its principles of meritocracy, pragmatism and multiculturalism. Given the deep ethno-linguistic divisions that prevailed in 1965, the strengthening of social cohesion is a major achievement. Selected References Amsden, A. (1989). Asia’s Next Giant: South Korea and Late Decentralisation. New York:

Oxford University Press. Appelbaum, R.P., & Henderson, J. (Eds.). (1992). States and Development in the Asia

Pacific Rim. London: Sage. Goh, C.B., & Gopinathan, S. (2008). The Development of Education since 1965. In Lee S.K.,

et al. (Eds.), Toward a Better Future: Education and Training for Economic Development in Singapore since 1965(pp. 12-38). Washington D.C.: Wold Bank

Gopinathan, S. (1974). Towards a National System of Education in Singapore. Singapore: Oxford University Press.

Gopinathan, S. (1998). Language policy changes, 1979-1997: Politics and pedagogy. In Language, Society and Education in Singapore: Issues and Trends 2nd ed., S. Gopinathan et al (eds.), 19-44. Singapore: Times Academic Press.

Gopinathan, S. (2007). Globalisation, the Singapore Developmental State and Education Policy: A Thesis Revisited. Globalisation, societies and education, 5(1), 53-70.

Hogan, D., & Gopinathan, S. (2008). Knowledge management, sustainable innovation, and pre-service teacher education in Singapore. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice,14(4), 369-384.

Law, S.S. (2008). Vocational technical education and economic development-- The Singapore experience. In Lee S.K., et al. (Eds.), Toward a Better Future: Education and Training for Economic Development in Singapore since 1965(pp. 114-134). Washington D.C.: Wold Bank

Lee, K.Y. (1998). The Singapore Story: Memoirs of Lee Kuan Yew. Singapore: Prentice Hall. Low, L. (2001). The Singapore Developmental State in the New Economy and Polity. The

Pacific Review 14(3) 411-441. Mok, K.H.,& Tan, J. (2004). Globalisation and Marketisation in Education: A comparative

analysis of Hong Kong and Singapore. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. Ng, I. (2015). Education and social mobility. InFaizal bin Yahya (Ed.),Inequality in

Singapore (pp. 25-50). Singapore: Institute of Policy Studies; Wold Scientific. OECD. (2011). Strong Performers and Successful Reformers in Education: Lessons from

PISA for the United States. Paris: OECD Publishing.

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“Shaping our Future: Thinking Schools, Learning Nation”, Speech by Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong at the opening of the 7th International Conference on Thinking 2 June 1997, Singapore.

Tan, J. (1997). Improving Malay Educational Achievement in Singapore: Problems and Policies. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 17(1), 41-57.

World Bank. (1993). The East Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public Policy. New York: Oxford University Press.

Authors Professor S. Gopinathan obtained his doctorate in comparative higher education and education policy at SUNY, Buffalo, United States. He is currently Adjunct Professor at the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore. He served as the Dean of the School of Education (Mar 1994 till June 2000) and was the former Dean of Initial Teacher Training (July 2000 till June 2003). In this role he oversaw the development and implementation of a BA/BSc (Education) program as well as having responsibility for departments involved in leadership preparation, early childhood and special needs education, and ICT. In 2003, he helped NIE establish a centre for Research in Pedagogy and Practice. He has served on various MOE review committees and was a resource specialist for the government parliamentary committee on education, as a consultant for the Singapore’ teachers union, and a board member of the Singapore examination and assessment board. He was also involved in setting up the Singapore Centre for Teaching Thinking, the Principals Executive Centre and is also a founder member of the Educational Research Association of Singapore. His research interests span teacher education, higher education, values and citizenship education and education development. He is founding editor of the Singapore Journal of Education, serves on the International Advisory Board of the Asia Pacific Journal of Education, and co-edits the Routledge Critical Studies in Asian Education. He was involved in projects to establish teacher training facilities in Abu Dhabi, in Bahrain and in Indonesia. He has consulted widely on policy development for educational excellence with the World Bank, Unesco, Unicef, the Arab League etc. and is acknowledged internationally as an expert on Singapore’s educational development. Edmund Lim, teaching fellow at the National Institute of Education, Singapore.

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Agents for social reproduction: the exponential growth of Sri Lankan International Schools.

Virandi Wettewa

BA (Hons) (Human Geography), Southampton. M.Dvst (Development Studies), Sydney.

PhD Candidate, Sydney virandi.wettewa@sydney.edu.au

Abstract This study looks at the rise of Sri Lankan international schools as a non-governed alternate mode of private schooling option. The research attempts to bring into light some of the government concerns as well as the various stakeholder consternations via a mixed method study conducted in four contrasting international schools. The study outlines the reasons behind international school popularity and unpacks some of the anxieties that this education system has given rise to in recent times. The theoretical basis lies on Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital as well as global identity formation; the verdict being that English proficiency and foreign credentials allow for a competitive edge in neo-liberal times yet grounding oneself in the local culture is of paramount importance if education is to be truly international. Major Keywords: Sri Lankan International Schools, School Choice, Private Education, English Education and Cultural Capital Minor Keywords: Globalization, Fourth Culture Kids and Global Identity Formation Introduction Postcolonial Sri Lanka endorses a free education system that paves opportunity for all students, regardless of their socio-economic background to receive creditable education right up to tertiary level. Prior to independence, the dual schooling system of limited free education in the vernacular languages versus adequate private English medium education for an elite minority perpetuated social stratification and gave rise to a class of Sri Lankans that were academically as well as culturally distant from the majority. Private schools as well as English medium education started by Christian missionaries during British rule were thus seen to evoke colonial pro-elitist sentiments and symbolize a driving force for social classification.In 1961, stemming from this postcolonial emotionalism was a legal action to ban the establishment of any new private schools in the country. Since then however, there has been a profusion of institutions claiming to be ‘International Schools’. These schools exist within a loophole in the legal framework, established under the ‘Company’s Act’ and welcome students from all linguistic backgrounds to study foreign curriculums in the English medium so

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long as they can afford the high fees that are being levied. Unlike most international schools elsewhere in the world, the majority of students attending these international schools are Sri Lankans themselves and therefore require greater scrutiny from the nation in order to ensure that the education they receive is both globally and locally prudent. Theoretical Background: Bourdieu’s concept of Cultural Capital and Social Reproduction Theory One research paradigm that is explored in this study stems from the works of Pierre Bourdieu. The research attempts to disclose how Sri Lankan international schools function as agents for social reproduction where the possession of international qualifications or the acquisition of advanced English language skills serves as forms of cultural capital that grant international school students a competitive edge over their national school counterparts. While all individuals already possess a degree of cultural capital, the international school environment helps accentuate these traits. Moreover, attending these schools provide students with access to specialist social networks whereby they can profit from their heightened social capital. Ultimately, hence, international schools act as a newer mode of class indicator by giving rise to a dichotomy between those that receive a global education within these schools versus those left behind in a schooling system restricted to the national sphere. Cultural Capital Cultural capital, as described by Mohr and DiMaggio (1995) refers to proficiency with certain dominant cultural practices such as the ability to converse fluently in a global language. Cultural capital furthermore is "institutionalized as legitimate and valuable at the societal level". Researchers have given cultural capital various and sometimes contradictory meanings. DiMaggio and Useem (1978) view it as the possession of knowledge on high culture; Robinson (1985) sees it as the possession of educational attainment and Cookson and Persell (1991)see it as having access to the curriculum of elite schools. However the most significant point is that cultural capital helps us understand how social stratification is maintained. By attending an international school in Sri Lanka, the students are able to obtain foreign qualifications and associate a wealthy social class that can afford high school fees and possibly have access to social networks that the local school student may not be privy to. Lareau and Lamont (1988:156) summarizes Bourdieu’s various studies; Inheritors (P. Bourdieu & Passeron, 1979)Reproduction(P. Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977) Distinction (P. Bourdieu, 1984) and Les Strategies de Reconversion (P. Bourdieu, 1977) by stating that for Bourdieu, ‘cultural capital is alternatively an informal academic standard, a class attribute, a basis for social selection and a resource for power which is salient as an incubator basis of class position’.

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Social Capital Social capital on the other hand, comprises of “the power and resources that accrue to individuals or groups by virtue of their social networks and contacts” (Painter, 2000, p. 243). Bourdieu (1993) defines social capital in terms of tokens in a game of Bridge. When individuals enter the education system, they already possess a certain amount of cultural capital with them. Getting an international education therefore implies a higher level of social and cultural capital that gives them a competitive edge. Moreover, social reproduction theory implies that parents’ social and cultural capital has strong correlations with the type of cultural capital that the children possess. ‘Capital apprehended instantaneously is a product of history that will produce more history…those who have a lot of red tokens and a few yellow ones, that is, a lot of economic capital and little social capital will not play in the same way in as those with many yellow tokens and few red ones. The bigger their pile the more audacious they can be (bluff) and the more yellow tokens (cultural capital) they have, the more they will stake on the yellow squares (education system) (Bourdieu 1993: 34). Language is one such form of cultural capital that plays a vital role in the Sri Lankan International school system. Its use extends beyond being merely a tool for communication to encompass power through which people are able to frame their future. As Bourdieu (1993:80) notes, ‘Linguistic capital is power over the mechanisms of linguistic price formation, the power to make the laws of price formation operate to one’s advantage and to extract the specific surplus value. Every act of interaction, every linguistic communication, even between two people, two friends, a boy and girl, all linguistic interactions, is in sense micro-markets, which always remain dominated by the overall structures’. One path to becoming superior involves an ‘estrangement from the familiar, domestic, native world’ through the ‘making strange’ (Bourdieu 1984:14). This mode of ‘racism of intelligence’ can be achieved in Sri Lanka by obtaining foreign credentials in the global language of power via International Schools. ‘Education classification is a euphemized version of social stratification, a social classification that has become natural and absolute, having been censored, alchemically transmitted in such a way that class differences turn into differences of intelligence, talent and therefore differences of nature’ (Bourdieu 1993:178). Whilst increasing social stratification, Putnam (1993:90) observes that social capital also involves ‘civic virtue’, that is, a sense of shared responsibility for collective endeavours. Choice can increase the capacity of citizens and consumers to act as responsible involved citizens. High quality education therefore is associated with activities that build social capital and an avenue though which a virtuous cycle is created. The way we perceive cultural capital is influenced by the subtle social cues that we learn from being part of a certain culture. The ‘habitus’, as Bourdieu (1993:86) describes is a

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word that implies ‘that which one has acquired, but which has become durably incorporated in the body in the form of permanent dispositions. So the term constantly reminds us that it refers to something historical, linked to individual history and that it belongs to a genetic mode of thought as opposed to essentialist modes of thought’ The educational structure of Sri Lanka is also shaped by its past. Resentment to the colonial past and patriotism in the face of nationalism has inevitably affected how educational policies are implemented and how different groups interpret education. It was pre-colonial inequality between those educated in private English schools and public vernacular schools that led to the promotion of free public education since independence. It was also for the same reason that private education was banned in 1961 to ensure that social divides as a result of unequal education systems will not be perpetuated. Yet, stemming from this ban was once again a desire to establish a newer mode of education through international schools that addressed the shortcomings of the existing public schooling system and differentiated one from the masses. ‘In each of us, in varying proportions, there is part of yesterday’s man; it is yesterday’s man who inevitably predominates in us, since the present amounts to little compared with the long past in the course of which we were formed and from which we result’ (Bourdieu 1977:79) Methodology Four contrasting international schools from four different provinces of the island were selected using deviant case sampling. One case study was a high fee levying school from Sri Lanka’s capital Colombo. Another was a high fee levying school from Kandy. The third and fourth schools were from two more peripheral regions where the predominant populations are Sinhalese and Tamil alternatively. The third school was from the city of Matara in the Southern Province while the fourth case study was from Jaffna in the Northern Province that was ravaged by the civil war for the past thirty years. A range of international school stakeholders, namely parents, students, teachers and international school administrators were targeted from each of these schools. These participants were provided with questionnaires in stage one and later invited to participate in interviews and focus groups. Two hundred questionnaires were distributed among parents and students in the initial phase. Focus groups consisting of about 8-10 participants were also conducted with teachers as well as students in each of the four schools. In addition, an interview each was conducted with sixteen parents, the Secretary to the Ministry of Education as well as the international school Principals. The questionnaire data were manually entered in to statistical software and then analysed quantitatively. Descriptive statistics were used through scatter plots, histograms and pie charts to show the various factors in play. The qualitative data obtained was then analysed using grounded theory. Payne and Payne (2004:98) describe grounded theory as ‘a method of analysis where the theoretical statements are built inductively from coding and analysing data’. It requires ‘defining and refining of

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conceptual categories which are then tested and retested with further data collection’. In grounded theory, ‘theory emerges from the data’ and is a ‘continuous method of discovery’. However, the researcher does not begin with a blank slate but brings in background knowledge from subjective life experiences (Strauss and Corbin 1998). The interviews and group discussions were analysed from the time they were recorded using this method. Initially, ‘open coding’ was used to highlight items that seem important without too much overthinking. Next, ‘axial coding’ where comparison and grouping at a more intense stage was performed. Finally, all categories were unified around core categories in the ‘selective coding’ stage before certain theories were put forward (Strauss and Corbin1998). In addition to manual coding, qualitative analysis was conducted using the software NVivo. This software facilitates coding of transcriptions as the transcription takes place. NVivo also allows for the creation of hierarchies of linked themes, create memos, coding templates, and transfer coding between the four different case studies. Results Through a mixed method study that utilized surveys, interviews and focus groups on stakeholders in four contrasting international schools, it was found out that Sri Lankan international schools are a free market response to increasing demand for private education institutions that operate in the English medium and offer foreign qualifications. In Sri Lanka, the children who attend international schools comprise of a unique segment of the Sri Lankan population. Their parents have the financial capacity to afford the high fees that these schools levy and at the same time make an active choice to disregard the negative effects of attending these school that are registered as companies. In their perspective, the global exposure coupled with English medium instruction and foreign qualifications allows a competitive edge for their students unlike those who attend the national schools. The benefits of the Sri Lankan international schools, in the eyes of these parents, therefore outweigh the drawbacks of this private education system with no-governance. Among the pull factors that stakeholders found enticing in the international school sector, English language, foreign curriculums and teaching quality were key components. Actually parents, those who have missed the English education, they feel, why not give this.

Because the parents think, because I did not get English, I couldn’t go to that level, I couldn’t get a job, I couldn’t go to a higher level in life so why not I give that opportunity to

my children’. (Parent 8, Colombo)

‘In Jaffna, not all the schools teach English well so for jobs they expect English…so even if

we fail examinations, the international school students, they get jobs outside’. (Student 4, Student Focus Group, SISM, Jaffna)

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ENGLISH

AS

LANGUAGE

OF

INSTRUCTI

ON

REPUTATIO

N OF

SCHOOL

PROXIMITY

TO WHERE

WE LIVE

FOREIGN

CURRICULU

M

DIVERSITY

OF SUDENT

POPULATIO

N

EXTRA

CURRICULA

R

ACTIVITIES

AVAILABLE

QUALITY

OF

TEACHERS

SMALLER

CLASS SIZE

IN

COMPARIS

ON TO

LOCAL

SCHOOLS

SOCIAL

NETWORKS

ACCESSIBL

E

RECOMME

NDATION

OF OTHER

PEOPLE

VERY IMPORTANT 35 18 4 6 8 20 31 6 2 12

IMPORTANT 6 18 11 19 18 16 10 24 20 16

NOT THAT IMPORTANT 2 4 22 14 8 2 0 10 18 10

NOT AT ALL IMPORTANT 0 1 4 2 2 1 2 1 2 3

N/A 0 2 2 2 4 3 0 0 0 2

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

IMPORTANCE OF FACTORS WHEN CHOOSING AN INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION - PARENT RESPONSES

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In addition to these pull factors of international schools, a major push factor driving students away from national schools was the difficulty of gaining entry to prestigious national schools. International schools, in this instance were merely proxy options for those who were unable to place their children to prestigious national schools. Getting into a prestigious school ensures bright prospects for the students. In Sri Lanka, attending a reputed national school carries a long way as school reputation is synonymous with prestige and people often offer jobs to alumni of certain schools simply because they attended these schools. Often, it is a case of successful entrepreneurs and elite preferring to employ people who have gone to the same school as them.

‘In society, the name of a school matters you know. They are giving jobs for the school

name only. Now Trinity College means they can get jobs easily’. (Parent 11, Kandy)

For this reason, Sri Lankans try various dubious methods of sending their children to prestigious schools and as a result many of the popular National Schools (both Public and Existing Private schools) are often the most crowded. However, despite overcrowding, these schools are renowned for having the best teachers, very good facilities and producing the best results at public examinations. In theory, entrance to these prestigious National Schools is possible either via scholarship entry after the Year Five Scholarship examinations or once they are deemed eligible upon passing the points based entry system. The points for entry include factors such as proximity to permanent residence or the fact that a child’s parents were formerly alumni of this school or their siblings are currently studying in the same school. For each of these factors extensive proof is required. The interviews revealed that sometimes in order to prove residency, it was necessary to produce house deeds, several years worth of electricity bills etc. Despite such efforts to ensure authenticity, it was common for parents to get involved in corrupt methods such as bribing officials, forging residency and getting local politicians to bend the rules for the entry of their children to such schools. The fieldwork conducted with international school parents revealed that in a significant number of cases, parents ideally preferred to send their children to these prestigious national schools. However, failing which, they opted for reputable international schools in lieu of the other unappealing local schools that they are eligible to apply within the national education system. ‘Most of my friends were shocked when I put my son to just a normal school which has just

two buildings. So from there he got his scholarship later to go to a bigger school. Most parents don’t look at that side. They think when they don’t get these so called ‘big schools’ next thing is they just put to international schools because they don’t like to put them to

nearby schools in the village. It’s really a prestige issue for the parents’. (Parent 3, Colombo)

Moreover, an interview conducted with the Ministry of Education revealed that due to a lack of proper governance, the quality of education delivered by international schools was under serious scrutiny. Both the state and the parents were concerned with the lack

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of local grounding in these school pedagogies. However, the main drawback of Sri Lankan international schools is that they strive to reach global standards by disassociating and distancing themselves from the local. When Sri Lankan international schools do delve in the local, it is merely done at a superficial stage that attempts to please the customers of various ethnic groups. The international school curriculum therefore was promoting global knowledge at the expense of the local. ‘If you take Christmas season they have Christmas Carols, they take children for it and they charge a very big amount for the costume. So parents, not that they like or not that they want to, just because now they have put their children, there is no other option but to pay all the extra fees that they charge. Then you get the Vesak when they have a ‘bana’ sermon. So when it comes to that they don’t have a good impression. For Iftar, they have, one evening where they organize to break-fasting, then for Deepavali, they have their own programs. They should have it otherwise it’s difficult for them to survive. So that is just to make sure all communities will come’.

(Parent 7, Colombo)

By alienating the students from their immediate surroundings, these schools were giving rise to a generation of Sri Lankans that grew up endorsing western cultural values with little connection to local culture. In addition, international schools, as outlined very early in this paper are businesses registered under the company’s act. The stakeholders were critical about, their dual purpose of promoting international education whilst maintaining business calls for certain commercial decisions. The research revealed that in order to retain customers, international schools sometimes avoided giving honest feedback or allowing students to conduct certain science experiments that could harm them. The rationale was that any practical that could injure a student would cause liability issues for a fee levying international school more than it would for a free education national school. Moreover as Rotfeld (1999:416) states, ‘once students are told to see themselves as customers for education degrees, they expect customer service with a smile’. This leads to pressure and bullying of staff (Newman and Jahdi 2009), which was a major cause of concern in Sri Lanka. International schools were criticized for not allowing teachers to take any disciplinary action against students for example due to fear of students choosing alternate schools. In case of any dispute between students and teachers, the administration would take the side of the students, as teachers were easily replaceable in comparison to the irreplaceable student clientele. International Schools thus try to be philosophically driven with the ideology of internationalism when in reality they are more market driven (Richards 1998).However, despite these allegations from the research participants that international schools mar Sri Lankan traditions and alter the noble intentions of education, their popularity reflects an urgent need for improvements in public education quality. Another finding that emerged from the research was a growing tension that was prevalent between those that were part of the Sri Lankan international school industry and the rest of the Sri Lankans that embraced public education. During colonial rule, there was an apparent divide between a minority who were educated in the English, private schools and went on to become the ruling elite of society and the masses that

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studied in the free vernacular language schools. These masses formed the lower socio-economic strata of Sri Lankan society. Stemming from resentment to this social stratification was a revolution of the education system immediately following independence. Free education in the local languages was actively promoted with English subdued and private education banned since the early 1960s. This ban on private education evolved from a discontentment towards the social divide these schools perpetuated as well as resentment to the western cultural influences of the colonists that the Sri Lankan elite adopted which was seen as tainting traditional culture. Ironically however, over the postcolonial years private education has found its way back into the Sri Lankan education system in the disguise of international schools. The acceptance of international schools by the state and the public signify that the resentment to private schooling has more to do with the colonial emotions that the word private evokes rather than a genuine antipathy to the inequalities that private and English education creates. Whilst Sri Lankans are increasingly embracing the global curriculum and the English education that grants the international school student a competitive edge, they are very much aware of the lack of local language, religion, history and geography in the international school curriculum. ‘They (the students) don’t know anything about Sri Lanka but they know everything about the UK culture and UK history…I think they can get along with foreign children than with

the Sri Lankan children so this is why I tell that they are advanced children’. (Parent 16, Matara)

The research highlights that similar to the private schools that existed in colonial times; international schools were increasingly under scrutiny for damaging traditional culture. A newer form of resistance based on the unjust privileges that a minority well versed in English language, having foreign qualifications and adopting western cultural values is therefore developing. It is for these new connotations of cultural marring associated with the wording ‘international’ that certain Sri Lankan international schools are dropping the word ‘international’ from their schools and adopting the word ‘college’. Discussion In the late 19th and early 20th century, gender, class, language, ethnicity and region of origin dictated the quality of education that an individual received in Sri Lanka. To counteract the unfair advantage that those educated in private English schools during the colonial times gained, the government actively encouraged free education in the vernacular. Educational inequality however continued to persist as the quality of Sri Lankan schools was under serious scrutiny. Regional disparities in literacy levels meant that pass rates at GCE Ordinary Levels as well as school drop out rates were a major cause of concern. As Perera (1991) ascertains, just one in four of those that sit for Ordinary Levels actually pass.

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In 1990, a sessional paper put forward by the Presidential committee outline the poor quality of the rural schools through the following excerpt that describes a school in rural Anuradhapura district. ‘…The school has no well and therefore there is no drinking water for children or for staff. There are no sanitary facilities…the school has only one lock for the room of the principal, but it can only be opened from the inside. Every morning, a child climbs in through the corridor and unlocks the door for the Principal to come in. School attendance has improved since the midday meal primarily because parents send their children to collect Rs.3 each day for use by the family. Schoolbooks rarely arrive on time, sometimes months after school begins, dumped by the Lorries in a central location awaiting distribution. There are not enough desks and benches so children are forced to share or sit on the floor’.

(InWickramasinghe 2006:310-311)

Despite high levels of literacy as a result of free compulsory education, there is said to be illiteracy of subtle shapes. For instance, Wickramasinghe (2006:311) highlights that there is an ‘ignorance and inability to understand and use information such as medical knowledge, financial knowledge, or technological knowledge’. There is similarly a ‘lack of understanding of the complexity of certain modern concepts’. Those who could afford private education and those fluent in English therefore continued to be at a privileged position. International schools provide the Sri Lankans with an alternate school choice. The arguably better infrastructure, facilities, teaching quality coupled with English medium education and foreign qualifications provide an advantage for international school customers compared to those attending local schools. Moreover, the political interference and the hassle it brings to the local education sector is another factor driving Sri Lankans away from the local education sector. National education is highly politicized and entrance to reputed national schools extremely competitive. Sri Lankans with political backing manage to disregard the proximity to residence law and place their children in well-established national schools. This means that those students entering these schools via the Year Five scholarship examinations find themselves in overcrowded schools where student capacities have sometimes reached peak levels. While parents opt to send their children to international schools in order to gain a competitive advantage and avoid bureaucratic hassles, the research revealed that a major cause for concern was the deterioration of Sri Lankan norms and values via an international education. The argument made by both the state as well as international school stakeholders was that since the majority of students attending international schools were Sri Lankans, the schools needed to safeguard and maintain local cultural education within these institutions whilst prioritising an English medium of instruction.

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Tradition and Modernity: Which way forward? The common belief is that tradition is a hindrance to change and an impediment to modernization. This is because tradition and modernity are seen as two dichotomies that are unable to co-exist within the same setting. However, traditional society itself is dynamic and constantly evolving. Gusfield (1967) ascertains that traditional symbols and behavioural patterns can be crucial in shaping modern norms and modernizing frameworks. Likewise, foreign powers, social and cultural movements can in turn affect the beliefs, practices and social structures of modern society. Referring to India, Gusfield (1967:353) remarks that ‘speaking of traditional feudal structure of India is to confuse recent history with past history’. Tradition then is merely elements of the past that once formed modern society at one point in time. Tradition is forever evolving and like culture varies both over time and space. Gusfield (1967) furthermore points out several fallacies in our understanding of tradition. Not only are developing societies never static and traditional societies forever evolving over time and space, older and newer traditions are capable of coexisting, sometimes forming hybrid traditions. Newer ones hence do not necessarily replace older traditions. They sometimes form mutual adaptations to bring about a newer culture where the range of alternatives available is significantly higher. Thus tradition and modernity are not always in conflict. Nor are they mutually exclusive but rather, more frequently ‘mutually reinforcing’. Another fallacy is the misconception that modernity erodes tradition. Alternately, in certain circumstances, modernization can strengthen traditions. For example improved infrastructure makes it easier to travel to distance places of cultural significance and improved communication aids marginalized cultures or groups to come together. Another instance is when mediating elites between western elites and local society brings traditional commitments into the political and cultural arena (Gusfield 1967). When it comes to the culture of international schools impacting local traditional culture, a country such as Saudi Arabia, in the mid 1960s had no international schools for the fear of them infecting local culture. Other Middle Eastern countries during that time valued the quality of the education offered by international schools but wished to safeguard national culture, religion and identity through curriculum legislation or ‘by ensuring the business of the school is restricted to less culturally sensitive areas’ (Gusfield 1967:327). In Sri Lanka, the eroding of Sri Lankan culture through the mere focus of western culture by international schools is the primary concern that the government is trying to tackle. Through the imposition of compulsory local language, history and religious education, Sri Lanka is trying to encourage international schools whilst shaping the pedagogy to suit national agendas. When governments take a neoliberal stance, the state is no longer able to satisfy the welfare needs of all of its citizens that expect protection (Wickramasinghe 2006). The political upbringing of Sri Lankans is such that postcolonial Sri Lankans expect complete

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protection from the state. This expectation stems from post-colonial policies and political propaganda that continuously emphasize the state as the responsible provider of public education that guarantees equality over the unfair injustices that persisted during colonial times when education was not under the hands of Sri Lanka. The unfair advantage that private and English education produces is hence met with intense retaliation to the extent that international schools operate as companies; a loophole in an otherwise banned private schooling system. The national system of education is not devoid of inequalities and stratification. However, when Sri Lankans privately fund education that is publicly funded it raises questions about how further inequities are perpetuated. Moreover, it signifies a perceived discord between the values that are dominant in national schools and the values that are held by those affluent and bold enough to mobilize their means in pursuit of an education that they perceive as superior. For the Sri Lankans who are stakeholders of the international education system, their decision to opt for this system over the national education system is fraught with the complexity of individual experience, historical legacies, and a desire to safeguard local values and simultaneously achieve global aspirations. Conclusions The study highlights a current practice of free public education that provides educational opportunity for all yet promotes linguistic, ethnic and religious segregation. In addition, through the promotion of the Year 5 scholarship, the prestigious national schools continue to remain superior dismissing the ethos of equality that the public education system strived to achieve in the first place. The international schools ultimately were no different. The reluctance of international schools to mingle with the local culture fosters divisions that are based on class difference rather than racial divides. Within these international schools as well, there were vast differences in quality with some schools completely embracing international education at the expense of indigenous knowledge and culture whilst other international schools displayed poor education standards driven by a desire to maximize their profits. International schools therefore need to urgently find a middle ground where the pedagogy and the practices of the schools encompass both the local and the global. They need to collaborate with the government in order to establish a governing body that grants them autonomy yet ensures that basic standards are met. National schools likewise need to shape their education in such away that it addresses global demands without limiting to a national pedagogy. If words such as ‘private schooling’ could have evoked postcolonial emotionalism to the extent of banning an entire private education system, it is possible for negative associations tied to the word ‘international’ to bring about quandary in the near future. It is anticipated that this research would aid educationalists to recognize the drawbacks and realize the potential of each education system in the country. It is crucial, therefore

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for Sri Lankan education to distance themselves from these politicizing forces that attempt to stereotype education and instead strive to learn from the drawbacks of both national and international schools in order to improve the Sri Lankan education system as a whole. Limitations and Future Recommendations A vital question that arose from this study was whether it was possible for an international school education to value and sustain global ideals while at the same time sustaining local cultural values. It was evident from the research that the national education system failed to meet the expectations of Sri Lanka and hence non-advertently forced them to make an active decision to participate in the international school system. Yet the voices heard were only of those who both had the resources and made an active choice to leave the national system in favour of these international schools. This raises an opportunity for further investigation in light of the theory of reproduction. It is unlikely for individuals to make choices about things they are unaware of, do not have the capacity to access or do not wish to access because they do not value them. For practicality issues, this research omitted the viewpoints of parents, students and teachers within the national education system (public and existing private and semi-private schools). Hence, another avenue that this research could explore in the future is the perceptions of Sri Lankans who are financially capable of accessing the international schools yet have actively elected not to exit the national system of education. Since this research was limited to four international schools, one from each corner of Sri Lanka, it is important to keep in mind that heterogeneity exists within each context. Every school had its own culture, values and norms. It is therefore useful to share ‘lessons learnt’ but we need to keep in mind that the ‘insights gained are unlikely to lead to universal answers’ (Crossley and Watson 2003:102). Moreover, these observations were made at one point in time with data collected over just six months. Taking into consideration the dynamic evolution of international schools rapidly over the last 30+ years, it is likely that the issues raised in this research would inevitably change over time. Revisiting either the same research participants or similar international stakeholders within a longitudinal study to inquire if they still hold similar beliefs would help gain further insight into the research.

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References

Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a theory of practice.(Esquisse d'une théorie de la pratique). Translated by Richard Nice: Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgment of taste: Harvard University Press. Bourdieu, P. (1993). Sociology in question (Vol. 18): Sage Publications Limited. Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J.C. (1977). Reproduction in education, culture and society. Trans. Nice, R. London: Sage. Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J.C. (1979). The inheritors: French students and their relation to culture: University of Chicago Press Chicago. Cookson, P.W., & Persell, C.H. (1991). Race and Class in America's Elite Preparatory Boarding Schools: African Americans as the" Outsiders Within". The Journal of Negro Education, 60(2), 219-228. Crossley, M., & Watson, K. (2003). Comparative and International Research in Education: Globalization, Context and Difference: RoutledgeFalmer. DiMaggio, P., & Useem, M. (1978). Social class and arts consumption. Theory and Society, 5(2), 141-161. Gusfield, Joseph R. (1967). Tradition and modernity: Misplaced polarities in the study of social change. American journal of sociology, 351-362. Lareau, A., & Lamont, M. (1988). Cultural capital: Allusions, gaps and glissandos in recent theoretical developments. Sociological theory, 6(2), 153-168. Mohr, J., & DiMaggio, P. (1995). The intergenerational transmission of cultural capital. Research in social stratification and mobility, 14, 167-200. Newman, Stephen, & Jahdi, Khosro. (2009). Marketization of education: Marketing, rhetoric and reality. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 33(1), 1-11. Painter, J. (2000). Pierre Bourdieu. In M. Crang & N. Thrift (Eds.), Thinking space (pp. 239-259). London and New York: Routledge. Payne, G., & Payne, J. (2004). Key concepts in social research: SAGE Publications.

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Perera, S. (1991). Teaching and Learning Hatred: The role of education and socialization in Sri Lankan ethnic conflict. (PhD), University of California, Santa Barbara. Putnam, R. (1993). Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Richards, N. (1998). The emperor’s new clothes? The issue of staffing in international schools’. International education: Principles and practice, 173-183. Robinson, J. (1985). Public Participation in the Arts: A Project Summary: University of Maryland Survey Center. Rotfeld, Herbert Jack. (1999). Misplaced marketing: When marketing misplaces the benefits of education. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 16(5), 415-417. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Procedures and techniques for developing grounded theory: Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Wickramasinghe, N. (2006). Sri Lanka in the Modern Age: A History of Contested Identities: University of Hawaii Press.

Author : Virandi Wettewa has previously conducted research in the field of arranged marriages and was positioned as a Consultant Research Associate for the Social Scientists Association of Sri Lanka on an ESRC UK funded project. She is presently working in the capacity of a tutor and research assistant at the University of Sydney where she is reading for her PhD in Education. She has authored a book, journal articles and several conference proceedings.

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The Impact of Teaching Methodologies on Soft Skills Development

A Study based on Schools at Jaffna zone.

Mrs. S. Srisundararajah M.Phil. Research Student in Education

University of Jaffna Jaffna.

sumathyganah@gmail.com

Dr. (Mrs.) A.Sathiaseelan Department of Education,

University of Jaffna anushyasathiaseelan@gmail.com

Abstract This paper studies the impact of teaching methodologies on soft skills development at schools and the study based on the teachers of 1AB super, 1AB , 1C and type 2 schools in Jaffna Zone. The data for the study has been collected from 48% of teachers of 1AB super, 1AB, 1C and type 2 schools. This study attempts to find out the impact of teaching methodologies on soft skills development at schools. The study sample consists of 98 teachers. Teaching methodologies are independent variables and soft skills development is dependent variable. The descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data and then Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to identify the relationship between the variables. The impact of teaching methodologies on soft skills development was identified using regression analysis. The study found that except lecture- method, the other methodologies such as discussion, team work, creativity, questioning, practical work, observation & project work had positive correlation with soft skills development. The findings also confirm that the methodologies such as team work, creativity and observation had produced a significant impact on development of the communicative skills, team work skills and the problem solving skills. However, practical work had a significant effect only on communicative & team work skills development. Discussion and project work had a significant impact only on development of team work skills and questioning had significant effect on development of problem solving skills. Major Key words: Communicative skill, Problem solving skill, Team work skill, Soft skills development and Teaching methodologies Minor Key words: Discussion, Team work, Creativity, Questioning, Practical work, Observation, Project work & lecture- method

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1. Introduction

The stake holders at present realize the necessity of soft skills embedded education because the focus of the ‘world of work’ is “what we do with what we know, and how well we do it, not what we know only”. As a result, it emphasizes the importance of soft skills to be developed. Soft skills are necessary to help the children to excel their performances not only to adjust the life during his/her school but also to his/her life in the world of work. Thus the teaching and learning processes in schools should be capable to provide such knowledge and skills to future generation. A child has various inborn intellectual strengths. When the infant grows, those inborn strengths gradually turn into skills and abilities. In personality development of individuals their physical, intellectual, social and spiritual abilities should be identified and developed from childhood itself. According to modern psychologists, intelligence within an individual is diverse. Each individual possesses a specific ability in a special field according to his innate abilities. Some will show prowess in several fields while a few would demonstrate skills in all fields. Yet all those skills appear through developing inborn intelligence and abilities by linking them with environment. Therefore all teachers should recognize intellectual skills of students and help them to develop them [1] which will produce the invaluable human assets. In order to develop integrated personality, there are three types of skills, which are collectively known as soft skills , such as Social skills entail Inter – Personal skills, Thinking skills, and Personal skills involves Intra – Personal skills should be developed from primary stage to the level of general education by school structure through school curriculum. The General Education policies in Sri Lanka, have been formulated not only to develop knowledge, skills and attitudes but also general competencies such as thinking skills, decision making, creativity, problem solving, communication, social skills and team work skills which are essential in modern society[2]. Hence, schools are encouraged to impart these skills through the adoption of curricular as well as co-curricular activities.

Related literature Soft skills are essentially people's skills or personality specific skills. The study of Shaheen Majid, Zhang Liming, Shen Tong, Siti Raihana (2012) [3], was to investigate students’ perceptions of the importance of soft skills for education and employment. It was a qualitative survey study and questionnaire was used as the data collecting tool and the research participants were selected by convenience sampling technique. The results showed that generally business management students in Singapore were aware of the importance of soft skills for employment and career advancement. However, many students felt that their actual soft skills were less than the desired levels. It was also found that communication skills were perceived to be the least important by the students and the above researchers, based on their literature reveal that communication skills are the most desired soft skills and they suggested that there is a need to create awareness among the students about the importance of communication skills for career advancement and how to develop and practice such skills. Another related finding is that a majority of the students expressed the opinion that soft skills training should be

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embedded in appropriate business courses and they also analyzed the top five important soft skills identified by the students, they are teamwork and collaboration, decision-making, problem-solving, time management and critical thinking skills. Based on the review of the above research paper, the researchers in this present study investigate “The Impact of Teaching methodologies on Soft skills Development” and this studies deal with communicative, team work & problem solving skills. Wats, M. and Wats, R. (2009) [4] in their studies on “Developing Soft Skills in Students” suggested that the competition for job acquisition and job sustainability is becoming more and more tough and to get an edge over the competitors, students are left with no choice but to add values to their hard skills with soft skills to exhibit their true potential. They, also, suggest that hard skills contribute to only 15% of one’s success while remaining 85% is made by soft skills. Their studies, further emphasized that soft skills can be developed in students by using the proper teaching and learning styles. Their findings were that the experiential learning , role playing , team work methods , case studies and extracurricular activities are very good methodologies to develop soft skills in the percentage of 80%, 74%, 70%, 68% and 62% respectively. This research paper emphasizes the importance of development of soft skills and the important role of teachers in soft skills development. Alshare, Lane and Miller [5] studied on “perceptions of students and faculty of the adequacy of soft skills in information systems curricula in different universities in the USA”. They realized the importance of soft skills, and also emphasized the point that these skills should be embedded in the curriculum, thus making it easier for students to acquire them. This paper clearly states that soft skills development is mostly possible via curriculum embedded programs. Hence, it also reinforces teaching methodologies on soft skills development. The research study on “The Intersection between Soft Skill Development and Leadership Education” was conducted to examine the relationship of soft skills gained to the amount of leadership education completed by graduates from the Department of Leadership studies at a Midwestern regional university. Those who received no leadership education were compared with those who received a leadership certificate and those who received a Bachelor’s degree in Organizational Leadership. The study provided insight into whether academic leadership education enhances Graduate’s soft skill development and assessed the impact of this had on their perception of teamwork proficiency. Results indicate that a Bachelor’s degree in leadership makes limited significant changes in graduates’ soft skill proficiency as compared with graduates who received a leadership certificate. Multiple significant changes were found in graduates with Bachelor’s Degrees as compared with graduates who received no leadership coursework. (Christie Brungardt, 2011)[6]. On the whole, the literature review suggests that majority of the studies on soft skills development have been done from employers’ perspectives and only a limited number of studies have focused on the perceptions and attitudes of students towards soft skills. In addition, a higher percentage of such studies were conducted in North America and Europe with different learning environment and work culture than in many Asian countries. It is, therefore, worthwhile exploring soft skills development via teaching

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methodologies from a new angle and context. The main objective of this study is to investigate the impact of teaching methodologies on development of soft skills. Research problem The teacher, who direct students to construct knowledge and meaning in the new learning teaching process, attempts to produce a person with an integrated personality. For this, the teacher takes the responsibility for developing thinking, social and personnel skills of every child in the classroom. In view of bringing about a new society that can make the meaningful communication, correct decisions, solve problems, work as a team and manage conflict, the teacher provides opportunity for the children[7]. Therefore the teacher is a key person to develop soft skills at school level. Hence the present study is initiated to find out that to what extent the teaching methodologies have impact on soft skills development? Objectives The objectives of this study are formulated as follows- To identify the relationship between teaching methodologies and soft skills

development among science teachers of 1AB super, 1AB, 1C and type 2 schools in Jaffna Zone.

To find out the impact of teaching methodologies on soft skills development at schools.

Significance By giving education, the vision of the country is to produce integrated personality human resources as the human capitals. This trend is observed in recent years in Sri Lanka, in the structure of the education system and the mismatch between the system outputs and the labor market needs, which led to significant unemployment of secondary and university graduates. Sri Lanka’s recent economic growth has not been matched by growth in employment and yet there are a large number of jobs that go unfilled as employers cannot find workers with the relevant skills [8]. Hence, the link between the educational outputs and labor markets is expected to match with each other. The labor markets require highly talented worker with soft skills therefore the educational system is the most responsible factor to satisfy today’s needs. But it is not very easy to do so, because there are so many factors influencing the match. There is a great awareness among the researchers to carry out the research on “soft skills”. Very little researches on “soft skills” are available in foreign countries and our educational system needs to be empowered to pay a special attention on soft skills. Soft skills development is inevitable to produce the worthy human capitals not only to fit the world of work but also to manage their day to day life patterns. Because of the necessity of development of soft skills, it is important to find out the relationship & impact between teaching methodologies and soft skills development.

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• analyze the relationship among teaching methodologies and the soft skills development.

• identify the impact of teaching methodologies on soft skills development. This research will help the other researchers to identify the other factors which influence the development of soft skills. 2. Research methodology The survey research design was used for this study. Population of this study was teachers teaching science subjects in 1AB super, 1AB, 1C and type 2 schools in Jaffna zone. Sample consisted of 98 teachers. To measure the impact of teaching methodologies on soft skills development following variables have been used. Under teaching methodologies discussion, team work, creativity, questioning, practical work, observation, project work & lecture method are considered as independent variables and under soft skills development communicative skills, team work skills & Problem solving skills are considered as dependent variables. In this study, researchers analyzed the collected data by descriptive statistics [9] and inferential statistics [10]. SPSS version 20[11], [12] has been used for this data analysis. Hypothesis H1: There is a significant relationship between teaching methodologies and communicative skills development. H2: There is a significant relationship between teaching methodologies and team work skills development. H3: There is significant relationship between teaching methodologies and problem Solving skills development. H4: There is a significant impact teaching methodologies on communicative skills development. H5: There is a significant impact teaching methodologies on team work skills development. H6: There is a significant impact teaching methodologies on problem solving skills development. Data collection In order to meet the objectives of the study, the primary data were collected by distributing the questionnaire to the teachers of 1AB super, 1AB, 1C and type 2 schools in Jaffna zone. A five points rating scales of questionnaire from very less (1) to most often (5) were adopted to measure the independent variables of teaching methodologies. Dependent variable, soft skills development was measured by questionnaire on five-point Likert scale [where disagree (1) to strongly agree (5)] this is

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the single global rating approach (Davidson, 1979) [13] as it is believed to be an easier approach to collect data (Haque and Taher, 2008; Yu and Egri, 2005)[14]. To triangulate the data which was collected from the sample population, the data was also collected from principals of schools where the sample population of teachers worked and In-service advisors, who worked at Jaffna zone, of science subject by the interview method. Sample The schools for survey were selected through the purposive sampling technique. There are 203 teachers of the type of 1ABsuper, 1AB, 1C and type 2 schools in Jaffna zone teaching science subjects at secondary classes from 6 to 11. Out of 203 teachers, only 48 % of them (98 teachers) were selected as study sample using stratified random sampling technique. Conceptualization Based on the research question, the following conceptual model (Figure 1) has been constructed. This model shows the relationship between teaching methodologies and soft skills development.

Figure 1- Conceptualization

Soft skills development

Communicative Skill

Team work skill

Problem solving skill

Teaching methodologies

Discussion

Team work

Creativity

Questioning

Practical work

Observation

Project work

Lecture method

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Then, the operational concept of the research is also shown in Table 1

Table1: Operationalization

Limitations This research provides useful insights between teaching methodologies and soft skills development by science teachers, teaching the secondary classes from grade 6 to grade 11, of 1AB super, 1AB, 1C and type 2 schools in Jaffna zone. However, there are a number of limitations. First, this research only focuses on schools in Jaffna zone. It may be extended to other schools in Jaffna district. Second, the study only deals with science teachers who teach at junior secondary classes but it can be extended up to science teachers of all categories. Third, the research deals with only teachers, however, it is better to carry out research with students, principals and Zonal educational officers too. Fourth, the research concentrates only on the impact of teaching methodologies on communicative skills, team work skills & problem solving skills. Therefore, further study can be conducted on numerous other soft skills than the above three taken into consideration in this present study. Fifth, this study only focuses on science teachers but it can be extended up to all the teachers without considering the subject matter.

Variables Factors Measures

Independent variables Teaching methodologies

Discussion Team work Creativity Questioning Practical work Observation Project work Lecture method

D21 D23 D26 D27 D28 D29 D210 D211

Dependent variables Soft skills development

Communicative skills Team work skills Problem solving skills

E1 E2 E3

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3. Results & Discussion

Table 2: Descriptive Statistics for Independent & Dependent Variables

The Table 2 descriptive statistics shows that the mean value for independent and dependent variables. The values for discussion, team work, creativity, questioning, practical work, observation, project work, lecture method, composite score, communicative skills, team work skills & problem solving skills are 4.5306, 4.3673, 3.7245, 4.4388, 4.6939, 4.2959, 3.1735, 3.2755, 3.9005, 4.1531, 4.1633 & 3.8367 respectively. But its maximum is 5.00. The value of skewness of independent and dependent variables shows that they are negatively skewed and the negative value for the skewness indicate data that are skewed on the left side of the central point. The skewness values to discussion, questioning, practical work and observation are higher when compared to team work, creativity, project work, lecture method, communicative skills, team work skills and problem solving skills.

Descriptive Statistics

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Skewness

Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std. Error Discussion 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.5306 .76258 -2.099 .244 Team work 2.00 3.00 5.00 4.3673 .69442 -.641 .244 Creativity 4.00 1.00 5.00 3.7245 1.01312 -.452 .244 Questioning 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.4388 .92018 -1.802 .244 Practical work 3.00 2.00 5.00 4.6939 .56364 -2.050 .244 Observation 4.00 1.00 5.00 4.2959 .94388 -1.380 .244 Project work 4.00 1.00 5.00 3.1735 1.13087 -.219 .244 Lecture method 4.00 1.00 5.00 3.2755 1.39794 -.323 .244 Composite score

2.50 2.50 5.00 3.9005 .53975 -.302 .244

Communicative skill 3.00 2.00 5.00 4.1531 .77794 -.543 .244

Teamwork skill 3.00 2.00 5.00 4.1633 .72785 -.426 .244 Problem solving skill 3.00 2.00 5.00 3.8367 .84578 -.306 .244

Valid N (list wise) 98

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Correlation Analysis Table 3: Correlation analysis between Independent & the Dependent variables

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). The correlation coefficient has been used to check the relationship among the variables. Table 3 shows the correlation between independent and dependent variables. Correlation values show that teaching methodologies (composite score) are positively correlated with development of communicative skills, development of team work skills & problem solving skills and the correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) for communicative skills, whereas the correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) for team work & problem solving skills. Therefore, hypotheses H1 is accepted at 5% level and H2 and H3 are accepted at the 1 % level. The important thing needs to be mentioned in this research is within the teaching methodologies, lecture method is negatively correlated with development of all three soft skills and all the other methods show great support to develop soft skills among students. Then, regression analysis was performed to find out the impact of teaching methodologies on development of communicative skills, development of team work skills & development of problem solving skills.

Discussion

Team work

Creativity

Questioning

Practical

work

Observation

Project-studies

Lecture

method

Composite score

Development of communicative skills

Pearson Correlation .157 .315** .290** .150 .226* .303** .134 -.096 .215*

Sig. (2-tailed) .122 .002 .004 .140 .026 .002 .190 .347 .034

Development of Teamwork skills

Pearson Correlation .232* .431** .397** .154 .274** .409** .203* -.136 .313**

Sig. (2-tailed) .021 .000 .000 .131 .006 .000 .045 .182 .002

Development of problem solving skills

Pearson Correlation .120 .208* .296** .265** .233* .294** .170 -.153 .263**

Sig. (2-tailed) .240 .039 .003 .008 .035 .003 .094 .132 .009

N 98 98 98 98 98 98 98 98 98

Discussion

Team work

Creativity

Questioning

Practical

work

Observation

Project-studies

Lecture

method

Composite score

Development of communicative skills

Pearson Correlation .157 .315** .290** .150 .226* .303** .134 -.096 .215*

Sig. (2-tailed) .122 .002 .004 .140 .026 .002 .190 .347 .034

Development of Teamwork skills

Pearson Correlation .232* .431** .397** .154 .274** .409** .203* -.136 .313**

Sig. (2-tailed) .021 .000 .000 .131 .006 .000 .045 .182 .002

Development of problem solving skills

Pearson Correlation .120 .208* .296** .265** .233* .294** .170 -.153 .263**

Sig. (2-tailed) .240 .039 .003 .008 .035 .003 .094 .132 .009

N 98 98 98 98 98 98 98 98 98

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Regression analysis

Table 4: Model Summary of regression analysis

Model Summary of regression analysis Composite score .215a .046 .036 .76376 Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the

Estimate Discussion .157a .025 .015 .77227 Team work .315a .099 .090 .74226 Creativity .290a .084 .074 .74850 Questioning .150a .023 .012 .77313 Practical work .226a .051 .041 .76184 Observation .303a .092 .082 .74529 Project - Studies .134a .018 .008 .77498 Lecture method .096a .009 -.001 .77837 a. Predictors: (Constant) Communicative skills

Table 5: Model Summary of regression analysis

Model Summary of regression analysis Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the

Estimate Composite score .313a .098 .089 .69489 Discussion .232a .054 .044 .71161 Team work .431a .186 .177 .66025 Creativity .397a .158 .149 .67146 Questioning .154a .024 .013 .72295 Practical work .274a .075 .065 .70366 Observation .409a .167 .159 .66759 Project work .203a .041 .031 .71637 Lecture method .136a .018 .008 .72485 a. Predictors: (Constant) Development of Teamwork skills

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The tables’ No. 4, 5 and 6 show the summary of regression analysis. The results revealed that the impact of independent variable on dependent variable. According to the analysis, the table 4 shows that the value of adjusted R square for composite score is 0.036. It means that the independent variable, teaching methodologies, has 3.6 % of positive impact on the dependent variable of communicative skills. Further table 5 indicates that the independent variable positively impacts on development of team work skills to 8.9 % and table 6 indicates the independent variable impacts 6.0% on development of problem solving skills. The adjusted R square 0.089 is clearly pointed out that there is 8.9% percentage of team work skills which can be explained by teaching methodologies. The adjusted R square for teaching methodologies with development of problem solving skills is 0.06. This means 6% variance in development of problem solving skills is accounted by the teaching methodologies and 94% variance in the development of problem solving skills are attributed to some other factors.

Table 6: Model Summary of regression analysis

Model Summary of regression analysis Model R R Square Adjusted R

Square Std. Error of the Estimate

Composite Score .263a .069 .060 .82018 Discussion .120a .014 .004 .84406 Team work .208a .043 .034 .83149 Creativity .296a .088 .078 .81211 Questioning .265a .070 .061 .81973 Practical work .154a .024 .013 .84008 Observation .294a .086 .077 .81270 Project- work .170a .029 .019 .83779 Lecture method .153a .024 .013 .84011 a. Predictors: (Constant), Development of Problem solving skills

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Table 7 Coefficients analysis Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized

Coefficients t Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

Discussion 3.427 .472 7.255 .000 .160 .103 .157 1.559 .122

Team work 2.613 .480 5.446 .000 .353 .109 .315 3.248 .002

Creativity 3.325 .289 11.488 .000 .222 .075 .290 2.963 .004

Questioning 3.590 .387 9.285 .000 .127 .085 .150 1.487 .140 Practical work 2.692 .649 4.150 .000 .311 .137 .226 2.268 .026

Observation 3.081 .353 8.740 .000 .249 .080 .303 3.112 .002

Project work 3.861 .234 16.482 .000 .092 .070 .134 1.320 .190 Lecture- method 4.328 .201 21.514 .000 -.053 .057 -.096 -.946 .347 Composite score 2.946 .566 5.209 .000 .309 .144 .215 2.153 .034 a. Dependent Variable: Development of communicative skills

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Table 8 Coefficients analysis Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized

Coefficients t Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

Discussion 3.158 .435 7.257 .000 .222 .095 .232 2.341 .021

Team work 2.191 .427 5.133 .000 .452 .097 .431 4.678 .000

Creativity 3.101 .260 11.941 .000

.285 .067 .397 4.240 .000

Questioning 3.624 .362 10.024 .000 .122 .080 .154 1.523 .131 Practical work 2.503 .599 4.178 .000 .354 .127 .274 2.790 .006

Observation 2.808 .316 8.892 .000 .316 .072 .409 4.393 .000

Project work 3.748 .217 17.308 .000 .131 .064 .203 2.033 .045 Lecture - method 4.395 .187 23.459 .000 -.071 .053 -.136 -1.344 .182

Composite score 2.517 .515 4.891 .000

.422 .131 .313 3.228 .002 a. Dependent Variable: Development of Teamwork skills

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From the tables 7, 8 and 9 the F statistic is the regression mean square (MSR) divided by the residual mean square (MSE). If the significance value of the F statistic is small (smaller than say 0.05) then the independent variables do a good job explaining the variation in the dependent variable. In the case of development of communicative skills, team work skills and problem solving skills, the teaching methodologies did good job that the teaching methodologies had significant impact on the development of these three (3) skills. Hence the hypotheses H4, H5 and H6 are accepted. It concludes that teaching methodologies which are used by the teachers in teaching learning activities have significant impact on the development of soft skills.

Table 9 Coefficients analysis Unstandardized

Coefficients Standardized Coefficients

t Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

Discussion 3.235 .516 6.267 .000 .133 .112 .120 1.181 .240

Team work 2.728 .538 5.074 .000

.254 .122 .208 2.089 .039

Creativity 2.917 .314 9.288 .000

.247 .081 .296 3.035 .003

Questioning 2.755 .410 6.720 .000

.244 .090 .265 2.695 .008

Practical work 2.755 .715 3.851 .000

.230 .151 .154 1.523 .131

Observation 2.707 .384 7.040 .000

.263 .087 .294 3.009 .003

Project-studies 3.433 .253 13.556 .000

.127 .075 .170 1.691 .094

Lecture method 4.141 .217 19.070 .000

-.093 .061 -.153 -1.521 .132

Composite score 2.228 .607 3.667 .000

.413 .154 .263 2.674 .009

a. Dependent Variable: Development of Problem solving skills

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Conclusion and Recommendations In this study, six hypotheses are formulated to test the significant influences of teaching methodologies on soft skills development. As a result, we conclude first that under teaching methodologies in which discussion, team work, creativity, questioning, practical work, observation and project work had positive correlation with soft skills development, whereas lecture method had negative correlation. Second, the composite score had positive & significant correlation with development of all three soft skills. Third, the teaching methodologies in which team work, creativity & observation had significantly impacted on development of communicative skills, team work skills and the problem solving skills. However, practical work had significantly effected on only communicative and team work skills development. Discussion and project work had significant impact on development of team work skills only, and questioning had significantly impacted on development of problem solving skills. Further, results obtained from the interview which was arranged with in-service advisors & Deputy Director of Education (Science) confirmed that the teaching methodologies had significant impact on soft skills development. According to Mahinda Chintana (2010) [15] “the real truth in education is, the education system that should not be focused on the next ten years but should be focused on the next century” and at present, about 180,000 students leave the school system after completion of their O/L and A/L examinations and nearly 17 percent of students who qualify for university education can gain admission to universities. A large proportion of these students enter the labor force without following any proper skills development programme. Therefore, this group will be the prime target for specific training and skills development programmes. Mahinda Chintana (2010) also suggested that “Improve the quality of basic and secondary education” as one of their policy objectives, according to which special programmes to improve soft skills - team work, communication, leadership, problem solving and entrepreneurial ability of students must be implemented. It is stated as one of the strategies to achieve the objectives. Hence, our studies give little support to Mahinda Chintana(2010) and we suggest to other researchers to give a major contribution to soft skills development studies that will help our nation to achieve Mahinda Chintana – Vision for the Future ( 2010).

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References Teachers’ instructional manual, “Life Competencies and Civic Education” grade 9, Maharagama: National institute of education, pp. 16, 2010(implemented).

National Education Commission, “Envisioning Education for Human Development, Proposals for a National Framework on General Education in Sri Lanka”. Colombo, Sri Lanka, 2003.

Shaheen Majid, Zhang Liming, and Shen Tong, Siti Raihana. “Importance of Soft Skills for Education and Career Success”, International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Special Issue Volume 2 Issue 2, 2012. Meenu Wats, and Rakesh Kumar Wats. “Developing Soft Skills in Students”, The International Journal of Learning, Volume 15, Issue 12, pp.1-10, 2009. Alshare, K.A., Lane, P.L., & Miller, D. “Business communication skills in Information Systems (IS) curricula: Perspectives of IS educators and students”. Journal of Education for Business, 86: 186– 194, 2011. Christie Brungardt ., “The Intersection Between Soft Skill Development and Leadership Education”. Journal of Leadership Education Volume 10, Issue 1 – Winter 2011. Ginige, I.L. “Teacher’s instructional manual, grade 9 Science”, Maharagama: National institute of education, pp. IV, 2010(implemented). “Advancing Sri Lanka’s Education System through Quality Inputs”, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOUTHASIAEXT/Resources/223546- Aggarwal, J.C., “Essentials of educational psychology”, New Delhi : Vikas publishing house pvt ltd. , reprint 2006. Best,w. “Research in Education”, New Delhi : Prentice Hall of India pvt.Ltd, pp.267 – 307, 1978. Cronk, B. , “How to use SPSS: A step-by-step guide to analysis and interpretation”. lendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing. 2004. Aadne Aasland , “A User Manual for SPSS Analysis” www.nibr.no/filer/SPSS%20analysis.pdf

D a v i d s o n , W.L. How to develop and conduct successful employee attitude surveys. Horsham, PA: The Dartnell Corporation., 1979.

H a q u e , M. M., Taher, M. A., Job Characteristics model and job satisfaction: Age, gender and marital status effect. Paper presented at the 7th International Conference on Ethics and Quality of Work-life for Sustainable Development, Bangkok, Thailand, 2008.

“Sri Lanka the Emerging Wonder of Asia Mahinda Chintana – Vision for the Future”, Colombo: The Department of National Planning, pp.74, 78, 127, 2010.

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Factors affecting Student Performance in Mathematics in G.C.E (O/L) in the Hatton Educational Zone ( Nuwara Eliya District – Tamil

Medium)

Mr. S. Amirthalingam (SLTES - 1)

President Jaffna National College of Education

Kopai

Abstract

It has been observed that the performance of students in G.C.E (O/L) in the study of Mathematics was relatively low compared to other subjects such as Science and Electric and Electronics in plantation schools. With this background a study was carried out in the Hatton Educational Zone, Nuwara Eliya district. The main objective of the study was to identify the factors that influenced the performance level in Mathematics. Data were collected by means of Questionnaires, interviews and documental analysis administrated to 28 school principals and 44 teachers of Mathematics. Data were interpreted in qualitative and quantitative manner. Univariables were dealt with percentage, bivariables were dealt with chi-square test and multivariables were dealt with MINITAB and SAS software. The main factors considered in this study were school administration, teacher commitment, student motivation, parents’ co-operation, physical and human resources, and managerial functions and classroom activities. The findings revealed the factors related with poor performance of students observed in mathematics. This study has further revealed other factors such as the shortage of Mathematics teachers, lack of training, lack of commitment and follows up supervision work. Based on findings it was recommended that the Sri Lankan education policy should be rectified to regularize supervision and feedback and to satisfactorily overcome this ‘burden’, Ministry of Education should provide further training and seminars for the teachers of Mathematics for effective teaching and learning.

Key words: Mathematics, Affecting factors, Performance

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1. Introduction Planning and implementation of Mathematics curriculum play a significant role in the system of education. Mathematics is an essential component in the primary, secondary and tertiary level curriculum. Several studies are necessary to improve the level of achievement of the learners.

Background to the study Researcher has long years of experience in teaching Mathematics and curriculum development. During his service as a teacher and teacher educator in Hatton Education Zone for 21 years, he notices the performance of G.C.E. O/L Students in Mathematics in this area was very low. The above situation made the researcher to carry out a study on this crucial issue. This study is carried out to identify the practical problems in relation to Mathematics teaching. Furthermore, this study would find out the reasons for poor performances in Mathematics and help to formulate an appropriate background to the final solutions.

Objectives

1. To identify the problems which are faced by the Mathematics teachers in implementing Mathematics curriculum?

2. To identify the weaknesses of using teaching methods and techniques. 3. To identify shortcomings of the training programmes conducted for Mathematics

teachers.

2. Review of Literature

Mathematics takes a significant role in every aspect of human life in every stage. Without understanding the mathematical concepts, no one can get success in life. Mathematics is an important subject in the school curriculum all over the world. Therefore, every country includes Mathematics as a subject in the school curriculum. Sri Lanka also adopts this approach from the primary level to the tertiary level curriculum, since Mathematics concepts help to promote other subject studies. For example, Mathematics at the General Certificate of Education (ordinary Level) is a requirement for employment or higher education. (Satgunarajah, 1991)

According to the examination report (2008 -2010), large number of students obtained low marks at national level in mathematics at GCE O/L examination. From the report, students obtained a mark below 40 in mathematics during the years 2007 to 2009, were approximately 70, 63, 71 percentage respectively.

Sandirasegaran (2009) indicates the following reasons for the low competency level of Sri Lankan students in mathematics. Mathematics was not taught in relation to their day to day life and culture; lack of trained and competent teachers, adopting teaching

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methods without considering individual differences of students, curriculum changes were not accessible to teachers in proper time. Various distracting factors of students learning such as, lack of competent officers to supervise and guide properly, and political involvement in education system were the major causes for inefficiency (2003, NEC Report). Different types of teaching methods were not applied in considering the slow learners and backward children. Modern pedagogical techniques were not introduced. Teachers did not follow the proper remedial teaching, Parents, teachers and principal did not work together to take needy actions to overcome the failure in mathematics.

Karunanithy (2009) indicates the following factors that influence in mathematics achievement :Facilities and organizations for learning and assessments, teacher’s educational qualification and professional experiences, supervision and monitoring, teaching methods, relationship of the teacher with student, parents and principal, qualifications of the management body. Syllabus, text books, teacher guide were not received in proper time, economic and social background of parents, lack of support and conducive learning environment at home, attitude of zonal supervisors (etc).

Telima Adophous(2011) did a research on problem of teaching and learning of geometry (one of mathematics portion) in secondary schools in river state, Nigeria. His findings were as follows.

1. The foundation of most mathematics teachers in geometry is poor 2. The students have poor foundation in mathematics, as such cannot solve problem

even similar examples are given 3. The teaching and learning environment are not conducive. This is in line with lack

of infrastructures and basic facilities for teaching and learning. 4. Attitude of students towards learning is very poor. They lack the willingness and

readiness to learn. 5. The teachers lack commitment due to lack of motivation. 6. It was also found that if the necessary provisions were made and proper

monitoring was made on the students and teachers, these problems would be a thing of the fast.

Factors associated with higher achievement in mathematics include: (i) speaking the language of the test at home; (ii) higher levels of parents’ education (iii) positive attitude towards learning mathematics; (iv) higher educational expectation; (v) more educational resources and books in the home; and (vi) attending a school where satisfactory working conditions and adequate resources are provided, and principals and teachers have a positive view of the school climate. (Mullis et al, 2008)

3. Methodology The study was done by using three types of analysis-single variable based on percentage, bi-variable based on Chi-squared test and multi-variable based on SAS and Minitab software.

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Research area The study was done in Hatton Educational Zone in the Nuwara Eliya District of the Central Province.

Research population Research population included 28 schools in the Hatton Educational Zone. The researcher selected 1AB, 1C, and Type II schools for the purpose of this study. The description of schools, teachers and principals are given below. Table 1: The description of schools, teachers and principals

Type Number of school Number of teacher Number of principal 1AB 1 4 1 1C 11 22 11 II 16 18 16

Data and data collection instruments Researcher collected data using questionnaires, interviews and document analysis. Main data collection was conducted by a field survey using a questionnaire. The researcher visited the Department of Education (Hatton Zone), SIDA office and G.I.Z office to obtain G.C.E (O/L) result schedules, teachers and school particulars, for the documental analysis.

Questionnaire

Questionnaire included structured and unstructured questions. Questionnaire is the main instrument for this study. Two types of questionnaires were prepared for teachers and principals, separately. Questionnaire for teachers comprises four sections, which are basic information / particulars of teachers, classroom teaching, school administration and teacher, parent teacher relationship.

According to data requirements, the above four sections were further divided. Questionnaire for the principals was also designed in a similar manner to gather relevant information.

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Interview

Apart from the questionnaire, the researcher had interviews with teachers and principals. Researcher randomly selected one 1AB, four 1C and five Type II schools and conducted interviews with them according to the schedule. Through this, the researcher could clarify the data and was able to get meaningful information from the respondents. Data collection procedure

For the purpose of collecting data, researcher obtained permission from the Department of Education to collect data from school principals and teachers who were attached to the department. The teachers and principals were properly informed beforehand to get their consent and suitable dates and times for interviews, documentary analysis and to complete questionnaires.

Distribution of Questionnaire

At the very outset, the questionnaires were distributed among 5 teachers and 5 principals to conform them. Then the questionnaire was reconstructed taking into account the result of the pilot study. Questionnaires for teachers and principals were distributed by the researcher and got them completed.

Ethical consideration

Firstly, the researcher informed the Department of Education and schools and obtained the necessary permission from them for data collection. The respondents were given assurance that the data given by them would be kept confidentially.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1 Interpretation of the results:-

4.1.1 Single variable analysis

In Mathematics, learning and producing results are determined by several individual variables and independent variables. If we consider individual variables, the following variables mostly influence in the percentage of failures in Mathematics:

1. Shortage of Mathematics teachers 2. Educational and professional qualifications 3. Utilizing the teachers 4. Weakness in administration 5. Utilization of resources 6. Weakness in supervision 7. Poor education system 8. Lack of motivation for learning 9. Inappropriate teaching methods

10. Lack of using teaching aids

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11. Inadequate seminars/workshops for teachers 12. Insufficient external supervision 13. Excess students in classrooms 14. Lack of administrative support 15. Lack of further training in specific areas (Geometry and Trigonometry) 16. Lack of parent's support

Figure 4.1 Influence of variables in Mathematics performance of students This is in agreement with the articles (Sandirasegaran, 2009 & Karunanithy, 2009) on supervision, teaching methods, resources and parent support.

4.1.2 Bivariate Analysis

Any learning event is not influenced by a single variable and most of these variables are directly or indirectly interconnected. The percentage of Mathematics results depends on numerous variables such as school management, administration, and commitment of teachers and motivation of students. In this study researcher has taken nessasary steps to identify variables that are associated with each other.

In the bivariate analysis, researcher identifies some interconnected variables, which are given below:-

Policy related factors Teacher appointment Student teacher ratio Resource allocation

School related factors Teacher utilization Teacher allocation Supervision School based development

programme

External factors Departmental supervision Seminars/workshops Evaluation Parents support

Teacher related factors Commitment Planning Innovation Teaching method Teaching strategies

Percentage failures in Mathematics

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Information obtained from teachers

4.1.2 .1 Use of Mathematical instrument by the students:- Table 4.1 : Result of the students bringing required mathematics Instruments and

percentage of failure Percentage of failure

Table 4.2 : Expected frequency of students bringing required mathematics Instruments and percentage of failure

Percentage of failure

H0: No association between students bringing required Mathematics instruments and

Percentage of failures. H1: Percentage of failures is associated with students bringing required Mathematics

instruments

Since the calculated chi-square value (4.63) is greater than that of the table value (3.84) at 5% significant level, we reject H0 and conclude that, percentage of failures is associated with the readiness to bring Mathematics instruments. Therefore, student’s preparation is an influencing factor in getting through the examination.

The psychologist such as Thorndike, emphasizes that readiness is one of the major aspects for any learning events. In Mathematics learning, the student's readiness such as bringing necessary instruments, exercise books, text books, and other stationeriess are most important for active participation and learning Mathematics. This is aggreement with the findings of Telima Adophous (2011). Attitude of students towards learning is very poor. They lack willingness and readiness to learn.

4.1.2 .2 Resources allocated by the office:-

Table 4.3 : Result of the resource given by office and percentage of failure Percentage of failure

<Mean value Mean value<= Bringing required No 05 21 Maths Instrument Yes 09 09

<Mean value Mean value<= Bringing required No 8.27 17.73 Maths Instrument Yes 5.73 12.27

<Mean value Mean value<= Resource given by No 05 21 Office Yes 09 09

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Table 4.4 : Expected frequency of the resource is given by office and percentage of failure

Percentage of failure

H0: No association between resources given by office and percentage of failure H1: Percentage of failure is associated with resources given by office Since calculated chi-square value (4.63) is greater than that of the table value (3.84) at 5% significant level, we reject H0 and conclude that resource given by office is associated with the percentage of failures. In other words, resource allocation among schools influences the percentage of failures.

Predetermined resources should be produced and issued by the office according to teachers needs. Educationists emphasize that there should be a resource room in every school for the purpose to ensure the efficient teaching and learning.

Resources as inputs are most important for any teaching learning process such as white and coloured chalks, instruments, teaching aids, blackboard, whiteboard, teacher's guides, text books. The appropriateness and the availability of these inputs or resources influence directly or indirectly the Mathematics performance of students. This agrees with the findings of Mullis et al (2008), i.e., the more educational resources and books are in home, and students learn are attending a school where satisfactory working conditions and adequate resources are provided, and principals and teachers have a positive view of the school climate. This is also in agreement with the articles (Sandirasegaran, 2009 & Karunanithy, 2009) on resources.

Figure 4.2: Bivariate analysis result

4.1.3: Multivariate analysis

Learning of any subject is not only depends on one or two variables but also depends on multi variables. Because learning is complex phenomena and it is determined by several variables. Based on principals’ and teachers’ attitudes toward poor Mathematics performances in estate sector, the researcher was able to identify the factors, internal supervision and professional commitment as important. Supervision is an essential factor to promote the teaching learning process at any level. Supervision is a multifaceted activity, because it includes several activities within itself such as motivating, guiding, counseling, and helping teachers. Professional commitment factor also includes various aspects within it. Those are punctuality, nature of appointment,

<Mean value Mean value<= Resource given by No 5.27 17.73 Office Yes 5.73 12.27

Resource allocation by administration Teaching aids Writing instruments Stationeries

Percentage of failures

Student readiness Mathematics

instruments Exercise books

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specialization in the subject area, enjoyment in Mathematics, effective teaching, and learning aids preparation.

4.1.3.1 Description of principal’s questions

Based on the principal’s questionnaire, researcher has identified twelve variables that may affect mathematics learning in the estate sector.

Those are: X1 :- Enough resources, X2 :- participation in mathematics seminars, X3 :- Professionals development programs, X4 :- Internal supervision, X5 :- Satisfaction of the In- service advisor’s duties, X6 :- Healthy learning environment, X7 :- Mathematics forum, X8 :- Interest in improving Mathematics, X9 :- Notes of lesson, X10 :- Relief work, X11 :- Overall satisfaction, X12 :-Satisfaction of student performances According to Annex I, as Eigen value of factors 1,2,3,4,5 are greater than one, factor1, factor2, factor3, factor 4, factor 5 are important factors and the rest are not important.

According to Annex II, factors were classified and named as follows: {X3, X4, X7, X8, X10, X11, X12} Management factors (Factor1), {X4} Supervision factors (Factor2), {X5} Motivation factors (Factor3), {X1, X5, X6} Proper Organization factors (Factor4), {X2, X9} Administration factors (Factor5). A multiple linear regression model was used for factor selection and the Established multiple regression analysis and SAS output are given:

Stepwise Procedure for Dependent Variable Y

Step 1 Variable F2 Entered

R- Square = 0.15335814 c(p) = 0.00195066

DF Sum of square Mean Square F Prob>F regression 1 671.33640634 671.33640634 4.53 0.0434 Error 25 3706.23633440 148.24945338 Total 26 4377.57274074 Parameter Standard Type II F Prob>F Variable Estimate Error Sum of squares INTERCEP 61.89412741 2.92271661 66484.21947735 448.46 0.0001 F2 10.39455336 4.88463687 671.33640634 4.53 0.0434 Bounds on condition number: 1 1

All Variables in the model are significant at the 0.1500 level. No other variable met the 0.1500 significance level for entry into the model.

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Summary of stepwise Procedure for dependent variable y

Since Prob> F is 0.0434 and less than 0.05, the only factors F2 has influence on the percentage of the failures of the students at 5 percent significance level. From the principal’s questionnaire researcher identified internal supervision as a major factor in failure in mathematics. This is an agreement with the articles of Sandrasegaran (2009) and Karunanithy (2009).

4.3.1.2 Description of teacher’s questions Based on the teacher’s questionnaire, researcher has identified twenty two variables that may affect mathematics learning in the estate sector. They are given below: X1:- Nature of the appointment, X2:- Specialty in Mathematics, X3:- Traveling, X4:- Satisfaction on time table, X5:-Enjoyment in Mathematics, X6:- Satisfaction of classroom, X7:- Evaluation of students, X8;- Resources to make teaching aids, X9:- Use new mathematical concepts, X10:- Participation for seminars/workshops, X11:- Satisfaction of lower classes, X12:- Use of mathematical instruments by students, X13:- Planning of supervision, X14:- External supervision, X15:- Satisfaction of supervision, X16:- Resources allocated by the office, X17:- use of notes of lesson, X18:- Time table, X19:- Relief arrangement, X20:- Satisfaction of parent’s cooperation support, X21:- way of parent support, X22:- Plan of getting parent support According to Annex III, as Eigen value of factors 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 are greater than one. factor1, factor2… factor 9 are important factors, and the rest are not important.

Using the SAS analysis, outputs are given in Annex IV

According to Annex IV, researcher classified the following factors and named as follows: {X1, X2, X3, X17} Personal Factors(Factor 1), {X1, X2, X5, X8, X14} Professional Commitment factors (Factor 2), {X6, X7, X11, X16, X17, X20} Job satisfaction factors (Factor 3), {X14, X18} Managerial factors (Factor 4), {X11, X19} Planning factors (factor 5), {X5, X9, X20} Innovation factors (factor 6), {X2} Professional development factors (factor 7), {X4, X21} Externalities factors (factor 8), {X22} School and community relation factors (factor 9) A multiple linear regression model was used for factor selection and the Established multiple regression analysis and SAS output are given:

Variable Number Partial model Step Entered

Removed in R**2 R**2 C(p) F Prob>F

1 F2 1 0.1534 0.1534 0.0020 4.5284 0.0434

Variable Number Partial model Step Entered

Removed in R**2 R**2 C(p) F Prob>F

1 F2 1 0.1534 0.1534 0.0020 4.5284 0.0434

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Stepwise Procedure for Dependent Variable Y

Step 1

Variable F2 Entered

R- squre = 0.08638233 c(p) = - 1.58464818

DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Prob>F Regression 1 467.19161928 467.19161928 3.97 0.0528 Error 42 4941.22489891 117.64821188 Total 43 5408.41651818 Bounds on condition number Parameter Standard Type II Variable Estimate Error Sum of Square F Prob>F INTERCEP 53.61937344 5.97008257 9490.0490.04179955 80.66 0.0001 F2 7.62314237 3.82542044 467.19161928 3.97 0.0528 Bounds on condition number: 1 1 All variables in the model are significant at the 0.1500 level. No other Variable met the 0.1500 significance level for entry into the model. Summary of stepwise procedure for Dependent variable Y

Since prob>F is 0.0528, Factor F2 has influence on percentage of failure. Therefore, professional commitment factors namely, nature of the appointment, specialty in mathematics, enjoyment in mathematics, resources to make teaching aids, and external supervision, influence the percentage of failures in mathematics. This is in agreement with the identified factors of Sandirasegaran (2009) and Karunanithy (2009).

Figure 4.3 Multivariate influences in Mathematics performance

Variable number Practical Model Step Entered

Removed In R**2 R**2 C(p) F Prob>F

1 F2 1 0.0864 0.0864 -1.5864 3.9711 0.0528

Internal supervision Planning Implementation Selection of techniques

Professional commitment Specialization Enjoyment in teaching

Percentage of failure in Mathematics

Step 1

Variable F2 Entered

R- squre = 0.08638233 c(p) = - 1.58464818

DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Prob>F Regression 1 467.19161928 467.19161928 3.97 0.0528 Error 42 4941.22489891 117.64821188 Total 43 5408.41651818 Bounds on condition number Parameter Standard Type II Variable Estimate Error Sum of Square F Prob>F INTERCEP 53.61937344 5.97008257 9490.0490.04179955 80.66 0.0001 F2 7.62314237 3.82542044 467.19161928 3.97 0.0528 Bounds on condition number: 1 1

Variable number Practical Model Step Entered

Removed In R**2 R**2 C(p) F Prob>F

1 F2 1 0.0864 0.0864 -1.5864 3.9711 0.0528

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5. Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclusions

There are several factors that influence the teaching and learning of Mathematics in the plantation sector such as school management, principal’s personality, abilities and strategies are the prominent factors for implementing on teacher bonded activities successfully.

The successful implementation of the academic plans depends on periodically decided supervisions. Unfortunately the schools in the plantation area are not enriched with enough supervisory feedback.

Resources are important inputs in a teaching-learning process for efficient and effective output, as indicated by teachers, which is common in the plantation schools. Teachers in this area indicated that the shortage of resources was the major obstacle for progress towards better results.

The weaknesses in the system of education in Sri Lanka also influence the grass root level functions, such as inefficient external supervision. Planning periodical seminars and workshops, general evaluation, and motivation are other factors that could be exemplified.

Similarly, teachers in this research area felt that professional commitment was the latent factor that had influence on overall Mathematics results. Professional commitment comprises positive attitudes, dedication, innovation, joyful teaching, planning abilities, implementing the curriculum, effective classroom, interest on professional and academic development and reflection. Weaknesses on action plans in the plantation schools indicate that there is a gray area on professional commitment of the teacher who involves Mathematics teaching.

Teaching and learning environment in the classroom level is identified as the third important factor. Teachers and principals in the plantation area have put forwarded criticism at classroom level activities. Specifically the numbers of the students in the classroom are higher than recommended. Shortage of separate classroom, lack of lighting facilities, poor ventilation, and noisy surroundings are the factors that make the learning environment unhealthy.

Less attendance, dropouts and number of repeaters are the other factors related to the students and parents that determine the enthusiastic level of Mathematics learning of students. Home environment of the learner is also a negative motivator; say financial difficulties of the family, crowded line rooms, poor guidance, less opportunities for further learning, nutritious food and epidemics and so on.

Therefore, the study reveals that, the performance level of students in Mathematics depend on several interdependent variables.

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References

Department of Examination (2012), National Symposium on Reviewing of the Performance of School candidates; -“G.C.E. (O/L) Examination – 2011. National Evaluation & Testing Service, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Karunanithy, M.(2009) Akavilhi; -“Efficiencies in Mathematics subject” September – Page -20.

Mullies et al (2008). TIMMS 2007 International Mathematics Report: Findings from IEA’s Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study at the Fourth and English Grades. TIMSS & PIRLS Internationational Study Center, Bosten College, Chestnut Hill, MA.

Sandrasegaran,S. (2009) Akavilhi;-“Decrease of Quality in Sri Lankan School Education” September – Page -10.

Satgunarajah, E.J. (1991) Research Article An investigation into some factors affecting achievement in Mathematics at the Junior Secondary level, Sri Lankan Journal of Educational Research, Vol 2, No 1, 1991, pp. 1-22.

Telima Adolphus (2011) Problems of Teaching and Learning of Geometry in Secondary Schools in Rivers State, Nigeria.

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Annex I Eigen values of the correlation Matrix: Total= 12, Average = 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 Eigen value 3.259929 1.606285 1.201755 1.184005 1.1012884 0.943989

Difference 1.653644 0.404530 0.017750 0.082721 0.157295 0.151394

Proportion 0.2717 0.1339 0.1001 0.0987 0.0918 0.0787

Cumulative 0.2717 0.4055 0.5057 0.6043 0.6961 0.7748 7 8 9 10 11 12 Eigen value 0.792595 0.600384 0.537943 0.360175 0.310559 0.101096

Difference 0.192211 0.062441 0.177768 0.049616 0.209464

Proportion 0.0660 0.0500 0.0448 0.0300 0.0259 0.0084

Cumulative 0.8408 0.8909 0.9357 0.9657 0.9916 1.0000

Annex II

Factor Pattern

factors 1 factors 2 factors 3 factors 4 factors 5 X1 0.38726 -0.2379 -0.47769 0.40875 -0.06320 X2 0.46596 0.23776 0.10119 0.31454 0.54263 X3 0.55438 0.30307 0.30957 -0.41774 0.05875 X4 0.4767 0.44453 -0.15102 -0.38751 -0.09728 X5 0.10737 0.39355 0.44541 0.46402 -0.21617 X6 0.70334 0.20153 -0.16164 0.44628 -0.09288 X7 0.47483 0.39556 0.18632 0.16347 0.05789 X8 0.686229 0.07425 -0.46289 -0.06221 -0.34607 X9 0.40270 0.01368 -0.33308 -0.25600 0.63430 X10 0.67443 -0.23105 0.17980 -0.24832 -0.41946 X11 0.53073 -0.55441 0.29106 -0.11525 0.04052 X12 0.50659 -0.60191 0.37842 0.08815 0.17760

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Eigen value 3.130265

2.473658 2.104877 1.909666 1.700359 1.381880 1.332269 1.245505 1.119902

Deference 0.656612

0.368780 0.195211 0.209307 0.318479 0.049612 0.086764 0.125603 0.206121

Proportion 0.1423 0.1124 0.2557 0.0868 0.0773 0.0628 0.0606 0.0566 0.0509

Cumulative 0.1423 0.2547 0.3504 0.4372 0.5145 0.5773 0.6379 0.6945 0.7454

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Eigen value 0.913781

0.784545 0.715271 0.629345 0.552233 0.475546 0.402840 0.358240 0.236113

Deference 0.129236

0.069274 0.085926 0.077112 0.076687 0.072706 0.044600 0.122127 0.052348

Proportion 0.0415 0.0357 0.0325 0.0286 0.0251 0.0216 0.0183 0.0163 0.0107

cumulative 0.7869 0.8226 0.8551 0.8837 0.9088 0.9304 0.9487 0.9650 0.9757

19 20 21 22

Eigen value 0.183765

0.138751 0.110096 0.10108

Deference 0.045014

0.028654 0.009008

Proportion 0.0084 0.0063 0.0050 0.0046

cumulative 0.9841 0.9904 0.9954 1.0000

Annex III

Eigen values of the correlation matrix: Total=22 Average=1

76

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor 5 Factor 6 Factor 7 Factor 8 Factor 9

X1 0.44041 0.49383 0.05750 0.33626 0.12759 -0.18796 -0.21382 0.19521 0.32883

X2 0.44436 0.57982 -0.06694 0.20562 -0.05499 0.00876 0.40762 0.21098 0.06207

X3 0.55916 -0.03054 0.01035 -0.15532 -0.18719 0.16532 -0.46536 0.01888 0.06748

X4 0.02713 -0.34303 -0.25376 0.35622 -0.24470 0.11452 0.30075 0.41316 -0.39631

X5 0.37038 0.41716 0.04922 -0.01667 -0.08363 0.43700 -0.12519 0.16109 -0.00114

X6 0.05490 -0.37287 0.44137 -0.07099 -0.31589 -0.14787 -0.08126 0.36413 -0.14219

X7 -0.37185 0.20487 0.54981 0.10933 0.20704 -0.09232 0.39862 -0.17223 -0.23704

X8 0.05607 0.51470 0.17639 0.02452 -0.19777 -0.35432 0.35313 0.18300 0.22093

X9 0.35944 -0.03734 -0.29248 0.39728 0.27244 0.41764 0.14817 0.28050 0.23750

X10 0.22660 0.39654 -0.13908 -0.28041 -0.53340 0.28005 0.25241 0.03303 -0.12021

X11 0.12329 0.15271 0.47562 -0.35101 0.40437 0.21186 0.02236 0.21805 -0.09746

X12 0.12545 -0.24198 0.62446 0.25408 -0.06176 0.29145 -0.10241 0.35973 0.13092

X13 -0.55036 0.18233 -0.11714 0.38242 -0.29349 -0.00432 -0.37437 -0.01333 0.10693

X14 -0.24004 0.56690 -0.05351 0.48882 0.09167 0.14842 -0.19064 -0.11941 -0.38247

X15 -0.66868 0.27817 0.10913 0.35404 -0.10308 0.14674 -0.30437 0.02872 -0.03185

X16 -0.37644 -0.21481 0.43246 0.20143 -0.33103 -0.00611 0.17760 -0.26881 0.35728

X17 0.56645 0.14772 0.43932 0.02144 0.33601 -0.14131 -0.25742 -0.25842 -021862

X18 0.30984 -0.19021 0.17449 0.62118 0.02494 -0.46611 0.14834 0.14246 -0.01755

X19 0.086668 -0.44646 -0.30047 0.33960 0.54501 0.03920 0.08738 -0.13972 -0.03765

X20 0.22355 -0.21845 0.48758 0.19815 -0.13734 0.48074 0.04769 -0.34711 -0.03733

X21 -0.50355 0.36071 0.11102 -0.17893 0.30995 -0.14285 0.01142 0.42948 -0.20933

X22 -0.50803 0.04528 0.03987 -0.19277 0.36202 0.20616 0.10897 0.11977 0.49242

Annex IV

Factor Pattern

77

A Qualitative Education through Research Culture

M.M. Senevirathna (BA, M PHIL, DIP IN EDU)

mmsenavi@gmail.com Abstract in English Science which was born so far in the world among many subjects has been become well known because of its certainly, logicality and philosophical connection in it. Also science could be taken the human civilization into a great progress during the past seven centuries due to the scientific methodology which was woven around it. Depending on this methodology which was introduced and developed by the scientists such as Francis Baken, Dvaid Hume, and Karl Hempal have been carrying on researches. RE + SEARCH “Research again or a careful investigation to re understand or examine the facts or to search for new facts to modify older ones in any branch of knowledge.” examining the reality of the physical and social nature is one of the researches being done depending on the scientific methodology. The modern man has used research to fulfill their day-to-day affairs capably and usefully because of its connection with the philosophical belief. Research in physical or natural science or experiments are done in order to use the materialistic things in the physical world around us identifying the real nature for the resistance of human beings. Reserch in social or human science is used to comprehense correctly the social background of the man who is different from physical environment. Theoratical and empirical type of research are being done expecting the development of subject instructively and applied needs consecutively. It is established and definite through the experience of developed countries that the empirical resarches which can be used for policy planning and implementation, usefulness of development projects, success of social welfare projects to solve the social problems sustainably, improvement of technology, controlling mass media, re-organizing the field of legal, marketing surveys and also the development of quality in education can be used for the development of the country. Such activities can be done capably and effectively only through researches. The developed countries spend a large sum of money on researches as it gives many benefits to them, but Sri Lanka does not pay much attention on researches. It is emphasized from this article, about the situations that researches can be used for qualitative development in education. But it’s a problem whether the researches are being used on behalf of fulfilling the objectives of the education. Although the research are done focusing on various objectives at university level to school level it should be stated that they are unable to reach the aims of future education. The purpose of this

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article is to identify the occasions of doing researches and point out the usefulness of them. Theoratical and practical researches are done aiming at degree and post graduate degree caurses by the universities and other higher educational institutions but the new inventions introduced by researches are not sufficient for the investment of the progress of education. Considering the compulsory education or the qualitative education of school as the foundation of education, there are many situations that can be used in researches. Though the principals, teachers and students are doing researches expecting different objectives they are not getting the maximum use of each and every one of it. Anyway it is only a need of a programme focusing on a new knowledge on behalf of the development of the field of education. Research are helpful in several ways in schools such as making educational policies, developing syllabuses, monitoring schools, school management, internal supervision, classroom learning-teaching process, maintaining discipline of school students identifying the backward students are get actions to improve them effectively and uplifting the efficiency. Any research methods such as surveys, casestudies, feacibility studies, action researches and projective methods can be used. At present the action research methods has been used in the field of education to improve the qualitative education out of these research methods. Now several institutes like Research and Development Unit of the Ministry of Education, National Institute of Education, Universities conducting teacher training caurses, College of Education have been taking actions to make the action research methods famous. It is a commendable situation. The importants of action research method is because it shows the results while is ending and it suits with the practical requirements. Activities such as making the schools, zones, departments interested in doing researches, encouraging to conduct researches, making popular the research, through a magazine called ‘Education Perspective’ can be done. The purpose of this article is to introduce the importance of a national programme for the development of qualitative education consolidating both theoretical and practical researches doing all the levels of the educational field, in the country.

79

wwOHdmkh flakaø lr .;a m¾fhaIK ixialD;shla tï' tï' fifkúr;ak

BA, M.Phil (sociology), Dip in Ed: ^iudc úoHd l:sldpdr®h welajhskdia úYaj úoHd, wdh;kh "fnd/,a,&

YS% rdyq, cd;sl mdi, lgq.iaf;dg 0714429949

mmsenevi@gmail.com

ñysu; Ôj;a jk fldaá ixLHd; i;a;aj j¾.hd w;ßka ñksid woaú;Sh jkqfha Tyq i;= j mj;sk ks¾udKd;aul yelshd fuka u Wiia nqoaêh ksid h' ukiska o Wiia ksid Tyqg wjg f,dalfha iajNdj O¾uhd yereKq fldg fiiq fndfyda foaj,a md,kh lsÍug fjkia lsÍug fuka u ;u j¾.hdf.a meje;au yd wNsjDoaêh fjkqfjka Wmfhda.s lr .ekSfï yelshdj o mj;S' udkj b;sydifha wE; hq.j, mgka u Tyq ish Yla;Ska Wmfhda.S lr .ksñka ;ud wjg f,dalh h:d¾:jd§ j f;areï .ekSug W;aidy orhs' ñksid ;=< mj;akd tu fkd;s;a wdYdj fya;=fjka wo jk úg ;dlaIKsl ÈhqKqjla fuka u úYd, ±kqï iïNdrhla jHjydrhg tla ù we;' fuf;la f,dj ìys jQ wd.ï o¾Yk ñksia Èúfha ffoksl lghq;= myiqfjka yd ld¾hlaIu j bgq lr .ekSug ksujd we;s fkalúO fuj,ï Bg ksoiqka h' ñksid ld,dkqrEm j ,enq nqoaêuh ixj¾®Okfha w.% M,hla f,i 14 jk ishji jk úg úoHd;aul Ñka;kh jHjydrhg tla fjhs' ^Kothari;2000:11&' úoHd;aul Ñka;kh y`ÿkajd §u;a iu. ñksidg ;ud wjg f,dalh h:d¾;jd§ j f;areï .ekSfï yelshdj ,efí' ish Ôú;h ld¾hlaIuj yd M,odhS f,i .; lr .ekSug wjYH miqìula ta iu`. u ks¾udKh fjhs' miq.sh ishjia y;l ld,h mqrd udkj YsIagdpdrfha isÿ jQ úma,ùh fjkialï Bg idlaIs orhs' SCIENCE hkq ,;s;a NdIdfõ tk OIDA iy SCIRE hk jpk wdY%fhka f.dvke.=kls' tys jpkd¾:h fidhd .ekSu" ±k .ekSu" .fõIKh" i;H jQ ±kqu ixúOdkh l< idudkH nqoaêhhs" hula ms<sn`o Ydia;%Sh jQ o l%uj;a jQ o {dk iïNdrho úoHdj hs (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge.)(Blumer; 1984:10)

úoHdj f,dj m%p,s; ù we;af;a ta ;=< we;s i;Hjd§ nj;a ;d¾lsl nj;a fya;=M,

iïnkaO;dj;a jdia;úl idOl u; ks.ukj,g t<öu fuka u úoHd;aul l%ufõohla wkq.ukh lrñka fN!;sl fyda iudc ixisoaê h:d¾:jdoS j f;areï .ekSu jeks úfYaI;d úoHdj yd ne`§ mj;sk ksid h' úoHd;aul Ñka;kh m%p,s; ùfï m%;sM,hla f,i wo jk úg ñksia Ñka;kh o ;¾ldkql+, ù ;sfí' ´kE u fohla m%;HlaI f.dapr wdldrhg fya;= idlaIs we;s j ms<s.ekSu flfrys wjOdkh fhduq lrkafka fï ksid h' ñksid ;u ffoksl Ôú;fha iEu wjYH;djla u ld¾hlaIu j yd M,odhS f,i bgq lr .kakg úoHd;aul l%ufõoh yd ne`ÿKq m¾fhaIK l%u Ndú;hg yqreù ;sfí' úoHdj wdrïN ù m%p,s; ùu;a iu. 15" 16" 17 jeks ishjiaj, m%ekaisia fílka" fâúâ yshqï" ld,a fyïm,a" ld,a fmdm¾ jeks úoHd×hska úoHd;aul l%ufõoh (Scientific Method) yÿkajd oS ixj¾Okh lr we;' (Scientific Method is the pursuit of Truth as determind by Logical considerations.) (fifkúr;ak(2014(02& wm wjg f,dalh jvd;a ksjerÈ j f;areï .ekSu i`oyd Wmfhda.S lr .; yels ;¾ldkql+, jQ l%u fõohla f,i úoHd;aul l%uh ye`Èkaùug mq¿jk' zl=uk fyda m%mxphla i;= j mj;sk fya;=M, iïnkaO;dj fmkajd §u;a ta iïnkaOfhka ñksidg {dk iïNdrhla imhd fok nj;a Tyqf.a nqoaêuh l=;=y,h ke;s lsÍu muKla fkdj ffoksl Ôú;h myiq lrùug o úoHd;aul l%ufõoh Woõ jk nj Henry poincare mjihss'Z kHdh (Theory) WmkHdih (Hypothasis) ksÍlaIKh (Observation) wdkqNúl idudkHlrKh (Empirical Genaralization*) fuys uQ,sldx.h h'^Scientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating Phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.)

80

Feyerbond m%ldY lrkafka zúoHd;aul l%uh .;dkq.;sl úê Ydia;%j,ska uq¿ukska u úks¾uqla; jQ ±kqï ix.Dys;hla nj hs' th ñksid m%.;sh lrd f.k hk odjlhla o nj fmkajd fohs'Z úoHd;aul l%ufõohg wkqj hñka f,dj mj;akd ´kEu jdia;úl jQ fN!;sl fyda iudc ixisoaêhla f;areï .; yelsh' ta ioyd úoHd×hska wkq.ukh lrkafka m¾fhaIK h (Research)' Re + SEARCH kej; kej; iqmrSËdldrS ne,Su hkak tys jpkd¾:h hs' ^‘Research again or a careful investigation to re understand or examine the facts or to search for new facts or to modify older ones in anybranch of knowledge.) (Babbi; 1983: 28)

hula ms<sn`o kj ±kqu fidhd .ekSug fyda mj;akd ±kqu jeä ÈhqKq lsÍug

ke;skï ksjerÈ lsÍug lrkq ,nk m%fõYïldÍ fidhd ne,Su m¾fhaIKhla hkqfjka woyia lrhs' jvd úêu;a jQ;a l%udkql+, jQ;a mßY%uhlska úoHd;aul l%ufõohla weiqfrka lreKq úYaf,aIKh fldg ks.ukj,g t<öu m¾fhaIKhlska isÿfõ' jdia;úl .eg,qjla yoqkd .;a ;eka mgka m¾fhaIK jd¾;dj rpkd lrk wjia:dj olajd Bg wod< j wkq.ukh l< hq;= l%shdldrlï my; ioyka wdlD;sfhka fmkakqï lrhs'

m¾fhaIK l%shdj,sh

jd¾;dj ,sùu yd m%ldYkhg m;alssÍu

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wdkqNúl idudkHlrKh .eg¨j kss¾jpkh lsrsu

o;a; úsYaf,aYKh idys;H úu¾Ykh

f;dr;=rej, m%udKj;aa nj ;SrKh lsrSu WmkHdi f.dv ke`.Su

f;dr;=re /ia lsrSu m¾fhaIK l%u ;SrKh lsrSu m¾fhaIK isÿjk wruqKq wkqj m%Odk fldgia follg fnfoa' 01' fN!;sl úoHd;aul yd iajdNdúl úoHd m¾fhaIK (Research in physical or Natural Science) 02' iudÔh fyda udkj úoHd m¾fhaIK (Research in Social or Human Science) wm Ôj;a jk fN!;sl mßirh fyj;a øjHd;aul f,dalh mj;akd ieáfhka f;areï f.k udkj j¾.hdf.a m%.;shg tu oekqu Wmfhda.S lr .ekSu wruqKq lr f.k isÿ lrk iïmÍlaIK (Experiment) uq,a .Khg wh;a fõ' m¾fhaIKd.dr ;=< jia;= md,kfhka isÿlrkafka iïmÍlaIKh' uE; b;sydifha fN!;sl úoHdj" ridhk úoHdj" Ôj úoHdj jeks

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úIhhka i`oyd ,nd fok fkdfn,a ;Hd. ,dNSka jeä fofkla m¾fhaIKj,ska isÿ l< kj fidhd .ekSï ksid úYaj iïNdjkdjg m;a jQfjda h' ñksidf.a iudc mßirh wdY%s; j tkï iudc" wd¾Ól" foaYmd,ksl hk lafIa;% h:d¾:jd§ j f;areï .ekSu i`oyd iudÔh úoHd m¾fhaIK (Social Research) Wmfhda.s lr .efka' ñksidf.a iudc mßirh yd ne`ÿKq ´kE u jdia;úl ixisoaêhla h:d¾;jd§ j f;areï .ekSfï yelshdj iudc m¾fhaIK i;= h' fuys oS jeä wjOdkhla fhduq lrkafka iudc m¾fhaIKj,g h' tajd o wruqKq wkqj m%Odk fldgia follg fnod fjka l< yels h' 01' kHdhd;aul m¾fhaIK (Theoritical Type of Research) 02' wdkqNdúl m¾fhaIK (Empirical Type of Research) (Blckman; 1998: 18) lsishï úIhhl Ydia;%Sh wxYfha jeä ÈhqKqj i`oyd isÿ flfrkafka kHdhd;aul m¾fhaIK h' WmkHdi y`ÿkajd §u" kHdhka f.dv ke.Su" iudc ixisoaê kHdhd;aul j f;areï .ekSu yd úIh ±kqu m%;HlaI lr .ekSu i`oyd isÿ lrkafka kHdhd;aul m¾fhaIK h' iudc úoHdj" wd¾Ól úoHdj" foaYmd,k úoHdj" ufkda úoHdj wOHdmk úoHdj jeks iudÔh úoHd úIhhkays muKla fkd j Y=oaO úoHd;aul úIhhka ;+< o úIh ±kqu ixj¾Okhg isÿ flfrkafka kHdhd;aul m¾fhaIK h' úYajúoHd, yd fjk;a Wiia wOHdmk wdh;kj, Ydia;%Sh wruqKq fmr±ß lr f.k isÿ lrk m¾fhaIK óg kso¾Yk h' wdkqNúl m¾fhaIK hkq ñksiqkaf.a m%dfhda.sl Ôú;h yd ne`ÿKq ixisoaëka wruqKq lrf.k isÿ lrk m¾fhaIK h' rglg wdh;khlg fuka u mqoa.,hl=g ;u wruqKq uekúka imqrd .ekSu i`oyd jHjydßl m¾fhaIK u.ska wdf,dalhla imhd .; yels h' m¾fhaIK .eg,qfú iajNdjh wruqKq iy l%ufúohka wkqj úúO m¾fhaIK l%u (Research Designs) m¾fhaIlhka úiska Ndú; lrkq ,efí' ^lreKdr;ak 1999 (16& Wod(

• Action Research l%shduQ,sl m¾fhaIK • The case study isoaê wOHhk l%uh • Comparative study ixikaokd;aul l%uh • Survey method ióËK l%uh • Field Research fË;% wOHhk l%uh • Ethnographic udkj jxY újrK l%uh ^is,aú(2008( 28&

fujeks m¾fhaIK ioyd o;a; odhlhka fj;ska o;a; ,nd .ekSug ^Data collecting methods) úúO Ys,amSh l%u wkq.ukh lrhs ^r;akmd,(1984(107&

• Questionnaire method m%Yakud,d l%uh • Interview method iïuqL idlÉPd l%uh • Observation method ksrSËK l%uh • Participant observation method iyNd.s ksrSËK • Living in Research cSjk w;aoelSï l%uh • Projective test m%fËmK l%u

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iudÔh úoHd m¾fhaIKj, úYajiksh;ajh i|yd ixLHdk úoHdj o Wmfhda.s lr .kS' ^Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, analysis, and interpretation of data) úúO úIhka iïnkaO f;dr;=re úoHdkql+, j /iafldg tu f;dr;=re l%udkql+, j úYaf,aIKh lsÍfuka fkdfhl=;a ks.uk lrd t<U ta wkqj hï hï idOdrKd;aul ;SrK .ekSu ixLHdkh hs' ^statistics) úia;rd;aul ixLHdkh ^Descriptive statistics) iy úYaf,aIKd;aul ixLHdkh ^Inferential statistics) hk tys fldgia fol u m¾fhaIK ld¾h id¾:l lr .ekSug Wmfhda.S lr .; hq;= fjhss' ^ch;siai(1996(1& ksheos f;dard .ekSu" ie,eiau ilia lsÍu" o;a; /ia lsÍu" o;a; ixúOdkh úYaf,aIKh iy m¾fhaIK jd¾;dj ms<sfh, lsÍu jeks iEu wjiaa:djlg u Y=oaO úoHd;aul úIhhla jk ixLHdkh Wmldß fjhs' flakaøs%l m%jK;d ñkqï ^Measures of Central Tendency) wmlsrK ñkqï ^Measures of dispersion) l+ál;dfõ ñkqï ^Measures of skewness) iy jl%ñfha ñkqï ^Measures of kurtosis) hk ñkqï o`vq weiqre fldgf.k m%udKd;aul o;a; úYaf,aIKh lrhs' ^lreKdr;ak(1994(15& /ialr .kakd .=Kd;aul o;a; úYaf,aIKh wkql%ñl m%fõY l%uh isÿùï jHqy.; l%uh ^CONTENT ANALYSIS), kso¾k wdo¾Yk l%uh ú.%yd;aul ixLHdk úoHd;aul l%uh ^DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS) iy tl.;d l%uh jeks l%u wkqidrfhka isÿ l< yels h' ^YsrdKs(2001( 96&

úoHd;aul Ñka;kh ñksia wjYH;d ld¾hlaIu j yd M,odhs f,i bgq lsÍug

wdfhdackh flfrkafka m¾fhaIK u`.ssks' tfyhska wo jk úg ÈhqKq f,dalfha iEu rgla u m¾fhaIK i`oyd úfYaI wjOdkhla fhduq lrhs' m¾fhaIK i`oyd flfrk wdfhdackh rgl wkd.; ixj¾Okhg fnfyúka u WmldÍ fõ' úYajúoHd, fuka u fjk;a Wiia wOHdmk wdh;k úoHd¾Òka m¾fhaIK i`oyd jeä wjOdkhla fhduq lrkafka o jd¾Isl j m¾fhaIK ieis ixúOdkh lrkafka o rch o m¾fhaIK i`oyd úYd, msßjehla orkafka o" fuys we;s m%dfhda.sl wod<;ajh ksid h'

• 2014 cQ,s 07"08 Èkj, fld<U § m¾fhaIK yd kkfjda;amdokj,ska cd;sl

ixj¾Okh (HETC) mßixjdoh meje;ajqKs' tys mrud¾:h jQfha o úoHdj yd ;dlaIKh rfÜ ixj¾Okh i`oyd Ndú; l< yels wdldrh idlÉPd lsÍu hs' wo jk úg f,dalfha rgj, ixj¾Okh ñkqï lrk o¾Ykhla jYfhka o jd¾Isl j tu rg m¾fhaIK i`oyd ork msßjeh ie,ls,a,g .kq ,efí' thska woyia lrkafka iudc m%.ukh iy m¾fhaIK w;r iDcq iïnkaO;djla we;s njhs' ÈhqKq f,dalfha rgj,a m¾fhaIK i`oyd jd¾Isl j úYd, uqo,la fjka lrkafkaa th jákd wdfhdackhla ksid h' ysgmq ;dlaIK yd m¾fhaIK wud;H mdG,S pïmsl rkjl uy;d uE;oS m%ldY lf<aa YS% ,xldj jd¾Islj remsh,a fldaá 30 la muK mr®fhaIK i|yd wdfhdackh l<;a thska ksisM, fk<d .kafka ke;s njhs' f,dalfha úYajúoHd, j¾.SlrKfha oS ^Research out put) m¾fhaIK m%;sodkh tkï jd¾Islj isÿjk m¾fhaIK ks¾Kdhlhla jYfhka ie,ls,a,g .kafka msg jk m¾fhaIK ixLHdj tajdfha .=Kd;aul nj iy tajdfhka ,nd .; yels M, m%fhdack ie,ls,a,g .ksñka h'

• f,dalfha mqoa.,hl= fyda lKavdhula úiska lrk ,o Ydiaa;s%h fiajhla fjkqfjka ,nd fok jákd u we.hsu fkdfn,a iïudkh hs' ffjoH úoHdj" fN!;sl úoHdj" ridhk úoHdj" cSj úoHdj" wd¾Ól úoHdj hk úIhhka wdY%s;j lrk ,o m¾fhaIKhlska udkj ixy;sfha m%.;shg bjy,a jk kj fidhd.ekSsula fyda kHdhla f.dvke.Su tkï fN!;sl fyda iudc ixisoaêhl h:d¾:h mila lr.ekSSu fjkqfjka úYaj iïNdjkdjg m;a jQfjda h' 2014 fN!;sl úoHdjg ysñ fkdfn,a ;Hd.h ,nd.kafka úÿ,sh msrsueiSug Woõjk ks,ameye;s L. E. D n,anh fidhd

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.ekSSu fjkqfjks' ñksia fud<fha ffi, ia:dk .; jk wdldrh ksjeros j fidhd.;a m¾fhaIlhska lKvdhula úiska ffjoH úoHdjg ysñ iïudkh oskd.kS' m¾fhaIKj, jeo.;alu jákdlu fuka u thska ,nd .; yels M, m%fhdack m%udoù fyda jgyd.;a Y%S ,xldj o wo jk úg m¾fhaIK flfrys jeä Wkkaÿjla olajhs' úYajúoHd," Wiia wOHdmk wdh;k muKla fkdj rdcH yd rdcH fkdjk wdh;k o m¾fhaIKj, ,nd .; yels m%;s,dN yÿkd.ekSu m%YxikSh lreKls' rdcH yd rdcH fkdjk úYajúoHd, jd¾Islj foia úfoia m¾fhaIlhkaf.a m¾fhaIK w;a±lSï yqjudre lr .ekSug ^Symposium) m¾fhaIK jevuq¿ ixúOdkh lsÍu Èfkka Èk jeä fjñka mj;s' Wod YS% chj¾Okmqr úYajúoHd,fhaa udkj Ydia;% yd idudcSh úoHdmSGh 2014' 10' 15"16 foosk ;=< wka;¾ cd;sl m¾fhaIK iuq¿j foia úfoia m¾fhaIlhkaf.aa iyNd.s;ajfhka isÿlrhs' fujr f;audj jkqfha" ——kfjda;amdokh ifudaOdkh yd n,mEï iSud udhsï fkdue;s ixj¾Okh h˜ thska meyeos,s jkafka úYajúoHd, ;=< m¾fhaIK ixialD;shla we;s lsÍu;a tu oekqu rfÜ ixj¾Okhg wdfhdackh l< yels o njhs' cd;sl ;,fha iEu úYaj úoHd,hlau m¾fhaIlhkaf.a m¾fhaaaIK oekqu tla /ia lrk wÈgkska m¾fhaIK iuq¿ ixúOdkh lrhs' m¾fhaIK iuq¿j,ska yÿkajd fok kj oekqu rfÜ wNsjDoaêhg Wmfhda.s lr .ekSSug iqÿiq jevms<sfj,la ixúOdkh lsÍu b;d jeo.;a h' cmdkh jeks rgj,a cd;sl uÜgñka fujka m¾fhaIK iuq¿ ixúOdkh fldg úfoaYSh rgj, m¾fhaIlhkaf.a kj fidhd .ekSsï" ;dËKh iy kj oekqu rfÜ ixj¾Okh fjkqfjka Wlyd .kshs' jd¾Islj foaYSh úYajúoHd, i|yd rch fjkalrk uqo,ska 10] la m¾fhaIK i`oyd jeh l< hq;= fjhs' úYaj úoHd, wdpd¾hjrekag 35]l m¾fhaIK osß osukdjla o ,nd fohs' kfjda;amdok m¾fhaIK m%;smdok fhdackd l%uh ^I.R.G& o óg ksoiqka h' fï i|yd lrkq ,nk wdfhdackj,ska ,eìh yels m%;s,dN flfrys wdfhdaclhka olajk Wkkaÿj m%udKj;a fkdfõ' fjk;a rgj, fuka Y%S ,xldfõ iajdëk m¾fhaIK wdh;k fyda jD;a;suh m¾fhaIlhka ixLHd;aulj w,am h' m¾fhaIK yelshdj we;s úYaj úoHd, wdpd¾hjre lsysmfofkla w;r muKla tu wêldßh mj;s' fmdÿfõ .;al, fõ.fhka ixj¾Okh lrd hdug W;aidy lrk rgla jYfhka m¾fhaIKj,ska .; yels M,m%fhdack fláfhka kuq;a i|yka l< hq;= h' m%;sm;a;s iïmdokh yd ie,iqïlrKh" ixj¾Ok jHdmD;s j,ska wfmaËs; wruqKq bgqlr .ekSSu iqNidOk wdOdr jevigyka j,ska ksis M, fk<d .ekSug" rg uqyqK os isák iudc m%%Yak .eg¨ iy ck jd¾.sl w¾nqoh ;sridr f,i úiod .eksug" fi!LHh iïmkak iudchla ìys lr .ekSug" ;dËKsl oshqKqj" jHdmdßl oshqKqj" kS;s fË;%fha m%j¾Okhg udOHh Ndú;fha id¾:l;ajhg foaYmd,kh ksjeros udj;lg .ekSsu fuka u wOHdmkfha kùlrK jHdmD;s hk ´keu ld¾hhla id¾:l lr .ekSSug fï ;=<ska yelshdj ,efí'

Y%S ,xldj m¾fhaIK ;=<ska m%fndaOhla lrd .uka lsÍug h;ak orK úg tys cSjh nÿ wOHdmkfha m%udKd;aul yd .=Kd;aul j¾Okhg m¾fhaIK Wmfhda.s lr .; yels wjia:d iy tajdhska ,eìh yels M, m%fhdack ms<sn`o j idlÉPd lsÍu ld,Sk wjYH;djls' m¾fhaIK rfÜ wOHdmkh i|yd Wmfhda.s lr .; yels wdldrh i,ld n,k úg (Experiment) iïmÍlaIK úYajúoHd," Wiia wOHdmk wdh;k iy mdi,a j, isÿjk w;r tajdfhka y÷kajdfok kfjda;amdok kHdhka isoOdka; úêl%u iy ;dlaIKsl fuj,ï wOHdmkfha m%j¾Okhg Ndú; l< yels h' fuys os wmf.a jeä wjOdkh fhduq jkafka iudÔh úoHd m¾fhaIK j,gh (Social Research). wOHdmkfha .=Kd;aul ixj¾Okhg m¾fhaIK Wmfhda.s lr .; yels wjia:d wod< md¾Yajhkag fmkajd Èh hq;= h'

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rfÜ wkd.;hg wjYH mqrjeishka fyj;a udkj iïm; ixj¾Okh lsÍfï j.lSu mejÍ we;af;a wOHdmkhg hs' hqfkiaflda ixúOdkh j¾;udkfha rgl wOHdmkfha mrud¾:h osú meje;au i`oyd bf.kSu nj fmkajd fohs ^Learning- to be-Education for Today and Tomorrow). tys wruqKq ^Goal& jYfhka fmkajd fokafka"

úoHd;aul udkùh Ndjh lrd fhduq lrùu

[Towards Scientific Humanism]

mßmQ¾K ñksil= ìyslsßu fj; fhduq lsßu [Towards The Complete Man]

iudc j.lSï lrd fhduq lsÍu

[Towards social Responsibility]

ks¾udKd;aul Ndjh lrd fhduq lsÍu hs' [For Creativity] ta wkqj hñka YS% ,xldjo j;auka wOHdmkfha uq,sl mrud¾:h —úúYajhg .e<fmk ñksfil= ks¾udKh lsÍuZZ f,i y÷kdf.k we;' rfÜ nd, mrïmrdfõ úNj;d y÷kd f.k tajd Tmj;a lsßu iy cSj;a ùug wjYH ksmqK;d ixj¾Okhka ;=<ska id¾:l ðú;hla .; lsßug wjYH miqìu ilid Èh hq;=fjhs' j;auka rchka wfmalaId lrkafka o oekqu flakaøS%h ixj¾Ok wruqKq imqrd .kq jia keK .=K n, iqj imsß úYajhg iïm;la jk udkj m%d.aOkh f.dv ke.Suhs' tysos kfjda;amdokhkaf.ka msß oekqu uq,alr.;a ksjy,a ixj¾ê; wd¾Ólhla f.dvke.Su fjkqfjka úúO jHdmD;s ls%hdjg k.ñka isà' tfyhska f,dal m%jK;d yd rfÜ wkd.; wjYH;d y÷kd .ksñka wOHdmkfha o mq¿,a jq kùlrKhka l< hq;= h' th me,eia;r fjkqjg cd;sl m%;sm;a;shla u; msysgd isÿ lrk ;=re wOHdmkh;a rfÜ iudc" wd¾Ól" wjYH;d w;r iudkqmd;sl nj;a f.dv fkdkef.a' wo rg uqyqK § isák ú/lshdj" ;reK wiykh" cd;Ska w;r wkql,kh ì`o jeàu" wmrdO" ¥IK" nqoaê.,kh" ;reK mrïmrdj ixialD;sluh uxuq,dj" udkj ysñlï lvùï" rgg ys;e;s md,l yd ks,OdÍka msßila ìyslr .ekSug wfmdfydi;a ùu" ish Èú kid .ekSu" iudc wiudk;dj j¾Okh ùu jeks w¾nqo fndfydauhla tys m%;sM, jYfhka y÷kd.; yels nj iudc úoHd{hkaf.a u;h hs' rfÜ ixj¾Okh fukau tys wkd.;h ;SrKh lrk Ôjkd,sh n`ÿ wOHdmkh fufyhùï j.lSu mejÍ we;s md¾Yj fuh uekúka jgyd .; hq;= fjhss' YS>%%fhka fjkia jk f,dalh ;=< w;rux fkdù rfÜ osfkka osk j¾Okh jk wNsfhda. ;sridr f,i úiod .ekSsug kï wOHdmk ls%hdj,sh ;=< ksis m%;sixúOdkhla isÿ l< hq;= fjhs' ta i`oyd Wmfhda.S lr .; yels fhda.H;u fuj,u iudc m¾fhaIK ^Social Research& nj mrudo¾Y .; yels wOHdmkhla l%shd;aul rgj,ska Tmamqfjhs' mdi,a orejka" .=rejreka" mdi,a l<ukdlrejka" ks,OdÍka fukau m%;sm;a;s iïmdokh yd iïnkaO ish¨ md¾Yjhka m¾fhaIK i`oyd fhduq lrñka Èß.ekaùu;a ta ;=<ska u`.fmkaùï ,nd.ekSu yd tu w;aoelSï fukau ±kqu wOHdmkfha .=Kd;aulNdjh fjkqfjka wdfhdackh lsßu ld,Sk wjYH;djls' Y%s ,xldfõ fiiq wxYj, fukau wOHdmk moaO;sh ;=<o m¾fhaIK j,ska m%fhdack .ekSug olajkafka wvq Wkkaÿjla nj lsj hq;=h' rfÜ jeäu nqoaêu;=ka msßi ksfhdackh lrkafk;aa m¾fhaIK isÿjkafk;aa o wOHdmk lafIa;%h ;=< h' tfy;a tajdfhka ksisM, m%fhdack ,nd.ekSug ksis l%ufúohla fkdfõ'

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lef<a msfmk u,a fuka lsisjl=f.a fyda fk; fkd.eà m%fhdack .; yels m¾fhaIK jd¾;d fmd;a .=,aj,g iSudfjhs' thg fya;=j oshqKq f,dalfha rgj,a fuka iudcfha m%.ukhg m¾fhaIKj,ska .; yels M, m%fhdack ms<sn`oj m%udKj;a ±kqula" wjfndaOhla rfÜ j.lsj hq;= md¾Yjhkag fkdùuhs' rgl m¾fhaIKj, ;sôß f.h úYajúoHd,h jk w;r rgl ixj¾Okfha fmr .ukalrejd o jkqfha ta ;=< isÿjk m¾fhaIK h' úYaj úoHd, wOHdmkfha uQ,sl mrud¾:h jkafka o m¾fhaIK ;=<ska kj ±kqu fiùu h ^ Uni – ver – sity – mean an institution at the highest level of education where you can study for a degree or do Research). j;auka Y%s ,xldfõ Wiia wOHdmkfha f;audj ËËs;schg by<sska f,dalh oelsh yels úoHdr®:shl= ìyslsÍuhs' tjeks mqoa.,fhl=f.aa uiei muKla fkdj úoHd;aul l%ufúoh yd ne`ÿKqq nqoaêuh YslaIKh o j¾Okh l< yels jkafka m¾fhaIK ksmqK;dj ;=<sks' rdcHh iy rdcH fkdjk úYaj úoHd,j, Ydia;%Sh wruqKq iy wdkqNúl wjYH;d u; m¾fhaIK isÿ fjhs' fndfyda ÿrg tajd ;=< wka;¾.; ±kqu mqia;ld,j,g muKla iSudùu wjdikdjka; ;;a;ajhls' úYajúoHd, wdpd¾hjrekag m¾fhaIK i`oyd Èß .ekaùï jYfhka rdcHh iy rdcH fkdjk wdh;k uQ,Huh m%;smdok ,nd fok kuq;a tajdfha M, m%fhdack .ekSug olajk Wkkaÿj m%udKj;a fkdfú' iEu úIh flaI;%hla weiqfrka u kHdhd;aul yd wdkqNúl m¾fhaIK isÿ fjhs' tu ±kqï iïNdrh rg yuqfõ we;s wNsfhda. ch .ekSug fuka u rfÜ m%.ukhg fhdod .kakd jev ms<sfj,la l%shd;aul úh hq;= h' m¾fhaIK ieis úúO f;audjka hgf;a foia úfoia m¾fhaIlhkaf.a m¾fhaIK w;a±lSï yqjudre lr .ekSu isÿ fjk kuq;a tajd jevuq¿j,g muKla iSud fkdfldg tu ±kqu yd w;a±lSï rfÜ m%;sm;a;s iïmdolhka yd ie,iqïlrejka rfÜ wNsjDoaêhg Wmfhda.S lr .kafka kï ixj¾Okh fõ.j;a lr .; yels fjhs' m¾fhaIK ;=<ska u;= lr .kafka i;H jQ;a ksjerÈ jQ;a w¨;a ±kqu hs' m¾fhaIKj,g Wkkaÿj olajk osß .kajk ta flfrys úYajdihla we;s tys jákdlu wjfndaO lr .;a f,dalfha ´kEu cd;shla iS>%fhka ÈhqKqj lrd hkafka ta ;=< we;s Yla;sh ksid h' rfÜ moku fyj;a cSjkd,sh nÿ wOHdmkh ksjeros lr .ekSSug m¾fhaIK fhdod .ekSfï yelshdj mÍËd lsÍfïos" wm rfÜ Wiia wOHdmkh ;=< m¾fhaIK isÿ jk m%udKhg mdi,a wOHdmkh ;=< m¾fhaIK isÿ fkdjk njla fmfka' tfy;aa m%;sm;a;s iïmdokfha isg .=rejrhd olajd iEu ;,hl u ldr ®hlaIu;dj iy M,odhs;dj fjkqfjka m¾fhaIK Wmfhda.S lr .; .; yels wjia:d fndfyda h' wOHdmk wud;HxYh;a fï jk úg tu h:d¾:h mila lr .ekSu rg ,nk iqúfYaI ch.%ykhla nj lsj hq;=h' Wod( wOHdmk lafIa;%fha ks,Odßka" mdi,a l<ukdlrejka iy .=rejreka m¾fhaIK i`oyd osß .ekaùSu Tjqka i;=j mj;sk m¾fhaIK ±kqu talrdYs lsÍfuka wOHdmkfha .=Kd;aulNdjh fjkqfjka wdfhdackh lsÍug úúO l%shd ud¾. wkq.ukh ùu m%YxikSh lreKls' Wod ( wwOHdmk m¾hdf,dal i`.rdj ;=<ska mr®fhaIK jd¾;d t<soelaùu" .=re WmfoaYlhka .=rejreka ls%hduQ,sl mr®fhaIK ioyd osß.ekaùu fukau" m¾fhaIK ieis (Symposium) ixúOdkh lsÍu ;=<ska m¾fhaIlhka i;= oekqu w;aoelSï f.dkq lsÍu ta w;rfjhs' m<d;a uÜgñkao fuu ls%hdud¾.h mq¿,a lr we;' jeäu m¾fhaIK ixLHdjla t<s olsk wud;HxYh" wOHdmkh hs' tfy;a tajd talrdYs lrk tu ±kqu w;a±lSï m%dfhda.sl ;,hg f.k tk taldnoaO jev ms<sfj,la fkdùu .ek j.lsj hq;= md¾Yjhkaf.a wjOdkh fhduq l< hq;= h' wOHdmk wud;HxYhg fjka jq il%Sh m¾fhaIK tallhl wjYH;dj ±äj mj;Ss' cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh i;= j mj;sk m¾fhaIK tallhg iuia: wOHdmk moaO;sfha u wjYH;d bgq lssÍug ;rï fN!;sl yd udkj iïm;a m%udKhla fkdue;s nj fmfka' YS>%fhka fjkia jk f,dalhg idfmalaIj wOHdmkh o m%udKd;aul yd .=Kd;aul j¾Okhla isÿúh hq;= nj wuq;=fjka lsjhq;= fkdfõ' j;auka rcho w;=re wh jefhka wOHdmkh i|yd jeä msßjehla oeßug wjOdkh fhduq lf,a rgl jákdu wkd.; wdfhdackh th nj jgyd .ksñks' miq.sh rcho uyskao Ñka;k jevigyk hgf;a wdishdfõ ±kqï flakaøia:dkh njg Y%s ,xldj m;a lsÍfï mrud¾:fhka úúO jHdmD;s

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y`ÿkajd fok ,oS' wo jk úg mq¿,a mrud¾: we;s wOHdmk moaO;shg m¾fhaIK Woõ lr .; yels wjia:d fndfyda h' Wod(

rfÜ wOHdmk m%;sm;a;s iïmdokh yd ie,iqïlrKh l,ska l,g isÿ lrk wOHdmk m%;sixialrK l<ukdlrK mqyqKq jevigyka iy .=re wOHdmkhg m<d;a" l,dm fuka u mdi,a

uÜgñka ld¾hlaIu M,odhS l<ukdlrKhla i`oyd úIh ud,d ixj¾Okhg yd kj bf.kqï l%u y`ÿkd .ekSu we.hSï l%u iy ta wdYs%; .eg¨ úi`§ug M,odhs wëlaIKhla i`oyd' mx;s ldur b.ekaùfï l%shdj,sh id¾:l lr .ekSug .=rejrhdg fN!;sl yd udkj iïm;a .eg¨ y`ÿkd f.k tajd ;sridr f,i úi`od .ekSu i|yd

fujeks ´kEu ld¾hhla iM, lr .ekSug m¾fhaIK ksis u. fmkaùula lrhs' l<ukdlrK yd .=re mqyqKq mdGud,d" Wmdê" mYapd;a Wmdê mdGud,dj, § wod< md¾Yjhkag wOHdmk m¾fhaIK ms<sn`oj kHdhd;aul wjfndaOh iy m%dfhda.sl w;a±lSï ,nd §ug wksjd¾hfhka u isÿ jk ksid ks,OdÍka" úÿy,am;sjrekag" .=re WmfoaYljreka iy .=rejreka hk iEu wfhl=gu m¾fhaIK .ek hï ±kqula mj;s' tfy;a th ;u jD;a;suh j.lSï bgq lsÍfï § m%dfhda.slj jHjydrhg .kq ,nkqfha" w;f<diails' thg fya;=j wOHdmk m¾fhaIK ms<sn`o j mdGud,d j,ska ksjerÈ m¾fhaIK YslaIKhla wjfndaOhla ,nd fkd§u hs' m¾fhaaIKhla ;=<ska hï ixisoaêhl h:d¾:h y`ÿkd .ekSug fuka u úoHd;aul l%ufõoh Wmfhda.S fldg f.k ;u ´kEu lghq;a;la ld¾hlaIuj yd M,odhs f,i bgq lr .; yels h' —kkHdfhka f;dr Ndú;h wkaO jk nj;a Ndú;fhka f;dr kHdh ysia jk nj˜ m%ldY jkafka o fï ksid h' wOHdmkh hkq f,dalh fjkia lrk m%Odk fuj,u ksid th fufyhùfï § úoHd;aul l<ukdlrKh yd ne`ÿKq m¾fhaIK l%ufõoh Wmfhda.s lr .ekSu M,odhs jkq we;' ——W.; ukd Ys,amhuhs u;= /flkd˜ hk idïm%odhsl lshuk fjkia lrñka —uu;= /flkd Ys,amhuhs W.; ukd˜ hk m%ldYhg wkqj wOHdmkh ;=< m%dfhda.sl keUqrejla we;s .=Kd;aul fjkialï we;s lsßu blauka wjYH;djls' tys oS jvd;au jeo.;a u ld¾h jkqfha m%;sm;a;s iïmdokh yd ie,iqïlrKh hs ^POLICY PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION)' rfÜ ixj¾Okfha fiiq wxY ;=< fukau wOHdmk moaO;sfhao mj;sk fndfydA .eg q̈ m%Yak m%;sm;a;s iïmdokh yd ie,iqïlrKfha jroska isÿqjk nj ms<s.; hq;= h' me,eia;r fjkqjg iuia; wOHdmk moaO;sfhau cd;sl m%;sm;a;shla u; msysgd wju jYfhka jir 08 lg jrla fyda mQ¾K jYfhka m%;sixúOdkh l< hq;= fõ' tys § f,dal m%jk;d fukau rg fhduq úh hq;= ÈYdk;sh rg uqyqK oS isák m%Odk wNsfhda. fuka u rfÜ fN!;sl yd udkj iïm; ksjerosj yÿqkd .kakg úúO úIhdkqnoaO úoaj;=ka yryd m¾fhaIK l< hq;=j we;' fuysoS iudc úoHd×hskaf.a nqoaêuh odhl;ajh imhd .ekSu b;d jeo.;ah' ta ;=<ska y÷kd.;a f;dr;=re wkqj ilia l< mq¾j m%;sm;a;sh iudch fj; uqod yer woyia úuish hq;= h' tu woyia yd fhdackd ie,ls,a,g .ksñka wjidk l%shdldß jev ie,eiau yÿkajd § l%shdjg kexúh hq;= h' tu jHdmD;sh l%shd;aul w;r jdrfha mjd tys m%.;sh mÍlaId lsßu;a miq úmrï i`oyd o iólaIK l< hq;= fõ' ±kg wOHdmk kùlrKhla f,i y`ÿkajd § we;s fndfyda wOHdmk jevigykaj,ska wfmalaIs; wruqKq bgq fkdjkafka tajd m¾fhaIKd;aulj Èh;a fkdlsÍu ksid h' wOHdmk lafIa;%fha m%;sm;a;s iïmdokh yd ie,iqïlrKh ;ju;a rfÜ foaYmd,k kHdh m;%j,g wkqj ls%hd;aul m%cd uq, fkdjk iS; ldur ie,iqï h' isiqka" fouõmshka" .=rejreka" l<ukdlrejka" .=re WmfoaYlhka" ks,Odßka hk iEu md¾Yjhlu woyia úuish yels jkafka m¾fhaIKd;aul j th isÿ lrkafka kï muKs'

87

mdi,a moaO;sfha fN!;sl iïm;a wdY%s;j mj;sk .eg¨" l<ukdlrKh yd ne`ÿKq m%Yak .=re .eg¨" úNd. wdrjq,a" úIh ud,d wdYs%; .eg¨ m%;sM, k`.d isgqùug fkdyels ndOl isiq úkh msßySu iy wOHdmk Wkkaÿj wvqùu jeks fkalúO .eg¨ ;sridr f,i úi`od .ekSug m¾fhaIK Wmldr lr .; yels h' .eg¨fõ iajNdjh Bg ;=vq ÿka fya;=" ksjdrKh lsÍfï wjYH;djh iy úiÿï l%shdud¾. uekúka y`ÿkd .; yelafla iudc úoHd{hkaf.a u`. fmkaùï hgf;a isÿ flfrk wdkqNúl m¾fhaIK u.sks' úIh ud,d ixfYdaOkh lsßu wruqKq lrf.k cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh we;=¿ tys j.lSu mejÍ we;s wdh;k rfÜ m¾fhaIlhkaf.a" nqoaêuh odhl;ajh imhd .;a; o" tajd ;=<ska .; yels ksisM, m%fhdack ,nd .kafkao hkak .eg¨jls' fm!oa.,sl ys;j;alï foaYmd,ksl mrud¾: fukau jdKssc wruqKq uq,aùu thg fya;=jhs' tfiau wOHdmkfha úúO lafIa;% ;=< m¾fhaIK m%odkhka hgf;a m¾fhaIK isÿ jk kuq;a tajdfha ±kqu tl u ;eklg kdNs.; lrk jevms<sfj<la olakg ,efnkafka ke;' mdi,a j, úNd. wruqKq lr f.k úIh oekqu ixj¾Okhg .=reNj;=ka orejka iïmÍlaIK ^Experiment& yd kfjda;amdok isÿ lrk w;r tajd ;=<ska o kj woyia Woyia ks¾udK t<solsk wjia:d o we;' tajd o iuia; wOHdmk moaO;sfha .=Kd;aul fjkilg wdfhdackh jk jevms<sfj,la ilia l< yels h'

Wod( Wiia fm< jHdmD;sj, § wOHhk j¾.fha jHdmD;s i`oyd fhduq jk isiqkaf.a jákd m¾fhaIKd;aul fidhd .ekSï o we;' tajd mdif,a fyda iuia; mdi,a moaO;sfha hym; fjkqfjka fhdod .kakd jevms<sfj,la l%shd;aul l< yels fjhs' wOHdmk ks,OdÍka" .=re WmfoaYlhka" úIh wOHlaIljreka" úÿy,am;sjreka" .=reNj;=ka" ;u jD;a;Sh Ôú;fha bÈßh wfmalaIdfjka isÿlrk Wiia wOHdmk lghq;=j,§ fm!oa.,sl m¾fhaIK ;=<ska rfÜ wOHdmk moaO;sfha wduka;%Kh úh hq;= wxY wdjrKh lrhs' tu m¾fhaIK ;=<ska fidhd .kakd kj ±kqu taldnoaO lrk jevms<sfj,la ;=<ska rfÜ wOHdmkfha .=Kd;aulnj jeä lsÍug fõÈldjla ilia lsÍu ld,Ssk wjYH;djls' tjeks ld¾hhka mdi,a uÜgñka" l,dm m<d;a fukau cd;sl uÜgñka o tfiau tu mdGud,d l%shd;aul lrjk wdh;kj,g o l< yels h' m%;sm;a;s iïmdolhka m<d;a iy l,dm wOHlaIjreka" úIh wOHlaIl" .=re WmfoaYljreka iy .=rejreka m¾fhaIlhka f,i mqyqKq lrk jHdmD;shla fomd¾;fïka;= uÜgñka l%shd;aul lrkafka kï fuu md¾Yjhkaf.a m¾fhaIK Wkkaÿj jeä jkq we;' fuu md¾Yj w;r úYaj úoHd, wNHka;r úfYaIfõÈ Wmdê fuka u mYapd;a Wmdê yeoErE wh iudc m¾fhaIKj, jákdlu wjfndaO lr f.k l%shd lr;;a wOHdmk mßmd,k fiajfha jeks ,sÅ; mÍlaIKj,ska fyda foaYmd,k iqÿiqlï u; Wiiaùï ,o ndysr Wmdê fyda fjk;a wvq wOHdmk iqÿiqlï,dNSska úÿy,am;s fiajfha fuka u fjk;a j.lsj hq;= ;k;=re ±Íu ksid Tjqkg m%udKj;a m¾fhaIK ±kqu fyda w;a±lSï fkdue;sùfuka ta flfrys olajk Wkkaÿj wvq nj uE; ld,fha § lrk ,o iólaIKhlska fy<s úh' wOHdmk lafIa;%fha m%j¾Okhg iudc m¾fhaIK lafIa;%fha Ndú;d jk úúO m¾fhaIK l%u ^Research Design) Wmfhda.s lr.; yelsfjhs' ta w;r l%shd uQ,sl m¾fhaIK ^Action Research) isoaê wOHhk l%uh ^The Case Study) iólaIK l%uh ^Survey Methods) jeks m%udKd;aul ^Quantitative& yd .=Kd;aul o;a; ^Qualitative) u; mokï jQ m¾fhaIK l%u wOHdmk m¾fhaIK ioyd jeä jYfhka Ndú; l< yels h' ^fldä;=jlal= 2000(4& wo jk úg mdi,a moaO;sfha l%shd uQ,sl m¾fhaIK Ndú;h ckm%sh fjñka mj;Ss' th iqNjdoS ;;a;ajhls' úoHdmSG" úYaj úoHd,j, wOHdmk mSG iy cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh iy .=re wOHdmkfha m%j¾Okhg lghq;= lrk wdh;k .=re YsIHhka l%shd uQ,sl m¾fhaIKj,g fhduq lrkafka ta ;=<ska yÿkd .;a jdia;úl .eg¿jla úi`od .ekSu i`oyd

88

úêu;a l%u Ys,am wkq.ukh lrñka md¾Yjlrejka ish¨ fokdf.a tl;=fjka M,odhs jevigykla l%shd;aul flfrk ksid h' tys m%;sM,h kï Okd;aul mqoa., noaO yd jD;a;Shuh fjkils' fujeks m¾fhaIK i`oyd wod< md¾Yj Èß.ekaùfuka wOHdmk lafIa;%fha mj;sk .eg¨ fndfydauhlg u m¾fhaIKh wjika jkjd;a iu.u úi`ÿï fidhd.; yelsfjhs' Wod( wOHdmkhg ndOdldß wm.dñ p¾hdjkag keUqre fm!reIhlska fyì f;dard .;a mdi,l orejka ksheoshla fyda úNd. mSvkfhka udkisl jHdl+,;ajhg m;a isiq lKavdhula thska uqojd .ekSSu jeks ´kEu jdia;úl .eg¨qjlg ls%hduQ,sl m¾fhaIKhlska tfjf,a u úi`ÿqï fidhd .; yels h' mdi,a ;=< ks;r jd¾;d jk wOHdmkfha .=Kd;aul j¾Okhg ndOdldÍ jk ixisoaê iy orejka thska uqojd .ekSug wod< ksYaÑ; fya;= idOl y`ÿkd .ekSug isoaê wOHhk l%uh Ndú;hg .=rejrekag yd úÿy,am;sjrekag YslaIKhla ,nd Èh yels h' isoaê wOHhk l%ufhka mqoa.,fhla lKavdhula fyda wdh;khla ;=< isÿjk ´kEu isÿùula .eUqßka úu¾Ykh lr ksjeros ks.ukj,g t<öfï yelshdj mj;sk l%uhls' m%lafIamK l%u ^Projective methods) Wmfhda.s lr f.k ufkda úoHd;aulj isiqkaf.a ufkdaNdjhka y`ÿkd .ekSSu;a wdl,amuh fjkialï isÿ lsÍug iy mdi,a WmfoaYk ld¾hhka id¾:l lr .ekSfï yelshdj o fuu m¾fhaIK l%uh i;= fjhs' mdi,a" l,dm m<d;a fyda cd;sl uÜgñka m%;sM, wid¾:l ùug fya;= úuid ne,Su" tajd k`.d isgqùu fjkqfjkaa .;yels l%shdud¾. y`ÿkd .ekSSu" isiqka mdi,a yerhdu" wOHdmkhg olajk Wkkaÿj wvqùu" mdi,a ;=< isÿ jk <ud wmfhdack" úêu;a ,sx.sl wOHdmkhla fkdùu fya;= fldg f.k isiqka uqyqKmdk .eg¨q m%Yak iy mdi,a moaO;sfha l<ukdlrKfha ìojeàug ;=vqÿqka fya;= idOl jeks lreKq iólaIK ;=<ska wkdjrKh lr f.k tajdg úiÿï fidhd .; yels fjhs'

.=rejrhdg o ;u mka;s ldur b.ekaùï id¾:l lr .ekSug Tyq i;= j mj;sk m¾fhaIK yelshdj jeo.;a fjhs' isiqkaf.a wdl,am" nqoaê uÜgï" mjq,a miqìï iy iyc l=i,;d y÷kd f.k Tjqkag .e<fmk bf.kqï l%ufõohla ;SrKh lsÍug m¾fhaIK jvd;a M,odhs u.fmkaùula lrk nj ÈhqKq f,dalfha rgj, w;a±lSï weiqfrka ;yjqre ù ;sfí' .=rejrhdf.a Ôjk w;a±lSï l%uh ^Living in research) fyj;a iyNd.S ksßlaIK l%uh ^Participant observation) ;=<ska ,nd .kakd f;dr;=re úYajikSh;ajh w;ska jeä ksid tajd o .=re N+ñldfú j.lSï bgq lrkakg Wmfhda.S lr .; yels wjia:d fndfyda h' fï ksid .=rejrhd m¾fhaIK ±kqfuka ikakoaO lsÍu wOHdmkfha id¾:l;ajhg fnfyúka u Wmldß jkakls'

úÿy,am;sjrekag ;u mdi,a l<ukdlrKfha oS u;=msáka oel.; fkdyels w`ÿqre ;eka oel .kakg m¾fhaIK ;=<ska wdf,dalhla imhd .; yels wjia:d fndfyda h' jd¾Isl j mdi,a ie,iqï ilia lsÍu" fN!;sl yd udkj iïm;a y`ÿkd .ekSu" uekúka tajd l<ukdlrKh lsÍu" l<ukdlrKhg we;s ndOl ksjerosj y`ÿkd .ekSu jeks ´keu wjia:djla i`oyd iudc m¾fhaIK Wmfhda.S lr .; yels h' wOHdmkfha j.lSï orK by< ia:r l=uk m%;sm;a;suh ;SrK .;a; o tajdfha id¾:l;ajh" m%;s,dN ,eìh hq;= fldgia lrd tu ;SrK l%shd;aul jkafka o hkak fidhd ne,Sug o m¾fhaIK Woõ fjhs' fuu.ska ;yjqre jk lreKla kï úoHd;aul hq.fha Ôj;ajk wm úoHd;aul Ñka;kh yd neÿKq m¾fhaIK ±kqu Wmfhda.S lr .ekSug fuka u rfÜ wOHdmkh m¾fhaIK u; mokï lr .ekSu ldf,daÑ; njhs'

89

wwdY%s; .%ka:

r;akmd, kkaofiak ^1984& iudc úoHd m¾fhaIK uQ,O¾u' jrldfmd,( wdßh m%ldYlfhda' is,ajd o wurisß ^2001& iudc úoHd m¾fhaIK l%ufõoh' uykqjr( l¾;D m%ldYkh' lreKdr;ak tÉ' ví,sõ' ^1999& iudc úoHd m¾fhaIK l%ufõoh' le<Ksh tïmh¾ m%ldYlfhda' fyÜáwdrÉÑ YsrdKs ^2001& iudc úoHd m¾fhaIK l%ufõoh ir, m%fõYhla' .fkauq,a,( chka m%skag¾ia' iudc úuiqu ^2006& iudcúoHd fomdr®;fïka;=fú m%ldYkhls' fmardfoKsh úYajúoHd,h' fldä;=jlal= f.dâúka ^2000& m%Yakdj,S' uyr.u( l¾;D m%ldYh' fiakdër is,aú iy jkisxy Ydñkao ^2008& m¾fhaIK l%ufõoh' fld<U( weia f.dvf.a iy ifydaorfhda' chiQßh pkaød ^2000& wOHdmk m¾fhaIK l%u Ys,am' foysj,( foaú m%skag¾iaZ' ,shkf.a" wd¾' mS ^1996& wOHdmk m¾fhaIK i|yd fhduq lsßula' uyr.u( cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh' ch;siai ví,sõ' Ma' ^1996& uQ,sl ixLHdk úoHdj 1 iy 11 l¾;D m%ldYh lreKdr;ak fla' wd¾' á' ^1994& ixLHdk úoHdfõ uQ,O¾u' fld<U( f,alayjqia iud.u' tï' tï' fifkúr;ak ^2014& iudc úoHdudk' uykqjr( l¾;D m%ldYh' Babbie, E. (1983), The Practice of Social Research, California:. Wordsworth Publishing Co.. Beckman, L. & Rog, D.J. (eds.) (1998), Hand book of applied social Research methods, California.: Sage publications, Kothari C.R. (2000) Research Methodology, Methods and Techniques.New Delhi: Wishwa prakashana. Blumer, Martin. (1984) Sociological Research Methods. London: Macmillan

90

Students Dropouts in Northern Province

Kadampeswaran Manimarrphan Assistant Director of Education

Provincial Department of Education Northern Province Abstract in English Education plays a major role in the development of individuals and society. Through Education development, countries move towards sustainable development. Schools which provide free education are the main force on the educational growth in the people of developing countries. It is compulsory for every child born in our country to receive education from grade 1 up to grade 11. But in the Northern Province survival rate of the students from grade 1 to 9 is 71%. Therefore it is important to have a study on drop out students in the Northern Province. This study focuses on the students who get dropped out between grades 1 to grade 11 completing compulsory education cycle. And also to identify the regions in which more students are dropped out. 965 functioning schools in the 34 divisions of 12 Zones in 5 districts in the Northern Province were selected for this study. This study was based on the number of students studying in each class in the middle of year 2012 and middle of 2013. These data were taken from the statistical books published by the Provincial Department of Education, Northern Province. According to the analyzed data, In Northern Province 3% of drop out was Grades 4, 9 and it was 9% in Grade 10 in transition from year 2012 to 2013. In Jaffna district 2.5% dropped out at the promotion from Grade 9 to Grade 10 and 8.28% dropped out at the promotion from Grade 10 to Grade 11. The Kilinochchi district showed 2.1% drop out during the transition from Grade 9 to Grade 10 and 6.4% drop out during the transition from Grade 10 to Grade 11. In Mannar district 2.5% dropped out from Grade 6 to Grade 7. From Grade 7 to 8 the rate was 3.3%. The rate from Grade 8 to 9 was 2.2% and 4.6% in the transition from Grade 9 to 10 while 13.6% was found dropped out during the transition from Grade 10 to 11. In Mullaitivu district during the transition from Grade 10 to 11 6.9% dropped out. In Vavuniya district from Grade 4 to 5 dropout rate was 8.8% and 12.1% from Grade 6 to 7. The dropout rate from Grade 8 to 9 was 2.4%, the rate of dropout from Grade 9 to 10 was 5.7% and 12% dropped out while promoting from Grade 10 to 11. In Madhu zone 24% students, in Vavuniya South, Vavuniya North and Islands Zones 12% students, in Valikamam,Thunukkai and Mannar Zones 11% students, in Jaffna Zone 8% students, in Kilinochchi and Vadamaradchy Zones 6% students, in Mullaitivu 5% students and in Thenmaradchy Zone 4% students dropped out during the transition from Grade 10 to 11. It was observed that 10% students in Vavuniya South Zone,6% students in Islands Zone, 4% students in Jaffna Thunukkai and Valikamam Zones and 3% students in Vavuniya North Zone have gone dropout in Grade 4. In Northern Province 3% in Grade 4 and 9 and 9% in Grade 10 dropped out of school. That means if immediate action is not taken 15% of students will not be able to receive compulsory education before they are driven into the society. This will bring in a serious impact to the society. Therefore this study recommended to have an indepth study, regarding the dropout in Grades 4, 9 and 10 at Mannar, Mullithivu and Vavuniya districts. Key Words: students, Grade, dropout, transition, promotion

91

Students Dropouts in Northern Province

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khztHfSk;;> juk; 10 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 11f;Fr; nry;ifapy; 8.28% khztHfSk; ,iltpyfpAs;sdH. fpspnehr;rp khtl;lj;jpy; juk; 9 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 10 f;Fr;

nry;Yk; nghOJ 2.1% ,iltpyfYk;> juk; 10 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 11 f;Fr; nry;Yk;

nghOJ 6.4% ,iltpyfYk; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. kd;dhH khtl;lj;jpYk; juk; 6 ,y;

,Ue;J juk; 7 f;F nry;ifapy; 2.5% khztHfSk;> juk; 7 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 8 f;F

nry;ifapy; 3.3% khztHfSk;> juk; 8 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 9 f;F nry;ifapy; 2.2%

khztHfSk;> juk; 9 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 10 f;F nry;ifapy; 4.6% khztHfSk;> juk;

10 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 11 f;F nry;ifapy; 13.6% khztHfSk; ,iltpyfpAs;sdH.

Ky;iyj;jPT khtl;lj;jpy; juk; 10 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 11 ,w;fhd ,iltpyfy; 6.9%

Mff;fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. tTdpah khtl;lj;jpy; juk; 4 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 5 ,w;F 8.8%

khztHfSk;;> juk; 6 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 7 ,w;F 12.1% khztHfSk;> juk; 8 ,y;

,Ue;J juk; 9 f;F 2.4% khztHfSk;> juk; 9 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 10 f;F 5.7%

92

khztHfSk;> juk; 10 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 11 ,w;Fr; nry;ifapy; 12% khztHfSk; ,iltpyFfpd;wdH.

juk; 10 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 11f;F nry;ifapy; kL tyaj;jpy; 24% khztHfSk;>

tTdpah njw;F> tTdpah tlf;F> jPtf fy;tp tyaq;fspy; 12% khztHfSk;>

typfhkk;> JZf;fha;> kd;dhH tyaq;fspy; 11% khztHfSk;> aho;g;ghzf; fy;tp

tyaj;jpy; 8% khztHfSk;> fpspnehr;rp> tlkuhl;rp tyaq;fspy; 6% khztHfSk;>

Ky;iyj;jPtpy; 5% khztHfSk;> njd;kuhl;rpapy; 4% khztHfSk; ghlrhiyia

tpl;L ,iltpyfpAs;sdH. juk; 4 ,y; tTdpah njw;F tyaj;jpy;; 10% khztHfSk;>

jPtf tyaj;jpy; 6% khztHfSk;> aho;g;ghzk;> JZf;fha;> typfhkk; tyaq;fspy;

4% khztHfSk;> tTdpah tlf;fpy; 3% khztHfSk; ,iltpyfpAs;sik mtjhdpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ

tlf;F khfhzj;jpy; juk; 4> juk; 9 Mfpa tFg;Gf;fspy; 3% ,iltpyfYk;> juk; 10

,y; 9% ,iltpyfYk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. tlf;F khfhzk; ,t; tplaj;jpy; cldbf;

ftdk;nfhs;shjtplj;J 15% khztHfs; fl;lhaf;fy;tpapid KOikahfg; ngwhJ r%fj;jpDs; tplg;gLfpd;w epiy cUthFk;. ,J ghupa gpd;tpisTfisr; r%fj;jpy; Vw;gLj;jf;$bajhFk;. vdNt ,t; Ma;thdJ kd;dhH> Ky;iyj;jPT> tTdpah khtl;lq;fspy; juk; 4> juk; 9> juk; 10 Mfpa juq;fspy; khztHfs; ,iltpyfYf;fhd fhuzq;fs; njhlHghf Mokhd Ma;T xd;iw cldbahf Nkw;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk; vd;gjid typAWj;Jfpd;wJ.

Kjd;ikg; gjq;fs; - khztHfs;;> juk;> ,iltpyfy;> tFg;Ngw;wk;

mmwpKfk;

,yq;ifapd; fy;tp tuyhw;wpy; 1980 fspw;F Kw;gl;l fhyg;gFjpfspy; tlf;F khfhzk; Kd;ddpapy; jpfo;e;Js;sJ. Mdhy; ,d;W midj;J ,lq;fspYk; tlf;fpd; fy;tp epiy njhlHghfg; Ngrg;gLfpd;w epiy cUthfpAs;sJ. ,yq;if murpd; fy;tpf; nfhs;ifapy; midtUf;Fk; fy;tp toq;fg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;gJk;> fy;tpapy; midtUf;Fk; rkre;jHg;gKk; rk tha;g;Gk; toq;fg;glNtz;Lk; (kfpe;j rpe;jid> 2007) vd;gJk; kpfj; njspthf tiuaWf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. 2010 Mk; Mz;bd; juTfspd; gb ,yq;ifapd; juk; 1 njhlf;fk; juk; 9 tiuahd fhyj;jpw;fhd jg;gpg; gpioj;NjhH tPjk; 91.1 MfTk;> juk; 1 njhlf;fk; juk; 5 tiuahd fhyj;jpw;fhd jg;gpg;gpioj;NjhH tPjk; 97.6 MfTk; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ (,yq;ifapy; ghlrhiyf;F ntspapy; cs;s khztHfs; gw;wpa ehlshtpa mwpf;if> 2013). tlf;F khfhz juTfspd; mbg;gilapy; tlf;F khfhz rigapdhy;; ntspaplg;gl;Ls;s 2013. Mk; Mz;L Gs;sptpgutpay; mwpf;ifapy; 2012 Mk; Mz;bw;fhd jg;gpg; gpioj;NjhH tPjk; 71 vdf; Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ (tlf;F khfhz rigapd; Gs;sptpgutpay; mwpf;if> 2013).

tlf;fpd; fy;tpapy; gpd;jq;fpa epiy cUthFtjw;Fg; gy;NtW fhuzpfs; fhzg;gbDk;> khztHfspd; ,iltpyfyhdJ fy;tpapy; kpFe;j nry;thf;fpidr; nrYj;Jk; XH fhuzpahff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. 5 taJ njhlf;fk; 14 tiu fhzg;gl;l fl;lhaf; fy;tp tanjy;iy> 5 taJ njhlf;fk; 16 taJ tiuahf khw;wg;gl;Ls;sJ (kfpe;j rpe;jid). mjhtJ Mz;L 1 njhlf;fk; Mz;L 11 tiu fl;lhaf; fy;tpahff; fhzg;gLfpd;w ,f; fhyj;jpy; fl;lhaf; fy;tpapid Kiwahfg; ngwhJ ve;j tajpdpy; my;yJ ve;j tFg;gpdpy; khztHfs; ghlrhiyapid tpl;L ,iltpyFfpd;whHfs; vd;gJk;> vg;gpuNjrq;fspy; mjpfk; ,iltpyFfpd;whHfs; vd;gJk; Ma;tpw;Fupajhfpd;wJ. ,t;thW Muha;e;J ,iltpyfy; njhlHghd epiyapidf; fz;lwpAkplj;J ,t; ,iltpyfYf;fhd fhuzq;fisf; fz;lwpe;J jPHTfis eilKiwg;gLj;JtJ ,yFthdjhf mikAk;.

93

MMa;T tpdhf;fs;

1. khfhz> khtl;l> tya kl;lj;jpyhd ,iltpyfy; tPjq;fs; ahit? 2. ,iltpyfyhdJ ve;j tFg;gpy; mjpfk; epfo;fpd;wJ? 3. ,iltpyfy; ve;jg; gpuNjrq;fspy; mjpfk; epfo;fpd;wJ?

Ma;Tg; gpuNjrk;

tlf;F khfhzkhdJ 5 khtl;lq;fspy; 12 fy;tptyaq;fspy; 34 fy;tpf; Nfhl;lq;fis cs;slf;fpajhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. ,t; 34 fy;tpf; Nfhl;lq;fspy; 1077 ghlrhiyfs; cs;sNghjpYk; 965 ghlrhiyfs; jw;NghJ ,aq;fpf;nfhz;bUf;fpd;wd. vdNt ,iltpyfy; njhlh;ghd Ma;T ,g;gpuNjrq;fspy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;glTs;sJ.

Ma;tpd; kl;Lg;ghL

ghlrhiyf; fy;tpapid KOikahf khztHfs; Kbj;J ntspNaWfpd;whHfsh vd;gjid mstpLtjw;Fg; gy;NtW Fwpfhl;bfs; cs;sNghjpYk;> Ma;tpid Fwpj;j fhyg;gFjpf;Fs;> fpilf;ff; $ba ek;gj;jF juTfspd; mbg;gilapy; Ma;tpid epiwT nra;Ak; Nehf;fpy; ghlrhiy tFg;Ngw;w tPjk;> kPsf; fw;wy; tPjk;> ,iltpyfy; tPjk; Mfpa Kiwikf; Fwpfhl;bfs; ,t; Ma;tpy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd. nghJthf ,f; Fwpfhl;bfs; %lg;gl;l Fbj;njhif cs;s gpuNjrj;jpw;Nf 100tPjk; rupahdjhf mikAk;. vdpDk; Ma;Tg; gpuNjrkhfpa tlf;F khfhzj;jpy; ,Ue;J ntspNaWk; khztHfspd; vz;zpf;if> cs;tUk; khztHfspd; vz;zpf;ifAk; kpfr; rpwpajhfTk;> mz;zsthf rkdhdjhfTk; mikAk; vd;w vLNfhspd; mbg;gilapy; ,t; Ma;T Kd;ndLf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. mj;Jld; Aj;j fhyg;gFjpapYk;> Aj;jj;jpd; gpd;duhd kPs; FbNaw;wf; fhyg;gFjpapYk; khztHfs; mbf;fb ghlrhiyfs; khwpf;nfhz;bUe;j fhuzj;jpdhYk; gioa juTfs; NghjpasT ,y;yhikapdhYk; gioa juTfis ,t; Ma;tpw;Fg; gad;gLj;j Kbahj epiy cs;sJ. juk; 5 Ij; jtpu Vida juq;fspy; ghlrhiyia tpl;Lg; ghlrhiy khztHfs; khWk; re;jHg;gq;fs; tya kl;lj;jpw;F Nky;gl;l epiyfspy; jhf;fj;jpid Vw;gLj;jhJ vdTk; fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. juk; 5 Ij; jtpu Vida juq;fspy; tyaj;jpw;F Nkw;gl;l kl;lq;fspy; tFg;Gfspy; ghlrhiyia tpl;L ntspNaWk; khztHfs; ghlrhiyia tpl;L ,iltpyfpatHfshff; fUjg;gLfpd;wdH.

juTfs;

tlf;fpd; fy;tp mgptpUj;jp njhlHghfg; gyUk; fuprid nfhz;Ls;s ,t; Ntisapy; ,t; Ma;T ntsptUkplj;J gaDilajhf mikAk; vd Ma;thsd; ek;Gfpd;w fhuzj;jpdhy; Ma;thsdpdhy; juTfs; Nrfupf;fg;glhky;> Nfhl;lf; fy;tpg; gzpg;ghsHfspdhy; toq;fg;gl;l juTfspd; mbg;gilapy; khfhzf; fy;tpj; jpizf;fsj;jpdhy; ntspaplg;gl;l mbg;gilg; Gs;sptpgutpay; ifNal;Lj; juTfspd; mbg;gilapNyNa Ma;T Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ. mj;Jld; juk; 1 ,y; ghlrhiyapy; NrHe;j khztHfspd; mbg;gilapNyNa ,t; Ma;T Muk;gpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,ijtpl ghlrhiy Kiwikf;Fs; cs;tuhj xU njhFjp gps;isfSk; tlf;fpy; cs;sdH. ,J gpwpnjhU Ma;tpd; %yk; cWjpg;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;bajhFk;.

njhlHGila ,yf;fpa kPsha;T

,yq;ifapy; juk; 1 njhlf;fk; juk; 9 tiuapyhd fl;lhaf; fy;tp tanjy;iyapid 90 tPjkhd khztHfs; G+Hj;jp nra;fpd;wdH (fwpr mj;JWghz>2009). 2009 etk;gupy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l gpwpnjhU Ma;tpy; fl;lhaf; fy;tpapidg; (5 taJ njhlf;fk; 14 taJ) G+Hj;jp nra;ahJ ruhrupahf Njrpag;ghlrhiyfspy; 1.4 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> khfhzg; ghlrhiyfspy; ruhrupahf 8.4 tPjkhd khztHfSk; ,iltpyFfpd;wdH

94

vdj; njuptpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ (tpNIarwptHj;jd> 2009). gz;lhunty gpuNjrj;jpy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;Ls;s Ma;tpy; 37.05 tPjkhd ghlrhiy nry;Yk; taJila gps;isfs; ghlrhiyfSf;Fr; nry;yhky; rpWtH njhopyhsHfshf Ntiyf;F mkHj;jg;gl;Ls;sik fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ (MHwNky;> Rre;jh w];dhaf;fh> R];fuh fkyuj;d> 2008)

11. nrhw;fSk; mtw;wpd; tiutpyf;fzq;fSk;

1.1 tFg;Ngw;wk;

tFg;Ngw;wk; vd;gJ Fwpg;gpl;l tUlj;jpy; khztHfs; Fwpg;gpl;l tFg;gpid ntw;wpfukhf epiwT nra;J mLj;j tFg;gpw;Fr; nry;tjidf; Fwpf;Fk;.

tFg;Ngw;w tPjkhdJ ttFg;gpy; cs;s nkhj;j khztHfspd; vt;tsT tPjkhd khztHfs; Fwpg;gpl;l tFg;gpw;Fupa NjHr;rpfis mile;J mLj;j tFg;gpw;F Eiofpd;whHfs; vd;gjid mstply; MFk;.

1.2 kPsf;fw;wy;

kPsf;fw;wy; MdJ xU jlit my;yJ ,uz;L jlitfshf xU tFg;gpy; njhlHe;J fy;tp fw;Fk; khztHfspd; msthFk;.

kPsf; fw;wy; tPjkhdJ ttFg;gpy; cs;s nkhj;j khztHfspd; vt;tsT tPjkhd khztHfs; Fwpg;gpl;l tFg;gpw;Fupa NjHr;rpfis milaj; jtwp kPs mNj tFg;gpy; fy;tp fw;fpd;;wdH vd;gjid mstply; MFk;.

Y+1 tUlj;jpy; G+1 juj;jpw;F tFg;Ngw;wg;gl;l khzth;fspd;

vz;zpf;ifY tUlj;jpy; G juj;jpy; fy;tpfw;w khzth;fspd; vz;zpf;if

95

11.3 ,iltpyfy;

,iltpyfy; MdJ xU ghlrhiy tUlj;jpy; Fwpg;gpl;l tFg;gpid epiwT nra;ahky; fy;tp Kiwapy; ,Ue;J tpyfpr; nrd;w khztHfspd; vz;zpf;ifahFk;.

,iltpyfy; tPjkhdJ tFg;gpy; cs;s nkhj;j khztHfspy; vt;tsT tPjkhd

khztHfs; Fwpg;gpl;l tFg;gpypUe;J / fy;tp Kiwikapy; ,Ue;J tpyfpr; nry;fpd;wdH vd;gjid mstply; MFk;.

2. ,yq;ifapd; fy;tp Kiwikapy; tFg;Ngw;wKk; ,iltpyfYk;

xU ghlrhiyapy; Fwpj;j tFg;nghd;wpy; NrUk; khztd; xUtd; xU tUl fy;tpr; nraw;ghl;bd; gpd;dH tFg;Ngw;wk; nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk; my;yJ mNj tFg;gpy; kPsf; fw;wy; fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghl;by; <Lgl Ntz;Lk; my;yJ ghlrhiyapid tpl;L ntspNaw Ntz;Lk; Mfpa ,e;j %d;wpy; VNjh xU nraw;ghL eilngw;wpUf;Fk;.

,d;W ,yq;ifapd; fy;tpf; nfhs;ifapy; nghJthf kPsf; fw;wy; vd;gJ ,y;iy. juk; 1 ,y; ghlrhiyf; fy;tpapy; Eiofpd;w khztd; xUtd; juk; 11 tiu rhjhuzkhf tFg;Ngw;wg;gl;L tUfpd;wikiaNa fhzf;$bajhf cs;sJ.

vdNt ,yq;ifapd; fy;tp Kiwapy; ghlrhiyf;Fr; NrUfpd;w khztd; xd;wpy; tFg;Ngw;wk; my;yJ ghlrhiyia tpl;L ntspNaWtjhf mikAk;. ghlrhiyia tpl;L ntspNaWk; nraw;ghlhdJ Gjpa ghlrhiyapy; NrHtjw;fhf my;yJ ghlrhiyf; fy;tpapid ,ilepWj;Jtjw;fhf epfof;$bajhf cs;sJ.

nghJthf ,yq;ifapd; fy;tp Kiwikapy; juk; 5 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 6 f;F mjhtJ Muk;gf; fy;tpia Kbj;J ,ilepiyf; fy;tpf;F cl;GFk; re;jHg;gj;jpYk;> f.ngh.j(rh.j) fy;tpapid epiwT nra;J f.ngh.j (c.j) fw;gjw;F EioAk; re;jHg;gq;fspYk; kl;LNk xU ghlrhiyapy; ,Ue;J kw;nwhU ghlrhiyf;F khWfpd;w re;jHg;gk; epfo;fpd;wJ. Vida tFg;Gf;fspy; kpf mtrukhdJk; mtrpakhdJkhd Njitfs; Vw;gLk;nghOJ kl;LNk xU ghlrhiyia tpl;L ,d;ndhU ghlrhiyf;F khztd; xUtd; khWfpd;w re;jHg;gk; Vw;gLfpd;wJ. ,t;thW khztHfs; ,t; tFg;Gf;fspy; khwpdhYk; mk; khztd; mg; ghlrhiy fhzg;gLk; tyaj;jpy; cs;s xU ghlrhiyf;Nf khWfpd;w tha;g;Gf;fs; mjpfkhf cs;sd.

Ma;T Kiwapay;

,t; Ma;thdJ msTrhH Kiwapyhd XH Ma;thf mikfpd;wJ. tlf;F khfhzj;jpy; ,aq;fpf;nfhz;bUf;Fk; midj;Jg; ghlrhiyfSk; ,t; Ma;tpw;F cl;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.

nghJthf rdj;njhiff; fzpg;gPLfs; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; nghOJ tUlj;jpd; eLg;gFjpapy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. mNj Nghy ,t; Ma;tpYk; 2012 Mk; Mz;L eLg; gFjpapy; xt;nthU ghlrhiyapYk; xt;nthU tFg;gpYk; fy;tp fw;w khztHfspd; vz;zpf;ifAk;> 2013 Mk; Mz;L tFg;Ngw;wj;jpd; gpd;dH xt;nthU

96

tFg;gpYk; fy;tpfw;Fk; khztHfspd; vz;zpf;ifAk; ,t; Ma;tpw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. ,j; juTfspd; mbg;gilapy; xt;nthU ghlrhiyapdJk;> Nfhl;lj;jpdJk;> tyaj;jpdJk;> khfhzj;jpdJk; tFg;Ngw;w tPjq;fs; fzpg;gplg;gl;L xg;gPL nra;ag;gl;Ls;sd. Fwpj;j tFg;gpy; fy;tp fw;Fk; midj;J khztHfSk; ,iltpyfy; ,d;wp mLj;j tFg;gpw;Fr; nry;thHfshapd; Fwpj;j tFg;gpd; tFg;Ngw;w tPjk; 100 Mff; fhzg;glNtz;Lk;. ,J 100 ,Yk; Fiwthff; fhzg;gLkhapd;> 100 f;Fk; mt; tPjj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd tpj;jpahrkhd tPj khztHfs; Fwpj;j tFg;gpy; ,iltpyfYf;F cs;shfpAs;sdH vd;w Kbtpw;F tuyhk;. ,Ug;gpDk;> juk; 5 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 6 f;F ghlrhiy khWfpd;w nraw;ghLk;> Vida tFg;Gf;fspy; ghlrhiy khWfpd;w nraw;ghLk; ghlrhiy kl;lj;jpyhd tFg;Ngw;wk; fzpg;gpLk; nghOJ jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;jpdhYk;> khtl;l> khfhz kl;lj;jpy; tFg;Ngw;wj;jpidf; fzpg;gpLtjpy; ngupJk; nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;jhJ.

vdNt ,t; Ma;tpy; juk; 5 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 6 ,w;fhd khw;wj;jpw;Fupa tFg;Ngw;wtPjkhdJ ghlrhiy kl;l> Nfhl;l kl;l> tyakl;lq;fspy; ,t; Ma;tpy; Nehf;fg;gltpy;iy. Vnddpy; Njrpa ghlrhiyfSf;F khztHfs; nry;fpd;w re;jHg;gq;fspy; tya kl;lq;fspy;$l khw;wq;fs; Vw;glyhk;. vdNt juk; 5 f;fhd tFg;Ngw;w tPjk; khtl;l> khfhz mbg;gilapy; kl;Lk; Nehf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

ggFg;gha;T

khfhz epiy

NkNyAs;s tiugpid Nehf;Fifapy; tlf;F khfhzj;jpy; juk; 1 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 2 ,w;fhd tFg;Ngw;w tPjk; 103.33 Mff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ juk; xd;iw tplj; juk; 2 ,y; khztHfs; njhif mjpfupj;Jf; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. tlf;F khfhzj;jpw;F ntspNa ,Ue;J 2013 Mk; Mz;L Fwpg;gpl;l vz;zpf;ifahd khztHfs; cs;Ns te;Js;sdH vd;gjid ,J Gyg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ. ,Nj Nghy juk; 2 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 3> juk; 3 ,y; ,Ue;J 4 Mfpa tFg;Ngw;w tPjq;fSk; KiwNa 100.14 > 100.97 Mff;

8486889092949698

100102104106

1 to 2 2 to 3 3 to 4 4 to 5 5 to 6 6 to 7 7 to 8 8 to 9 9 to 10 10 to11

Tran

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Grade of Transition

Grade wise Students Transition in Northern Province

97

fhzg;gLfpd;wd. vdNt ,t; tFg;Gf;fspYk; tlf;F khfhzj;jpw;F ntspNa ,Ue;J 2013 Mk; Mz;L Fwpg;gpl;l vz;zpf;ifahd khztHfs; cs;Ns te;Js;sdH vd;Nw fUj Ntz;bAs;sJ.

,Ug;gpDk; juk; 4 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 5 f;fhd tFg;Ngw;w tPjk; 96.97 Mff; Fiwtilfpd;wJ. vdNt ,e;j juk; 4 ,y; Fwpg;gpl;l vz;zpf;ifahd khztHfs; ghlrhiyapy; ,Ue;J ,iltpyfy; xd;W Vw;gLtjid Ma;Tg; gFg;gha;T Gyg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ. ,ijr; r%f kl;lj;jpy; Nehf;Fifapy; juk; 5 Gyikg;guprpy; ghlj;jpl;lj;jpid eilKiwg;gLj;Jifapy; gpd;jq;fpa milT kl;lj;jpidAila khztHfs; ghlrhiyapy; ,Ue;J ,iltpyFfpd;whHfsh my;yJ mjw;fhfj; J}z;lg;gLfpd;whHfsh vd rpe;jpf;f Ntz;bAs;sJ. ,Ug;gpDk; ,J XH Mokhd Ma;tpw;F cl;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;bajhf cs;sJ.

juk; 5 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 6 f;F nry;ifapy; 101.80 Mff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. vdNt Gjpa khztHfs; ntspapy; ,Ue;J te;Js;shHfs; vdf; fUj Ntz;bAs;sJ. juk; 6 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 7> juk; 7 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 8> juk; 8 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 9> juk; 9 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 10 Mfpa tFg;Gf;fspw;fhd tFg;Ngw;w tPjq;fs; KiwNa 98.37> 98.59> 98.90> 97.10 Mff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ juk; 6> juk; 7> juk; 8 Mfpa tFg;Gf;fspy; ruhrup 1.5 tPjkhd khztHfs; xt;nthU tFg;gpYk; ,iltpyFfpd;wdH. juk; 9 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 10f; fhd tFg;Ngw;w tPjk; 97.1 Mff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. ,iltpyfy; 3 tPjkhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.

juk; 10 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 11 f;fhd tFg;Ngw;w tPjk; 90.79 Mff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. RkhH 9 tPjkhd khztHfs; juk; 10 cld; jq;fs; ghlrhiyf; fy;tpapid ,ilepWj;jpf; nfhs;fpd;wdH. ,J tlf;fpd; fy;tp tPo;r;rpapNy ghupa nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;Jfpd;wJ.

khfhz kl;lj;jpy; juk; 4> juk; 9 Mfpa tFg;Gf;fspy; 3 tPj ,iltpyfYk;> juk; 10 ,y; 9 tPj ,iltpyfYk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

kkhtl;l epiy

80

85

90

95

100

105

110

115

1 to 2 2 to 3 3 to 4 4 to 5 5 to 6 6 to 7 7 to 8 8 to 9 9 to 10 10 to11

Tran

sitio

n Pe

rcen

tage

Grade of Transition

Grade wise Students Transition in each Districts

Jaffna

KilinochchiMannar

Mullaitivu

Vavuniya

98

aho; khtl;lj;jpidg; nghWj;j tiuapy; juk; 3 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 4 f;fhd tFg;Ngw;w tPjk; 96.55 Mff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. juk; 7 y; ,Ue;J juk; 8 f;F khztHfs; nry;Yk; nghOJk;> juk; 9 ,y; ,Ue;J 10 ,w;Fr; nry;Yk; nghOJk; 2.5 tPjkhd khztHfs; ghlrhiyapid tpl;L ,iltpyFfpd;wdH. juk; 10 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 11f;F 91.72 tPjkhd khztHfNs nry;fpd;wdH. juk; 10 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 11f;F nry;ifapy; 8.28 tPjkhd khztHfs; ,iltpyFfpd;wdH.

fpspnehr;rp khtl;lj;jpidg; nghWj;j tiuapy;> aho; khtl;lj;ijg; Nghyd;wp NtW xU Nghf;fpidf; fhzf;$bajhf cs;sJ. mjhtJ juk; 1 Kjy; juk; 8 f;Fr; nry;fpd;w tiu nrd;w tUlj;jpYk; ghHf;f ,t;tUlk; khztHfs; mjpfkhfNt fhzg;gLfpd;wdH. mjhtJ tFg;Ngw;w tPjk; 100 ,Yk; mjpfkhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. juk; 8 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 9 f;F nry;Yk; NghJ 1.8 tPj ,iltpyfYk;> juk; 9 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 10 f;Fr; nry;Yk; nghOJ 2.1 tPj ,iltpyfYk;> juk; 10 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 11 f;Fr; nry;Yk; nghOJ 6.4 tPjkhd ,iltpyfYk; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. vdNt ,ilepiyg;gpuptpdpNyNa ,t; ,iltpyfy; mjpfupj;Jr; nry;fpd;wikiaf; fhzyhk;.

kd;dhH khtl;lj;jpYk; fpspnehr;rp khtl;lk; Nghd;wnjhU Nghf;fpidNa mtjhdpf;ff; $bajhf cs;sJ. juk; 1 njhlf;fk; juk; 6 tiu khztHfspd; tFg;Ngw;wtPjk; 100 ,Yk; mjpfkhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ nrd;w tUlj;jpYk; ghHf;f ,t;tUlk; tFg;Gf;fspy; khztHfspd; vz;zpf;if mjpfkhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. juk; 6 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 7 f;Fr; nry;ifapy; 2.5 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> juk; 7 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 8 f;F nry;ifapy; 3.3 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> juk; 8 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 9 f;F nry;ifapy; 2.2 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> juk; 9 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 10 f;F nry;ifapy; 4.6 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> juk; 10 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 11 f;F nry;ifapy; 13.6 tPjkhd khztHfSk; ,iltpyFfpd;wdH.

Ky;iyj;jPT khtl;lj;jpy; ,d;ndhU tifahd Nghf;fpid mtjhdpf;ff;$bajhf cs;sJ. juk; 4 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 5 ,w;fhd ,iltpyfy; 0.7 MfTk;> juk; 10 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 11 ,w;fhd ,iltpyfy; 6.9 tPjkhfTk; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.

tTdpah khtl;lj;jpy; juk; 4 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 5 ,w;F 8.8 tPjkhd khztHfs; ,iltpyFfpd;wdH. juk; 6 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 7 ,w;F 12.1 tPjkhd khztHfs; ,iltpyFfpd;wdH. juk; 8 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 9 f;F 2.4 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> juk; 9 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 10 f;F 5.7 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> juk; 10 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 11 ,w;Fr; nry;ifapy; 12 tPjkhd khztHfSk; ,iltpyFfpd;wdH.

juk; 10 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 11 f;Fr; nry;ifapy; kd;dhH khtl;lkhdJ mjpAaH ,iltpyfiyf; nfhz;l khtl;lkhf mjhtJ 13.6 tPjj;jpid cilajhfpd;wJ. mLj;J tTdpah 12 tPjkhfTk;> aho;g;ghzk; 8.28 tPjkhfTk;> Ky;iyj;jPT 6.9 tPjkhfTk;> fpspnehr;rp 6.4 tPjkhfTk; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.

tya epiy.

khfhz kl;lj;jpy; Nehf;Fifapy; juk; 4 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 5 f;Fr; nry;fpd;w NghJk;> juk; 10 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 11 f;Fr; nry;fpd;w nghOJk; khztHfspd; ,iltpyfyhdJ mjpfkhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wik NkNy jug;gl;Ls;s Gs;sptpguq;fspy; ,Ue;J njspthfpd;wJ. vdNt tya kl;l Ma;thdJ ,t; tFg;Gf;fspy; Muha;fpd;wJ.

juk; 4 ,y; tTdpah njw;F tyaj;jpy; 10 tPjkhd khztHfs; ,iltpyFfpd;wdH. jPtf tyaj;jpy; 6 tPjkhd khztHfs; ,iltpyFfpd;wdH. aho;g;ghzk;> JZf;fha;> kL> typfhkk; fy;tp tyaq;fspy; juk; 4 ,y; 4 tPjkhd khztHfs; ,iltpyFfpd;wdH. tTdpah tlf;fpy; 3 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> tlkuhl;rp;>

99

njd;kuhl;rp tyaq;fspy; 2 tPjkhd khztHfSk; juk; 4 ,y; ,iltpyFfpd;wdH. Ky;iyj;jPT> fpspnehr;rp> kd;dhH fy;tp tyaq;fspy; khztH tFg;Ngw;w tPjk; 101 tPjkhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. vdNt 2013 Mk; Mz;L juk; 5 ,w;Fg; Gjpa khztHfs; NtW tyak; my;yJ khtl;lk; my;yJ khfhzj;jpy; ,Ue;J te;Js;sik mtjhdpf;ff; $bajhf cs;sJ.

juk; 10 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 11f;Fr; nry;ifapy; kL tyaj;jpy; 24 tPjkhd khztHfs; ,iltpyfpAs;sdH. tTdpah njw;F> tTdpah tlf;F> jPtf fy;tp tyaq;fspy; 12 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> typfhkk;> JZf;fha;> kd;dhH tyaq;fspy; 11 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> aho;g;ghzf; fy;tp tyaj;jpy; 8 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> fpspnehr;rp> tlkhuhl;rp tyaq;fspy; 6 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> Ky;iyj;jPtpy; 5 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> njd;khuhl;rpapy; 4 tPjkhd khztHfSk; ghlrhiyia tpl;L ,iltpyfpAs;sik mtjhdpf;ff;$bajhf cs;sJ.

tTdpah tlf;F tyaj;jpy; juk; 8 ,y; 8 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> juk; 9 ,y; 7 tPjkhd khztHfSk; ,iltpyfpAs;sik mtjhdpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. tTdpah njw;F tyaj;jpy; juk; 9 ,y; 6 tPjkhd khztHfs; ,iltpyfpAs;sdH. JZf;fha; tyaj;jpy; juk; 8 ,y; 4 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> juk; 9 ,y; 5 tPjkhd khztHfSk; ,iltpyfpAs;sdH.

kd;dhH tyaj;jpy; juk; 7 ,y; 4 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> juk; 9 ,y; 6 tPjkhd khztHfSk; ,iltpyfpAs;sdH. typfhkk; fy;tp tyaj;jpy; juk; 9 ,y; 4 tPjkhd khztHfs; ,iltpyfpAs;sdH. tlkuhl;rpapy; juk; 8> juk; 9 ,y; 4 tPjkhd khztHfs; ,iltpyfpAs;sdH. njd;kuhl;rpapy; juk; 9 ,y; 4 tPjkhd khztHfs; ,iltpyfpAs;sik mtjhdpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. kL fy;tp tyaj;jpy; juk; 8 ,y; 6 tPjkhf khztHfs; ,iltpyfpAs;sdH. jPtff; fy;tp tyaj;jpy; juk; 7 ,y; 8 tPjkhd khztHfs; ,iltpyfpAs;sik Fwpg;gplj;jf;fJ.

KbTfSk; Kd;nkhopTfSk;

tlf;F khfhzj;jpy; juk; 4> juk; 9 Mfpa tFg;Gf;fspy; 3 tPj ,iltpyfYk;> juk; 10 ,y; 9 tPj ,iltpyfYk; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. tlf;F khfhzk; ,t; tplaj;jpy; cldbf; ftdk; Nkw;nfhs;shjtplj;J 15 tPjkhd khztHfs; fl;lhaf;fy;tpapid KOikahfg; ngwhJ r%fj;jpDs; tplg;gLfpd;w epiy cUthFk;. ,J ghupa gpd;tpisTfisr; r%fj;jpy; Vw;gLj;jf;$bajhFk;.

juk; 10 ,y; ,Ue;J juk; 11f;Fr; nry;ifapy; kL tyaj;jpy; 24 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> tTdpah njw;F> tTdpah tlf;F> jPtf fy;tp tyaq;fspy; 12 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> typfhkk;> JZf;fha;> kd;dhH tyaq;fspy; 11 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> aho;g;ghzf; fy;tp tyaj;jpy; 8 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> fpspnehr;rp> tlkuhl;rp tyaq;fspy; 6 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> Ky;iyj;jPtpy; 5 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> njd;kuhl;rpapy; 4 tPjkhd khztHfSk; ghlrhiyia tpl;L ,iltpyfpAs;sdH. vdNt kL> tTdpah njw;F> tTdpah tlf;F> jPtfk;> typfhkk;> JZf;fha;> kd;dhH> aho;g;ghzk;> fpspnehr;rp> tlkuhl;rp tyaq;fspy; ,t; ,iltpyfYf;fhd fhuzpfs; njhlHghf Mokhd Ma;Tfs; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;L mt; Ma;T KbTfspd; mbg;gilapy; jpl;lq;fs; jahupf;fg;gl;L eilKiwg;gLj;Jjy; mtrpakhdJ.

juk; 4 ,y; tTdpah njw;F tyaj;jpy;; 10 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> jPtf tyaj;jpy; 6 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> aho;g;ghzk;> JZf;fha;> typfhkk; tyaq;fspy; 4 tPjkhd khztHfSk;> tTdpah tlf;fpy; 3 tPjkhd khztHfSk; ,iltpyfpAs;sik mtjhdpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. Muk;gf; fy;tpahdJ kpf mj;jpahtrpakhdnjhd;whFk;. tTdpah njw;F> jPtf tyaq;fspy; Muk;gf; fy;tpaid KOikahfg; ngwhJ

100

khztHfs; ghlrhiyapy; ,Ue;J ,iltpyFfpd;w jd;ikf;fhd fhuzq;fisf; fz;lwpe;J cldb eltbf;if Nkw;nfhs;Sjy; mtrpakhdjhFk;.

ccrhj;Jiz

The National Strategic Plan for the General Education Sector, Ministry of Education,2012

Statistical Year Book, Provincial Department of Education, Northern Province, 2013

Student Drop-out in the Plantation Sector in SriLanka: A Critical Analysis of Causes and Repercussions, R.Ramesh, Susantha Rasnayake, Thushara Kamalrathne, 2009

Education for all, Monitoring and Evaluation, Ministry of Education, 2011

Aturupana, Harsha, The Pearl of Great Price: Achieving Equitable Access to Primary and Secondary Education and Enhancing Learning in Sri Lanka, 2009,Create Pathways to Access, Research Monography

The EFA 2000 Assessment:Country Report 2000.Accessed on December 3, 2009 http://www.unesco.org/education/wed/countryreports/sri_lanka/rapport.html

101

“TO REMEMBER ME……………………………”

THE DAY WILL COME when my body will lie upon a white sheet neatly tucked under four corners of a mattress located in a hospital busily occupied with the living and the dying. At a certain moment a doctor will determine that my brain has ceased to function and that, for all intents and purposes, my life has stopped.

WHEN THAT HAPPENS, do not attempt to instill artificial life into my body by the use of a machine, and don’t call this my deathbed. Let it be called the Bed of Life, and let in my body be taken from it to help others lead fuller lives.

GIVE MY SIGHT to the man who has never seen a sunrise, a baby’s face or love in the eyes of a woman. Give my heart to a person whose own heart has caused nothing but endless days of pain. Give my blood to the teenager who was pulled from the wreckage of his car, so that he might live to see his grandchildren play. Give my kidneys to one who depends on a machine to exist from week to week. Take my bones, every muscle, every fiber and nerve in my body and a find a way to make a crippled child walk.

EXPLORE EVERY CORNER of my brain. Take my cells, if necessary, and let them grow so that, someday, speechless boy will shout at the crack of a bat and a deaf girl will hear the sound of rain against her window.

BURN WHAT IS LEFT of me and scatter the ashes to the winds to help the flowers grow.

IF YOU MUST BURY SOMETHING, let it be my faults, my weaknesses and all prejudices against my fellowmen.

IF BY CHANCE, you wish to remember me, do it with a kind deed or word to someone who needs you. If you do all I have asked, I will live forever.

(Selected by Dr. Victor Wee Eng Lye)

Note: The above is based on Buddhist Principles of loving kindness & charity.