educating coastal managers - coastal resources …of baja california, ensenada campus, mexico jose...
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i
EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERSPROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP
March 4-10, 1995W. Alton Jones Campus
University of Rhode Island
EditorsBrian R. Crawford
J. Stanley CobbChou Loke Ming
Coastal Resources Management Project
Coastal Resources CenterUniversity of Rhode Island
Bureau for Global Programs, Field Support and ResearchCenter for the Environment and Natural Resources
U.S. Agency for International Development
COASTAL RESOURCES CENTER
USAID
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ii PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS:PROCEEDINGS OF THERHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP
March 4-10, 1995W. Alton Jones CampusThe University of Rhode Island
EditorsBrian R. CrawfordJ. Stanley CobbChou Loke Ming
Published by the Coastal Resources Management Project,Coastal Resources Center, The University of Rhode Island, andBureau for Global Programs, Field Support and Research,Center for Environment, U.S. Agency for InternationalDevelopment
Funding for the preparation and printing of this documentwas provided by the Coastal Resources Management Project, aCooperative Agreement between the U.S. Agency for Interna-tional Development and the University of Rhode Island.
For bibliographic purposes this document may be cited as:
Crawford, B.R., Cobb, J.S., Chou, L.M. (eds.). 1995. EducatingCoastal Managers: Proceedings from the Rhode IslandWorkshop. Coastal Resources Management Project, CoastalResources Center, The University of Rhode Island, and Centerfor the Environment, U.S. Agency for International Develop-ment. Narragansett, RI, USA. 184 p.
An electronic version of this document is available throughthe Coastal Resources Center’s World Wide Web Site <http://brooktrout/gsosun1.gso.uri.edu> or directly by anonymousFTP at <ftp://brooktrout.gso.uri.edu/pub>.
ISBN No. 1-885454-02-3CRC Technical Report No. 2089
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iii
CONTENTS
Acknowledgments vForeword viExecutive Summary viiCall to Action xii
SECTION 1TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF ICMPROFESSIONALS: ANALYSIS OF DEMAND
OverviewThe Skills, Knowledge, and Attitudesof an Ideal Coastal ManagerStephen Olsen 3
Latin AmericaThe Status of Integrated Coastal Management andDemand for Training of Coastal ManagementPractitioners in EcuadorSegundo Coello 8
Rapporteur’s ReportLatin America: Training and Educational Needsof ICM Professionals—Analysis of Demand 13
Mediterranean and the Black Sea RegionsThe Status of Integrated Coastal and Marine AreasManagement and the Demand for CoastalManagement Practitioners: Mediterraneanand Black Sea RegionsArsen Pavasovic 15
Rapporteur’s ReportMediterranean and Black Sea: Training andEducational Needs of ICM Professionals -Analysis of Demand 30
Asia, Pacific, and East AfricaThe Status of Integrated Coastal ResourcesManagement (ICRM) and Demand for CoastalManagement Practitioners in the GovernmentSector of the PhilippinesJessica C. Munoz 32
Rapporteur’s ReportAsia, Pacific, and East Africa: Training andEducational Needs of ICM Professionals—Analysis of Demand 36
Rapporteur’s ReportUnited States, Canada, and Australia: Trainingand Educational Needs of ICM Professionals—Analysis of Demand 38
Plenary DiscussionTraining and Educational Needs of ICMProfessionals—Analysis of Demand 41
SECTION 2COASTAL MANAGEMENT TRAINING ANDDEGREE PROGRAMS: STATUS AND TRENDS
Status and Trends in Coastal Managment-RelatedTraining Courses in the EPOMEX Program, Mexico:Structure, Projection, Curricula, and InstitutionalArrangementAlejandro Yanez-Arancibia,Ana Laura Lara-Dominguez 45
Status and Trends in Coastal Management-RelatedTraining and Degree Programs in Southeast AsiaL.M. Chou 49
Training for Integrated Coastal Management:A Review of Trends, Issues, and Approachesfor the 21st CenturyBrian Crawford 54
Capacity Building at a Graduate Level EducationalProgram in Coastal Zone Management:A Case Study of the Autonomous Universityof Baja California, Ensenada Campus, MexicoJose Luis Ferman-Almada, Lorenzo Gomez-Morin Fuentes,Ileana Espejel Carbajal, David Fischer 62
Interdisciplinary Education with Consideration forCoastal ManagementElizabeth Fuller 68
Meeting the Challenge: The Marine StudiesProgramme at the University of the South PacificG. Robin South, Joeli Veitayaki 73
Coastal Management and Marine AffairsEducational ProgramsNiels West 79
Medcoast Institute: A Training Program on Coastal ZoneManagement in the Mediterranean and the Black SeaErdal Ozhan, E.B. Culhaoglu 84
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iv PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
Rapporteur’s ReportCoastal Management Training andDegree Programs: Status and Trends 89
SECTION 3EXPERIENCE IN CAPACITY BUILDING:CASE STUDIES AND LESSONS LEARNED
Development of the Coastal ResourcesInstitute (CORIN)Somsak Boromthanarat 93
Coastal Resource Management: Educationand Capacity Building in Government,Community, and the UniversityKenneth R. Brown 97
Building Capacity for Coastal Managementat UniversitiesJ. Stanley Cobb 102
Capacity Building: A Case Study of the MarineScience Institute, University of the PhilippinesEdgardo Gomez 110
Rapporteur’s ReportsExperience in Capacity Building: Case Studiesand Lessons Learned 115
SECTION 4NETWORK AND PARTNERSHIPS
The Network for Environmental Training at Tertiary-Level in Asia and the Pacific (NETTLAP): An Experiencein Environmental NetworkingC.M. Madduma Bandara 119
MEDCOAST Initiative: Contributing to theEnvironmental Management of Coastal andSea Areas of the Mediterranean and the Black SeaErdal Ozhan 123
The TRAIN-SEA-COAST Program: A Decentralized,Cooperative Training Network for the SystematicDevelopment of Human ResourcesStella Maris Vallejo 128
The International Ocean Institute NetworkMargaret J. Wood 133
Rapporteur’s ReportNetworks and Partnerships 141
Rapporteur’s ReportDonor Initiatives for Building Human Capacityfor Integrated Coastal Management 143
SECTION 5STRATEGIES FOR BUILDING UNIVERSITYCAPACITY
An Integrated Program for Educating and SustainingCoastal ManagersDavid Gitlitz 147
Roundtable DiscussionThe Changing Nature of Educating Coastal Managers—New Paradigms, Technology, and Approaches 150
Rapporteur’s ReportRecommendations for Building University Capacityin ICM—Program Models and Curriculum Issues 152
Rapporteur’s ReportRecommendations for Building University Capacityin ICM: Human Resources Issues, InstitutionalStrengthening Issues, ConsultativeArrangements, and Partnerships 156
Plenary DiscussionRecommendations for Building UniversityCapacity in ICM 158
SECTION 6APPENDICES
Appendix A: Workshop Agenda 163
Appendix B: Workshop Participants 167
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v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Workshop on Educating Coastal Managers wasbuilt on the great efforts of the many organizationsand individuals that have contributed to this topic.Their groundbreaking work is gratefully acknowledged.
Many individuals contributed to the organization ofthe workshop. Beth Fuller coordinated the logistics,travel, and administrative details prior to and duringthe workshop. CRC’s administrative support staff,Cindy Moreau and Wendy Thiel, also contributed tothese efforts. Michelle Moulton typed and retypeddrafts and reports and with student assistant Chris Foxhelped set up the workshop secretariat office andhandled airport transportation. URI’s International Stu-dent Services assisted with U.S. visas. The staff of theW. Alton Jones Conference Center provided fine mealsand an overwhelming show of hospitality, making theconference a memorable experience for all. The orga-nizing committee included two distant members, ChouLoke Ming in Singapore and Max Aguero in Chile who,along with URI members Brian Crawford, Stan Cobb,Niels West, and Robert Miller, helped to determineworkshop objectives and the agenda and identify par-ticipants via fax, phone, and the Internet. The Internetitself deserves a mention since it helped speed and re-duce the cost of communications. Jackleen de La Harpecopyedited the entire proceedings.
The participants’ home institutions provided timefor them to attend the workshop and, in several cases,contributed to the cost of travel. UNEP, through thePriority Action Programs Regional Activities Centre,contributed travel financing for several participants.The U.S. Agency for International Development,Bureau for Global Programs, Field Support andResearch, Center for Environment, provided the bulkof the financing making this workshop possible.
Most importantly, we thank all the participants whoworked so hard and whose efforts resulted in thepreparation of the background papers, rapporteur’sreports, and the Call to Action. They braved the end ofNew England’s winter at the W. Alton Jones Campus,and brought a warmth of spirit that melted away the
last of winter’s ice from the ponds. It is our sincerehope that all the participants who contributed a wealthof ideas and recommendations returned home with aninvigorated sense of determination for taking action.Collectively these actions will help advance the goal ofenhanced capacity for educating coastal managers and,ultimately, an improved quality of life for all peopleand species inhabiting coastal regions of the world.
The Editors
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vi PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
FOREWORD
In March 1995, the Coastal Resources ManagementProject, a cooperative effort of the United StatesAgency for International Development (USAID) andthe University of Rhode Island’s Coastal Resources Cen-ter, sponsored a five-day workshop on educatingcoastal managers. Participants reviewed existing educa-tional programs, defined the needs of the profession,and suggested strategies for building the capacity ofuniversities to contribute to national, regional, and in-ternational initiatives in coastal management.
The participants recommended a strategy organizedaround (1) short-term training programs to enhancethe skills of today’s active practitioners, and (2) en-hanced university curricula to produce new coastalmanagers with greater theoretical and practical exper-tise in their field. While short-term training is avail-able, the second element needs greater attention, asmost universities in developing countries simply donot have the resources needed to strengthen their ownpeople and programs.
Educational capacity-building is a long and expen-sive process. Current development philosophy andfunding priorities preclude large-scale universitystrengthening efforts. However, various approaches toimproving university programs in coastal managementwere suggested by workshop participants. Among thesewere the development of networks of universities in-volved in coastal management and partnerships be-tween universities, coastal managers, governmentagencies, NGOs, and the private sector. Intellectualnourishment from real-life experiences of these practi-tioners will insure programs that are dynamic and re-sponsive to immediate needs in the communities theyserve.
These Proceedings are directed at individuals design-ing or engaged in education and professional trainingfor integrated coastal management. This includes uni-versity faculty and extension personnel, as well astrainers from NGOs and technical institutions. Theideas presented should also help guide administratorsand decision-makers in universities, national govern-ments, and the international development communitytoward promoting capacity-building for integratedcoastal management. The document provides a wealth
of ideas and information to assist educators in the de-sign of coastal management education and trainingprograms and to support development of institutionalstrengthening strategies.
Recipients are encouraged to write to the Coastal Re-sources Management Project with views on these rec-ommendations and on how they are contributing tothe education of coastal managers.
David Hales, Deputy Assistant AdministratorCenter for the EnvironmentU.S. Agency for International DevelopmentWashington, DC 20523-1812
Stephen Olsen, DirectorCoastal Resources CenterUniversity of Rhode IslandNarragansett, RI 02882
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vii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
INTRODUCTIONIn the past decade, the need for coastal management
has become increasingly obvious. In 57 countries,plans for managing coastal areas have been developed.In many fewer, these plans are being implemented. Theneed for well-educated practitioners who can both planand implement coastal management strategies is acritical issue in much of the world. As pointed out inAgenda 21, Chapter 17 of the Earth Summit, buildingcapacity in individuals and institutions is necessary ifcoastal management is to be sustained:
“Coastal States should promote and facilitate the organiza-tion of education and training in integrated coastal andmarine management ...”(17.15)
“International organizations ... should support (the capac-ity-building efforts of) coastal States, ... devoting specialattention to developing countries”(17.16)
Such capacity building must emphasize the knowl-edge and skills required by the effective practice ofcoastal management. Integrated coastal management(ICM) is a new field, and there are only a few educa-tional programs, primarily in developed nations, thataddress the topic. Formal educational programs andsustained training opportunities in developing nationsare just starting to emerge. This workshop focused onstrategies for initiating or strengthening university edu-cation for coastal managers.
This volume contains the background papers pre-pared for the workshop, rapporteur’s reports from theplenary sessions, as well as summaries of the ideas pro-duced in working sessions. The proceedings are di-rected at individuals with an interest in university leveleducation and professional training in the field ofcoastal management. This includes university facultyand extension personnel, as well as trainers from NGOsand training institutes. The document provides awealth of ideas and information to assist educators inthe design of ICM education and training programs aswell as the formulation of institutional strengtheningstrategies.
PURPOSE OF THE WORKSHOPThe purpose of the workshop was to bring together
academics and experienced coastal management pro-fessionals to define the needs of the profession, reviewexisting programs, and suggest ways in which universi-ties can meet the growing demand for coastal manage-ment professionals. Workshop participants examinedthe knowledge, skills, and attitudes required of coastalmanagers in various geographic regions of the worldand considered approaches to incorporate these re-quirements in curricula.
The following questions were debated by theparticipants:
• What are the training and educational needs ofCRM professionals?
• What are the current programs, curricula, andapproaches developed for the education of coastalmanagers?
• How can universities develop the capacity to pre-pare individuals for careers in coastal management?
• What are the opportunities to fund capacity-build-ing initiatives for education in coastal managementat universities?
WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTSThe workshop organizers strove for a geographic
representation among regions, a balance among aca-demics and practitioners, and a mix of representativesfrom a broad spectrum of developed and developingcountries. The 35 workshop participants included edu-cators and CRM practitioners from Latin America,tropical Asia, the United States, Australia, Canada, EastAfrica, the Pacific, and the Mediterranean, as well asmembers of the UN and donor community with pro-gram interests in this area. A list of participants andtheir addresses is provided in Appendix B. Academicrepresentatives were senior faculty and administratorsfrom educational institutions already engaged andcommitted to coastal management or from institutions
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viii PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
where additional development is being planned andis likely to occur. Practitioners from the communityrepresented senior managerial and supervisory posi-tions with a broad understanding and experience ofcoastal management planning, coordination, andimplementation.
STRUCTURE OF THE WORKSHOPA number of invited papers on theme areas, pro-
gram models, and case studies were prepared by theparticipants prior to the workshop. The major empha-sis was in assessing needs and examining how universi-ties develop capacity to educate coastal managers. Thisproceedings includes papers of a comparative and con-ceptual nature as well as case studies of selected institu-tions and nations representing a range of potential al-ternative models. The papers were distributed inadvance for all workshop participants to read prior tothe workshop. The workshop proceeded under the as-sumption that everyone had read the background pa-pers, and only a brief amount of time was provided forsummary presentations by authors. Thus the bulk ofthe time was devoted to discussions of points raised inthe papers, analysis of issues, and formulation of out-puts. Each session had an assigned moderator and arapporteur. In addition to general large group discus-sions, the workshop occasionally had structured activi-ties so that smaller groups could work on selected top-ics and produce outputs for discussion and refinementwith the larger group.
Previous Meetings and Workshops Contributingto the Advancement of Coastal ManagementEducation. Several years ago, the Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN)/USAID Coastal ResourcesMangement Project (CRMP) workshop on Coastal AreaManagement Education in the ASEAN Region (Chua,1991) reviewed current curriculum offerings at a num-ber of universities in the ASEAN region and proposed amodel curriculum for a degree program in coastal man-agement. The recent UN sponsored Consultative Meet-ing on Training in Integrated Management of Coastaland Marine Areas for Sustainable Development high-lighted the current status of training initiatives in UNand international organizations and made recommen-dations for subsequent actions (UNDP/UNDOALOS,1993). This led to the development of an Action Planfor Human Resources Development and CapacityBuilding for the Planning and Management of Coastaland Marine Areas and the establishment of the UNsponsored TRAIN-SEA-COAST Network (see paper by S.Vallejo). A recent workshop in Halifax, Nova Scotia,Canada, also looked at components of a core curricu-lum, and the standards that would help make coastalmanagement a recognized discipline, and the costsassociated with establishing programs (CZ Canada
Association, 1994). UNEP is currently sponsoring theNetwork for Environmental Training at Tertiary Levelin Asia-Pacific (NETTLAP) which has as a subcompo-nent, a Coastal Zone Management Thematic Network.This network is looking at the development of curricu-lum materials to use in CRM-related courses at univer-sities. Several workshops have been held on the subjectof ICM training and education (see paper by M.Bandara). In addition, USAID/URI CRMP has gainedsubstantial experience in addressing country-specifictraining needs—in the implementation of regional andinternational courses with partner institutions—and incapacity building at local universities in Thailand andEcuador (see proceedings papers by S. Cobb and B.Crawford).
Workshop Contributions to Advancing CoastalManagement Education. The goals and results of thisworkshop were quite different from the earlier work-shops. First, the needs of the profession were definedin a unique consultation between practitioners andeducators. Second, the capacity building experience ofseveral pioneering universities which are attempting tomeet those needs were carefully examined. The partici-pants discussed how ICM human resource needs can bemet, and they recommended strategies by which uni-versities might develop new, or strengthen existing,educational programs in coastal management. The“Call for Action” summarizes the highlights of thesediscussions. The workshop was timely in that ICMeducational programs in developing countries are ex-pected to increase dramatically over the next decade.While the emphasis of the discussions was on buildinguniversity capacity in developing countries, they of-fered an opportunity for academics in developed coun-tries to review their own educational programs andcontemplate their future directions.
RESULTS OF THE WORKSHOPTraining and Educational Needs of ICM Profession-als. The workshop called attention to the need foreducating a cadre of people who will be capable ofundertaking the complex and integrative task of man-aging coastal ecosystems around the world. With therapid growth of coastal management initiatives inresponse to Agenda 21, participants felt there is a greatneed for coastal managers, a need that will increase inthe future. However, within each region, there aresignificant variations related to the stage of develop-ment of ICM programs and the level of national devel-opment. Participants were unable, however, to quan-tify the demand at the regional level.
In the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions, thereare no national coastal management programs. How-ever, many Mediterranean nations are moving quicklyto establish them. The Black Sea lags further behind.
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ix
There was concern that without ICM programs, theremay not be a demand for university graduates withexplicit degrees in coastal management. However, thereis demand for individuals with ICM skills working inmore traditional positions.
Participants predicted that in the United States, thedemand for coastal managers at the federal level willnot increase, but that the increases will occur at thestate and local levels and in institutions outside ofgovernment. It was also felt that there is a demand forindividuals with a different set of skills that emphasizenonregulatory and voluntary approaches to manage-ment. While Canada and Australia do not have as longa history of ICM programs as the United States, theirneeds are similar and particularly strong at the locallevel where most ICM activity is occurring.
In East Africa, Asia, and the Pacific regions, thedemand is exploding for coastal managers. The smallgroup assigned to this region identified priority needsfor education in the areas of management and groupdynamics, an openness to community needs, and aninterdisciplinary approach. As with other regions, theneeds vary from nation to nation as the maturity ofICM program development vary considerably. Nationsin the early stages of program development havepriority needs for technical skills and planningmethodology. In nations that already have on-goingICM programs, implementation skills and managementskills are considered more important.
Needs also vary within the Latin American regiondepending on the stage of ICM program development.Participants felt that there is a need for educating indi-viduals at multiple levels: (1) high-level central govern-ment officials, (2) mid-level managers, consultants,NGOs, and specialized university units, and (3) local-level officials, businesses, and resource-user groups.This group felt that, in many cases, such education isneeded at a bachelor’s level rather than at the master’slevel. They identified the need to educate not only thecoastal manager, but a whole range of technical andsectoral specialists who contribute to such programs.The latter do not require as much depth in ICM as thecoastal manager, but they do need to have an under-standing of a common core that includes theory,philosophy, approach, and method.
All regional groups felt that needs vary from place toplace and that educational programs need to take suchvariations into account. However, all groups felt an ex-panding need for professionals with an understandingof the underlying theory and methods which can beapplied regardless of place, and the ability of coastalmanagers to take a broad and integrative look at issuesand their solutions.
Status and Trends in University ICM Programs. Morethan a dozen coastal management programs have been
established at universities in developed industrializednations, and similar degree programs are beginning tobe established in low- and middle-income nationswhere the need and demand is the greatest. In addi-tion, while there are numerous examples of universitycontributions to coastal management in terms of theintegration of research, public service, and educationin developed countries, there are few examples of de-veloping country universities making similar contribu-tions at the scale seen in some developed nations. To alarge extent, this is because coastal management was anew field that was started in the United States twodecades ago, and only now is beginning to be adoptedelsewhere. An increasing number of universities indeveloping countries are likely to start to establishdegree and service-oriented programs to meet thedemands of new coastal management programs, asoccurred in developed nations.
A review of current ICM educational programs dem-onstrates that there is a diversity of ICM educationalprogram models. Such diversity is a product of varia-tions in the expressions of a nation’s approach to ICMand the structure and traditions of universities in eachnation. Needs assessments have been important to for-mulating some of the more recent curricula. The work-shop participants felt that there is no single bestmodel, and that a multitude of approaches have andwill be effective. It was also felt that educational pro-grams should seek to achieve a balance between a tech-nical orientation and an emphasis on policy and man-agement. Internships and practicums are becoming anincreasingly important component of ICM educationalprograms.
Building University Capacity. The participants recog-nized that there are at least two complementary andcontemporaneous approaches to meet the demand forcoastal managers:
• Short-term training which provides an orientationto the ICM field and develops specific skills of indi-viduals already involved in coastal managementprograms or provides skills to someone who iscontemplating entering the field
• Longer education programs that provide more depthand experience
ICM training may or may not be carried out at uni-versities. Many training programs and networks nowexist at the international, regional, and national level.Some are based within universities. ICM degree educa-tion, which is clearly a university function, is in needof greater attention, particularly in developing coun-tries. Workshop participants recommended that thefollowing types of university-based programs bedeveloped or strengthened:
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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x PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
• Short-term training
• Part-time academic programs
• Enhancement of traditional disciplines such asmarine science with ICM components
• Master’s degrees in coastal management
Training, education, research, and extension serviceswill be needed in the years ahead to strengthen andsupport government, NGO, and private sector initia-tives in ICM. Strengthening university ICM programs,including the faculty, is particularly important in de-veloping countries. At the moment, there is no clearconsensus on the core theory and paradigm for ICM.However, this needs to be a central feature of any cur-riculum. Universities should take a lead by improvingand developing theoretical concepts and tools for effec-tive integrated coastal management. Participants feltthat, as with other established disciplines, there needsto be a core of theory, knowledge, tools, and methodsthat defines the ICM field, regardless of geographic re-gion or national context.
The greatest need, at present, is the development ofuniversity degree programs, primarily at the master’slevel, although in some nations a bachelor’s degreeprogram may be more appropriate. Participants sawtwo basic strategies for degree program development.The first is to integrate ICM coursework into existingcurriculum within such established degree programs,such as Marine Affairs or environmental management,as an optional specialization. This strategy will betterprepare professional to work in interdisciplinary andmultisectoral teams with other specialists to formulateand implement ICM programs. The second strategy isto develop specific degree programs in coastal manage-ment for people intending to design, lead, or managecoastal management programs. In this case, employ-ment opportunities may not specifically require acoastal manager but functionally, this is the role thejob requires. Needs assessments—quantitative (num-bers of people in various positions and institutions)and qualitative (curriculum emphasis)—must beconducted with government agencies and otherinstitutions (which might hire graduates) whenstarting the development of a degree program andbuilding support for it.
These two strategies could proceed simultaneouslyor sequentially. Potential institutional models includean interdepartmental program, a program imbeddedwithin an existing or separate department, and re-gional or networked degree programs.
The framework curriculum for any degree programin coastal management should include curriculum inthe following key areas:
• Theory and knowledge in integrated coastalmanagement
• Such tools as the use of Geographic InformationSystems
• Methods and skills in planning, management,socioeconomics, and group processes
• Practical field experience in the application of con-cepts and tools and to hone skills
• Ethics of public service and resource allocation, and
• Cultural literacy
Strengthening universities is a long and expensiveprocess because it usually requires that faculty be al-lowed to study for advanced degrees in relevant fields,as well as the development of infrastructure to supportthe new responsibilities of the institution. An excellentexample of this is the nearly two-decades long develop-ment of the Marine Science Institute of the Universityof the Philippines (see paper by E. Gomez). Current de-velopment philosophy and funding priorities currentlypreclude large-scale multi-university strengtheningprojects. However, various approaches to strengtheninguniversity programs in coastal management were sug-gested by workshop participants. Among these was thedevelopment of networks or partnerships of universi-ties involved in coastal management. The workshopparticipants suggested:
• Building partnerships with ICM practitioners,government agencies, NGOs, and the private sectorso that research and teaching are enriched by real-life experience and on-going ICM initiatives arenourished by new knowledge. This includes encour-aging university faculty to participate in incipientand ongoing coastal management initiatives.
• Building, joining, or strengthening networks andpartnerships among universities and between uni-versities and other institutions with shared interestsin the furtherance of ICM as a discipline and theeducation of coastal managers. Through such a co-operative approach, the benefits of an interdiscipli-nary ICM program are maximized.
Participants suggested that governments should beencouraged to support university strengthening effortsin ICM and facilitate cooperative partnerships betweenuniversities and government. They also suggested thatdevelopment organizations need to incorporate capac-ity building as a part of all development projects thataffect coastal regions. They acknowledged the supportof development organizations for short-term traininginitiatives and networks, but they felt that more atten-tion needed to be paid to long-term efforts, includingsupport for continuing education academic programsand university degree programs. Lastly, participants feltthat periodic meetings such as this workshop shouldcontinue to review progress and revise actions needed
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xi
to build university capacity in coastal management. Itwas recommended that a follow-up meeting be held in1996 at Dalhousie University.
Recommendations. The more formal recommenda-tions of the workshop are found in the “Call to Action”(see pages xii-xiv). This document was prepared by theparticipants and is also being published and distributedseparately. The recommendations in the Call to Actionare intended to raise awareness and provide guidanceto senior level administrators and decision makers inuniversities, national governments, and the interna-tional development community of the steps that needto be taken to promote and support integrated coastalmanagement capacity building initiatives. Further de-tails about the recommendations of the workshop canbe found in Section 5, Strategies for Building Univer-sity Capacity.
REFERENCESChua, T.E. (ED.). 1991. Coastal Area Management
Education in the ASEAN Region. ICLARM Confer-ence Proceedings 29. International Center for LivingAquatic Resources Management, Manila, Philip-pines.
UNDP/UNDOALOS. 1993. Report on the ConsultativeMeeting on Training in Integrated Management ofCoastal and Marine Areas for Sustainable Develop-ment. Sassari, Sardinia, Italy, 21 - 23 June, 1993.Organized by Division for Global and InterregionalProgrammes, United Nations DevelopmentProgramme and, Division for Ocean Affairs andthe Law of the Sea, Office of Legal Affairs, UnitedNations, New York.
CZ Canada Association 1994. Training and CapacityBuilding in Integrated Coastal Management. CoastalZone Canada Pre-Conference Workshop. BedfordInstitute of Oceanography, Sept. 19 & 20, 1994.Organized by The Coastal Zone Canada Association,Halifax, Nova Scotia. 13 pp.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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xii PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
CALL TO ACTION
WHEREASImportant coastal regions are suffering from
degradation and need effective management.Coastal regions are the primary habitat for people
and contain a large share of the world’s industry, foodproduction, wealth, pollution, tourism, recreation, andbiodiversity. Changes in coastal ecosystems are reduc-ing the long-term capacity of these systems to providepeople with an adequate quality of life and livelihood.Yet today’s problems are mild when we recognize thatthe number of people inhabiting coastal regions is ex-pected to double by 2050. Population growth andnonsustainable-use patterns are precipitating expres-sions of global change, including climate change, thatwill greatly complicate the challenges we face today.The primary objectives of Integrated Coastal Manage-ment (ICM) are to improve and maintain the quality ofcoastal regions to ensure a sustained flow of benefits tohuman societies and to improve the governance ofcoastal ecosystems.
There is a direct link between capacity building andeffective ICM.
It has long been recognized that long-term re-sponses to these threats must emphasize the develop-ment of local and national capacity for ICM as a funda-mental part of sustainable development. This view wasemphasized in Chapter 17 (Oceans and Coasts) ofAgenda 21, the action plan of the 1992 UN Conferenceon Environment and Development.
The demand for well-educated individuals andproven concepts in ICM is expanding.
While ICM has been ongoing in several nationssince the 1970s, the number of ICM initiatives—espe-cially UN-sponsored and donor-funded projects indeveloping and newly independent countries—hasexpanded rapidly since 1992. This is creating an urgentneed for refined concepts and tools and for expandedindigenous capacity in ICM.
Several sets of recommendations for ICM educationand training have been issued, and the number ofICM capacity-building activities is increasing.
ICM education and training activities are evolving.This statement builds on previous recommendationsdeveloped at the 1990 Workshop on Coastal Area Man-agement Education in the ASEAN (Association ofSoutheast Asian Nations) Region held in Singapore, the1993 UN Action Plan for Human Resources Develop-ment and Capacity Building for the Planning and Man-agement of Coastal and Marine Areas, and the CoastalZone Canada ’94 preconference workshop, Trainingand Capacity Building in Integrated Coastal Manage-ment. The Call to Action also recognizes the rapid ex-pansion of short-term training programs and the globaland regional networks that support ICM capacity-building initiatives. Degree programs that emphasizeICM, which have existed in developed countries fortwo decades, are just beginning to emerge in develop-ing countries.
ICM is a relatively new discipline, and an acceptedbody of theory and methods is still emerging.
There are too few individuals skilled in coastal man-agement to support the rapid expansion of initiativesin many locations. In addition, greater knowledge andmore systematic methodologies are needed to addressthe critical policy issues inherent in ICM. Universitiescan and should play a significant role in addressing thecurrent challenges of coastal management througheducation, research, and training. However, universi-ties in many countries frequently do not have the ca-pacity to realize their potential to fill this role.
THEREFOREA strategy is needed that emphasizes long-term
capacity-building efforts and the role of the univer-sity to complement and enhance existing initiativesand activities. The strategy should include the fol-lowing elements:
• Education of policymakers, so that they willprovide wise, substantial, and consistent support tocoastal management initiatives
• Education of both current and future professionalparticipants in the coastal management process toproduce sectoral specialists who appreciate coastal
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xiii
management and can contribute to the solution ofcoastal problems, and coastal management profes-sionals capable of designing and leading inter-sectoral coastal management initiatives.
• Advancing the required research to formulate andtest hypotheses related to coastal management. Thisis a necessary prerequisite for the development ofeffective ICM methods.
• Disseminating knowledge on trends in the condi-tion, use, and governance of coastal regions and theimplications of these trends for society and sharingemerging concepts and tools for effective manage-ment of these regions. This new body of knowledgeshould evolve in full partnership with communitiesof the world’s coasts through adaptive/participatoryresearch.
• Nurturing the systems that support the sharing ofexperience required to enrich knowledge and gover-nance at all levels.
RECOMMENDATIONSUniversities and research institutions should:
Respond to this demand by developing andstrengthening programs in research, education, train-ing, extension services, and technical assistance thatwill contribute to sustainable ICM programs. More spe-cifically, they should take the following actions:
Education and TrainingDevelop and/or strengthen interdisciplinary educa-
tional programs that will contribute to ICM. All pro-grams should combine theory and practice and shouldemphasize the application of research to address im-portant coastal management issues. Educationalopportunities should include:
Short-term training. Training institutions incollaboration with universities should be encouragedto offer programs that satisfy the immediate needs ofpractitioners.
Part-time academic programs. These programswould allow professionals to obtain diplomas and/ordegrees in coastal management.
Enhancing traditional disciplines. “Enhancement”would be accomplished through courses, seminars, orpractica for professionals in programs ranging fromjournalism and education to law and across the sci-ences. The courses should be offered at both the un-dergraduate and graduate levels to introduce the con-cepts and principles of ICM to the expanding diversityof professionals who are in the coastal managementprocess.
Master’s degrees in coastal management. Thesedegrees would provide the intellectual core curriculumfor professional managers who are responsible for the
design and leadership of coastal management pro-grams. This curriculum should include the theory andtools of coastal management and field practice.
ResearchImprove theoretical concepts and research method-
ologies for effective interdisciplinary coastal manage-ment. These efforts should lead to the developmentand improvement of the best practices and tools, incor-porating the various factors determining the social,economic, and environmental performance of coastalresources in an integrated approach.
Partnerships and NetworksStrengthen and create networks and linkages among
universities. This includes encouraging university fac-ulty to participate in incipient and ongoing coastalmanagement initiatives.
Build, join, and strengthen networks and partner-ships among universities, nongovernmental organiza-tions, UN organizations, and the public and privatesectors to complement existing efforts and avoid dupli-cation. Through a cooperative approach, the benefitsof an interdisciplinary ICM program are maximized.
Governments should:
• Work to fulfill the expectations of Agenda 21 andprovide leadership in articulating firm and sustainedICM policy objectives that can form the basis forbuilding capacity of current and future coastalmanagers
• Facilitate partnerships with universities in develop-ing coastal management initiatives, share availableinformation and facilities, and provide human re-sources for coastal management initiatives
• Support institutional arrangements with thestrength and flexibility to promote the interdiscipli-nary/interagency teams necessary for both ICMcapacity-building and ICM itself
• Incorporate integrated coastal planning and manage-ment into their development planning processes, and
• Support university strengthening efforts in ICMthrough national budgets, grants, and other means
Development organizations should, consistent withtheir mandates:
• Coordinate funding and other resources (such asinfrastructure and personnel) nationally and region-ally to maximize available resources
• Build on and expand successful indigenous efforts toincrease capacity
• Include capacity building as an essential component
CALL TO ACTION
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xiv PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
of all ICM programs, but also support long-termcapacity-building initiatives apart from the needs ofspecific ICM projects
• Integrate ICM as an essential component of broadercapacity-building programs in natural resourcesmanagement and conservation of biodiversity
• Provide for ICM education and training in develop-ment projects that impact coastal resources
• Support the development of formal university andpart-time academic programs in developing coun-tries to complement and build on existing andfuture short-term training programs
• Continue short-term training programs for existingmid-level resource managers with coastal manage-ment responsibilities. In addition, support part-timeacademic programs so that these individuals havethe opportunity to obtain diplomas and/or degrees
• Catalyze and support regional and global networksfocused on the development of capacity building incoastal management, and
• Recognize that capacity building is a long-termeffort and provide sustained commitments toprograms with this objective
This Call to Action should be reviewed and re-vised periodically with the international commu-nity of ICM practitioners, educators, and trainers,in keeping with developments in the field and theimplementation of recommendations.
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 1
SECTION 1TRAINING ANDEDUCATIONAL NEEDSOF ICM PROFESSIONALS:ANALYSIS OF DEMAND
OverviewThe Skills, Knowledge, and Attitudes of an IdealCoastal ManagerStephen Olsen 3
Latin AmericaThe Status of Integrated Coastal Management andDemand for Training of Coastal ManagementPractitioners in EcuadorSegundo Coello 8
Rapporteur’s ReportLatin America: Training and Educational Needsof ICM Professionals—Analysis of Demand 13
Mediterranean and the Black Sea RegionsThe Status of Integrated Coastal and MarineAreas Management and the Demand for CoastalManagement Practitioners: Mediterraneanand Black Sea RegionsArsen Pavasovic 15
Rapporteur’s ReportMediterranean and Black Sea: Training andEducational Needs of ICM Professionals—Analysis of Demand 30
Asia, Pacific, and East AfricaThe Status of Integrated Coastal ResourcesManagement (ICRM) and Demand for CoastalManagement Practitioners in the GovernmentSector of the PhilippinesJessica C. Munoz 32
Rapporteur’s ReportAsia, Pacific, and East Africa: Training andEducational Needs of ICM Professionals—Analysis of Demand 36
Rapporteur’s ReportUnited States, Canada, and Australia: Trainingand Educational Needs of ICM Professionals—Analysis of Demand 38
Plenary DiscussionTraining and Educational Needs of ICMProfessionals—Analysis of Demand 41
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 3
THE SKILLS, KNOWLEDGE, AND ATTITUDESOF AN IDEAL COASTAL MANAGER
Stephen OlsenCoastal Resources CenterUniversity of Rhode IslandNarragansett, RI, U.S.A.
ABSTRACTThe professionals required to effectively manage coastal ecosystems require a combination ofknowledge, skills, and attitudes that are not efficiently provided by university curricula. Whendesigning curricula for a profession requiring a sophisticated understanding of ecosystem andgovernance processes, the necessary integration across traditional disciplines should occur in thecurriculum itself and not only in the heads of students. The defining features of a professionaleducated to meet the challenges of ecosystem management are described in terms of knowledge ofstrategic analysis and the policy process, knowledge of how ecosystems function, and cultural literacy.
THE NATURE OF THE CHALLENGECoastal management is important because coastal
environments are the primary habitat for humans.Estimates suggest that 50 to 75 percent of the humanpopulation lives along coastlines. This population isalready placing enormous pressures on the conditionof coastal ecosystems. Unfortunately, today’s chal-lenges are mild compared to the challenges we antici-pate by 2050. By then the great majority of a globalpopulation twice as large as it is today is expected to beconcentrated along coastlines, largely in sprawling cit-ies and primarily in the tropics (Merrick, 1989). Thechallenge faced by coastal managers is conceptuallysimple. The growing number of people, and more im-portantly, the dominant values and behavior of “mod-ern” society that encourage profligate resource con-sumption and short-term gain rather than long-termsustainability, are reducing the capacity of coastal envi-ronments to sustain human populations. We, as a spe-cies, are running down those attributes of our primaryhabitat that make it suitable for what most consider anacceptable quality of life.
The importance and need for effective managementof people and their impacts in coastal environmentswas highlighted in the 1992 Rio Conference on the En-vironment and Development. The problems are be-coming increasingly well documented, and there is nolack of ideas and plans for what to do about them. Thefundamental challenge for coastal managers lies in fo-
menting changes in societal values and behavior thatthese plans and programs require. The world is increas-ingly littered with “environmental” laws, regulations,and plans. Many are technically excellent, but theyusually address only aspects of the closely interrelatedissues of man’s dependence upon his environment.Very few of them are being translated into meaningfulaction. Only a small proportion of these plans are be-ing implemented, especially where the problems aremost severe. This is because the people affected do not,or cannot, support the actions that are proposed. As aresult, the symptoms of unsustainable levels of utiliza-tion of the coastal environments are rapidly spreading.In coastal environments, the classical evidence of envi-ronmental overuse and degradation include:
• Declining water quality in rivers, groundwater,estuaries, seas, and the nearshore ocean
• Degradation and destruction of habitats importantto the production of food, fiber, and fuel, to main-taining ecosystem integrity and with importantroles in the physical stability of the coastline
• Decline or collapse of nearshore fishery resources;
• Mounting user conflicts
• The inability of governmental organizations toavoid predictable adverse environmental problemsor mediate conflicts among competing groups ofstakeholders
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4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
Current and past losses in ecosystem quality is aproblem of great significance. Yet what we have experi-enced thus far is dwarfed by what we can reasonablyexpect will occur within the lifetimes of today’s chil-dren as ecosystem change on a global scale is expressedmore strongly. Not only do today’s children face adoubled population, but we expect changes in climate.These have drastic implications for where and howfood is produced, the health of human populations,and such physical manifestations as rising sea level. Wemust be bold when we consider strategies for educatingsociety to meet this challenge, and we must recognizethat new approaches are in order.
It is essential that the concepts underlying coastalresource management goals, strategies and plans besound and promote thinking that leads to a workablebalance between the groups of people in a given placeand the ecosystem of which they are a part. At leasttwo concepts will be central to success. The first is thatwe should educate coastal managers to manage ecosys-tems. This requires systems thinking, focusing uponthe connections among the parts and understandingthe processes that drive living systems, including hu-man economies. The second concept is that peoplewho are trained for this profession must be equippedto practice adaptive management. They should viewtheir work as a series of progressions through a learn-ing cycle where they will discover what is feasible in agiven place, and what strategies may be defined andachieved to attain more sustainable forms of develop-ment. Coastal management has already evolved. Wehave progressed since the early 1970s from coastalzone management (CZM), which recognized some ofthe more obvious development “mistakes” and socialconflicts along the shorefront and responded with vari-ous forms of regulation, to integrated coastal manage-ment (ICM) that attempts to address the assumptionsand policies underlying the development process andto experiment with new approaches to governance atthe community level and within the agencies of centralgovernment. ICM programs, however, are still in theirinfancy and we are a long way from knowing, in termsof the operational realities of coastal management,what works, what doesn’t, and why. This is particularlytrue in tropical ecosystems where the majority of thehuman population lives in poverty and where the abil-ity of government to direct and modulate societal be-havior, no matter what the scale, is tenuous and readilygives way to anarchy.
ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENTAn idea central to all forms of coastal management
is that the objective is not another attempt at sectoralmanagement but, rather, orchestrating the interactionsamong the myriad human activities and the ecosystemin which they occur. Since the focus is integration and
a holistic approach, perhaps coastal managementshould eventually be defined as coastal ecosystemmanagement. The term “ecosystem” conveys that anovert, systems approach is being used and, very impor-tantly, that human societies are viewed as one elementof the planet’s living systems. The term “ecosystemmanagement” focuses on coherent, self-defined, andself-organizing units comprising interacting ecological,economic, and social components (Slocombe, 1993).The definition “ecosystem management” helps maketransitions among the local, national, regional, andglobal scales. Ecosystem management conveys the inte-grated, macro view of problems and opportunities andcan help in building the conceptual bridges betweenthe long-term global expressions of anthropogenically-induced global change and the short-term and local-ized focus of the coastal management programs thatexist today.
If we accept that we should foster the developmentof a new profession in ecosystem management, andthat coastal managers are a subset of this larger group-ing, then we need to examine the skills and knowledgethat those practicing this profession require. Practitio-ners in coastal management must be capable of inte-grating concepts and information from a wide range oftraditional disciplines spanning natural science, eco-nomics, law, and anthropology if they are to produce,test, and refine resource management strategies thatmake a discernible difference. A common assumptionis that such professionals should be generalists whohave been exposed to a variety of academic disciplines.We often hear that a student considering a career incoastal management should “first get a solid back-ground in a traditional field, preferably in the naturalsciences” and then go on to add skills and knowledgethat will be useful when bridging among disciplines byadding degrees in fields such as marine affairs, businessadministration, law, or public administration. Thedrawback is that integration must occur primarilywithin the individual and is not the focus of the cur-riculum or the educational program itself. This is inef-ficient. We need people who, rather then being meregeneralists, have been purposely educated to be special-ists in the art and science of integrated thinking. Theeducational programs that we need to design should bedesigned primarily to impart the skills, knowledge, andattitudes required to be an effective agent of change inthe rapidly evolving, technically complex field of eco-system management.
PROFILE OF AN IDEAL COASTAL MANAGERThe knowledge and skills of an ideal coastal man-
ager can be grouped into three broad categories:
Skills in Strategic Analysis and the Policy Process.Coastal management is primarily concerned with
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 5
managing people and their institutions. Its goal is toinfluence the values and behavior of a society to elicita positive response to an integrated managementscheme. The reason why many coastal managementprograms are not implemented is due to the lack of alarge enough constituency, both in and out of govern-ment, who understand and support such initiatives.Successful coastal management programs need indi-viduals with an ability to articulate a vision and inspirethe collaboration required to achieve the program’s ob-jectives. Such abilities are, to some degree, innate andimbedded within the well springs of an individual’scharacter. A set of somewhat different but comparableinnate abilities shape a first-rate scientist. In bothcases, education can nurture and develop these abili-ties. Thus, a top priority of a training program forcoastal managers is to culture the skills required of aneffective agent of societal change.
Closely coupled to leadership abilities is an apprecia-tion of the policy process (see Fig. 1) and the skills toperform a strategic analysis of a situation. These abilitiesare essential to plan a course of action that will yieldpositive results and bring a program through to imple-mentation. Strategic analysis is central for careers inbusiness, government, the military, and in professionswith many commonalties to coastal management likepublic health. Strategic analysis is the foundation for thepowerful tools of social marketing, that, if well done, ishighly effective in promoting contraceptives or the needfor vaccination. It could be equally powerful in instillingmodified behavior towards coastal resources and howthey should be exploited and the benefits allocated.Strategic analysis reinforces the concept of an adaptive,learning approach to resource management which re-quires constant refinement and adjustment rather thanimposing a static blueprint. Strategic analysis and plan-ning is made challenging by the inevitable complexity
of the institutional context within which the manage-ment of coastal ecosystems is played out. The manyyears of experience in attempting to manage such eco-systems as Chesapeake Bay, the Baltic, and the VeniceLagoon demonstrate that no single agency can hope toformulate and implement the management measures re-quired to maintain or restore the quality of these ecosys-tems. Collaborative action is both unavoidable and de-sirable. The ideal coastal manager, besides being a goodstrategist and leader, needs a solid foundation in theskills and knowledge required for:
• Conflict resolution
• Managing group processes
• Administration of complex institutions and pro-grams
• Design and administration of transdisciplinary re-search programs
• Design and administration of public education andpublic participation programs
• Program evaluation
A parcel of skills that overarch the above list and areparticularly important to an effective coastal manageris the ability to synthesize, interpret, and present com-plex sets of information. Educating coastal managers touse increasingly sophisticated technology to manipu-late and present large data sets is something of an artform, but it, too, is closely linked to the skills requiredfor sound strategic behavior. These skills are picked upalong the way by the current generation of practitio-ners but again, can and should be made an explicitcomponent of an education program.
Finally, if the strategies and trajectory of a coastalprogram are to be sustainable over the long term, theymust be grounded in sound ethics. This, too, can andshould be taught.
Knowledge of How Ecosystems Function. Thiscategory contains more technical aspects of theprofession and ones that are often stressed by thosewho enter resource management with an education inthe sciences. The problem here is that a reductionistapproach continues to shape how we educate peoplefor careers in science. An ideal coastal manager must beable to transcend a particular scientific specializationand view the processes that governs the functioning ofan ecosystem and how it responds to anthropogenicand natural change. Many of the interconnections andinterdependencies between the coastal sea, estuaries,and their watersheds are poorly understood. It is of theutmost importance to have the technical backgroundnecessary to assess the implications of the scientificuncertainty that swirls around all important issues inecosystem management and then being able toformulate a responsible course of action. A recent
Figure 1. Steps in the evaluation of each generation ofa Coastal Management Program (Olsen 1993)
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6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
article in Science (Ludwig, Hilborn and Walters, 1993)argues for the urgent importance of confrontinguncertainty when attempting to manage resourceexploitation. After surveying the failures of so manyattempts to manage fisheries, they offer principles foreffective management that include:
“Act before scientific consensus is achieved.”
“Rely on scientists to recognize problems, but not solvethem.”
“Confront uncertainty. Once we free ourselves from the illu-sion that science or technology (lavishly funded) can providea solution to resource or conservation problems, appropriateaction becomes possible.”
If a coastal manager is to be capable of applyingsuch principles, he or she must be solidly grounded inwhat is and is not known about how an ecosystemfunctions and how it may respond to the managementactions being proposed.
Coastal ecosystems must be viewed and analyzedwith human societies as an integral component, notsomething above or outside of nature. We can, there-fore, include as an element of ecosystem function allthat relates to how human economies function andevolve. Ecological economics is a very new discipline.It attempts to integrate the principles of economicsand ecology within a single coherent framework. Anideal coastal manager should also be conversant withthis body of knowledge. The free market and the profitmotive are dominant paradigms of modern society andhow we ascribe, or fail to ascribe, adequate values toecosystem processes and natural resources and to bal-ance among short-term and long-term benefits lie atthe heart of the challenge that the coastal managermust confront.
In summary, the “scientific” knowledge and skillsthat should be imparted through the education ofcoastal managers must draw from:
• Systems ecology• Resource economics• Environmental engineering• Landscape planning
Cultural Literacy. A final set of characteristics can beplaced under the heading of cultural literacy. Coastalmanagement is primarily concerned with managingpeople—the cultural diversity of the world’s societies isone of the most important characteristics about people.A coastal manager, with much effort and investment,could score high in the skills and knowledge outlinedin the first two categories and still fail miserably as aneffective practitioner if he or she does not, or cannot,appreciate the importance for the culture and tradi-tions of the people they are attempting to serve.
As long as we continue to mistakenly define theproblems that are confronted by coastal managers astechnical issues amenable to technical solutions, wewill continue to underemphasize the importance ofcultural literacy. Only once we recognize that funda-mental problems underlie the values and behavior ofhuman societies will the importance of understandingthe roots and the expressions of a given culture as-sumes its proper significance. The ability to functionwithin a culture usually requires knowing the lan-guage. If language ability is not possible, understand-ing religious thought or the history and art of a societywill do much to make an ecosystem manager effective.Consider how often practicing resource managers findthemselves pondering why a meeting, an educationalcampaign, or a resource management strategy fails.Very often the answer lies in the inability to under-stand the symbols, etiquette, cultural allusions, and,above all, the world view of a society. If a manager isaware of the importance of cultural literacy, they willask the right questions and, as in natural science oreconomics, seek out those who possess cultural knowl-edge and incorporate it into the design and administra-tion of their program.
THE METHODOLOGICAL CHALLENGEThis is a sketch of an ideal coastal manager, but real-
ity is far from ideal. It is neither practical nor reason-able to think that educational programs can be de-signed that will produce the kind of “super person”that would encompass all the skills, knowledge, and at-titudes enumerated in the preceding section. What ispossible, however, is to debate whether or not these areindeed the features of an ideal coastal manager and toset about designing educational programs that will pro-duce professionals who will reach towards the ideal.
Coastal management programs require a diversity ofpeople. They include the enforcement officer, someonewho processes permits, someone who works to educateand motivate the public, or someone who administersor participates in programs locally and within a centralgovernment. In an ideal world, many of those edu-cated in coastal management would work within themany industries and businesses that function in coastalenvironments. What knits such a diversity of peopletogether into a coherent effort is a shared world view.A common purpose and shared values is the precondi-tion for social mobilization as any political, military orreligious leader knows. Thus, the cornerstone of anyeducational program must be a coherent and continu-ous thread of ideas that capture both the nature of thechallenge being faced and the nature of the response.This does not imply a slavish adherence to a “partyline” but rather agreement on a set of principles and aninformation set that is accepted as central to the en-deavor of people-centered ecosystem management.
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 7
A second point that is central to the formulation ofcurricula is that ecosystem management should be de-fined as a profession rather than an academic disci-pline. This reinforces the need for an explicit set ofprinciples and behaviors that underlie advanced de-grees for professions such as medicine, law, and busi-ness management. The Hippocratic oath of doctors andthe principle that a lawyer must defend a client to thebest of their ability regardless of whether that client ap-pears to be guilty or innocent, must have its parallelsin the ecosystem management profession. Educationfor a profession emphasizes practice, typically ex-pressed as a heavy reliance on case studies. In medi-cine, the aspiring doctor works with patients, law stu-dents reexamine actual trials, engineers design andredesign utilitarian structures. The necessary integra-tion of skills, knowledge, and attitudes occurs by con-fronting specific situations with all their peculiarities.This emphasis on pragmatic problem solving must alsobe a central feature of educating ecosystem managers.
How do we confront the problem of the undeniableneed for specialists and the investments required toproduce them? Surely the answer is that all those con-tributing to ecosystem management must understandthe world view that underlies it. It would not be diffi-cult to offer students who are earning degrees in natu-ral sciences, economics, business, law, and education,courses that introduce the concepts and tools of eco-system management. This could begin to overcome thecurrent communication short circuits that are such animpediment to multidisciplinary teams and integratedmanagement of any stripe. Only a subset of those whowill contribute to ecosystem management need to be-come the “specialists in integration” required of thosewho must lead such initiatives. For these specialists, wemust carefully define the educational standards thatsuch individuals must attain to formally be recognizedas having met the preconditions for the ecosystemmanager’s equivalent of a bar exam, P.E. or M.D. Suchstandards must include a foundation of the skills andknowledge required to analyze and formulate effectivepublic policy, to understand how ecosystems functionto behave in different cultural settings.
REFERENCES
Ludwig, D., Hilborn, R. and Walters, C. (1993). Uncer-tainty, resource exploitation, and conservation:Lessons from history. Science, 260, 17, 36.
Merrick, T.W. (1989). World population in transition.Washington, D.C.: Population Reference Bureau.
Olsen, S. (1993). Will integrated coastal managementprograms be sustainable; the constituency problem.Ocean & Coastal Management, 21, 201-225.
Slocombe, D.S. (1993). Implementing ecosystem-basedmanagement. Bioscience, 43, 612-622.
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8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
THE STATUS OF INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENTAND DEMAND FOR TRAINING OF COASTAL MANAGEMENTPRACTITIONERS IN ECUADOR
Segundo CoelloPrograma de Manejo de Recursos Costeros (PMRC)Guayaquil, Ecuador
ABSTRACTEnvironmental degradation of Ecuador’s coastal zone is widespread and threatens the quality of life forthe 40 percent of the population that depend on coastal resources. To address these problems, Ecuadorcreated a coastal management program to promote and develop the sustainable use of coastal resourcesthrough participatory and self-management methods.
THE NEED FOR INTEGRATED COASTALMANAGEMENT IN ECUADOR
Ecuador is located on the equator on the Pacificcoast of South America. More than 40 percent ofEcuador’s 11 million people live in the country’s fourcoastal provinces and rely on coastal resources for theirlivelihood. During the past decades, environmentaldegradation of the coastal zone has become widespreadand threatens the quality of life of coastal residentsand the survival of future generations.
THE COASTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENTPROGRAM (PMRC)
The Coastal Resources Management Program of Ec-uador (Programa de Manejo de Recursos Costeros,PMRC) was formally established in 1989 by Presiden-tial Decree 375. It is based upon a recommended na-tional strategy document prepared through the USAID-funded International Coastal Resources ManagementProject initiated in 1986 (USAID, 1994). Its mission isto promote and develop the sustainable use of coastalresources using participatory and self-managementmethods.
A key element of the national program was the cre-ation of five Special Area Management Zones (ZonasEspeciales de Manejo, ZEM) covering eight percent ofEcuador’s mainland coast (see Fig.1). The ZEMs encom-pass a wide range of coastal environments from man-grove-dominated estuaries to intensively used beachesand high bluff shoreline. They also incorporate a vari-ety of urban forms and governance settings including
remote fishing villages, farming communities, tourismcenters, and a large and sprawling urban center whichis also a provincial capital. PMRC maintains permanentoffices and staff in each ZEM.
The work of PMRC is characterized by an experi-mental learning approach and a continuous search tofind ways to solve use and development conflicts in anintegrated manner. The program is very clear aboutwho it is working for and has adapted itself to theneeds of those who benefit from it. PMRC recognizesthat natural resources cannot be managed in a sustain-able way unless the user groups actively participate inthe decision making and management process. Theproject has not been rigid. Priorities, key issues, con-flicts, and needs were not clear from the beginning,and PMRC has had to continuously change and adapt.
Presidential decrees in 1989 and 1992 created the le-gal framework of PMRC, which is administratively lo-cated in the Office of the President but has its staff inthe main coastal city of Guayaquil. The basic elementsof PMRC are:
• The Comisión Nacional de Manejo de RecursosCosteros (National Commission for Coastal Manage-ment, CNMRC), which is composed of five ministers(defense, agriculture, industry, energy and mines, andtourism), the general secretary of planning, and theOffice of the President Secretary for Administration.
• The Executive Directorate, that oversees the activi-ties and provides technical and administrative sup-port to the ZEM Offices, Comités Zonales (ZEMCommittees), Unidades de Control y Vigilancia
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 9
(Control and Vigilance Units, UCVs), and inter-agency working groups.
• The Comités Zonales (ZEM Committees) is a combi-nation of user groups, communities, and local au-thorities. It oversees and promotes local participa-tion in the preparation and execution of ICM,development plans, and solving local conflictsabout the use of coastal resources.
• The Unidades de Control y Vigilancia (Control andVigilance Units, UCVs) was formed by local authoritiesand led by the port captain to enforce existing lawsgoverning the use and access to coastal resources.
THE PROFILE OF THE COASTALRESOURCES MANAGER
Who is involved in integrated coastal managementin Ecuador? A primary objective in Ecuador has been tobuild local and national constituencies for integratedcoastal management (ICM). Strong constituencies will(a) press for improved resource management of coastalresources, (b) collaborate with PMRC and local and na-tional authorities in identifying and implementing
practical solutions, (c) promote policy reform, and d)promote the expansion of ICM (Robadue, et. al.,1994).These constituencies have been slowly formed duringthe past decade through the different activities ofPMRC (e.g., practical exercises, technical workinggroups, and public education (Robadue & Arriaga,1993, and Coello et. al., 1993). While there are strongconstituencies at the local and national levels, we stillneed a critical mass of people that can make ICM sus-tainable in Ecuador. The people participating in ICM inEcuador can be grouped in two categories:
• People on the front line, those who are indirectly in-volved and deal with, on a daily basis, ICM issuesand conflicts. This category involves PMRC staff andlocal user groups, authorities (e.g., Port Captains,Fisheries and Forestry Inspectors), and NGOs.
• People who are indirectly involved that occasionallyparticipate or support ICM. This category involvesnational authorities (e.g., members of the CNMRC,governors, majors), politicians (e.g., congressmen),scientists and academics at universities and researchinstitutes, journalists, and members of national andinternational NGOs or agencies dealing with devel-
Figure 1. Location of the five Special Management Areas of PMRC
AtacamesSúa
Muisne
BahíaSan Vicente
Canoa
San PedroValdivia
Manglaralto
PlayasPosorja
Pto. El Morro
MachalaPto. Bolívar
Jambelí
0°
5° S
80° O 75° OPerú
Colombia
OC
EAN
OPA
CIF
ICO
ECUADOR
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10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
opment or environmental issues (e.g., FundaciónNatura, USAID, IUCN, UNEP).
The people directly involved in ICM come from awide range of backgrounds. Within the ZEM Commit-tees, UCVs, and PMRC staff (see Table I), there is a fullspectrum of expertise ranging from one extreme, fisher-men and farmers that have not finished primary schoolto the other extreme, highly specialized professionals.
In the future, efforts must be dedicated to greater in-volvement of ICM planners, lawyers, journalists, andbusiness specialists. Ecuador has very few qualifiedplanners and lawyers specializing in environmental is-sues. Shorefront planners are greatly needed and, as faras I know, there are no shorefront planners available inthe country. Journalists are now giving more attentionto the relationship between development and environ-ment; however, they seem to have difficulty graspingbasic management concepts. We need to continue todevelop journalists who specialize in environmental af-fairs. Finally, business specialists are needed to assist lo-cal groups in the development of environment-friendlyenterprises that are profitable and sustainable.
TABLE 1: BACKGROUND AND LEVEL OFEDUCATION OF PMRC STAFF (HEADQUARTERSAND FIELD OFFICES)
Background Technician B.Sc. M.Sc. Ph.D.
Engineering a 1 3Social Sciences b 11Biological Sciencesc 5 10 1Military 1Others d 1
a Coastal Engineer, Sanitary Engineer, Chemical Engineer,Technician in Electric Engineering
b 7 Teachers, 3 Sociologists, 1 Psychologistc 9 Biologists, 4 Fisheries Technicians, 1 Forestry Engineer,
1 Aquaculture Technician, 1 Agronomist.d Technician in Tourism
The development of ICM in Ecuador has involvedcomplicated tasks like developing and executing man-agement plans based on public participation, promot-ing a participatory governance system, and solvingconflicts of use. These tasks required integrated effortsfrom people with diverse skills and knowledge and, inmost cases, involved close interaction between techni-cal people and the community.
ICM issues are diverse and complex and can beundertaken only by interdisciplinary working groupswhere individual visions of reality were unified to pro-vide a comprehensive understanding of the issue, itsimplications, and integrated solutions.
The concept of ICM interdisciplinary working
groups has been used in different situations by (a) theCommittees of the five Special Management Areas toanalyze ICM issues, prepare, and implement long-termmanagement plans and solve coastal resources conflictsbetween user groups of coastal resources, (b) UCVs forlaw enforcement, and (c) by technical interagencyworking groups to address key coastal management is-sues and make specific recommendations. The mem-bers of the interdisciplinary teams often had initialproblems interacting because of their different back-grounds and training.
The composition of ICM working groups changesaccording to the issue that needs to be tackled. Thisimplies that any person directly involved in ICM willinteract and collaborate with a great number of peoplewho have diverse backgrounds, training, and points ofview.
IDEAS FOR TRAINING IN ICMA small number of people have been trained in ICM
by the program during the past decade. Training can bea valuable tool for building the critical mass of peoplethat Ecuador needs who are involved in ICM. For thispurpose, it must include both people that are directlyand indirectly involved in ICM.
Training people who are directly involved must in-clude not only professionals but community leaders(i.e., representatives of the user groups) and local au-thorities. They must receive knowledge and learn skillsto improve their participation and contribution to thedevelopment of ICM. By contrast, the training forpeople who are indirectly involved must be oriented so that they can understand the principles, scope, andrelevance of ICM. Great emphasis must be placed ontraining school and university teachers and journalistswho can rapidly disseminate ICM principles andconcepts.
The purpose of ICM training must not be to create aprofessional coastal manager but rather to facilitate theformation and development of interdisciplinary ICMworking groups formed by experienced members of thecommunity and qualified specialists.
How can people who have diverse backgrounds,skills, and knowledge interact and integrate their ef-forts? This cannot be done by simply providing themwith tools and techniques. They must have a commongoal and, most importantly, a common set ofprinciples.
Community members and professionals, each ofthem with an individual vision of reality, are the“building blocks” of ICM working groups (see Fig. 2).Toynbee & Ikeda (1987) criticized the excessive degreeof specialization of Occidental thinking that producesprofessionals with narrow views who are unable tohandle global visions of reality. This has been true inEcuador. However, for ICM working groups the inclu-
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 11
Figure 2. Members of the interdisciplinary ICM working groups have individual visions of reality.
Figure 3. A common philosophy allows interaction among members of a working group and blending ofindividual visions to obtain a comprehensive understanding of any ICM issue and its implications.
sion of well-trained specialists is required, i.e., profes-sionals with in-depth knowledge of particular subjectslike coastal processes or mangrove ecology. ICM train-ing must broaden the horizons of these professionalsand provide them with a common “core” of knowledgethat will allow them to (a) interact among themselvesand with members of the community, and (b) blendtheir individual visions to gain a comprehensive under-standing of any issue and its implications (see Fig.3).
The common core of knowledge can be thought of
as a common set of principles that are part of daily be-havior or, being ambitious, a philosophy. This set ofprinciples must include:
• The understanding that greedy use of natural re-sources can destroy a resource base, harm other re-source users, and threaten future generations. Forsound ICM, altruism must replace greed.
• The understanding that to tackle ICM issues, it isnecessary to integrate (a) a specific view of the com-
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12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
ponents of the issue, (b) a unified global view of theissue, and (c) a view of the dynamics and trends ofthe issue.
• The understanding that local residents, resource us-ers, and authorities must participate in an open pro-cess of decision-making and management of coastalresources.
Trainees also need a set of tools and techniques thatincludes:
• Techniques for team work. For effective ICM, eachmember of the group needs to (a) understand that ev-ery member of the team is a valuable component andhas knowledge and a valuable perspective to contrib-ute, (b) transmit their knowledge and perspective in away that is understandable to other members of theteam (including community members), (c) acceptknowledge and varied perspectives from other mem-bers of the team that complement his or her own vi-sion, and (d) tolerate and assimilate points of viewthat may oppose his or her own vision of reality.
• Policy development
• Principles for management of natural resources
• Basic project management and planning skills
• Solution of conflicts and environmental negotiation
TRAINING EFFORTS IN ICMDuring the past decade, a small number of people
have been trained in ICM on the job, through hands-on, trial and error and with a few short courses and in-ternships. There is a growing need for ICM training inEcuador. PMRC staff, in general, needs proper trainingas do members of the UCVs, related government agen-cies (e.g., National Fisheries Institute, National Institutefor Forests and Protected Areas), local authorities (e.g.,planning departments in municipalities), and usergroups. There is also a great need to expand proper ICMtraining to groups indirectly involved in ICM.
Short courses and workshops have provided partici-pants with general information (e.g., concepts) andknowledge of ICM but not skills development. How-ever, they are powerful training tools, useful for mem-bers of the community, authorities, or ICM practitio-ners that cannot spend a long time on training. A setof very specific short courses and workshops needs tobe developed to offer to people who are directly andindirectly involved in ICM. From this repertoire ofcourses, they can choose the ones that are most usefulfor strengthening their own capacity.
Training through internships has been widely andsuccessfully used by PMRC. Six Ecuadorian and threeforeign students have spent between six weeks and 18months working on specific PMRC assignments of ac-
tivities. Internships are useful for training advancedstudents and professionals and must be explored fur-ther in the future.
No postgraduate or diploma training in ICM is avail-able in Ecuador. Management of natural resources isstill a relatively new field in Ecuadorian universities.However, there are several interesting initiatives. TheSchool of Biology, Universidad de Santiago deGuayaquil, offers students in their final year a coursecalled Conservación de la Naturaleza (Nature Conser-vation). It is an introduction to concepts and toolsused to manage natural resources. A couple of yearsago, the Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral(ESPOL) created a Coastal Resources Center which has,to date, presented two Latin American, two-weekcourses on ICM in conjunction with the University ofRhode Island. There is a great need to include introduc-tory courses to ICM in all coastal universities, with em-phasis on the schools of law, biology, economics, for-estry, oceanography, architecture, engineering, andagriculture.
The number of people interested in ICM in Ecuadormight not justify the creation of a postgraduate pro-gram. However, the growing interest of Latin Americancountries in ICM may justify the creation of a regionalpostgraduate training program. This idea must be ex-plored further.
REFERENCESCoello, S., Proaño-Leroux, D. & Robadue, D. (1993).
Special area management planning in Ecuador’s RioChone estuary. pp. In J. Sorensen, F. Gable & F.Bandarin (Eds.) The management of coastal lagoonsand enclosed bays (pp. 78-93). New York, NY: Ameri-can Society of Civil Engineers.
Robadue, D. & Arriaga, L. (1993). Policies and programstoward sustainable coastal development in Ecuador’sSpecial Area Management Zones: creating vision,consensus and capacity. In O.T. Magoon, W.S. Wil-son, H. Converse & L.T. Tobin (Eds.), Coastal Zone‘93 (pp. 2668-2682). New York, NY: American Soci-ety of Civil Engineers, USA.
Robadue, D., Olsen, S.B. & Arriaga, L. (1994). Newapproaches toward sustainable development ofcoastal ecosystems: Lessons from Ecuador´s coastalmanagement program experience 1985–1994. Gov-ernment of Ecuador–USAID–University of RhodeIsland.
Toynbee, A.J. & Ikeda, D. (1980). Escoge la vida.Buenos Aires: Emec e Editores.
USAID (1994). Biodiversity conservation and sustain-able use: USAID project profiles. Environment andNatural Resources Information Center (ENRIC): 121–123.
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 13
LATIN AMERICA: TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDSOF ICM PROFESSIONALS—ANALYSIS OF DEMAND
RAPPORTEUR: Stephen OlsenCASE PAPER PRESENTATION: S. Coello
Discussants: S. Coello, S. Olsen, E. Cervantes, J.S. Cobb, J.L. Ferman, M. DeMoranville, S. Vallejo, M. Aguero
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• What are the knowledge, skills, and attitudes thatmake successful coastal managers in the region?
• What types of positions are available for coastalmanagers and in what institutions (ICM agenciesand related sectoral units) within the region?
• What are the expected changes in the quantity andtype of jobs over the next decade in the region?
• What is the demand for coastal managers bothquantitatively and qualitatively within the region?
• How do needs vary among nations within theregion?
RAPPORTEUR’S REPORTThe working group on Latin America began with a
review of the Ecuador case presented by SegundoCoello. The discussion returned frequently to thegraphic he presented whereby the essential feature ofcoastal management education is a core of knowledge,skills, and attitudes that can be viewed as a “cable”which circles through many individual specializationsdrawn as “donuts.” (See figures in S. Coello’s paper inthis proceedings.) The presentation stressed thatcoastal management education should, therefore, notattempt to create only coastal management specialistsbut provide the underlying principles and philosophythat make it possible for teams of people with diversebackgrounds to work together effectively. Of particularimportance are abilities in conflict resolution, policyformulation, and a common world view.
Institutions and Positions Involved in Coastal Man-agement. Drawing from the Ecuador case study, thegroup agreed that a three-tier model can be helpfulwhen considering the people and institutions thatbecome involved in the coastal management process.At the top are high level representatives of the variousministries of central government. In Ecuador, it is the
National Coastal Commission chaired by the chief ofstaff of the Office of the President. The second levelcomprises the coastal management program office andits staff. The third tier is the largest, comprised of mu-nicipal and provincial (or state) officials and represen-tatives of the many user groups. NGOs, universities,consultants, and journalists may participate at all lev-els, but primarily in levels two and three. These playersmay be further subdivided into direct and indirectparticipants. Among the indirect participants, journal-ists are particularly important because of their role ineducating the public, communicating the values andmission of the program, and shaping policy. Journalistsurgently need to be educated on the core principlesand values represented by the “coastal managementcable” that connects various disciplines in Coello’sfigure.
Other professions that should be a priority target forthe “cable” are lawyers and those responsible for majorcoastal-dependent uses (business), some of whom aretraditionally educated through a business school cur-riculum. The group emphasized that, at all levels, thework occurs through working groups that may be moreor less formally structured. Thus, the national commis-sion, the coastal management program staff, and thecommunity level “zonal committee” are all, in essence,working groups requiring an education in the prin-ciples and process of the “cable” in order to be effectiveinternally and then to communicate with groups atother levels.
Changes in the Quality and Type of Jobs Over Time.The group agreed that people educated in coastal man-agement principles are needed and have importantroles to play in countries without a formally consti-tuted coastal management program. The group alsoagreed that the numbers of people involved will in-crease significantly with time if the coastal manage-ment process is effectively proceeding from one gen-
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14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
eration to another and expanding the scope of its ac-tivities with each generation. An important point here,however, is that the number of people within thecoastal management program itself (level two) shouldnot increase significantly. By far, the greatest increasesshould occur within level three as people educated incoastal management, and participating in the overallprocess, become incorporated within municipal andprovincial (state) government and the private sectorbusinesses that use coastal resources and depend bothon their sustained quality and how they are allocated.The evolution in the numbers of people involved isshown in the following chart.
There was considerable discussion, and some dis-agreement, on how the “cable” should be provided bytraining and education programs. One discussion con-sidered the needs of users in level three (e.g., fishermenwith only a primary school education). Some felt thatfor society, such participants need only be made awareof coastal management issues and their implications.Others were convinced that such people need to beeducated in coastal management principles and toolsto be effective as active participants in the coastal man-agement process.
We agreed that two strategies are needed and thatuniversities should play a major role. For those partici-pating in coastal management programs, the first strat-egy is to offer them a continuing education curriculumcomprised of a coherent series of training programs
and perhaps a major paper. These people can rarelyleave their jobs for one or more years to work on a uni-versity degree. At the same time as continuing educa-tion is offered, formal curricula for the next generationof participants in the coastal management processmust be designed and put in place. These new univer-sity programs should define the coastal managementprocess and principles as an approach to development,not merely a form of planning and regulation.
We noted that in Latin America many individualswho should participate in the coastal management pro-cess do not proceed beyond an undergraduate degree.Coastal management education should, therefore, beprovided at the undergraduate level, perhaps as a spe-cialization in a variety of traditional majors rangingfrom journalism, engineering, and business to the sci-ences. A coastal management curriculum is also neededin primary and secondary schools.
Variation in Needs by Country. The group agreed thatthe priorities vary somewhat from nation to nationdepending on the maturity of the coastal managementprocess and the availability of expertise in a country ata given time. Differences in the sizes of nations influ-ence the number of people that need to be educated asdoes the organization of their educational system. Thegroup agreed that distance learning and rapid commu-nication through the Internet can promote sharing andcooperation in regional education.
INDIVIDUALS INVOLVED IN COASTAL MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS OVER TIME
Number of People Involved
Institutional Level No Formal First Generation MaturingICM Program ICM Program Program
Level OneCentral Government Officials Few Few Some
Level TwoThe Coastal Management Program None Few FewNGOs Few Some SomeConsultants Few Few SomeSpecialized University Units Few Some Some
Level ThreeMunicipal Officials Few Some MostState (Provincial) Officials Few Some MostCoastal Dependent Businesses/Users None Some Most
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 15
THE STATUS OF INTEGRATED COASTAL AND MARINE AREASMANAGEMENT AND THE DEMAND FOR COASTAL MANAGEMENTPRACTITIONERS: MEDITERRANEAN AND BLACK SEA REGIONS
Arsen PavasovicPriority Actions Programme/Regional Activity CentreUnited Nations Environment ProgrammeSplit, Croatia
ABSTRACTThis is a brief review of the state of the environment and the use of coastal resources in theMediterranean and Black Sea regions. They are characterized by intensive pollution around coastalurban and industrial areas, high population pressure, uncontrolled development, and predominantlynonsustainable use of many coastal resources. The situation in the Black Sea region is significantlyworse than in the Mediterranean, and, while it is approaching catastrophe, it is not yet irreversible.
The present state of the integrated coastal management (ICM) process in both regions ischaracterized by a number of ICM international and national initiatives. The most relevant being theMediterranean Action Plan (MAP)-UNEP, the World Bank-METAP, and several European Unioninitiatives, as well as the GEF Black Sea Environmental Programme (GEF BSEP) supported by other(WB METAP, TACIS, PHARE) programs. Since the ICM activities in the Mediterranean started in themid-1970s, the ICM process is far more advanced there—it might be considered to be in its earlyimplementation phase. In the Black Sea region, only the prerequisites are being built up.
The analysis of the present position and role of ICM practitioners in both regions indicate that alarge number of relevant positions are dispersed within a wide array of governmental and professionalunits and institutions. Six levels and various groups of ICM practitioners and their role in managementwere identified and described, resulting in an urgent need for their training, education, and capacitybuilding (TECB). A prioritized list indicating groups and various needs has been presented. Theapproach to TECB for high- and medium-level managers should differentiate between ICMpractitioners involved in managerial or professional activities—either integrated or sectoral.
The most appropriate type of TECB for the most ICM practitioners might be short-term education ortraining and, in particular, on-the-job training as part of ICM projects. Each ICM-related project,particularly those internationally funded or implemented, should have a strong training and capacitybuilding component. Such a component has to be carefully designed in accordance with existingregional, national, local, or other relevant conditions and adapted to the present state and capacity ofICM practitioners.
Finally, the experience of the Priority Actions Programme (PAP), located in Split, Croatia, of theMAP-UNEP in ICM training and capacity building is illustrated and some practical recommendationsare given. Included is a list of most relevant PAP documents used in the TECB process.
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16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
STATUS OF INTEGRATED COASTAL AND MARINEAREAS MANAGEMENT AND CURRENT COASTALMANAGEMENT INITIATIVES
The Mediterranean and the Black Sea areas are geo-graphically connected by the Marmara Sea, but theyare two different regions. Causes of pollution anddepletion of resources are similar in nature in both re-gions, but the intensity of pollution and consequencesfor the marine and coastal ecosystems are fundamen-tally different. There are differences in the experienceand in the human and institutional capacities for es-tablishing and implementing the ICM process. There-fore, in this paper, the data and facts will be presentedseparately for each region whenever necessary orappropriate.
THE MEDITERRANEAN REGIONCertainly the most important coastal management
initiative at the regional level is the Mediterranean Ac-tion Plan (MAP) established in 1975. All the Mediterra-nean coastal states and the European Union partici-pated. The legal basis of MAP is provided by theConvention on the Protection of the MediterraneanSea against Pollution and its related protocols, adoptedin 1976 in Barcelona (thus known as the BarcelonaConvention) and enforced in 1978.
The Mediterranean region after World War II wascharacterized by strong, often uncontrolleddevelopment, population growth in the coastal areas,and gradually increasing pollution. Some basic infor-mation on the Mediterranean region is presented inAnnex I. Information on pollution in the region isillustrated in Annex II.
Basic data regarding the Barcelona Convention ispresented in the Table 1. MAP is described in Table 2.
MAP is undergoing reorganization towards theimplementation of the conclusions of the UNCEDConference in Rio in 1992. Accordingly, a ministerialconference held in Tunis in November 1994 adoptedthe “Tunis Declaration” and Agenda 21 for the Medi-terranean. A proposal is being prepared revising theBarcelona Convention and a concept of the secondphase of MAP. The objectives of this redefinition aremore precisely defined goals and terms of reference,better efficiency, stronger emphasis on enforcing deci-sions, better exchange of information and experience,and a stronger involvement of the general public andNGOs in the ICM process. Furthermore, MAP Phase IIenvisages the establishment of a special MediterraneanCommission on Sustainable Development (see Table 3).
AGENDA 21 FOR THE MEDITERRANEANAdopted as a draft document to be further devel-
oped and finalized by MAP. The document is a transpo-sition and adaptation of the document UNCED Agenda21 to the Mediterranean conditions and is aimed atcreating a framework of debate and research for the ob-jectives to be reached in the Mediterranean regionwithin the perspective of Agenda 21. The document iscomposed of four parts:
• Social and Economic Dimensions (7 chapters) elabo-rating objectives and activities to be implementedwith regard, inter alia, to: International Cooperationfor Sustainable Development, Combating Poverty,Demographic Dynamics and Sustainability, Integra-tion of the Decision-Making Process.
TABLE 1: THE BARCELONA CONVENTION AND ITS PROTOCOLS
UNEP: focal point for environmental actions and coordination within the UN system
Oceans: one of UNEP’s priority areas
Regional Seas Programme (RSP): cooperation among the governments of the regions; coordination of actionsthrough UNEP
The Convention: “umbrella” agreement providing obligation to implement measures against pollution of theMediterranean Sea area and to protect and enhance the marine environment
Sources of pollution to be controlled: dumping, accidents at sea, seabed exploitation, land-based sources
Cooperation: in monitoring, research, emergencies
Major tasks: provision of technical and other assistance, priority given to special needs of the Mediterranean de-veloping countries
Institutional arrangements: UNEP as secretariat, the Contracting Parties, MAP (the Coordinating Unit and 6 Re-gional Activity Centres)
Protocols: a) against dumping from ships and aircraft b) combating pollution by oil and other harmful substancesc) on specially protected areas d) against pollution from land-based sources e) on seabed exploitation
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 17
TABLE 2: DEVELOPMENT OF MAP FROM 1976 TO 1994
l. Preparatory phase (1976-1978): definition of structures and programmed establishment of the CoordinatingUnit, intergovernmental meetings, the Split meeting in 1978 - establishment of the Blue Plan and the PriorityActions Programme.
2. Initial phase (1979-1984): MEDPOL I - monitoring and assessment of pollution, beginning of the Blue Plan ex-ercise, start of PAP activities, gradual increase of the budget, establishment of ROCC (later REMPEC) in Malta.
3. The Genoa Declaration Phase (1984-1989): MEDPOL I and II, research on the state of pollution in the Mediter-ranean, protocol on protection from land-based sources of pollution, launching of the SPA Centre in Tunis, fullimplementation of PAP (methodology of integrated planning and management, water resources management,soil protection, historic settlements, aquaculture, tourism harmonized with the environment, launching of pilotprojects of coastal management), completion of the Blue Plan exercise at the regional level, REMPEC in imple-mentation.
4. Refocusing of MAP on coastal management (1989-1994): Address of the Executive Director of UNEP on refo-cusing, MAP Coastal Areas Management Programme (MAP CAMP), studies of impacts of the climate change,MEDPOL II, Centre for the Protection of Historic Settlements, Centre for Environmental Remote Sensing, pro-spective studies at national and local levels, methodology of ICM, tools and techniques for ICM, training compo-nent.
5. Refocusing on sustainable development (1994 - ): Agenda 21 for the Mediterranean, Tunis Ministerial Declara-tion, revision of the Convention, MAP II, MAP CAMP, Mediterranean Observatory.
• Conservation and Management of Resources(14 chapters): Integrated Approach to Planning andManagement of Land Resources, Managing FragileEcosystems, Protection of Marine and Coastal Areas,Integrated Approach to Water ResourcesManagement.
• Strengthening the Role of Main Social Sectors (10chapters): Role of NGOs, Role of Local Authorities,Role of Business and Industry, Scientific and Tech-nological Community.
• Implementation (8 chapters): Promotion, Education,Training and Public Awareness, International Coop-eration for Capacity Building, Information for Deci-sion Making.
DECLARATION ON ESTABLISHMENT OFTHE MEDITERRANEAN COMMISSION ONSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The ministerial conference recommended that thenext Conference of the Contracting Parties to theBarcelona Convention be held in Barcelona in 1995 toestablish within MAP a Mediterranean Commission onSustainable Development with the basic objective toguide MAP and assist Mediterranean coastal states inthe implementation of the UNCED Agenda 21 andMED Agenda 21.
MAP activities directly related to ICM are imple-mented through the MAP Coastal Areas ManagementProgramme (MAP CAMP). The basic structure of such a
TABLE 3: TUNIS 1994 DOCUMENTS
Tunis Declaration on Sustainable Development in the Mediterranean Basin: Adopted by the Ministers incharge of the environment in the Mediterranean countries and the member of the European Commission respon-sible for the environment. The signatories commit themselves to inter alia:
• Promoting consideration of sustainable development when devising and implementing national and local de-velopment policies
• Working to mobilize the necessary resources and means for sustainable development
• Developing bilateral, regional, and multilateral actions
• Encouraging partnership and codevelopment initiatives to strengthen national capacities for implementing sus-tainable development
• Investigating the measures best suited to the objectives of sustainable development and making necessary insti-tutional arrangements
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18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
programme is given in Annex III. Within MAP CAMP,the following programs have been implemented: Syria(completed in 1992), Turkey (the Izmir Bay - completedin 1993), Croatia (the Kastela Bay - completed in 1993),and Greece (the Island of Rhodes first phase completedin 1993). The ongoing projects are the Albanian coast(partly sponsored by the WB-METAP), the Island ofRhodes - second phase (fully sponsored by the EIB),and Fuka (Egypt). A project in Tunisia (Sfax) will belaunched in 1995, and projects in Israel, Lebanon,Malta, Algeria and Morocco will be started later.
Apart from MAP, participants in ICM activities inthe Mediterranean are the EU (Corinne, MEDSPA, de-sertification), WB-METAP, The European InvestmentBank, and GEF. The recently launched PHARE-GEF-WB-UNEP Danube Basin Environmental Programme in-volves Slovenia and Croatia (of the Mediterraneancountries) and Bulgaria and Russia (of the Black Seacountries).
Numerous initiatives and comparatively good resultshave been achieved within national programs imple-mented in a large number of Mediterranean countries,especially in France, Israel, and Tunisia. Good experi-ence in and results of regional (subnational) planningis a prerequisite of successfully launching ICM. Goodresults are achieved within internationally sponsoredICM programs, but they are not as successful as na-tional initiatives.
Due to considerable differences in the level of devel-opment, and in the capacities for ICM, the present na-tional practices of ICM differ considerably from oneMediterranean country to another. Unfortunately, formost of them, traditional, sectoral planning is domi-nant, resulting in inconsistent ICM results. Some of thefeatures of such practice are:
• Inappropriate and unrealistic planning, conflictingland and sea uses
• Postponed construction of pollution treatmentfacilities
• Absence of long-term development strategies,with priorities given to short-term objectives andinterests
• Inappropriate institutional arrangements for coastalmanagement
Furthermore, in many countries there is still insuffi-cient, incomplete, or nonsystematized knowledge oncoastal and marine ecosystems, a low level of involve-ment of the general public in coastal managementpractices, and insufficient knowledge on ICM policies,methodology, and the relevant implementation toolsand techniques.
THE BLACK SEA REGIONOf the six countries bordering the Black Sea (Black
Sea), five (all except Turkey) were, from the end of theWorld War II until the fall of the Berlin Wall, part ofthe Eastern block and developed within the Soviet-dominated socialist political and economic system. Theconsequences of such development are, among others,a serious degradation and overexploitation of coastaland marine resources, and extremely high pollution ofthe marine environment. “The Black and Azor Seas sys-tem has become the first semi-enclosed sea where analmost complete destruction of the commercially pro-ductive components of the ecosystems seems a realisticpossibility in the near future in the absence of remedialactions by the six coastal states” (Report of theWB-UNDP-UNEP Programme Coordination Meetingfor Environmental Management and Protection of theBlack Sea, 1992). The main features of the situation inthe Black Sea region are presented in Annex IV. Undersuch conditions, it wasn’t possible to promote in timethe concept and practice of ICM, although numerousscientific research projects and an abundance of col-lected data provided a good basis for launching such aprocess. The conditions for applying the concept andaccepting the principles of sustainable developmentand environmentally sound integrated planning andmanagement of coastal and marine areas were createdonly recently by the changes (or transition) in the so-cial system and creation of new coastal states.
Under the new conditions, a considerable awarenessdeveloped in the authorities and general public. It wasvery apparent that there was an urgent need for actionby all Black Sea countries aimed at creating conditionsfor a gradual improvement of the state of the region.Under the conditions of transition, the institutionaland legislative systems are also subject to reconsidera-tion and revision, which facilitates the introduction ofmore adequate institutional and legal arrangements forICM. Gradually, numerous initiatives of internationalinstitutions and some developed countries appear,aimed at establishing and implementing ICM-orientedprojects, directly or indirectly. The most significantproject is the GEF Black Sea Environmental Project(GEF BSEP), with program and financial support by theWB, the EU through the PHARE and TACIS programsand, on a bilateral basis, Canada, The Netherlands,Switzerland, and France.
The international legal basis of the GEF BSEP is TheConvention on the Protection of the Black Sea againstPollution (Bucharest, 1992) entered into force in 1994.In 1993, a meeting in Odessa adopted The MinisterialDeclaration on the Protection of the Black Sea. Thedeclaration was signed by the ministers in charge ofenvironmental protection. This declaration is impor-tant because it defines concrete forms of cooperation,priority tasks, and the terms for their implementation.
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 19
TABLE 4: THE BLACK SEA - INTRODUCING ICM POLICIES AND INSTRUMENTS
General Framework: The end of the Cold War, new independent states, new political and socioeconomic con-text, transition period.
The Bucharest (1992) Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution: Entered into force in1994, legal, institutional, and technical framework for Black Sea ICM. Protocols on prevention of pollution fromland-based sources and from dumping.
The Odessa (1993) Declaration (Ministerial Declaration on the Protection of the Black Sea): Clear policystatement and time frame; identification of policy priorities. The Declaration calls for “urged, comprehensive,consistent, and coordinated activities on, inter alia: common environmental quality objectives, urgent construc-tion of sewerage systems and wastewater treatment plants, restoration and protection of biodiversity, develop-ment of national emergency response plans, elaboration and implementation of national coastal zone manage-ment policies including legislative measures and economic instruments, introduction of compulsory EIA.”
The GEF Black Sea Environmental Programme (GEF BSEP): Launched in 1993; the Programme CoordinatingUnit (ecu) established in 1994; basic objectives to create and strengthen regional ICM potentials, develop andimplement relevant policies, encourage and provide investments in sustainable development and environmentalprotection and enhancement; in 1994, the following Working Parties and Activity Centres were established foremergency response (Bulgaria), regular monitoring (Turkey), special monitoring and quality criteria (Ukraine),protection of biodiversity (Georgia), ICM (Russia), Fisheries (Rumania); PCU coordinates the activities on: data-base and GIS on environmental economics and on environmental quality criteria, standards, and legislation.
The World Bank - EMTEN: Actively involved in BSEP-ICM; additional support to BSEP through PHARE, TACIS,and on a bilateral basis (Canada, The Netherlands, Switzerland, France).
Also that year, the GEF BSEP activities werelaunched. The basic information on the Convention,Declaration, and BSEP is presented in Table 4.
The Danube River Basin Environmental Programmeis of a great importance. It is funded by the EuropeanCommission PHARE Regional programme, GEF, WB,UNEP, EBRD, Austria, The Netherlands, USA, and theBarbara Gauntlett Foundation. The Danube is one ofthe largest rivers which contribute greatly to the pollu-tion of the Black Sea. The results of this program couldmake a good contribution to the improvement of thesituation, especially in the Black Sea northwestern shelfwhere large areas are affected by catastrophic eutrophi-cation phenomena.
Among the national initiatives, it is important tomention the Decree of the President of the RussianFederation regulating the protection and reclaimingthe natural resources along the Russian Black and AzorSeas coasts. That Decree defines the obligation to: (a)identify and adopt the list of natural resources to be in-cluded in the category of “Federal Natural Resources”(b) identify the executive bodies to implement the rel-evant management practices (c) organize a 1994-1996program of comprehensive ICM, (d) identify borders ofprotected natural areas, and (e) determine the prioritiesfor use of the natural resources. The Decree was en-forced in 1994, and is now being implemented. TheBSEP ICM action provides a good possibility to offerthe best experience in ICM to the Russian national au-thorities implementing the Presidential Decree to con-
sider and apply if and when deemed appropriate.Regarding other initiatives, the Georgian Municipal
Infrastructure Rehabilitation Project (MIRP) will befunded by the loans from the WB, and the GeorgiaICM program will be funded by GEF BSEP and thenational authorities.
In Bulgaria a strategy for sustainable development ofthe national Black Sea coast was adopted in 1992, de-veloped with the assistance of WB experts. Further-more, in 1993, the National Black Sea Coast RegulationAct came into force and, consequently, an interdepart-mental council on the regional development and self-government was set up.
In conclusion, the establishment of ICM process inthe Black Sea region is in the initial phase. The favor-able factors included a comparatively satisfactory scien-tific and data base; certain experience in land-use andregional planning (but on wrong conceptual and meth-odological bases); a strong will and awareness of theauthorities and the general public and a considerableinternational initiative in courses and/or in prepara-tion; and certain aspects of the transition period thatcould facilitate the initiation and gradual establish-ment of ICM process. The unfavorable factors includethe extremely difficult economic situation in the re-gion, insufficient institutional and human capacitiesfor ICM, lack of appropriate market mechanisms, andespecially the fact that to achieve even initial results, alot of time and considerable international help will beneeded.
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20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
Finally, ICM in the Black Sea region is at least 10years behind the Mediterranean region. However, thereis a good possibility to reduce that gap if the existingtriggering factors are efficiently used.
ICM IN THE NEXT DECADE (1995–2005)The experience gained in the Mediterranean region
and an assessment of the situation in the Black Sea re-gion shows that in the next 10 years the process of cre-ating conditions for sustainable development andimplementation of the principles will continue. Withinthat framework, with regard to the coastal zone (ICM),the ICM process would represent at the same time aprerequisite and a major implementation tool. It canbe expected that all countries will establish NationalCommissions for Sustainable Development accordingto the conclusions of the UNCED and gradually changetheir present legal and institutional arrangements forICM.
With reference to ICM of both regions, the follow-ing can be expected:
• Establishment, improvements and/or amendmentsof national legislations, norms, and standards,where the adoption of a National ICM ManagementAct could be the final goal of many countries
• Definition of national development policies forachieving sustainable development—in the case ofICM, those should be national ICM policies andobjectives
• Establishment, within the existing institutional ar-rangement or through its adaptation, of appropriateinstitutional forms for achieving horizontal and ver-tical integration of the coastal zone managementprocess and improving its efficiency
• A larger share and greater significance of environ-mentally oriented programs within the national de-velopment program especially those that enable abetter and more efficient use of coastal resources se-curing, at the same time, the protection or enhance-ment of the environment (tourism, fisheries, aquac-ulture, production of healthy food, renewablesources of energy), and of the programs aimed at theapplication of clean technologies, pollution reduc-tion (especially wastewater treatment plants), andimprovement of the quality of life
• Creation of ICM-oriented research programs accord-ing to the priorities defined by the National ICMpolicies, aimed at improving the scientific basis andinformation systems
• Establishment or strengthening of university centersoriented to the process of sustainable development,integrated resources, ICM management, andenvironment-related issues
• Introduction or strengthening of the application ofmarket mechanisms, environmental economics, andeconomic instruments relevant for ICM gradual pre-vailing of the “integrated” over the “sectoral”approach to planning and management
• Strengthening of the specialized and “general”NGOs and their more intensive and qualified in-volvement in the ICM process, as well as of the gen-eral public
• Increase of international funds aimed at the imple-mentation of ICM projects and programs andgreater help to the developing coastal states in theestablishment of the ICM process.
Within this general framework of possible future de-velopment, the processes that will take place includeidentification, adaptation, and application of tools andtechniques of ICM: information systems and GIS, re-source evaluation, methods of environmentally ori-ented economic evaluation of development processesand projects (cost-benefit analysis), environmental as-sessment (especially EIA), preparation and use of sys-temic prospective studies, and various economic instru-ments of ICM. Substantial progress will be maderegarding the concept and methodology of the ICMprocess, its better adaptation to the conditions of de-veloping countries, and its application, not only in theinternationally sponsored projects, but also in the ev-eryday management practice at the national, ICM, andlocal levels.
The expected improvements and development willbe possible only if the following prerequisites aresecured:
• Coordinated efforts of all countries of the regionsand harmonized action of international factors
• Political stability (termination of the current andabsence of future conflicts and hostilities)
• Conceiving and implementation of a good and tospecific national and local conditions adapted pro-gram of ICM related to capacity building, training ofcoastal managers and other professionals (includingthose involved in the most relevant business activi-ties), further raising of NGO capacities and involve-ment, and raising public awareness and its under-standing of ICM-related issues.
ICM AND EXISTING INSTITUTIONALARRANGEMENTS, COASTAL MANAGEMENT, ANDEXISTING GOVERNANCE ARRANGEMENTS
This portion should illustrate, as much as possible,the “types and numbers of ICM-related positionswithin government and supporting institutions such asNGOs, as well as the roles and responsibilities of ICM
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 21
professionals”—a very ambitious requirement. Namely,there still does not exist a comprehensive study using acommon approach to analyze and compare the situa-tion in the Mediterranean region although the institu-tional arrangement is highly important for the estab-lishment and implementation of the ICM processalthough there are a number of documents analyzingthat importance or illustrating the situation in indi-vidual countries. At the same time, the GEF BSEP ICMprogram envisages, already for the period 1995-96, thepreparation of such studies, first on the national basis,and later a regional overview.
MAP, and especially its Priority Actions Programme(PAP) whose mandate includes the field of ICM plan-ning and management, identified, within the prepara-tions for individual ICM programs, the institutional ar-rangements of the countries in which the programswere implemented. Thus, PAP has information on theinstitutional arrangements of a large number of Medi-terranean countries.
When synthesizing the PAP information and experi-ence, it is necessary to emphasize the fact that in theregion, there are great differences among the countriesin the surface area, population, degree of development,length of coastline, level of development, and urban-ization of the coast, wealth and ways to exploit re-sources, political systems, and form and manner ofgovernance arrangement. Other, no less important, fac-tors have to be added such as historic, national, cul-tural, religious and other specificities, then numeroustraditional management patterns which determine orprecondition individual ICM activities. Therefore, aICM program, including the ICM-capacity buildingand ICM-practitioners training programs in the Medi-terranean, cannot be successful unless the specific con-ditions of each country are known and respected. Fromthe author’s limited experience in the Black Sea region,it could be assumed that the above differences andspecificities are less pronounced in that region.
Despite this, the general institutional arrangementrelevant to ICM is common to both regions. Thatscheme can be defined as multilevel and multi-sectoral, with frequent specific solutions within indi-vidual sectors and, in a certain number of cases, withspecific arrangements of inter-sectoral integration.
Departing from the Mitchell’s three-dimensionalmodel of coastal zone management, it could be saidthat:
• From the point of view of policy structure variables,there is a wide array ranging from strong adminis-trative control to pronounced, but not exclusive,rights of private interest groups
• Administrative variables range from prevailinglysectoral planning to, often insufficiently developed,broad functional responsibilities
• Policy orientation is increasingly turning towardsthe concept of sustainable development, i.e., to de-velopment which implies environmental protectionand preservation
Typical management levels in both regions are pre-sented in Table 5. Of the six levels, it is mostly “Na-tional I”, “Subnational I” and “Local I” that are rel-evant to national ICM. In any case, if the localconditions are not well known, the “Local II” levelmust not be excluded.
TABLE 5: INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT INTHE MEDITERRANEAN AND BLACK SEA REGIONSMANAGEMENT LEVELS
1. International Conventions, protocols
2. National Presidency of State, National Govern-ment, Ministries, National (State)Agencies, National (State) Corporations,National Offices
3. Subnational I Regional governments and ministries, ordepartments and offices. Also, Autono-mous Region, Region, County, Province,Department, Mohafaza, Willaya,Governorate
4. Subnational II Province, association of communes
5. Local I Municipalities, Communes, City Coun-cils, local (communal or other) agencies
6. Local II Arrondissement, quartieri, small localunits, small settlements and rural admin-istrative and/or self-management units
The sectoral governance arrangement follows, moreor less, the standard sectoral classification. This is, as arule, more diversified in some developed countries. Inmany countries, the most relevant sectoral activities forICM are organized in larger sectoral units, such as fish-eries and aquaculture within the ministry of agricul-ture, land-use planning and/or environmental protec-tion within the ministry of building, tourism withinthe ministry of industry, ministry of economy, or evenwithin the ministry of interior, or maritime transportwithin the ministry of transports, communications,and maritime affairs. Functions important for ICM aresometimes located in nonstandard administrative bod-ies and agencies. Some are listed in the Annex V. Aconsiderable number of ministries and agencies havesubnational or local branches with delegated authorityimportant for ICM. “Local I” and sometimes “Local II”might have considerable authority such as urban plan-ning, issuing building permits, inspection, monitoring,and control.
In some cases, the decision-making processes donot occur according to the institutional arrangement. It
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22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
Within the context of ICM, and particularly with re-gard to training and education, attention should bepaid to a number of Mediterranean NGOs specializedin ICM with good scientific bases and human capaci-ties. They include International Centre for Coastal andOceans Policy Studies, Genoa (ICCOPS), Eurocoast,Medcoast, and Mediterranean Water Institute (MWIMEDWAN). ICCOPS and MWI have been included inthe MAP programme, while Medcoast has been orga-nizing some joint activities with GEF BSEP. The otherNGOs specializing in ICM should be given special at-tention within the context of this Workshop.
UNIVERSITIESIn the Mediterranean region there is no regular uni-
versity program that would cover, in a systematic way,the most important issues of ICM. However, detailed in-formation on the subject should be found elsewhere.Numerous universities provide high quality courses inbiology, chemical engineering, ecology, geography, andother natural sciences, as well as economic and land-useplanning, regional planning and development, informa-tion systems, computer analysis, and GIS.
Based on numerous contacts while preparing andimplementing ICM programs or sectoral activities, itcan be said that university scholars involved in thoseactivities showed good and up-to-date knowledge ofthe concept of sustainable development, and themethodologies, tools, and techniques applied in theICM process.
This enables the organization of interdisciplinarystudies and education in the field of ICM at an inte-grated basis but, for the moment, probably only at post-
is not unusual for decision making to be dominated bymore influential or more relevant ministries or ministers.
These institutional arrangements establish a largenumber of administrative and decision-making in-stances authorized for ICM, a logical consequence ofthe multiple resources and multiple use of the coastalareas. Under such conditions, decisions sometimesoverlap or conflict, and are neither environmentallysound nor meet the requirements of sustainable devel-opment. Table 6 is a matrix of functional responsibili-ties of the government departments in charge of vari-ous ICM issues in Italy.
According to some sources, the governmental andother institutional units authorized for various seg-ments of the ICM process, is estimated at 80 in Franceand more than 50 in Italy. Some have a large numberof branches and offices at lower levels.
NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS (NGO)In the last 10 years or so, significant improvement
has been noted in all Mediterranean countries with re-gard to NGOs and public involvement in the ICM pro-cess. Today, a large number of national, and especiallylocal NGOs, act in the coastal areas, orienting their ac-tivities, among others, to the field of ICM. A good ex-ample is the NGOs Tunis Declaration on sustainabledevelopment, presented in the Ministerial meeting inTunis, and adopted by representatives of nationalNGOs from 14 Mediterranean countries. Many ofthose, especially local NGOs, need help to increaseawareness of the problems of coastal ecosystems andresources, as well as the mechanisms and methodolo-gies of ICM.
TABLE 6: FUNCTIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS ON DIFFERENT ISSUES
Gov. Departments Ministry Hydr. Ministry Harbour Ministry Ministry Ministry USL Ministry Ministry Region Province Com.Issues Defense Service Me. Mar. Office Environ. P. Works Health Culture Industry
navigation R M R P Mg
fishing R P M P
ind.&com.harbours R P Mg C R
marinas P R R P P Mg
water quality M R M R M M P R Mg C
rural urban waste R R M P M C Mg
industrial waste Mg R M
eutrophication M M P M Mg M
coastal erosion M P C P C Mg
tourism R R Mg M P R Mg
urbanization M R P M C Mg
parks and reserves P R P R Mg Mg Mg M
archaeological sites R P R Mg M
military uses P R C Mg
mapping P Mg M M
off-shore activities R Mg P R
Abbreviations of functional responsibilities: P programming R regulation Mg management M monitoring C construction
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 23
TABLE 7: THE MAIN INSTITUTIONS, SOCIAL GROUPS, AND INDIVIDUALSINVOLVED IN COASTAL MANAGEMENT—THEIR ROLES AND SIGNIFICANCE
Role and significance*
Type Group Decision- Management Specializedmaking activities
I Governance, 1. All levels and forms ofmanagement governmental and(individuals, groups, administrative bodies ◆ ◆ ◆
bodies, institutions, 2. Legislative bodies ◆ — ◆
authorities) 3. Judical bodies ◆ — ◆
4. Specialized governmental bodies • • ◆
II Private interest 1. Industry in CZ ◆ ◆ ◆
groups and 2. Tourism • • ◆
institutions 3. Maritime transport • • ◆
4. Energy group • • ◆
5. Fisheries and fishments • • ◆
6. Other coast specific groups • • ◆
III Scientific 1. Universities • — ◆
community and 2. Scientific and research institutions • — ◆
universities 3. Academies of science • — ◆
IV NGOs, environmental 1. Of a general type • — —
or CZ-oriented 2. Specialized in CM • — ◆
V General public 1. At national or subnational level • —
2. Coastal population ◆ — —
VI International 1. UN agencies • ◆ • ◆ ◆
organizations and 2. Other intergovernrnental or • ◆ • ◆ ◆
agencies international organic
* Significance: ◆ =Great, ◆ =Moderate, • = Small, – =Nil
TABLE 8: TRAINING, EDUCATION, AND CAPACITY BUILDING (TECB) IN ICM - PRIORITY GROUPS
Markingaccording Need for Need to train To provideto Table 3 Type Group TECB the trainers TECB
I Governance, 1. Government andinstitutional administrative bodies ◆ — —
management 4. Specializedgovernmental bodies ◆ • •
II Private groups 1. Industry in CZ • — —
III Scientific 1. Universities • • ◆
community 2. Research institutes • • ◆
IV NGOs 2. Specialized in CM — • •
V UN agencies and 1. UN agencies — — ◆
international 2. Other organizations — — ◆
organizations
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24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
graduate levels. A harmonized approach to such studieswould probably require regional training of lecturers,especially for a number of developing countries, and thelargest part of the countries from the Black Sea region.
As far as the university courses on ICM for under-graduates are concerned, these could be more ad-equately organized within the studies on land-use andregional planning, and economic studies.
POSITION AND ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS ANDAUTHORIZED INDIVIDUALS INVOLVED INCOASTAL MANAGEMENT
The positions of ICM practitioners in both regionsare numerous and found at various levels. Their rolesdepend on their hierarchic and sectoral positions, andon the type of function they perform (administrative,regulatory, functional, research, and information).Therefore, it is necessary, from the perspective of train-ing and capacity building, to identify those groups thatshould be targeted as a priority. Departing from the as-sumption that as coastal managers we could under-stand all institutions, social groups, and skilled indi-viduals involved in the use of coastal resources, Table 7can serve as a basis for such identification.
Attributions to the role and significance of variousICM groups in Table 7 are subject to discussion andamendments. The mentioned ICM groups have variousroles and needs in the process of Training, Education,and Capacity Building (the TECB process). The groupswhich should be included into the TECB process withpriority are given in the Table 8. From that table it ispossible to conclude:
• The TECB process should be aimed, as a priority, atthe institutions and individuals belonging to thegovernmental structures at all levels and at govern-mental and paragovernmental specialized (sectoral)agencies and institutions.
• The second priority should be given to privateinterest groups.
• Universities, research institutions, and specializedsectorial institutions are potential implementors ofTECB, but they also need capacity-building andtraining of trainers.
• The most significant sources of the TECB process,relevant to ICM, are: UN and other internationalagencies involved in ICM; universities and researchinstitutes; specialized sectorial agencies; and special-ized NGOs, if adequately qualified.
ICM PRACTITIONERS - KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, ANDATTITUDES NEEDED
The general knowledge required for ICM practitio-ners in both regions doesn’t differ significantly fromany other region. That is mostly knowledge relevant to
coastal ecosystems, environment-development interre-lations, principles and practice of sustainable develop-ment, methodology, tools and practice of the ICM pro-cess, assessment and use of coastal resources, principlesof governance, administration and management, pollu-tion and emergencies, pollution abatement principlesand techniques, principles of environmental econom-ics, database, and information. A number of national-or site-specific issues have to be added to this.
Of the general attitudes needed, it is important tounderstand and have a positive attitude towards the in-tegrated approach, coordination, and harmonization ofdecisions and activities, understanding the need forand benefits of the application of the ICM process andthe need for cost effectiveness. It is also important tobe aware that it is a democratic and market-orientedprocess. International experts involved in ICM in de-veloping countries need to understand national and lo-cal conditions, capabilities, and limitations.
In Mediterranean developing countries, where inter-national cooperation is an important factor in ICM,the knowledge of the major world languages used inthe international cooperation is of utmost importance.This is often underestimated in the TECB process.
Departing from this general assumption, the structureand intensity of specialized skills to be secured in theconcrete TECB programs depend on the type and groupof the targeted ICM practitioners, as well as on the func-tion dominating their role within the ICM process. Itcan be assumed that the following practical knowledgeand skills are needed for most relevant groups. For theindividuals involved in governmental and administra-tive institutions in which the functions of decisionmaking and management are dominant:
• Assessment of values of national coastal resources indevelopment, economic, and financial terms
• Benefits of applying coastal area management pro-grams examples of success and failure of decisionsmade and projects implemented, transfer of prob-lems and consequences, losses and gains
• Concepts and principles of sustainable developmentand ICM, methodology of ICM, with particularreference to its integrative and process-orientedcharacter
• ICM tools and techniques, selected, and applicableunder specific conditions
• Approach to, development, and implementation ofICM programs and projects;
• Methodology and protection of sectoral ICM withinICM (fisheries and aquaculture, coastal agriculture,forestry, tourism, manufacture, land-use, urban andregional planning, energy, water resources, soilprotection)
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 25
For professionals involved in specialized ICM-relatedactivities (depending on role and position):
• All the necessary knowledge listed above but in amore general and reduced form, and adapted to theparticipants’ profile
• In-depth and specialized TECB in the relevant spe-cific sector(s), such as integrated water resourcesmanagement; mapping, monitoring, and manage-ment of soil and coastal erosion related phenomena;environmental fisheries and aquaculture manage-ment; clean technologies; hazard assessment andrisk management; protection and conservation ofhistoric settlements and monuments; identificationof areas to be specially protected; environmentallysound energy planning and application of renew-able sources of energy; urban liquid and solid wastemanagement; development and management of sus-tainable tourism; inventory of pollution sources,survey and assessment of pollution; emergencyplanning and management
• Transfer of specialized intra-sectoral knowledge toolsand techniques of environmental assessment, carry-ing capacity assessment, economic instruments forICM, conflict resolution techniques, database andinformation
Universities, research institutions, and specializedNGOs require, in principle, certain capacity building,depending on their involvement in ICM, and their ori-entation to the provision of TECB to other ICM in-volved groups. With respect to that orientation, theyhave mostly specialized needs selected from the listabove.
PAP EXPERIENCE IN TRAINING, EDUCATION, ANDCAPACITY BUILDING FOR ICM
From 1984 to 1994, the TECB component repre-sented a significant part of the PAP Workplan. Variousmethods and forms were used in the implementationof that component, gradually developed and improvedaccording to the PAP and Mediterranean experience,and also to the experience of other UN organizationsand selected national institutions.
The training component was aimed at selected na-tional and coastal-level decision makers; experts andprofessionals; capacity building of selected national in-stitutions involved in the implementation of MAPCAMPs (ministries of environment, institutes of re-gional and urban planning, institutes of informatics,institutions for water resources management). The sub-jects dealt with in this component were: ICM in gen-eral, water resources management, soil protection, en-ergy, historic settlements, tourism, and urban wastemanagement
For the implementation of the TECB component,
PAP’s documents, prepared within ICM and sectoralprograms were used, but appropriate documents ofUNEP, MAP, and other UN agencies and specialized na-tional institutions have also been used occasionally.The authors of the documents were mainly Mediterra-nean experts engaged in the implementation of thePAP workplan. The documents included nationalreports, case studies, thematic training documents,exercises prepared on existing or hypothetical Mediter-ranean examples, guidelines, software, and models. Theexperience gained in the preparation and use of TECBdocuments shows at the need to avoid their prolifera-tion. The documents must correspond to the initiallevel and capacity of the participants, and to the desiredlevel of training results (e.g., advanced-level documentscannot be used for initial phases of training).
TECB was implemented through the followingforms: dissemination of selected documents, expertmeetings, seminars and workshops, training courses,and “on-the-job” training. The duration of those activi-ties was limited to one week, with the exception oftraining courses within the MAP ICMs, which were or-ganized in three or four stages within an 18-month pe-riod, each phase containing an intensive two to threeweek training course.
With regard to the results, the significance has to bepointed out of the “on-the-job” training performedwithin the MAP CAMPs. The prerequisites for the suc-cess of the “on-the-job” training program were knowl-edge of the country’s situation and the coastal area, aswell as the existing human and institutional capacitiesof the national professionals and institutions involved,and the level of theoretical knowledge and practical ex-perience in ICM in general, and in specific ICM-relatedactivities (planning, information systems, use of ICMand sectoral tools and techniques).
On that basis, the TECB component has beenincluded in each CAMP project comprised of generalknowledge on environmental ecosystems, sustainabledevelopment and ICM; in-depth specific knowledgerelative to the priority problems of the coastal zone;and the application of selected tools, especially EIA,GIS, and carrying capacity assessment for touristcomplexes.
The program of each CAMP project started from alevel acceptable for the national team, gradually grow-ing to reach a level corresponding to standard interna-tional criteria. The largest part of the program was pre-pared by the national teams, with international expertsproviding assistance and guidance. In such a way, thenational teams were true authors of the projects, whichsecured good chances for the implementation of theirresults, and was also an excellent opportunity for a trueon-the-job training.
Seminars and workshops were organized in the tra-ditional way. Documents were submitted to partici-
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26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
TABLE 9: SELECTED LIST OF PAP DOCUMENTS USED FOR TECB ACTIVITIES
• A Common Methodological Framework for Integrated Planning and Management in Mediterranean CoastalAreas, 1988
• Guidelines for Integrated Coastal and Marine Areas Management with Special Reference to the MediterraneanBasin, 1994
• Training Programme on Geographic Information Systems, 1992
• GIS - Pilot Application of the Urban Rent Model, 1992
• Economic Instruments and Tools for Coastal Zone Management Applicable in the Mediterranean Countries, 1994
• Analysis of the Application of Economic Instruments in Coastal Management in the Mediterranean region, 1994
• An Approach to Environmental Impact Assessment for Projects Affecting the Coastal and Marine Environment, 1990
• Environmental Impact Assessment: The Marina in Paphos, 1990
• Environmental Impact Assessment for the Split-Stobrec Submarine Sewerage Outfall, 1991
• Environmental Impact Assessment of a Submarine Outfall, 1992
• Database for Water Resources Management
• Use of Aquifer Models in Water Resources Management
• Selected Topics of Water Resources Management
• Application of Integrated Approach to Development, Management and Use of Water Resources, 1994
• Code of Practice for Environmentally Sound Management of Liquid Waste Discharge in the Mediterranean Sea
• A Practical Guide for the Management of Urban Solid Waste in Coastal Mediterranean Countries
• Treatment and Reuse of Municipal Waste Water for Irrigation
• Disposal of Municipal Solid Waste: Sanitary Landfills, 1994
• Guidelines for the Rehabilitation of Mediterranean Historic Settlements, 1994
• Methodological Framework for Assessing Tourism Carrying Capacity in Mediterranean Coastal Zones, 1990
• Study for the Carrying Capacity Assessment of the Central-Eastern Part of the Island of Rhodes, 1993
• Methodological Approach to Erosion Mapping in the Mediterranean Coastal Areas
• Environmental Aspects of Aquaculture Development in the Mediterranean Region, 1987
• An Approach to the Inventory of Sites Suitable for Aquaculture in Mediterranean Coastal Areas, 1990
pants in advance. The participants were selected ac-cording to earlier defined criteria using appropriatequestionnaires. The participants evaluated the qualityof the seminars/workshops/training courses throughanonymous questionnaires. In selecting lecturers fornational meetings, one or two lecturers were selectedfrom the host-country. The documents covered theconcrete national/local examples as much as possible.Field visits and field work were included in theprogramme.
The programs of sector-related TECB activities, as arule, had a general part which presented the conceptand basis of sustainable development, ICM, and therole of and need for integration of the sectoral activitywithin the ICM process. As a good basis foradvanced-level training, adequate guidelines were used,based on methodologies tested at the regional level.
Experience relevant to the results and cost effective-ness of the various forms of training shows thefollowing:
• With the actions organized at the regional level, in-cluding the participants from all or most of the Medi-terranean countries, differences in the professionallevel often appeared, and it was difficult to followtheir activities after the training (i.e. establish the cor-responding benefits)
• Training organized at the national level enabled a bet-ter selection of participants (e.g., governmental insti-tutions, local institutions, or several national institu-tions with the same professional orientation), bettermonitoring of their results after the training, andmuch higher cost effectiveness
• “On-the-job” training enabled work with institutionsof considerable importance for ICM, and compara-tively good capacity building of those institutions, es-pecially if linked to provision of appropriate equip-ment, and also satisfactory cost effectiveness
• Training at the regional level showed good results,but only if followed by national TECB activities in
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 27
which it was possible to use those trainees as lectur-ers and trainers
In the last 10 years, PAP organized approximately70 various TECB oriented activities in almost all of theMediterranean countries, within a project for sevenEast African countries, and one training workshop inSouth America. This component dealt mostly with thefollowing fields:
• Integrated coastal area management, coastal re-sources management and protection integratedplanning, ICM projects
• Integrated water resources management, waterconservation programmed WRM models
• Environmental impact assessment
• Application of GIS in ICM
• Carrying capacity assessment for tourist activities
• Mapping and monitoring of rainfall-induced soilerosion
• Conservation and rehabilitation of historicsettlements and sites
• Identification, selection and protection of sitessuitable for aquaculture activities.
Of the large number of documents prepared for theneeds of the TECB component, some can certainly beused in other regions, as well. A selected list of suchdocuments is presented in Table 9.
ANNEX I
THE MEDITERRANEAN BASINMeeting point of Europe, Asia, and Africa, a cradle ofhuman civilization
The Mediterranean Sea, almost enclosed, water renewalperiod 80-90 years, weak tides
21 Mediterranean coastal states - total surface area:8 million km2; population in 1993: more than 400million (estimate) - 7 percent of the world’s popula-tion.
Active plate tectonic processes: divergence of theArabian-African plates, subduction of the African tothe European plates
Climate: Hot and dry summers, mild winters, irregularrainfall pattern, uneven water cycle
Major rivers: Ebro (Spain), Rhone (France), Po (Italy),Nile (Egypt) - deltas
Coastline length: 45,000 km, out of which islands coast-line 17,700km
Urbanization on coastline: 540 coastal settlements withmore than 10,000 inhabitants, out of which 70 havemore than 100,000 inhabitants and 10 with more than800,000 inhabitants; 65 percent of coastline is urbanized
Mediterranean coastal areas: unique, attractive, specificflora and fauna, natural parks, fragile ecosystems
Development level: great differences (North-South,North-East)
Common Mediterranean culture and history: religions:Catholic, Jewish, Moslem, Orthodox
Limited agricultural resources, agriculture in coastalareas typically Mediterranean.
Forests in decline, covering only 5 percent of the re-gion.
Industry: 16 percent of the world’s industry; North—low growth rates, decline of primary production coastalindustry; East and South—transfer of technologies,medium and high growth rates
Energy consumption: 0.6 percent billion tons oil (1988);80 percent in the northern part
International tourism: 33 percent of the world’s interna-tional tourism; 147 million international visitors in1990
Maritime transport: 200 million tons of oil annually (30percent of the world’s oil transport), 200-250 large oiltankers permanently in navigation, 60 large shipaccidents per year
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28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
ANNEX II
Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea from anthropogenic sources
Discharge of pollutants into the sea:
Input (t/year)
Pollutant Atmospheric Riverine
Pb* 5,000–30,000 2,200–3,500Zn* 4,000–25,000 11,000–17,000Cr* 200–1,000 350–1,900Hg* 20–100 30–150
P – 320KT***N 1070 KT** 800 KT***S 1400 KT** –
mineral oils 120,000***detergents 60,000***
But:
• the corresponding atmospheric inputs over Europeand the Baltic Sea are approximately twice as large
• although there is relatively good auto-purificationproperties in the Mediterranean Sea
* GESAMP Reports and Series No. 26** Meteorological Synthesizing Centre East, Moscow 1993*** UNEP-MAP
ANNEX III
Basic Elements of MAP CAMP
PAP definition of Integrated Coastal Management (ICM)
• a management process adapted to the conditions in and needs of coastal areas; • comprehensive, based on rational approach and scientific findings;• multidisciplinary;• creates conditions for sustainable development;• not a substitute for sectorial planning, providing integration of individual resources or sectors management.
Approach: top-down and bottom-up; problem solving rather than problem transferring; prevention rather thancure; precautionary.Stages: initiation, preparatory, analysis and forecasting, definition of goals and strategies, integration of plans andpolicies, implementation, and evaluation with feedback; reconsidering after each stage.
Characteristics of the Programme are:
• Conceptual basis: sustainable development, the Genoa Declaration, Agenda 21, the Rio Declaration;• Methodology: Integrated Coastal and Marine Areas Management (ICM), and integrated planning as a major
tool;• Thematic framework: all MAP activities, concerted and integrated;• Legal basis: agreements signed with the relevant governments;• Financing: MAP, national and local authorities involved, The World Bank (Kastela, Albanian coast), The Euro-
pean Investment Bank - METAP (Rhodes - 2nd phase).
Contents of MAP CAMP projects:
1. Implementation of legal instruments (Barcelona Convention, LBSP, Emergency and Dumping Protocols,MARPOL)
2. Individual resource evaluation and management3. Industrial activities evaluation and trends4. Mitigation of natural hazards (seismic risk, climate change)5. Training on and application of: methodology, tools, and techniques of ICM6. ICM: prospective studies, integrated planning studies, management plans and programmes7. Final integrated management document
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 29
ANNEX IV
The Black Sea - Close to Irreversible Environmental Catastrophe
Surface area: 431,000km2, Volume: 555,000km3
Depth: average: 1,179m, maximum: 2,245mBlack Sea coastal states: Bulgaria, Georgia, Rumania,Russia, Turkey, Ukraine, The 5 big rivers:Belonging to the north-western shelf: Danube (2,860km l., 817,000km2 watershed), Dnjestr (1360km l.,72,000km2 w.), Dnjepr (2,285km l., 500,000km2 w.)Belonging to the Azor Sea: Don (1,970km l.,440,000km2 w,), Kuban (907km l.) The state of theBlack Sea: high input of surface waters; limited ex-change of deep waters with the Mediterranean; deepwaters anoxic and with H2S contents below 150mdepth; coastal erosion.
Pollution sources: from big rivers, airborne, directdischarge of land-based source pollutants from thecoastal zone, shipping, offshore oil and gas exploita-tion, deballasting oil tankersEutrophication: NW shelf, Azor SeaIntroduction of alien species (s.f. Aurelia aurata,ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi). Overfishing (anchovy);decrease of catch 1986: 1992 = 9:1Tourism - mismanagement, negative impacts ofpollutionClimate change: danger from upwelling of anoxicdeep-water sea masses
ANNEX V
Examples of specific administrative forms relevant for ICM
Algeria:• Ministry of Hydraulics and
Equipment: including theNational Agency for WaterResources (national and local of-fices); including the Public WorksDepartment (responsibility onharbors and maritime transport)
• Ministry of Interior including theNational Office for Tourism
• Ministry of National Defense; in-cluding the Coast Guard respon-sible for the adjacent sea controland protection
• National Planning Council; in-cluding the National Agency forLand-Use Planning
Bulgaria:• Ministry of Regional Develop-
ment and Reconstruction
Croatia:• Ministry of Reconstruction and
Development• Ministry of Privatization• Ministry of Civil Engineering
and Land-Use Planning• State Directorate of Environmen-
tal Protection
Tunisia:• Ministry of Environment; includ-
ing the National Agency for theProtection of Environment(ANPE)
• National Organization for SewageTreatment (ONAS)
• National Council for RegionalDevelopment
• National Agency for IndustrialDevelopment
• Ministry of Agriculture, GeneralDirectorate of Soils, GeneralDirectorate of Water Resources
Turkey:• State Planning Organization
Syria:• General Directorate of Ports (na-
tional and local)• General Directorate of Irrigation
in the Coastal Basin (nationaland regional)
• Ministry of Local Administration(urban and land-use planning -national and regional)
• Ministry of Culture, Directorateof Antiquities and Museums (his-toric settlements archaeologicaland cultural reserves and monu-ments - national and regional)
• State Directorate of the Protec-tion of Cultural and NaturalHeritage
Cyprus:• Ministry of Agriculture and
Natural Resources
Italy:• Ministry of Merchant Marine -
Harbour Authority - 12 harbourhead officers - 44 local executivebranches
• Ministry of Public Health - HighInstitute of Health - local healthauthorities
• Ministry of Industry (permits forresearch and exploitation of gasand oil fields)
• ENI - National Oil Corporation• ENEL - National Electricity Cor-
poration• ENEA - National Corporation for
New Technologies, Energy andEnvironment
Malta:• Water Resources Corporation
(para-statal organization)
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30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• What are the knowledge, skills, and attitudes thatmake successful coastal managers?
• What types of positions are available for coastalmanagers and in what institutions (ICM agenciesand related-sectoral units)?
• What are the expected changes in the types andquantity of jobs during the next decade?
• What is the demand for coastal managers in theregion both quantitatively and qualitatively?
• How do needs vary among nations within theregion?
RAPPORTEUR’S REPORTArsen Pavasovic presented his discussion paper on
the Black Sea and Mediterranean regions, followed bydiscussion of many of the points he had raised. Someof the major points raised in the discussion are out-lined here.
The Mediterranean and Black Sea regions are quitedifferent from one another. Pollution problems in theBlack Sea are much worse than in the Mediterranean.The Black Sea is close to an ecological catastrophe. Inaddition, the institutional and governance arrange-ments with the countries bordering the two seas aremuch different. The countries bordering the Black Seaare essentially developing countries.
Coastal Management in the Mediterranean is in theinitial stages of development and ongoing, whereas inthe Black Sea, it has yet to start. There are, as yet, noregional or national ICM programs. Tunisia and Israel,however, have made the greatest strides along theselines to date. At present, there are no jobs under thetitle of “coastal manager” in either the Mediterraneanor Black Sea as there are no government coastal man-agement programs in these regions.
One point made in the discussions was that it is im-portant to distinguish between integrated resource
management and traditional sectoral management incoastal areas. The tendency has been towards sectoralmanagement. It was also mentioned that there hasbeen discussion about a European Community CoastalZone Management Initiative which could help catalyzenational initiatives, however, this has not happenedyet.
Discussants felt that within these two regions, thereis a little linkage between international efforts—such asthe Mediterranean Action Plan and the World BankBlack Sea initiative—and national efforts. While therehas been attention paid to the problems of these twoseas from an international and regional perspective, ithas not yet translated into substantial actions at thenational level. Therefore, it is uncertain what impactthese international activities will have in catalyzing na-tional programs. While problems in the academic andresearch communities are well-recognized and havecontributed substantially to the international efforts inthe two seas, the government agencies responsible fortaking management actions are less aware and con-cerned. Hence, there is a strong need to develop greaterawareness among government personnel and policymakers.
There is training in the region in the sectoral spe-cializations which relate to coastal management andsome on-the-job training is occurring. The MedCoastInstitute (a regional training initiative of the EuropeanCommunity) is the start of an on-going training initia-tive in coastal management. At the moment there areno educational degree programs on integrated coastalmanagement in the Mediterranean or Black Sea region.However, a master’s program in coastal management isexpected to be developed as part of the MedCoast Ini-tiative. It is reasonable to assume that there will be oneor two degree programs developed over the next five toten years. One concern about developing a degree pro-gram in coastal management is that, as of now, thereare few professional career opportunities as a coastal
MEDITERRANEAN AND BLACK SEA: TRAINING AND EDUCATIONALNEEDS OF ICM PROFESSIONALS—ANALYSIS OF DEMAND
RAPPORTEUR: Erdal OzhanCASE PAPER PRESENTATION: A. Pavasovic
Discussants: R. Miller, A. Pavasovic, E. Ozhan, S. Belfiore, L. Hale
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 31
manager since no ICM programs as yet exist. Graduatesof such a program may have difficulty finding employ-ment and may need to market themselves with the ca-pability of filling positions that have different job titlesother than coastal manager, such as a coastal tourismplanner or protected area manager. Such graduates,however, may also be the pioneers that go out and de-velop the national programs needed within the BlackSea and Mediterranean.
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32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
THE STATUS OF INTEGRATED COASTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT(ICRM) AND DEMAND FOR COASTAL MANAGEMENT PRACTITIONERSIN THE GOVERNMENT SECTOR OF THE PHILIPPINES
Jessica C. MuñozCoastal Resources Management SectionBureau of Fisheries and Aquatic ResourcesQuezon City, Philippines
ABSTRACTThe Philippines fisheries are faced with pressing coastal management problems including lowproductivity, limited use of offshore waters, and resource depletion. To mitigate these problems, severalstrategies have been created to sustain resource use and promote good management of the coastal zone.
INTRODUCTIONThe fisheries sector of the Philippines is faced with
the pressing problems that affect the livelihood ofabout 60 percent of the country’s population. Theidentified problems of the sector are (1) Resourcedepletion in the coastal zone, (2) Widespread environ-mental damage, (3) Poverty among municipal fisheries,(4) Low productivity in aquaculture, and (5) Limitedutilization of offshore and exclusive economic zone(EEZ) waters by commercial Philippine fishermen.
Recognizing the need for mitigating measures, vari-ous government agencies, nongovernment organiza-tions (NGOs), people’s organizations, state universitiesand colleges, and the private sector are undertakingprograms, projects, and activities that will lead to thesustainable use of marine and coastal resources.
The Fisheries Sector Program (FSP) of the Depart-ment of Agriculture (DA) is a strategy that addressesthe pressing problems of the fisheries sector. TheProgram’s objectives are (1) To regenerate coastal re-sources, rehabilitate the coastal environment, and alle-viate poverty among municipal fishermen, particularlythrough diversification of their sources of income; (2)To intensify aquaculture production, particularly forthe benefit of domestic consumption but within thelimits of ecological balance; and (3) To help commer-cial fishermen to move away from overfishednearshore areas to offshore waters. The six componentsof the Program are Fishery Resource and EcologicalAssessment, Coastal Resources Management, IncomeDiversification, Research and Extension, Law Enforce-ment, and Infrastructure. There are 12 bays prioritizedunder FSP.
The Department of Environment and Natural Re-sources (DENR) is implementing the Coastal Environ-ment Program (CEP) with the following objectives: (1)To promote the use of environmental-friendly coastaltechnologies, (2) Expand livelihood opportunities inand insure equal access to coastal resources, and (3)Upgrade the capabilities of all DENR personnel in themanaging the coastal environment.
The CEP is guided by the principles of equitable andsustainable resource use. The implementing strategiesare: (1) Community organizing, (2) Community in-volvement in the protection and management ofcoastal ecosystems, (3) Mobilization of financial andadministrative resources from the public and privatesectors, and (4) Use of contingent approaches in identi-fying issues, problems, and opportunities for humanand environmental welfare.
The objectives of these two big programs are to alle-viate poverty among coastal fishermen. Other institu-tions are also conducting their own coastal resourcemanagement activities in various parts of the country,but their programs are on a smaller scale, compared tothese two government-initiated projects.
THE COASTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENTCOMPONENT OF FSP
The Coastal Resource Management (CRM) compo-nent is considered the core of the Fisheries Sector Pro-gram—all activities and projects of other componentsare geared towards the attainment of the CRM goals.The Program recognizes that integration is key to CRM.An integrated coastal resource management programconsiders the interactions of people and the environ-
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 33
TABLE 1: TOOLS FOR CRM : IMPLEMENTORS
Legislation and law enforcement: Local government units, national agencies, regional officesResearch: National agencies, research institutions, regional officesPublic education: NGO, national institutions, regional officesEstablishment of protected areas: Community, local government units, national agencies, research institutions,
regional officesZonation schemes: Local government units, research institutions, national agencies, regional officesResource regeneration and enhancement: Community, local government officials, research institutions, national
agencies, regional officesAlternative livelihood: NGO, national institutions, local government units, regional offices, banking institutions
ment towards the sustainable use and management ofresources, regeneration of depleted resources, and equi-table access and use of resources. To realize the goals ofthe program, strong and capable institutions are requi-sites to undertake coastal resources managementprojects and activities. At the onset of the program,there was an assessment of institutions dealing withfisheries and recommendations to realign these institu-tions to determine and assign responsibility for the sec-tor. The assessment showed the need to create properinstitutional arrangements for the implementation ofFSP and that a sound institutional framework must beestablished for a fisheries administration that sustainsthe long-term benefits derived from the program.
STRATEGIES OF ICRMDifferent strategies are employed when implementing
CRM. These strategies may be community participation,government intervention, NGO-participation, and insti-tution-building. The first strategy aims to enhance theparticipation of the coastal community in decision-mak-ing, project implementation, and evaluation. The sec-ond emphasizes local and national government in termsof taking the initiative in laying the framework of aCRM program which could border on legislation. Thethird strategy could be a developmental NGO or an aca-demic/research institution that assists in CRM activities.The fourth involves the creation of an institution for thepurpose of undertaking a CRM for an area.
Specific tools are necessary to promote coastal re-sources management in the country. At present, thesetools or approaches (see Table 1) are being undertakenin the 12 bays where FSP is implemented. While mostof these tools are implemented at the local level, thereis also a need for the national government to providetechnical assistance.
THE NEED FOR INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENINGAmong the agencies involved in the program, (see
Table 2), BFAR is responsible for implementing a major-ity of the components. BFAR, however, and other agen-cies, for that matter, need institutional reforms to oper-
ate a fisheries administration and management systemover the long term. The reforms will make manage-ment a permanent feature and ensure a committeddelivery of services.
The weakness in the program to implement policycould be rooted in the inadequacy of implementors tofully satisfy the mandate of their assigned tasks. Listedin Table 3 is the profile of field implementors/coastalmanagers.
The majority have no formal education in coastal re-sources management. At the national level, everybodyholds a degree (B.S.), and only 6 out of a total of 31 tech-nical personnel pursued graduate studies related to CRM.
To equip coastal managers with the proper knowledge,extensive training, workshops, and seminars were con-ducted at the local and national levels during the first twoyears that the program was implemented. The training,workshops, and seminars conducted are listed in Table 4.
PROSPECTS FOR COASTAL MANAGERSWhile the present situation demands more qualified
and capable coastal managers to continue the effortstowards coastal resources management, institutionalarrangements offer very little encouragement. Jurisdic-tion, authority, and legal frameworks are issues thatshould be worked out so that responsibilities are delin-eated among agency-implementors.
Certain institutional strengthening strategies recom-mended in the Fisheries Sector Program, particularlythe New Fisheries Code, need to acted upon. These rec-ommendations entail streamlining and reorganizingagencies to resolve institutional and legal problems.
The Fisheries Sector Program will end in December1995. The different agencies are mandated to continuethe activities and projects of the Program. However,there is also an expected decrease in the number ofimplementors. It is, therefore, important that properadministrative and organizational mechanisms and ar-rangements be set in place to lessen the impact of thepersonnel “drain.” By then, sustainability of the inte-grated coastal resource management program will beensured.
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34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
TABLE 2: ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF CRM IMPLEMENTORS
Local Government Unit (LGU)
• Implement policies and decisions regarding Coastal Resource Management (CRM) plan• Enforce controls related to fishing effort• Issue necessary licenses in line with its mandate through the Local Government Code of 1991• Provide data for monitoring the results of fish shelter, artificial reef, and other controls on fishing effort and
law enforcement.
Department of Agriculture (DA Regional Office)
• Provide assistance in formulating the framework and methodology to implement CRM activities incoordination with other implementing agencies
• Manage, supervise, and monitor the implementation of activities/projects in the region• Provide administrative support to ensure effective implementation of CRM projects and activities
Provincial Agriculturist Office (PAO)
• Provide assistance in formulating, implementing, and monitoring the CRM plan• Prepare work and financial plan• Manage, supervise, and monitor CRM projects and activities
Municipal Agricultural Office (MAO)
• Provide administrative support for field activities related to CRM• Monitor results of field activities
Fishermen’s Association (FA)
• Participate in CRM planning and plan implementation• Assist in the enforcement of measures to rehabilitate and regenerate fisheries resources• Provide data for monitoring
Nongovernmental Organization (NGO)
• Assist in organizing fishing communities through the formation of fishermen’s associations• Assist and provide service for education and training the community on CRM• Participate in training programs and information campaigns
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR)
• Assist in conducting rapid resource assessment (RRA) and resource and ecological assessment (REA) for thepurpose of gathering data to support management measures
• Assist in the preparation and conduct of appropriate training in the concepts of CRM• Undertake educational and information dissemination programs on fisheries management to develop and
promote sustainability
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)
• Implement mangrove reforestation project• Supervise land-based ecological management• Assist in the formulation of CRM plan
Bay Management Council (BMC)
• Assist in the preparation of CRM plan• Approve and endorse CRM plan• Allocate Total Allowable Catch to individual municipalities• Monitor management measures• Enforce fishery laws and other relevant fisheries administrative orders• Assist in educating and training fishing communities on the concepts and principles of CRM.
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 35
TABLE 3: EDUCATION OF FIELD IMPLEMENTORSAND COASTAL MANAGERS
Bay Coordinators M.S. Tropical Coast Managementand PMO Staff M.A. Marine Management(National level) M.S. Marine Biology
Master’s degree in AquacultureMaster’s degree in Regional
Resources PlanningMaster’s degree in Business
AdministrationMaster’s degree in
Community Development
B.S. FisheriesB.S. Marine BiologyB.S. BiologyA.B. Social ScienceA.B. EconomicsA.B. Agricultural EconomicsB.S. MathematicsB.S. Hotel and Restaurant
ManagementB.A. CommunicationA.B. Mass CommunicationB.S. Business Management
Regional and B.S. FisheriesProvincial A.B. EconomicsFisheries B.S. Community DevelopmentManagement Staff B.S. Biology(Regional level) B.S. Marine Biology
Diploma course in FisheriesMaster’s degree in Business
Administration
NGO B.S. Economics(Local level) B.S. Fisheries
B.S. Community DevelopmentA.B. Mass CommunicationB.S. Education
LGU B.S. Economics(Local level) B.S. Fisheries
B.S. EducationLLB. in LawB.S. CriminologyDoctor of MedicineCollege Undergraduate
Community B.S. EducationCollege undergraduateHigh schoolElementary
TABLE 4: TRAINING/WORKSHOPS/SEMINARS
Topic Participants1. FSP/CRM I DA Staff
Orientation II LGUsTraining/Workshop III NGOs, POs,
Fishermen,Community
2. Fish Warden Barangay Captains,Deputization FA Presidents,DA Technical Staff
3. Artificial Reefs/Fish Shelter DA Technical Staff,Management LGUs
4. Law Enforcement Fish Wardens, LGUs,DA Staff
5. CRM Course Fishing Boat(Special Course) Engineers, Fishermen
6. CRM/Unified Municipal LGUs,Ordinance DA Staff
7. Credit Appreciation DA StaffFAs, Cooperatives
8. Value Formation DA Staff, LGUs,NGOs, Community
REFERENCESACI (Agrodev Canada Inc.) (1989). Fisheries Sector De-
velopment Program, Philippines: Final Report. Vol.1. Asian Development Bank. Manila: Philippines.
Department of Agriculture. (1994). Fisheries SectorProgram (FSP) Credit Component. 38 pp.
Department of Agriculture. (1993). Fisheries SectorProgram. 31 pp.
Labon, A.L. (1992). Institutional Needs: Assessment ofPresent Situation and Recommendations. RDA Inter-national, Inc. 90 pp.
Memorandum of Understanding. (1994). FisheriesSector Program/Loan Nos. 971/972 PHI. 26 pp.
Muñoz, J.C. (1991). Community-based resource man-agement as an approach for implementing CoastalResource Management Component of the FisheriesSector Program (FSP). ERMP Workshop Proceedings.16 pp.
Roldan B.R. and Sievert, R.F. (1993). Coastal ResourcesManagement: A Manual for Government Officialsand Community Organizers. 40 pp.
White A.T. & Lopez, N. (1991). Coastal resources man-agement planning and implementation for the Fish-eries Sector Program of the Philippines. In O.T.Magoon, H. Converse, V. Tippie, L.T. Tobin & D.Clark (Eds.). Coastal Zone ‘91 (pp. 762-775). NewYork: American Society of Civil Engineers.
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36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
ASIA, PACIFIC, AND EAST AFRICA: TRAINING AND EDUCATIONALNEEDS OF ICM PROFESSIONALS—ANALYSIS OF DEMAND
RAPPORTEURS: Joeli Veitayaki and Robin SouthCASE PAPER PRESENTATION: J. Munoz
Discussants: M. Bandara, J. Munoz, J. Veitayaki, R. South, L.M. Chou, S. Boromthanarat, E. Ferrer,D. Sadacharan, E. Gomez, M.A.K. Ngoili, B. Fuller, N. Calumpong
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• What types of knowledge, skills, and attitudes makesuccessful coastal managers in the region?
• What types of positions are available for coastalmanagers and in what institutions (ICM agenciesand related sectoral units) within the region?
• What are the expected changes in the quantity andtypes of jobs over the next decade in the region?
• What is the demand for coastal managers bothquantitatively and qualitatively in the region?
• How do needs vary among nations within theregion?
RAPPORTEUR’S REPORTWithin this broad region, coastal managers work in
many situations ranging from small coastal countries,where there is a high level of concern for coastal issues,to larger countries where, often at senior levels of gov-ernment, decision makers are remote and not aware of,or concerned about, the coastal area. It was generallyfelt that there is a lack of integration and dialogue ingovernment which mitigates against multisectoral co-operation.
The group felt that a specific definition of “coastalmanager” was not clear and subject to wide interpreta-tion. However, the group identified the following pri-orities in the analysis of skills, knowledge, and atti-tudes needed for people working on coastal zonemanagement programs.
Skills:
• The need for management skills especially diplo-macy, group dynamics, and negotiation
Knowledge:
• How to put together an interdisciplinary team
Attitudes:
• A need to move away from the sectoral approach
• A willingness to integrate
• Openness to community needs
• An appreciation and love for the coast
With respect to developing appropriate attitudes, anumber of strategies were identified:
• Exposure to the coastal community
• Coastal appreciation
• Exchange programs
• Semester-long, in-depth programs
• Public education
• Demonstrating the value of the coastal zone
• Involvement in college (graduate students instruct-ing younger students on coastal topics)
• Provide opportunities for interaction such as parks,museums, places of learning
The group identified the following modes ofeducation:
• Training coastal managers in managerial skills
• Cultivating appreciation through exposure to ICMusing
a) degree programs with ICM curriculum
b) training courses (short term) at the non-degreelevel for specialists or in-service (on-the-job) training
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 37
Attitudinal changes need to be instilled regardless ofthe mode of education. It was recommended thatimplementation include:
• In-service training for individuals from differentdisciplines who need to be trained together
• Integration of coastal management concepts intocareer and executive training of officials in publicadministration. Career and executive training isregularly provided for civil servants in many coun-tries such as Sri Lanka, the Philippines, and in EastAfrica.
• Learning from experts (e.g., management schools)
The group agreed that the needs for training andeducation in coastal management are considerablethroughout the region. However, needs vary at differ-ent stages of development of the management pro-grams. In the early stages, the priority is technical skillsand planning methodology. In the later stages, moreemphasis is needed on how to handle implementationwhere management skills are very important. Onceprograms enter the implementation stage, there will bea clearer sense of the specific needs of management.The group also felt that there is a fundamental body oftheory on concepts and approaches to coastal manage-ment which can be applied and adapted regardless ofgeographic location.
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38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• What are the knowledge, skills, and attitudes thatmake successful coastal managers?
• What types of positions are available for coastalmanagers and in what institutions (ICM agenciesand related-sectoral units)?
• What are the expected changes in the quantity andtypes of jobs over the next decade?
• What is the demand for coastal managers bothquantitatively and qualitatively in the region?
• How do needs vary among nations within theregion?
RAPPORTEUR’S REPORTJack Wiggin gave a brief presentation on coastal
management programs in Connecticut and Massachu-setts. These state programs were created and partiallyfunded through federal government initiatives of boththe National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(responsible for the administration of the FederalCoastal Zone Management Program) and the Environ-mental Protection Agency (responsible for the adminis-tration of the National Estuary Program). The follow-ing table represents the positions and backgrounds ofthe personnel who staff these state “coastal manage-ment” offices.
The group then discussed skill requirements, clients,participants, regional variations, and demand forcoastal managers.
Skills. Assuming the dynamic paradigm is correctwhich hypothesizes an evolutionary movement incoastal management (water quality through traditionalCoastal Zone Management (CZM), comprehensiveCZM, Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) to Inte-grated Ecosystem Management), what are the educa-
UNITED STATES, CANADA, AND AUSTRALIA: TRAINING ANDEDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF ICM PROFESSIONALS—ANALYSIS OF DEMAND
RAPPORTEUR: Niels WestCASE PAPER PRESENTATION: J. Wiggin
Discussants: K. Brown, J. Wiggin, B. Crawford, W. Matuszeski, M. Wood, N. West
tional qualifications of the professionals with whomwe are charging with the management of our coastalresources?
There was general agreement that the technicalbackground (type of degree) was less important com-pared to individuals who had a capacity for the “bigpicture.” One member of the group cited the exampleof the Chesapeake Bay Commission which now in-cludes staff drawn from forestry, soil science, air qual-ity, and fisheries, in addition to professionals drawnfrom traditional line agencies associated with coastalmanagement such as the U.S. National Park Serviceand Environmental Protection Agency, all of whomcan be considered coastal managers. It was pointed outthat many coastal problems, such as excessive nutrientloading and sedimentation in estuaries, are oftencaused by activities far upstream and are often outsidethe jurisdiction of the coastal management agency. Toaddress these issues, a broader definition of coastalmanagement is required where specialists, such as for-esters and agriculturists, must be included as part ofthe management team. These specialists may also haveto work with the groups causing the problem, whichare far from the site of impact. These disciplines, nottraditionally associated with coastal management, arebecoming important technical areas for coastal manag-ers to understand.
Some general qualifications of coastal managerswere identified including the ability to identify andsolve problems. Such professionals should be integra-tors, communicators, and be able to work in a con-stantly changing environment.
The point was also made that some of the past prob-lems were caused by turning scientists into policy mak-ers with responsibilities of setting management goals.This resulted in many early coastal management pro-grams taking an approach with a heavy research andscientific orientation before turning to actions and
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 39
POSITIONS AND BACKGROUNDS OF PERSONNEL IN STATE “COASTAL MANAGEMENT” AGENCIES
Connecticut Office of Long Island Sound Programs
DirectorAssistant Director
Coastal Program Section Permit and Enforcement Section Technical Assistance Section7 Municipal Planners Benthic Biologist Biologist/EcologistM.S. Urban and Regional Planning Benthic Ecologist Geologist
Biologist BiologistMarine Biologist Planner
OthersPublic Involvement Specialists2 Legal Specialists
Massachusetts Coastal Zone Management Program
DirectorManagement and Administration
Assistant DirectorM.S. Resource Economics
Grants Management Specialist
Administrative AssistantsTechnical Support Technical SupportPublic Outreach Coordinator Nonpoint Source CoordinatorM.A. Environmental and Resource Policy M.S. Environmental Engineering
Harbor Management Coordinator Assistant NPS CoordinatorM.A. Philosophy M.A. Environmental Policy
5 Regional Coordinators 2 Coastal GeologistsM.S. Science Communication M.S. GeologyMPA Environmental Administration M.A. Physical GeographyM.S. Environmental
Data Manager Tidelands CoordinatorM.A. Marine Affairs Ph.D. Environmental Policy
Permit Advisory Specialist Environmental Analyst(Dredging Coordinator) M.A. Marine AffairsB.S. Environmental Sciences
Graphic Designer Project Review CoordinatorB.F.A. Federal Consistency
M.S. Environmental SciencesWater Quality PlannerM.A. Environmental ScienceLegal counselJ.D.Environmental PlannerB.S. Zoology
Massachusetts National Estuary Program
Massachusetts Bays Program Buzzards Bay ProjectExecutive Director Executive DirectorPh.D. Marine Environmental Science Ph.D. Marine Policy
Director of Public Outreach Toxic Reduction SpecialistB.S. Natural Resources M.S. Business Administration
Data Manager Environmental PlannerM.S. Geology M.S. Environmental Science
Public Information SpecialistB.S. Communications
Administrative AssistantB.A.
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40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
policies to address specific problems. Several memberson the committee suggested an alternate science/policymodel where scientists are encouraged to collect datathat would be useful to policy makers for settingpolicy. However, in this model, it is the policy makersand managers who ask for research and scientific infor-mation to better address and understand identified is-sues. There is also a need to develop reliability checkson scientific data, here referred to as comfort indices,analogous to statistical confidence levels. Coastal man-agers need to understand that no level of information,science, or research will necessarily answer all the ques-tions of a manager or policy maker. A level of uncer-tainty will always exist, and decisions need to be madewithin that context.
Finally, members of the group recognized that thereis an absence of clear and easily definable coastal juris-dictions. The absence of such jurisdictions often leadto turf battles resulting in, at best, inefficiency of scarcenatural, human, and financial resources and, at worst,to the total disintegration of any ICM efforts.
Clients and Participants. The evolution of the de-mand for coastal managers initially centered on theexperience of the United States. In the U.S., most ofthe coastal management graduates found employmentwithin the federal sector. Since then, largely influencedby a trend towards decentralization of federal initia-tives, states have been encouraged to become respon-sible for a greater proportion of the coastal manage-ment effort. Thus, coastal management jobs have beenrecently identified within state and local communities.These jobs are increasingly required to implement localcoastal management initiatives.
Everyone agreed that efforts should be made to in-volve the private sector since many industries werecontributing to the problems of the coastal zone. Agri-culture significantly contributes to nutrient overload-ing in many estuaries here and abroad. The need to in-volve this sector was noted in particular.
Other organizations that are using coastal managersmore include the NGO community and internationaldonor agencies. The absence of any real knowledgeabout the unique problems encountered in the coastalzone among many professionals in the private sector,environmental NGO community, and donor agencieswas repeatedly cited as detrimental to effective coastalmanagement.
Brief mention was made of the experiences in Aus-tralia where most of the graduates from that country’sonly academic unit offering degrees in coastal manage-ment find employment primarily within the local andstate governments. The private sector is expected toemploy future coastal managers as part of the legal re-quirement to employ “environmental managers.” Asmuch industrial and urban development is coastal,
there appears to be good prospects for “coastal manag-ers” in the private sector. It was noted that a real dis-crepancy exists between the national and state de-mand, on one hand, and the private sector, on theother. Again, the often confusing relationship betweennational involvement in coastal management, thestates involvement (or lack thereof), and local jurisdic-tion has been a real detriment to implementing com-prehensive coastal management in Australia.
Regional Variation. The group spent some time re-viewing recent trends and political events in theUnited States, Canada, and Australia. All three coun-tries have moved towards decentralization and deregu-lation. The recent U.S. elections pose a hard-to-defineimpact on coastal and other environmental programs.The consensus was that, on the national level, therewould be less emphasis on coastal management, lessregulations (and thus fewer regulators), and greateremphasis on professionals able to work on consensusbuilding, voluntary measures, and integration of exist-ing agency and program activities.
In Australia, the outlook for coastal managementwas cloudy in part because of the confusion related togovernmental jurisdiction. It was noted that the federalgovernment had jurisdiction seaward of mean high wa-ter, but that states had jurisdiction over certain coastalfisheries. Furthermore, there is some evidence that thenational government is attempting to bypass the in-volvement of states in coastal management by offeringfunds directly to the local jurisdictions. These develop-ments sometimes result in rifts and inefficiency.
In Canada, the situation is somewhat different.Most of the federal coastal management efforts takethe form of site-specific projects such as the FraserRiver in British Columbia and the St. Lawrence River inOntario and Quebec. Some provinces (New Brunswickand Nova Scotia) have drafted coastal managementpolicies (as in Australia) which have not yet beenimplemented largely because of lack of federal finan-cial support or resolution of Federal and Provincial ar-guments concerning jurisdiction and authority. It wasalso noted that Canada supports substantial interna-tional development assistance efforts concentrating oncoastal management in the Caribbean and the Pacificwhere Canada has had a long and continued develop-ment assistance presence.
Demand. The group was unable to come up with spe-cific quantitative estimates of current and future de-mands except we agreed that there would be a smallerdemand for traditionally trained coastal managers anda greater demand for professionals with diverse back-grounds.
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TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS 41
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• How do needs vary at different stages of develop-ment in a coastal management program?
• Who are the clients of ICM education and trainingprograms?
• Who are the participants of ICM education andtraining programs?
• What are the critical components, given the needs,of an ideal ICM curriculum?
• Is there a core curriculum of fundamental conceptsand approaches regardless of geographic location?
RAPPORTEUR’S REPORTThere was general recognition of the different needs
driving a ICM program as a process. The needs of well-developed nations like the United States, were quitedifferent than those of less-developed countries orother countries, like Australia and Canada. These coun-tries, while aware of coastal management, remain in aholding pattern.
Nevertheless, perhaps we can see a transitory phase.In the United States, a mature, federally funded pro-gram has been in place for at least 20 years. In this pe-riod, we have moved from a clear regulatory process toa more conciliatory process involving local communi-ties. Chesapeake Bay is an example where the programhas been broadened, so that it is not just concernedwith water quality, fisheries management, and nutrientmanagement, but it now includes air managementwhich affects nutrient management over a muchgreater area (i.e., the air catchment area is much greaterthan the water catchment per se). Again, we can alllearn from the years of experience in the United States.We do not have to be sidetracked or shunted off bydoughnuts, cables, or general practitioners. What isneeded for a variety of problems is, first of all, recogni-tion of the problem.
The problems may range from a simple lack of un-derstanding, the need for a flexible approach, or even
“retooling” officials and/or existing programs. Solu-tions are needed which could be adopted by communi-ties, scientists, resource managers, academics, and gov-ernment.
In many instances, the basic skills are lacking todeal with the simple problem without looking at thebroader picture. Governments often need solutionsthat yield the necessary short-term benefits as steppingstones or a ramp to the broader picture benefits—thepebble in the pond and the ripple effect—that can beimmediately generated. For example, coastal erosion inSri Lanka was an obvious, immediate problem as wascoastal inundation in Bangladesh, which requires dif-ferent solutions, different costs, and even different re-sults. These were primary issues that affected peoplerather than environments. It is people-related issuesthat governments respond to immediately, followed byresource protection, exploitation, and management. Inmore developed countries, these are not normally theproblems. More aesthetic and seemingly inconsequen-tial issues like recreation, tourism, and environmentalquality are the focus.
It was suggested that in training educators, teamscan be concentrated (in hindsight) to work on totalcatchment or watershed issues which include healthand food, fisheries, erosion, and other issues. Initialtraining can provide the foundation of knowledge, anddemonstration projects can provide the necessary expe-rience. Nothing breeds success like success.
This team approach, of course, requires the honestyand respect of all participants. As practitioners, per-haps, they should be housed in one building or centerso, almost by default, they can exchange ideas and talkto each other. Perhaps government bureaucracies needto be dismantled and restructured as do the traditionaldisciplines in academic institutions which generateand promote a narrow approach.
Ultimately, before deciding on any course of action,the importance of seeking goals must not be underval-ued. It is important for the users/recipients to expressthose goals to funders—agencies and donors. Too often
TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF ICM PROFESSIONALS—ANALYSIS OF DEMAND
PLENARY DISCUSSIONRAPPORTEUR: Kenneth Brown
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42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
donors “tell” rather than “advise or suggest”. It is theresponsibility of donors to at least listen to and respectthe backgrounds of the recipients. They must do so intheir own countries, why not a thousand kilometersaway? This approach helps build trust, respect, and ateam spirit to tackle a problem. This may involve con-flict resolution techniques, teamwork skills, a variety ofadditional training skills, and a genuine need for openand honest discussion—“talk amongst equals”—beforethere is an acceptable climate to receive that informa-tion (the transfer of information). When necessary,other “experts” may be drawn in to facilitate or supple-ment the team. Too often development assistance doesnot include a sustained training component. Rather, itoffers a quick fix that looks great but does not last (e.g.,in mangroves and golf courses, canceled programs inthe South Pacific).
It was recognized that teams are led and that part ofthe role of the leader is to “glue” the units together.Perhaps leadership is the role of a coastal manager. Oneperspective is that what we are really talking about inecosystem management is that coastal management isone of many specialized ecosystems in need of man-agement. In either case, it is important to concentrateon a slightly broader field of issues so that fisheriesmanagement and other traditional sectors are in-cluded. Many indicated that it has taken too long tohave coastal zone management recognized in it’s ownright, and it would not be appropriate to confuse theissues now, by redefining the “discipline or profession”as ecosystem management.
The university with networks within and/or withoutmay be the provider of “the grease,” the electricitywhich powers the coastal zone dynamo. If they cannotprovide the “general driver” (perhaps to mix meta-phors), then they could at least provide the chief-of-staff who can organize the numbers, the budget per-son, and the organization—allowing the “generaldriver” to inspire and lead the team.
Who are the practitioners? They are the local com-munity in many instances. Certainly they must see thevalue, the return for managing the coastal zone. Other-wise, why bother? Hence an important skill of thecoastal zone manager is communication at all levels ofthe community, with government officials, and inacademia. Again, honesty and respect dominate as wellas a willingness to advance. The trainer-manager alsolearns. The value of partnerships was emphasized—partnerships between universities, networks, and users.Future and current coastal management managers needto be ethical in approaching coastal zone problems andsolutions. In summary, coastal zone management wasseen as a partnership where honesty, respect, and real-ity underpin the overall partnerships between commu-nities, universities, networks, and government.
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 43
SECTION 2COASTAL MANAGEMENTTRAINING ANDDEGREE PROGRAMS:STATUS AND TRENDS
Status and Trends in CoastalManagement-Related Training Coursesin the EPOMEX Program, Mexico:Structure, Projection, Curricula, andInstitutional ArrangementAlejandro Yanez-Arancibia,Ana Laura Lara-Dominguez 45
Status and Trends in CoastalManagement-Related Training andDegree Programs in Southeast AsiaL.M. Chou 49
Training for Integrated CoastalManagement: A Review of Trends, Issues,and Approaches for the 21st CenturyBrian Crawford 54
Capacity Building at a Graduate LevelEducational Program in Coastal ZoneManagement: A Case Study of theAutonomous University of Baja California,Ensenada Campus, MexicoJose Luis Ferman-Almada, Lorenzo Gomez-Morin Fuentes,Ileana Espejel Carbajal, David Fischer 62
Interdisciplinary Education with Considerationfor Coastal ManagementElizabeth Fuller 68
Meeting the Challenge: The Marine StudiesProgramme at the University of the South PacificG. Robin South, Joeli Veitayaki 73
Coastal Management and Marine AffairsEducational ProgramsNiels West 79
Medcoast Institute: A Training Program onCoastal Zone Management in the Mediterraneanand the Black SeaErdal Ozhan, E.B. Culhaoglu 84
Rapporteur’s ReportCoastal Management Training andDegree Programs: Status and Trends 89
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 45
STATUS AND TRENDS IN COASTAL MANAGEMENT-RELATED TRAININGCOURSES IN THE EPOMEX PROGRAM, MEXICO: STRUCTURE,PROJECTION, CURRICULA, AND INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT
Alejandro Yanez-Arancibia andAna Laura Lara-DominguezProgram of Ecology, Fisheries and Oceanography ofthe Gulf of Mexico (EPOMEX Program)Universidad Autonoma de CampecheCampeche, Mexico
ABSTRACTThe Universidad Autonoma de Campeche in Mexico created the EPOMEX Program in 1990 to addresscoastal management issues. The program began with a series of short courses, called InternationalDiploma Courses, that concentrated on managing coastal ecosystems. The courses were designed toenable advanced students, investigators, and resource managers to obtain specialized training in a widerange of related disciplines. EPOMEX is considering creating an International Center for the study andmanagement of tropical coastal resources.
INTRODUCTIONThe EPOMEX Program was created in 1990 with
three principal objectives. The first was to developknowledge in the areas of ecology and management ofcoastal ecosystems, tropical fisheries resources, pollu-tion and environmental impact, and coastal andoceanographic processes. The second was to strengthenhigher education, and the third was to publish and dis-seminate the results of academic activities.
Beginning in 1992, a series of International DiplomaCourses was initiated. They were designed as advancedshort courses for a higher academic level and orientedto the management of coastal ecosystems. The courseswere given in English for international students, or inSpanish for advanced Mexican students. This optionwas considered the most rapid and efficient mecha-nism to strengthen students who required highlyspecialized courses.
The topics covered in these courses are key to under-standing ecological economics, coastal processes, envi-ronmental impacts, tropical fisheries, and analyzingecosystems. In all cases, the courses are oriented to-wards the management of tropical coastal ecosystems.
The structure of the courses offers an alternative for stu-dents to gain information in their areas of specializa-tion. Postgraduate programs from public or private uni-versities in Mexico and other countries, interested instrengthening their personnel, are offered an opportu-nity by the Campeche University and the EPOMEX Pro-gram to diversify their course offerings and strengthentheir graduate programs. The geographic location of theUniversity of Campeche in southeast Mexico, withCampeche Sound and adjacent coastal systems, makesit an ideal place of study for those interested in the Gulfof Mexico and other coastal areas of the Caribbean andLatin America. Because of the broad significance of thecourse topics and the nature of the course presenta-tions, the EPOMEX Program is considering the possibil-ity of creating, within the framework of its activities, anInternational Center for the study and management oftropical coastal resources.
OBJECTIVESThe objective of the courses is to enable advanced
students, investigators, natural resources managers,and decision makers to obtain specialized training for
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46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
scientific study, teaching, and management. The Inter-national Diploma Courses cover a wide range of relateddisciplines in order to achieve sustainable managementof coastal ecosystems. The courses not only introducestudents to new techniques and methods but also showhow these can be applied to the solution of practicalproblems in their home regions.
STRUCTUREThe mechanics of the courses are very diverse. They
include lectures, practical exercises, case studies, fieldwork, and seminars. The length of each course averagesthree weeks with the following schedule: February(Ecology and Management in Tropical Estuaries), May(Remote Sensing and Geographic Information SystemApplied to Coastal Processes), August (Pollution andEnvironmental Impact in Tropical Coasts), and October(Tropical Fisheries Resources: Ecology, Population Dy-namics, and Modeling).
PROJECTIONFrom 1992 until 1994 the courses have been offered
11 times with an enrollment of 115 students from 46institutions in 13 countries. The courses were taught by29 professors from 18 institutions. The chronology ofthe courses is given in Table 1.
CURRICULA OF THE COURSE ON ECOLOGYAND MANAGEMENT IN TROPICAL ESTUARIES:A CASE STUDY
An integrated understanding of ecology is essentialfor biotic resource and habitat management. This is thefocus of this course, which emphasizes understandingof the structure and function of tropical estuarine sys-tems. It stresses the ecological interdependence be-tween saline wetlands, freshwater swamps, coastal la-goons, and adjacent shelf waters. Physical, chemical,and biological processes link these habitats and modu-late the dynamics of the biological communities. Eco-logical research oriented towards natural resource man-agement requires an understanding of these processesin order to understand problems facing the fishing sec-tor, the oil industry, coastal agriculture, urban and in-dustrial development, and associated environmentalresponses. Furthermore, ecological investigations ori-ented towards management should be done from amultiple-use approach.
This course presents theoretical, conceptual, andmethodological approaches to managing tropical estu-aries. It features conservation and sustainable manage-ment of the ecosystem; optimal resource utilization;resolution of conflicting uses; environmental, social,economic, and political considerations; and encouragesformulation of rational and fair resource policies withthe joint participation of policy makers with coastalnon-governmental organizations.
The general topics covered are the following:
• Introduction to Estuaries: Coastal management,ecosystem modeling, plankton community dynam-ics, functional groups, nutrient uptake and cycling,trophic interactions, grazing and the microbial loop,metabolic budgets, and management issues(eutrophication, toxic contaminants, turbidity).
• Benthic Community Dynamics: Functionalgroups, animal/sediment interactions, feeding types,sediment nutrient cycling, management issues(eutrophication, oxygen depletion, toxic contami-nant, dredging).
• Seagrasses and Macroalgae: Functional groups,light, and photosynthesis depth distribution, nutri-ent uptake, relation to higher trophic levels, man-agement issues (macroalgal outbreaks, epiphyteovergrowth, phytoplankton shading, toxic contami-nants, herbicides, metals, dredging, and turbidity).
• Ecosystem Management Modeling: Concepts ofmodel development, examples.
• Practical Field Training: Intensive field exercises inLaguna de Terminos and adjacent areas.
• Case Studies: Shrimp farms, urban expansion, hu-man impacts in the Mississippi Delta, global change,sea level rise and its importance for coastal systems,use of models in coastal management, coastal im-poundments, physical changes in coastal systemsand direct changes in the biotic structure of coastalsystems, and management concepts for coastal bi-otic reserves.
As part of the course, there are several field exercisesto the Terminos Lagoon estuarine system, where stu-dents obtain practical training. The students presentseminars and reports from the results obtained. An ab-stract of the most relevant information is published inJaina, the newsletter of the EPOMEX Program (seereferences).
INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTSThe International Diploma course has been recog-
nized by the seven most important postgraduate pro-grams in Marine Sciences in Mexico. On April 30,1992, an agreement was signed which recognizesEPOMEX courses as valid at the following institutions:Centro de Investigacion Cientifica y de Educacion Su-perior de Ensenada, Centro Interdisciplinario deCiencias de Mar, Universidad Autonoma de Baja Cali-fornia, Instituto Tecnologico de Estudios Superiores deMonterrey Guaymas, Unidad Academica de los CiclosProfesional y Posgrado del Colegio de Ciencias yHumanidades /Universidad Nacional Autonoma deMexico, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biologicas delInstituto Politecnico Nacional, and Centro de
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 47
TABLE 1: THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE COURSE OFFERINGS BY EPOMEX PROGRAM
Course Month / Year Professor / Institution No. students
Ecological Economics in February 1992 Dr. Max Aguero Negrete / ICLARM-CEPAL 20Tropical Coastal Ecosystem Dr. Edward Barbier / London Environmental Economics Centre
Dr. Robert Costanza /Maryland International Institute forEcological Economics, Univ. of Maryland
Dr. Juan Carlos Seijo / CINVESTAV - Merida
Tropical Coastal May /1992 Dr. Bjorn Kerfve / Dep. Geology Belle W. Baruch Institute 4Oceanography for Marine Biology and Coastal Research, Univ. SC
Dr. David Salas de León / ICML-UNAMDra. Adela Monreal Gómez / ICML-UNAM
Advances in Estuarine August /1992 Dr. Michael W. Kemp / Center for Environmental and 10Ecology Estuarine Studies, Univ. of Maryland
Dr. Christopher J. Madden / Center for Environmental andEstuarine Studies, Univ. of Maryland
Dr. Robert R. Twilley / Univ. Southwestern LouisianaDr. Alejandro Yáñez-Arancibia / EPOMEX Program
Analysis and Modeling of November /1992 Dr. Francisco Arreguin Sánchez / CINVESTAV - Merida 21Artisanal Fisheries Dr. John Caddy / Fishery Department FAO
Dr. Domingo Flores Hernandez / EPOMEX ProgramDr. Daniel Pauly / ICLARMDr. Jon Sutin / Univ. Rhode Island
Remote Sensing and April - May /1993 Dr. Bjorn Kerfve / Dep. Geology Belle W. Baruch Institute 5Geographic Information for Marine Biology and Coastal Research, Univ. SCSystem in Coastal Processes Dr. Erick Wolanski / Australian Institute of Marine Science
Ecology and Management August /1993 Dr. Michael W. Kemp / Center for Environmental and 14in Tropical Estuaries Estuarine Studies, Univ. of Maryland
February /1994 Dr. Christopher J. Madden / Center for Environmental and 3Estuarine Studies, Univ. of Maryland
Dr. John W. Day / Dept. Oceanography and Coastal Science, LSUDr. Robert R. Twilley / Univ. Southwestern LouisianaDr. Enrique Reyes Gómez /Maryland International Institute
for Ecological Economics, Univ. of MarylandDr. Alejandro Yáñez-Arancibia / EPOMEX ProgramM. Sc. Ana Laura Lara-Domlnguez / EPOMEX Program
Tropical Fisheries Resources: October /1993 Dr. Daniel Pauly / ICLARM 11Recruitment Processes Dr. Richard F. Shaw / Dept. Oceanography and Coastal Science, LSU
Dr. Francisco Arreguln Sanchez / EPOMEX Program Dr.Domingo Flores Hernandez / EPOMEX ProgramM. Sc. Patricia Sanchez-Gil / EPOMEX Program
Remote Sensing and May /1994 Dr. Bjorn Kerfve / Dep. Geology Belle W. Baruch Institute 9Geographic Information for Marine Biology and Coastal Research, Univ. SCSystem Applied to Coastal Dr. Anthony J. Lewis / Dept. Geography and Anthropology, LSUProcesses Dr. Mario Arturo Orte / Geography Institute, UNAM
Pollution and Environmental August /1994 Dr. Gerardo Gold Bouchot / CINVESTAV - Mérida 7Impact in Tropical Coasts M.Sc. Jorge A. Benitez Torres / EPOMEX Program
M. Sc. David Zárate Lomell / EPOMEX ProgramQFB Cristina Barcenas / EPOMEX Program
Tropical Fisheries Resources: October /1994 Dr. Daniel Pauly / ICLARM 11Ecology, Population Dr. Nelson M. Ehrhardt / RSMAS, U. MiamiDynamics and Modeling Dr. Richard F. Shaw / Dept. Oceanography and Coastal Science, LSU
Dr. Jan Beyer / FAO-DANIDA ProjectDr. Francisco Arreguln Sánchez / EPOMEX ProgramDr. Domingo Flores Hernandez / EPOMEX ProgramM. Sc. Patricia Sánchez-Gil / EPOMEX Program
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48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
Investigaciones y de Estudios Avanzados-Merida. In ad-dition, we have signed agreements with three foreigninstitutions whose students can obtain credit for theEPOMEX courses: Louisiana State University (Depart-ment of Oceanography and Coastal Science), Univer-sity of South Carolina (Belle W. Baruch Institute forMarine Biology and Coastal Research), and the Univer-sity of Maryland System (Center for Environmentaland Estuarine Studies). These agreements reinforce ex-isting academic interchanges and cooperative researchprograms.
THE FUTUREThe diploma courses form the basis for a future pro-
gram for an international doctorate degree in coastaltropical ecosystems. This is the main goal for the com-ing year which will consist of the implementation of apostgraduate program in the tropical Americas. We willpropose a Doctorate in Tropical Coastal Ecosystemswith specializations in ecology and management ofcoastal ecosystems, contamination, and environmentalprocesses. This will be an international doctorate withthe participation of visiting professors of internationalrepute from institutions in Mexico and other areas ofNorth America, Europe, Latin America, Southeast Asia,and Australia. In order to facilitate the objectives of theDoctorate Program, we are conducting a feasibilitystudy on the creation within EPOMEX of a RegionalCenter for Tropical Coastal Ecosystems.
REFERENCES
Barcenas, C., Barreto, M.B., Lamparelli, C.C., Ivanova,L., Marin, B., de Moura, D.O., Palomares, R., Ramos,J., Rivera, E., Santos, A. (1992). Ecologia estuarinaexperimental en la Laguna de Terminos, Mexico.Jaina, 3(3), 18-19.
Barcenas, C., Contreras, R. , Coronado, C., Garcia, J.,Hemandez, M., Iglesias, C., Martinez, M., Murillo,M., Pineda, A., Puente, R., Rivera, E., Rodriguez, G.,Velazquez, T., Zarate, D. (1993). Curso de Ecologia yManejo de Estuarios Tropicales. Jaina, 4(3), 14-15.
Felix-Pico, E.F., Mancera-Pineda, J.E., McNally, D.P.(1994). Aspectos de produccion primaria en EsteroPargo, Laguna de Terminos. Jaina, 5(1), 4-5.
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 49
STATUS AND TRENDS IN COASTAL MANAGEMENT-RELATEDTRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
L.M. ChouDepartment of ZoologyNational University of SingaporeSingapore
ABSTRACTUtilization of coastal areas in Southeast Asia has intensified significantly in recent decades. Growingpopulation pressure, large-scale exploitation, and rapid development of infrastructure have resulted insevere environmental degradation and a decline in the quality of the coastal environment. Integratedmanagement of the coastal area is advocated as a means to minimize such impacts and supportachievement of sustainable development. What is lacking is a training component that providescoastal zone managers with enhanced capabilities to deal with interdisciplinary issues andmultisectoral planning. Many of the region’s tertiary institutions have yet to provide a degree course inintegrated coastal zone management, although they are active in conducting short-term trainingcourses not only for practitioners but also for different sectors of the community. The current emphasisis to train managers of today, while recognizing that the long-term solution remains in trainingmanagers of tomorrow. However, many trainers are not in the best position to conduct formal orinformal training courses on their own as they have been trained in specific disciplines and lack anessential understanding of issues and processes beyond their fields of expertise. Proposed curricula ofintegrated coastal zone management degree programs require institutions to recognize the need to varyadministrative structures so that staff from different faculties may offer courses that are fullymultidisciplinary.
INTRODUCTIONThe coastal environment features prominently in
Southeast Asia. As in most countries, a high percentageof the population is concentrated in the coastal area.Expanding population and rapid coastal developmenthave placed increasing pressures on coastal resources,resulting in habitat destruction, marine pollution, anddiminished resources (Chou, 1994a; Chua & Garces,1994; Hay et. al., 1994). Integrated coastal manage-ment (ICM) has been recognized as an effective strat-egy to provide a broad, anticipatory, management-based approach, compared to the reactive andproblem-driven sectoral approach. With development,loss of environmental assets cannot be totally avoided,but they can be effectively minimized with appropriateplanning and management. The traditional sectoralplanning and management approach has been unsuc-
cessful because of the multidisciplinary nature ofcoastal management issues (Scura et al., 1992). Integra-tion and coordination are important considerations foreffective management. Since ICM requires an inte-grated, multidisciplinary approach, it will also requireappropriately trained personnel. This is an importantarea in which the region’s tertiary institutions can playa positive role (Chou, 1994b). Equally important is toallot as much time as it takes for this region to acquiresufficient numbers of ICM-trained personnel.
At the 1990 Association of Southeastern Asian Na-tions (ASEAN)-U.S. Workshop on Coastal Area Manage-ment Education in the ASEAN region, it was agreedthat trained manpower in integrated coastal zone man-agement is not adequately provided by educational in-stitutions in the ASEAN region (Chua, 1991). While ef-fective coastal area management can be best achieved
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50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
through development and implementation of inte-grated programs, the management capabilities of gov-ernmental and nongovernmental organizations re-sponsible for coastal area management need to bestrengthened. The public also needs to be made awareof its critical dependence on the continued productiv-ity of coastal resources through nonformal programs.Professional and technical support staff of agenciesmust receive formal training in coastal management inorder to deal efficiently with issues and problems andto develop effective strategies. They must learn aboutcoastal resources as well as environmental, social, cul-tural, and economic systems. They must also have anunderstanding of present and future environmentalproblems and how they are solved with an integratedmanagement approach.
TRAINING NEEDS INCOASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT
A 1986 UNEP survey shows that many tertiary insti-tutions within the Asia-Pacific region have incorpo-rated environmental education as either part of a disci-pline such as engineering, biology, earth sciences, andlaw, or as an independent degree program. A few ex-amples of independent degree programs include envi-ronmental studies in Indonesia and environmental en-gineering at the Asian Institute of Technology inThailand. The survey also revealed that education andtraining in environmental issues tend to be orientedtowards general degree programs rather than specialisttraining because there is a shortage of employment op-portunities for the latter in the region (ESCAP, 1992).
In assessing the training needs in coastal zone man-agement for the region, McManus (1993) stressed thatboth long-term and short-term training is necessary.Degree programs provide a pool of professionallytrained managers and coordinators of integratedcoastal zone management initiatives. In Southeast Asia,most ICM practitioners begin with a degree in a relateddiscipline and, therefore, require short-term training inICM while on the job.
Chou (1994b) and Hay et al. (1994) point out thatalong with the need to train ICM practitioners, there isalso a need to train those who are responsible for edu-cating and training. The immediate training needs inICM for Southeast Asia include the followingcategories:
1. Formal degree programs to train future managers
2. Non-formal short-term programs for present-daymanagers
3. Programs for present-day educators
4. Programs for different user groups such as policymakers, developers, the public, and coastalcommunities
The observation by Crawford and West (1993) thatthe major gap in integrated coastal zone managementtraining is the lack of professionals with interdiscipli-nary views and experiences applies completely to thisregion. Kenchington (1993) stresses the importance oftraining educators, managers, and the public.
The ASEAN-U.S. Coastal Resources Managementproject invested many resources to develop manpowerin order to upgrade national and local capabilities inICM. Short-term training courses were organized forProject personnel while a few younger project staffwere selected for master’s degree programs in theUnited States in relevant fields of coastal and marineresource management (Scura et al., 1992). A surveyconducted towards the end of the training phase con-cluded that among the 118 ASEAN nationals involved,68 percent were in jobs for which they were trained,93 percent considered their training relevant, andalmost 30 percent had increased levels of responsibility(Dalusung, 1992).
Trainers from tertiary institutions who are expectedto conduct ICM courses often lack themultidisciplinary background for courses they are tohandle single-handedly. Coastal zone management isbeing taught in different faculties as part of a broaderenvironmental science program and maintains a strongdiscipline bias. Many trainers in the region have beentrained in separate disciplines and lack a proper under-standing of issues and processes beyond their fields ofexpertise.
STATUS OF COASTAL ZONEMANAGEMENT TRAINING
The 1993 survey of the region’s institutions carriedout by UNEP’s Network for Environmental Training atTertiary Level in Asia and the Pacific (NETTLAP)showed that the various courses that are being taughtcover a broad range of marine environment-relatedtopics. Most of these courses are given as part of abroader environmental science degree. Some universi-ties offer further specialized courses at the master’slevel, but, to date, few institutions in Southeast Asiaare offering a basic or higher degree course in ICM.Many of the institutions have indicated the intentionto introduce a specialized master’s program in ICM inthe near future in order to train personnel to handlewhat is recognized as a growing environmental prob-lem. The situation remained unchanged when assessedat a regional intergovernmental meeting at the end of1993 (Hay & Pradhan, 1993).
While increasing attention on the region’s coastalzone management problems is evident from the grow-ing number of research projects, conferences/meetings,and short training courses involving researchers andpolicy makers, a gap remains in terms of a structureddegree program in ICM. The demand to integrate envi-
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 51
ronmental issues into development and decision-mak-ing is resulting in an increase of the type of short-termprofessional and in-service training courses found intertiary education.
NONFORMAL TRAININGThe University of Rhode Island (U.S.) has estab-
lished a Coastal Resources Centre in Sri Lanka and isorganizing short-term training courses in IntegratedCoastal Zone Management in collaboration with twoinstitutions in Southeast Asia—the Prince of SongklaUniversity in Thailand and Silliman University of thePhilippines (Crawford et al., 1993).
The newly established International Tropical MarineResource Centre, a consortium comprised of the GreatBarrier Reef Marine Park Authority, James Cook Univer-sity, and the Australian Institute of Marine Science,conducted a three-week training course entitled “Man-agement of Marine Ecosystems and Their Uses” for sci-entists and managers of the region. The course, con-ducted in Malaysia in September 1993, is beingfollowed by in-country training courses in Indonesia,Mauritius, Papua New Guinea, Thailand, and Vietnam.
A regional report indicated that short-term trainingcourses at the national level are not lacking (Hay &Chou, 1993). Many programs have been developed andpackaged for different target groups. These short-termtraining courses are useful as stop-gap measures to raisethe level of awareness and understanding of specificgroups when there is a lack of appropriately trainedpersonnel.
DEGREE PROGRAMS AND CURRICULACourses in some aspects of integrated coastal zone
management are being offered by tertiary institutionsof the region and are in various stages of development.Due to its multidisciplinary nature, many of thesecourses remain within their respective faculties and re-tain a discipline bias. Other constraints include the ab-sence of curriculum guidelines and the limited numberof instructional materials and educators trained incoastal zone management.
A structured degree course in coastal zone manage-ment requires input from many disciplines and an in-evitable adjustment of administrative and operationalprocedures within institutions. Such a change shouldbe worth the effort for one or two universities to meetand to serve the needs of the region.
Participants at a regional workshop that assessedcoastal area management education in the ASEAN re-gion agreed that trained manpower in ICM is not ad-equately provided by the region’s educational institu-tions (Chua, 1991). While both formal and nonformaleducation in coastal area management were consideredimportant, the workshop restricted discussion to for-mal education in which a master’s program in ICM
management was considered necessary for coastal areaplanners and managers. A proposed one-year master’scurriculum focused on issues of regional relevance andcovered basic principles of tropical ICM, with emphasison regional and developing country examples. In thisway, educational institutions can adopt the curriculumon a national or regional basis.
Throughout Southeast Asia, only the Prince ofSongkla University (Thailand) established a two-yearmaster’s and a one-year diploma program in CoastalResources Management established in 1991(Boromthanarat, 1991). Implemented through itsCoastal Resources Institute (CORIN), the curricula out-lined a multidisciplinary approach. Zulfigar (1993) in-dicated that two Malaysian universities, the Agricul-tural University (UPM) and the Malaysian ScienceUniversity (USM) expected to offer master’s degreeprograms in coastal zone management beginning in1994. The proposed duration of these programs is 18 to24 months. While the curriculum developed by UPMtakes a multidisciplinary and generalized approach, theone developed by USM provides the opportunity tospecialize in either pollution studies, coastal ecology, oraquaculture. These topics were selected based on thecountry’s needs. The National University of Singaporehas recently established an interdisciplinary consulta-tive group on environmental issues and technology,thus paving the way for it to consider multidisciplinarydegree programs such as ICM.
In all types of training, the approach is to providetrainees with interdisciplinary skills so they can iden-tify and implement appropriate solutions to coastalzone management problems and adopt preventive andmitigating strategies, rather than training them inmultidisciplinary or single-discipline programs. Hay(1993) advocates the maturation of training programsfocusing on solution-oriented approaches, rather thansectoral problem identification and quantification anddevelopment of generalized approaches.
NETTLAPThe Network for Environmental Training at Tertiary
Level in Asia-Pacific (NETTLAP) is a UNEP initiative de-signed to enhance the capacity of tertiary institutionsin the Asia-Pacific region to help meet the educationand training demands associated with efforts toachieve sustainable development in the region. Theultimate aim of the program is to strengthen environ-mental expertise at both the technical and the manage-rial levels in the region. This is to be achieved by in-creasing the environmental expertise of tertiary-leveleducators and, through them, graduates of tertiary in-stitutions, decision makers, and policy formulators inboth government and private sector.
The Network is comprised of key tertiary-level envi-ronmental institutions and educators throughout the
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52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
Asia-Pacific. It will develop and apply innovative meth-ods in environmental training, identify needs, andshare knowledge through ongoing interaction amongnetwork partners; prepare and disseminate instruc-tional materials, curricula guidelines, and training andeducational systems; and convene technical trainingseminars and workshops. The project is implementedby UNEP/ROAP, in collaboration with UNEP’s Environ-mental Education and Training Unit (EETU). It was ini-tiated in January 1993 as the second phase of an earlieractivity arising from the recommendations of the Re-gional Meeting of Experts to Develop a Programme ofAction for Environmental Education and Training inAsia and the Pacific (Bangkok, November, 1985).
Within the project’s framework, three thematic net-works have been established, each with a different co-ordinator and supported by two additional networknodes. These thematic networks are Coastal Zone Man-agement, Environmental Economics, and Toxic Chemi-cals and Hazardous Wastes. Coordination of project ac-tivities is through national focal points identified byparticipating countries and through specialist focalpoints, one for each Network theme.
It is envisaged that many of the identified con-straints to ICM training can be addressed through theCoastal Zone Management Thematic Network ofNETTLAP. The identification of appropriate trainingmaterials which have been developed within the re-gion and their wide dissemination would be one logi-cal solution to assist coastal zone management educa-tors establish effective and much-needed trainingprograms. Such programs would significantly contrib-ute towards producing sufficient numbers of trainedpersonnel equipped to handle coastal zone manage-ment problems.
The project now has an established network of ter-tiary level educators in coastal zone management, al-lowing members to communicate and exchange infor-mation on materials and curricula which have beendeveloped and used successfully.
Through the Coordinating Body on the Seas of EastAsia (COBSEA), an intergovernmental organizationthat advises UNEP on the East Asian Seas Action Plan,two projects have been implemented to produce train-ing materials. Materials have been recently developedfor the management staff of marine protected areas(Kenchington & Ch’ng, 1994), while those for ICZMare being finalized for publication in late 1995.
REFERENCESBoromthanarat, S. (1991). The establishment of a Mas-
ter of Science degree and a diploma course in coastalresources management: Prince of Songkla Univer-sity, Thailand. In T.E. Chua (ed.) Coastal area man-agement education in the ASEAN region. Manila, Phil-ippines: International Center for Living AquaticResources Management.
Chou, L.M. (1994)a. Marine environmental issues ofSoutheast Asia: state and development.Hydrobiologia, 285, 139-150.
Chou, L.M. (1994. November-December)b. The role oftertiary institutions in integrated coastal zone manage-ment training. Paper presented at the UNEP/NETTLAP Training and Resources DevelopmentWorkshop in Coastal Zone Management, Kandy, SriLanka.
Chua, T.E. (Ed.) (1991). Coastal area management educa-tion in the ASEAN region. Manila, Philippines. Inter-national Center for Living Aquatic Resources Man-agement.
Chua, T.E. & Garces, L.R. (1994). Marine living re-sources management in the ASEAN region: lessonslearned and the integrated management approach.Hydrobiologia, 285, 257-270.
Crawford, B.R. & West, N. (1993, July). Professionaltraining for international coastal resource managers.Paper presented at the 8th Symposium on Coastaland Ocean Management, New Orleans, LA.
Crawford, B.R., Cobb, J.S. & Friedman, A. (1993). Build-ing capacity for integrated coastal management indeveloping countries. Ocean and Coastal Manage-ment, 21, 311-337.
Dalusung, M.L. 1992. Post-training survey report of theASEAN/US coastal resource management project.Tropical Coastal Area Management. 6(3), 34-36.
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and thePacific (ESCAP). (1992). State of the environment inAsia and the Pacific 1990. ST/ESCAP/917.
Hay, J.E. (1993). Retrospective, contemporary and pro-spective views on training programmes for inte-grated coastal zone management: a comparativeanalysis. In J.E. Hay and L.M. Chou (Eds.) Contribu-tions to training in coastal zone management in theAsia-Pacific region and report of the first NETTLAPResources Development Workshop for Education andTraining at Tertiary Level in Coastal Zone Management.Bangkok: Network for Environmental Training atTertiary Level in Asia and Pacific.
Hay, J.E. & Chou, L.M. (Eds.) (1993). Contributions totraining in coastal zone management in the Asia-Pacificregion and report of the first NETTLAP Resources Devel-opment Workshop for Education and Training at Ter-tiary Level in Coastal Zone Management. Bangkok:
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 53
Network for Environmental Training at TertiaryLevel in Asia and Pacific.
Hay, J.E. & Pradhan, M. (Eds.) (1993). Environmentaltraining at tertiary level in the Asia-Pacific region.In J.E. Hay and L.M. Chou (Eds.) Contributions totraining in coastal zone management in the Asia-Pacificregion and report of the first NETTLAP Resources Devel-opment Workshop for Education and Training at Ter-tiary Level in Coastal Zone Management. Bangkok:Network for Environmental Training at TertiaryLevel in Asia and Pacific.
Hay, J.E., Chou, L.M., Sharp, B. & Thom, N.G. (1994).Environmental and related issues in the Asia-Pacificregion: implications for tertiary-level environmentaltraining. In J.E. Hay and L.M. Chou (Eds.) Contribu-tions to training in coastal zone management in theAsia-Pacific region and report of the first NETTLAPResources Development Workshop for Education andTraining at Tertiary Level in Coastal Zone Management.Bangkok: Network for Environmental Training atTertiary Level in Asia and Pacific.
Kenchington, R. (1993). Coastal zone managementtraining programmes for educators, managers andthe public. In J.E. Hay and L.M. Chou (Eds.) Contri-butions to training in coastal zone management in theAsia-Pacific region and report of the first NETTLAPResources Development Workshop for Education andTraining at Tertiary Level in Coastal Zone Management.Bangkok: Network for Environmental Training atTertiary Level in Asia and Pacific.
Kenchington, R. & Ch’ng, K.L. (Eds.). (1994). Stafftraining materials for the management of marineprotected areas. RCU/EAS Technical Reports SeriesNo. 4. Bangkok: UNEP.
McManus, L.T. (1993). Training needs in and teachingcurricula for coastal zone management in the Asia-Pacific. In J.E. Hay and L.M. Chou (Eds.) Contribu-tions to training in coastal zone management in theAsia-Pacific region and report of the first NETTLAPResources Development Workshop for Education andTraining at Tertiary Level in Coastal Zone Management,(pp. 15-24). Bangkok: Network for EnvironmentalTraining at Tertiary Level in Asia and Pacific.
Scura, L.F., Chua, T.E., Pido, M.D. & Paw, J.N. (1992).Lessons for integrated coastal zone management:the ASEAN experience. In T.E. Chua and L.F. Scura(Eds.) Integrative framework and methods for coastalarea management (pp. 1-70). Manila, Philippines:International Center for Living Aquatic ResourcesManagement.
Zulfigar Y. (1993). Coastal zone management trainingin Malaysia. In J.E. Hay and L.M. Chou (Eds.) Contri-butions to training in coastal zone management in theAsia-Pacific region and report of the first NETTLAP
Resources Development Workshop for Education andTraining at Tertiary Level in Coastal Zone Management(pp. 143-148). Bangkok: Network for EnvironmentalTraining at Tertiary Level in Asia and Pacific.
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54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
TRAINING FOR INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT: A REVIEW OFTRENDS, ISSUES, AND APPROACHES FOR THE 21ST CENTURY
Brian CrawfordCoastal Resources CenterThe University of Rhode IslandNarragansett, RI, U.S.A.
ABSTRACTIn the wake of the Earth Summit, there has been an explosion of international integrated coastalmanagement (ICM) initiatives along with a commensurate increase in international training coursesand networks. Unlike many developed countries, degree programs in ICM do not yet exist in developingcountries. However, many are expected to be established in the near future. Until significant numbersof degree programs are established in developing countries, the demand for short-term training in ICMwill remain high. Efforts now emphasize group-based intensive training courses in planning andmanagement for government administrators. Rapid expansion of training initiatives is hampered by thesmall number of experienced practitioner-trainers and the lack of packaged ICM materials. In theabsence of an accepted paradigm for ICM and an associated set of tools, training curriculum andtrainers must be able to adapt to a changing context. New information and telecommunicationtechnology for global distance learning programs in ICM could expand the base of practitioners. Thecase study approach for teaching ICM needs to be used more extensively and training activities shouldbe more closely linked to ongoing ICM field initiatives and programs.
Year
Num
ber
of C
ours
es
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1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
BACKGROUNDThe United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development outlined an ambitious agenda for in-tegrated management and sustainable development ofcoastal and marine areas. Agenda 21, Chapter 17 callsfor coastal nations to provide human resource develop-ment and training (17.6(k)). In addition, capacitybuilding and human resource development are consid-ered the major means of implementation:
“17.15 Coastal States should promote and facilitate the or-ganization of education and training in integrated coastaland marine management and sustainable development...”
“17.16 ...capacity building should be included in bilateraland multilateral development cooperation. Coastal Statesmay consider, inter alai .... (f) Promoting and facilitatinghuman resource development and education ...”(UNCED, 1992)
In the wake of the Earth Summit (UNCED II), therehas been increasing interest among coastal states con-
cerning integrated coastal management (ICM) as wellas increasing donor interest. This has been demon-strated by an increase in donor projects and nationalprograms in ICM. Commensurate with this increase inprograms, the number of regional and internationaltraining programs is also increasing (see Fig. 1). In
Figure 1. International Coastal ManagementTraining Courses
Source: Crawford, et. al., 1994
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 55
response to Agenda 21, the UN has also initiated sev-eral training networks (NETTLAP, TRAIN-SEACOAST) todevelop and share training materials and build ICMtraining and educational capacity.
UNITED STATES EXPERIENCETwo decades ago in the United States, a similar ex-
plosion of coastal management initiatives was spawnedwhen the Federal Coastal Zone Management Programwas established. This program facilitated the prolifera-tion of local, state coastal zone management (CZM)programs. During this same period, the Law of the Seawas being negotiated and other important U.S. envi-ronmental legislation was passed, such as the Clean AirAct and the Clean Water Act. This generated a need fortrained manpower, people with the knowledge andskills to plan, manage, and administer these programs.U.S. universities established degree programs and spe-cializations in marine affairs and coastal zone manage-ment as a way to provide this manpower. There wasvery little coastal management experience to draw onwhen designing these academic programs two decades
ago. Furthermore, there was no tradition in govern-ment to train existing manpower through short-termintensive courses as there is now in the internationaldevelopment community.
Initially, professionals from traditional academicdisciplines, such as law, oceanography, and planning,were called on to fill coastal management positions.Together, with a group of academics also from tradi-tional backgrounds who were building multidiscipli-nary degree programs, they pioneered the coastal man-agement profession. Changes in university programs inthe 1980s included development of coastal zone man-agement specializations within many marine affairsprograms. This emphasis increased student interest inthe field. In addition, centers and institutes were cre-ated to provide specialized services to government andthe general public through outreach programs in edu-cation, applied research, and technical assistance. De-gree programs other than marine affairs, such as ocean-ography and environmental sciences, starteddeveloping CZM degree specializations as well.
TABLE 1: UNIVERSITY DEGREE PROGRAMS OFFERING A SPECIALIZATION IN COASTAL MANAGEMENT
University Country Degree(s)
Bournemouth Polytechnic UK M.Sc. (Coastal Zone Management)
Dalhouise University Canada Master’s of Environmental ScienceMaster’s of Marine Management
Duke University USA Master’s of Environmental Management (with a specializationin coastal environmental management)
Florida Institute of Technology USA M.S. (Oceanography, a coastal zone management option)
Middle East Technical University Turkey M.S. (Coastal Zone Management) (proposed 1994-5)
Nova University USA M.S. (Ocean Science with a specialty in coastal zone management)
Oregon State University USA M.S. (Marine Resource Management with a specialization inocean and coastal resources management)
Prince of Songkla University Thailand M.S. (Coastal Zone Management)
Universidad Autonoma de Baja California Mexico Post-Bachelor’s Certificate (Marine Resource Management)M.S. (Coastal Zone Management) (proposed 1995)
University of Delaware USA Ph.D. in Marine (Policy) Studies,Master’s in Marine Policy (M.M.P.)
University of Malta Malta M.A. Coastal and Ocean Management (proposed)
University of Massachusetts USA Ph.D., M.S. (Environmental Science)
University of Newcastle Upon Tyne UK M.Sc. (Tropical Coastal Management)
University of North Carolina USA Master’s of Regional Planning
Universiti Pertanian Malaysia M.Sc. Coastal Zone Management (proposed 1995)
University of Rhode Island USA B.A., M.M.A, M.A.M.A (Marine Affairs)
Universiti Sains Malaysia M.Sc. Coastal Zone Management (proposed 1995)
University of Technology, Sydney Australia Master’s in Applied Science (Coastal Resources Management)
University of West Florida USA M.P.A (Political Science), M.S. (Biology)Source: Adapted and updated from Crawford, et. al., 1993
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56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
CURRENT TRENDS WORLDWIDECoastal management degree programs are beginning
to become established in Canada, the United Kingdom,and Australia. Many of these degree programs have alarge percentage of international students, as similarprograms do not yet exist outside of a few developedcountries. The same growth of degree programs seen indeveloped countries is starting to occur in the rest ofthe world, where a handful of ICM degree programshave been proposed (see Table 1). However, the contextin which this is occurring is somewhat different.
• There is a small but growing body of developingcountry experience where socioeconomic, political,institutional, demographic, technical, and humanresource contexts are often quite different fromdeveloped countries.
• The U.S. has two decades of experience that othernations can draw from—the environmental issuesare similar although the institutional context isdifferent. Ironically, the U.S. is moving toward a
paradigm similar to developing countries withlimited government finances, less of a regulatorycommand and control approach, and a sustainabledevelopment philosophy.
• In developing countries, donors and national gov-ernments are willing to invest in intensive trainingof working professionals as a short-term answer tomeeting manpower needs.
• Many universities in developing countries, like theirgovernments, do not have the same level of financ-ing and technical expertise as does the UnitedStates. Universities in the United States are facingfinancial hardships, downsizing, and rethinkingICM educational programs.
The explosion of ICM programs in developing coun-tries, accelerated by Agenda 21, has created an immedi-ate demand for ICM professionals. In the short term,this demand is being met with increased training pro-grams targeted at regional and international audiences
TABLE 2: PROFESSIONAL TRAINING PROGRAMS IN COASTAL MANAGEMENTFOR INTERNATIONAL PARTICIPANTS.
Title Organization Date/Duration Training Site(s)
Coastal Resource Management Planning SPREP/ESCAP 2 weeks (1987, 88) South Pacific
International Seminar on Coastal Parks University of Miami, 3-4 weeks (1989, 91) Florida, USAand Protected Areas National Parks Service & Costa Rica
Summer Institute in Coastal Management University of Rhode Island, 4 weeks (1991, 92, 94) Rhode Island, USAUSAID
Seminar on Coastal Zone Management International Institute for 4 weeks (1991, 92. 93, 94) Delft, The NetherlandsInfrastructural, Hydraulic andEnvironmental Engineering
Systems of Environmental Management Kyoto University 10 weeks (1991, 92, 93, 94) Japanof Enclosed Coastal Sea Hyogo Prefecture, JICA
Coastal Zone Environmental Planning Asian Institute of Technology 13 weeks (1991,92) Bangkok, Thailand
Special Area Management for University of Rhode Island, 2 weeks (1992-PSU, Thailand) Thailand Coastal Environments USAID, and Cooperating (1993-94-ESPOL, Ecuador) Ecuador
Regional Universities (1993-Silliman Univ., Phil.) Philippines
Ecology and Management of Universidad Autonoma 4 weeks (1992, 93, 94) MexicoTropical Estuaries de Campeche, Mexico
International Course on UNIDO-ICS, 2 weeks (1992) ItalyCoastal Zone Management University of Padova
Coastal Zone Management as a International Ocean 10 weeks (1993) IndiaSustainable Program Institute, UNDP
Integrated Coastal Resources Prince of Songkla University 3 weeks (1993, 94) Hatyai, ThailandManagement Planning
Coastal Zone Management with a International Ocean 8 weeks (1994) MaltaFocus on Small Islands Institute, UNDP
Coastal Environmental Management Macquarie Univ. 7 weeks (1994) Australia
MEDCOAST Institute MEDCOAST Initiative 4 weeks (1994) TurkeyMiddle East Tech. Univ.
(Crawford, et. al. 1993; Dalusung, 1991) as well as UN organizations (UNDP/DGIP-DOALOS, 1994; Hay & Chou, 1993; SPREP, 1987, 1988).
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 57
(see Table 2). In addition, ICM training is also explod-ing at the local and national level in countries, such asthe Philippines, Ecuador, and Sri Lanka, where signifi-cant ICM programs have been established. It can be ar-gued that the explosion of training initiatives directedat developing countries is partially the result of localuniversities not providing graduates with the appropri-ate knowledge and skills required to fill new positionsas integrated coastal planners and managers. In all fair-ness, university degree programs cannot be establishedovernight. This underscores the need to increase thecapacity of a university, including faculty develop-ment, to create ICM educational programs in develop-ing countries for the long term. Until such programsare established, demand for skilled ICM practitioners indeveloping countries will continue to be met throughshort-term training programs, on-the-job training, andby university graduates from developed countries.
Trends suggest that there will be a continued needfor a large number of ICM training initiatives over thenext five to ten years. In addition, the number of localand national training initiatives will undoubtedly con-tinue to grow. Mid-career training of ICM professionalswill also be required since ICM is a new and emergingfield and the paradigm, methods, and techniques arestill developing and changing. Updating practitionerswill also be necessary as a larger body of experience isassembled and technological advancements are made.Given this projected growth and the trends in ICMtraining and educational programs, a number of issuesneed to be considered including:
• Training of trainers and faculty development
• Materials development to support training andeducational programs
• Implications of a changing and evolving ICMparadigm and associated set of tools
• Linkages between training programs and emergingeducational degree programs
• The role of evolving communication and computer-based learning technology
• Coordination among current training and educa-tional providers to maximize financial investmentsin ICM training
TRAINING APPROACHESA review and comparison of current approaches to
ICM training can help provide insights into the futuredirections needed as the profession grows and looks to-wards the 21st century. Special attention is given inthis section to the Coastal Resources Center’s trainingapproach. There is a growing body of literature docu-menting ICM training experience. This includes majorinitiatives by USAID.
The majority of training initiatives at the regionaland international level involve intensive short-termtraining courses from one to several weeks. Typically,these courses are conducted in conjunction with a uni-versity, utilizing their facilities as well as drawingheavily on their technical expertise as course facultyfor more technically oriented courses. Participants havebeen scientists and specialists. More typically, however,courses focus on the needs of decision makers and gov-ernment managers. To a lesser extent, participantsfrom NGOs and the private sector have been repre-sented. However, in many national and local traininginitiatives that are part of larger ICM programs, usergroups and NGOs are better represented. Content var-ies from environmental impact assessment, marineprotected area management, coral reef monitoring andassessment, to coastal management and planning.Courses tend to have either a technical and scientificorientation, or a planning and managementorientation.
Two major USAID coastal management programs,which have incorporated several field sites, have used alarge variety of training approaches including degreetraining, on-the-job training, workshops, conferences,as well as short-term intensive training courses. Short-term group-based training courses seem to be the mostfrequent mode of training for local field ICM programs.
It is difficult to compare training methodologiesused in regional and international courses because theyare not mentioned much in the available literature.Many courses seem to take a typical academic ap-proach with lectures, reading assignments and fieldtrips, as well as the use of a large number of facultyfrom various disciplines to deliver the pieces of aninterdisciplinary curriculum.
Many individuals involved with the URI-USAID/Coastal Resource Management Program (CRMP) fieldprograms are also involved in the Coastal ResourcesCenter (CRC) international courses, and individualswho were involved with the USAID-Association ofSoutheast Asian Nations (ASEAN) /CRMP are active inthe Network for Environmental Training at TertiaryLevel in Asia Pacific (NETTLAP). This suggests that pro-fessionals with experience in ICM planning and man-agement are the most appropriate trainers and educa-tors. Technical expertise, however, does not meanindividuals necessarily have strong capabilities toteach. The Coastal Resources Center (CRC) has createdworkshops to develop professionals with ICM technicaland field expertise. The workshops provide them withan additional set of skills in training methods, courseand curriculum development, and facilitation tech-niques. We refer to such individuals as practitioner-trainers. These individuals, or practitioner-trainers, arethen used as core trainers in regional and internationaltraining courses. CRC has also borrowed from training
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58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
approaches used in other fields such as public healthand business management. These approaches involvebuilding the analytic and problem-solving ability ofparticipants by examining case studies of actual ICMprograms, issues, and situations, in a participatory andexperiential manner. This approach is also being usedin the field of sustainable agriculture. Stanford (1994)makes a distinction between “decision cases”, involv-ing issues and resolutions, as opposed to descriptive ordocumentary cases. CRC courses concentrate on theformer approach.
At the project level, training approaches need greaterattention. In new field initiatives in East Africa, CRC islinking training workshops closely to field work as away to deliver technical assistance. The goal is to designsessions based on tasks that are required to be carriedout by interagency project teams. What is learned fromthese training sessions is then immediately applied toon-going work. The fisheries sector project in the Phil-ippines uses a similar approach in developing bay man-agement plans (White and Lopez, 1991). CRC is also de-veloping a new international course with this approachin mind. This collaborative effort among CRC, USAID,and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency exam-ines U.S. experience in bay and estuarine managementas it applies to similar international management initia-tives. By extracting lessons from U.S. experiencethrough case studies, participants from a selected groupof similar programs may apply and adapt these prin-ciples directly to their own situations. As currently de-signed, participants will constantly review their ownprogram situations throughout the course, contrastingthem to U.S. case experiences.
ISSUES FOR ICM TRAININGThere are not many experienced practitioners, and
their services in management programs are in high de-mand. Therefore, the need for ICM training coursesand trainers is high. Hence, the extent to which thissmall group of experienced practitioners can be drawnon as trainers and educators is limited, making it diffi-cult to conduct enough training programs to fill thedemand. Regional and international training programsare taught in small group settings. This approach slowsthe rate at which new ICM practitioners can be devel-oped as only a limited number of spaces are availablein these courses. The costs, including travel, lodging,and instructional fees are relatively high. Building up aworldwide guild of ICM practitioners is further compli-cated by the fact that ICM is a new and emerging fieldwithout a generally accepted paradigm or an associatedset of tools and methods. Experts cannot even agree onwhat to call the field—integrated coastal management,coastal ecosystem management, coastal area manage-ment, or coastal zone management—let alone whatshould be taught. As the ICM paradigm changes and
evolves, the content and curricula of ICM courses mustkeep pace. This requires that trainers and faculty keepup with developments in the field. In addition, there isthe question about the heterogeneity for ICM fromplace to place within a nation as well as among nationsand regions of the world. The U.S. experience illus-trates this. While each state follows established federalguidelines, they have developed a specific approachand plan, different due to varying resources and envi-ronmental issues, institutional structures, politics, cul-ture, and economies. How much of ICM is directlytransferable? How much must be adapted and craftedto a place, and how can people be taught to do it?
There are several strategies for dealing with theseproblems. The CRC approach of developing trainer-practitioners provides flexibility in adapting trainingdesigns to the needs of the participants and to localsituations in varying localities. This strategy accommo-dates rapid curriculum changes as the state of ICM ad-vances. This trainer-dependent approach, however, re-quires highly experienced ICM practitioners with skillsin training, a combination that is in short supply. An-other interesting approach being taken by TRAIN-SEA-COAST emphasizes developing validated, packaged,training modules that can be shared with other train-ing professionals within the global network. This strat-egy disseminates information and materials rapidly.However, it raises questions as to whether the user isqualified to teach the subject. Materials may have toundergo significant revisions to be relevant for a localcontext. Rapid advances in the field require that mate-rials be updated continually. It is clear that neither ofthese approaches is ideal. A diversified, multifacetedapproach may be best.
The University of the South Pacific has used dis-tance learning to reach out to isolated and widely sepa-rated communities throughout the South Pacific in avariety of subjects. Many universities in the U.S. arecombining the traditional distance learning approachof correspondence courses with new information andtelecommunication technologies, making programsinteractive and so that they coincide with “real time.”For instance, National Technical University deliversadvanced educational programs to engineers, scientists,and managers at their work place so that they can earna master’s of science degree. Forty-five participatinguniversities teach courses which are broadcast viasatellite to more than 300 sites around the nation. TheJASON Project, the brainchild of Dr. Robert Ballard,uses real-time interactive satellite communication tobroadcast—all over the world—explorations of science,technology, and the environment. These transmissionsare broadcast to school children in several nations.ICM training at the international, regional, andnational levels has not attempted to utilize thisapproach on a wide-scale basis.
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 59
LOOKING TOWARD THE 21ST CENTURYThe future means change—changes in the condition
of our coastal resources and environments, changes inpopulation, changes in technology, changes in our soci-eties and way of life, and changes in the ICM paradigm.An ICM education and training strategy must incorpo-rate change as a part of the operating environment. Wemust continually examine where we are and where weare going, both from the standpoint of ICM as a profes-sion, as well as how it is taught and learned. Techno-logical advances will continue to offer new and innova-tive means to link practitioners and academics closertogether and in more cost-effective ways. Already theInternet, World Wide Web and MBONE provide real-time communication at a very low cost. The technologyfor interactive telecommunications, allowing visual andaudio links through personal computers, is availableand inexpensive. By the end of the decade, new low-or-bit satellite networks will allow the use of portable (thesize of a briefcase) up-link and down-link equipment,available at the same cost as a personal computer, to beused from virtually any location on the planet. Thesenew technologies offer the opportunity to increase in-formation exchange, discussions, and debates cheaperand faster than ever through person-to-person contactsat training courses, conferences, and technical assis-tance missions delivered through the century-old tech-nology of the airplane. This is not the death knell fortraditional forms of teaching. It does, however, createcost-effective ways to facilitate learning with a largergroup of professionals.
The ICM community can establish a “virtual univer-sity” where courses are taught by specialists in severaldifferent nations at several different universities, andstudents can log-on from any nation. Academic creditscan be offered by several universities, and, eventually,students can be awarded a degree in coastal manage-ment from one of the participating memberuniversities.
One of the most effective ways to learn is throughexperience. Virtual reality or cyberspace is no substi-tute for real lessons honed from on-the-ground fieldexperience. On-the-job training and internships be-tween more mature and younger programs is anunderutilized approach and needs to be revisited. Asthe number of programs expand, the capability ofmanaging increasing numbers of internships and ex-changes will also expand. Training and education mustresult in real changes within individuals on-site, the or-ganizations for whom they work, and in the quality oflife of people in coastal regions. This is the ultimategoal of all ICM training efforts. Since the human racecontinues to make the same mistakes over and overagain, experience alone is no indicator that learninghas actually taken place. Educators must work closelywith practitioners to facilitate learning from their expe-
rience, help others learn how to learn, and pursue themeans by which we draw lessons from the growingbody of worldwide ICM experience.
While there has been a proliferation of ICM trainingat the regional and international level, more activitiesshould be moved down to the local and national level.Peter Block, a leading management guru suggests thattraining must focus on the group or the team of indi-viduals who are closest to the work. The more trainingis linked to work on-site, the closer we get to real prob-lems, and the easier direct applications of learning willbe. Ultimately, this will also make training more costeffective and will relate it more directly to improvingcoastal conditions.
Training budgets are usually a small portion of insti-tutional budgets. Because administrators are often in-terested only in whether training has been conducted,any elaborate evaluation or follow-up are typically con-sidered luxuries that a program cannot afford. How-ever, evaluation and follow-up are essential to demon-strate that investments in training are having animpact. Much more attention needs to be given toevaluation of training, particularly as ICM training ac-tivities increase.
At the very minimum, ICM practitioners must beagile problem solvers who can work in a variety of situ-ations. They must be the equivalent of the MBA in thebusiness world, or the doctor or nurse in a hospital. Inthese professions, the case study method of teachinghas proven highly effective. A similar approach needsto be adopted more widely within the ICM trainingand academic community.
Courses emphasize technical tools and planning ap-proaches. Over time, more emphasis needs to be placedon a diversified content including management, ad-ministration, and evaluation. In addition, more courseswill be needed that concentrate on specific ICM issues.The need to expand more specialized training in areassuch as economic valuation and analysis can also beexpected. As courses become more specialized, the cli-ents of such programs will also become more diverseand specialized. The private sector has not been in-volved much in ICM training initiatives, and closer ex-amination of their contributions and needs is merited.
Lastly, a major challenge will be to deal with the di-verse view that constitutes the ICM paradigm. Eventu-ally, we will need to move from discussions of philo-sophical approaches of sustainable development,public participation, and technocratic approaches, tothe nuts and bolts of how to make such concepts work.In the meantime, we need to learn how to deal with di-verse viewpoints and understand that this is a movingtarget. For new practitioners, this may be a confound-ing hindrance in trying to discover which approachesare best to adopt for their own situation. On the otherhand, diverse approaches from which to choose may
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60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
TABLE 3: A FRAMEWORK FOR ASSESSING UNIVERSITY CAPACITYIN INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT
Level of Capacity
Area/Indicator High Moderate Low
FacultyEducational level of faculty in PhD’s PhD’s PhD’sCRM related programs (> 75%) (<75% >25%) (< 25%)Faculty & Depts. in multiple ICM disciplines three discipline two discipline one discipline
(natural, social and applied sciences) groups groups group
Educational ProgramsLevel of degree programs offered in Doctorates Masters Bachelors
ICM related programsICM related disciplines taught: All three theme Two theme One or lessNatural science areas areas theme area
(marine science, oceanography) (natural, social, (natural, social, (natural, social,Applied science (resource economics, applied) applied) applied)
public administration, coastal engineering,fisheries)
Social science (community development,social work, anthropology)
ICM degree or ICM specialization Degree or degree At least one No degree orwithin a degree offered specialization ICM course taught courses offered
ServiceICM related public education & Service provided 1-2 service areas No service provided
outreach programs in all three areas provided in theme areastraining of local government and user groups (TA, pub. ed., training) (TA, pub. ed., training)technical assistance for local & national govt.
Policy and ICM Relevant ResearchNatural science research Research in all 3 Research in 2-3 Research in oneSocial science research theme areas and theme areas or or less theme areasApplied science research interdisciplinary interdisciplinaryInterdisciplinary and/or studies studiesinterdepartmental studies
Multidisciplinary “Centers”ICM related unit in the university that Unit integrates 2 or Unit has mission in No unit
integrates education, service and research more mission areas only one theme areain ICM
University InfrastructureResearch and extension support infrastructure strong moderate poor
Financial ConsiderationsUniversity financing University & University & University and/orNational government financing government financing government financing government financing
for ICM increasing for ICM stable or for ICM decliningonly one increasing
Exogenous FactorsNational program, plan or project National ICM Sub-National ICM No ICM programs,Sub-national plans or projects programs established programs, plans or projects
with or without established but nosub-national plans national programs
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 61
be desirable. The need for ongoing dialogues and de-bate involving academics and practitioners is clearlyneeded. Many ICM conferences are no more than areportage on projects and programs, with little effort atsynthesis or debate about the paradigm. Future work-shops on this topic are needed.
Universities have been the traditional base for themajority of ICM training as part of their public servicerole. Part of the university’s traditional mission is tocontribute research and provide a focal point for para-digm discussions. Universities, therefore, are situatedto bring about shifts in paradigm thinking and toquickly develop new tools via on-going training ofpractitioners. For universities to be capable of ICMtraining, they must be involved in ICM from the manyfacets of the university mission, including public ser-vice, research, and education. Table 3 provides a frame-work for assessing university ICM capacity. Strengthen-ing universities in ICM, therefore, strengthenscapability for short-term ICM training and can alsoachieve sustainable long-term ICM educational capac-ity. Advancement of ICM education and training re-quires increasing dialogues and partnerships amonguniversities, government, NGOs, and the private sector.Enhanced communication and exchanges among edu-cators is also needed.
REFERENCES
Crawford, B.C., Santos, J.L. and DeMoranville, M.(1994). University Partnerships: An Approach toCollaborative International Training. In P.G. Wellsand P.J. Ricketts. (Eds.). Coastal Zone Canada ‘94,Cooperation in the Coastal Zone, Vol. 2 pp. 745-756.Dartmouth, N.S.: Coastal Zone Canada Association.
Crawford, B., Cobb, J.S. and Friedman, A. (1993). Build-ing Capacity for Integrated Coastal Management inDeveloping Countries. Ocean and Coastal Manage-ment, 21, 311-337.
Dalusung, M.D., (1991). Post-training survey report ofthe ASEAN/US Coastal Resources Management Project.In Tropical Coastal Area Management, 14 (3) 34 - 37.
Hay, J.E. & Chou, L.M. (1993). Contributions to trainingin coastal zone management in the Asia-Pacific regionand report of the first NETTLAP Resources DevelopmentWorkshop for Education and Training at Tertiary Levelin Coastal Zone Management. Bangkok: Network forEnvironmental Training at Tertiary Level in the Asiaand Pacific.
Report on the SPREP/ESCAP coastal resources managementplanning training programme 1987. Noumea, NewCaledonia: South Pacific Commission.
Report on the SPREP/ESCAP training course in coastalresources management planning, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 8-19 February 1988. Noumea, New Caledonia: SouthPacific Commission.
Stanford, M.J., Crookston, R.K. , Davis, D.W. , &Simmons, S.R. (1994). Decision cases for Agriculture.St. Paul: University of Minnesota, Department ofAgronomy.
UNCED. (1992). Chapter 17: Protection of the oceans,all kinds of seas, including enclosed and semi-en-closed seas, and coastal areas and the protection,rational use and development of their living re-sources. In Agenda 21: programme of action forsustainable development; Rio Declaration on Envi-ronment and Development. New York, NY: UnitedNations Dept. of Public Information.
UNDP/DPIG-DOALOS. (1994). Action Plan for HumanResources Development and Capacity Building forthe Planning and Management of Coastal and Ma-rine Areas, 1993-1997. United Nations DevelopmentProgramme, Division for Global and InterregionalPrograms, and, Division of Ocean Affairs and theLaw of the Sea, Office of Legal Affairs. 58p.
White, A. & Lopez, N. (1991). Coastal resources man-agement planning and implementation for the Fish-ery Sector Program of the Philippines. In O.T.Magoon, H. Converse, V. Tippie, L.T. Tobin & D.Clark. (Eds.) Coastal zone ‘91 (pp. 762-775). NewYork: American Society of Civil Engineers.
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62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
CAPACITY BUILDING AT A GRADUATE LEVELEDUCATIONAL PROGRAM IN COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT:A CASE STUDY OF THE AUTONOMOUS UNIVERSITY OF BAJACALIFORNIA, ENSENADA CAMPUS, MÉXICO
José Luis Fermán-AlmadaLorenzo Gómez-Morin FuentesIleana Espejel CarbajalDavid W. FischerUniversidad Autonoma de Baja CaliforniaEnsenada, Baja California, Mexico
ABSTRACTThis paper examines the experience of the Universidad Autonoma de Baja California in developingeducational programs in coastal management. Several degree and non-degree programs are offeredthrough the Marine Sciences School which includes a certificate program at the post-bachelor’s level inMarine Resources Management, a master’s program in coastal oceanography with a specialization incoastal zone management, and a master’s program through the school of sciences in management ofarid ecosystems with a specialization in coastal zone management. A master’s program in CoastalZone Management has been proposed that would be administered through an Integrated CoastalResources Management Center. This program would closely integrate theory, practice, and analysis asthe core areas of a balanced curriculum and would link research and service activities of the Center’sfaculty. Curriculum offerings and faculty backgrounds for the various coastal management-relatedprograms at the university are summarized.
INTRODUCTIONMéxico has a coastline of 11,600km with 12,500km2
of coastal lagoons which, when stretched to encompassthe 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone, gives it acoastal zone of approximately 2,900 million km2.México also enjoys an enormous set of benefits intrin-sic to using this coastal zone for tourism, fishing, tradeand industry, petroleum, agriculture, and urbanization(Toledo, 1990). México also has a growing number ofhigher educational institutions oriented to the coastalzone, particularly oceanographic institutes. Since 1960,three oceanographic institutions have been estab-lished, each with a traditional ocean science researchand educational program.
At the same time, México is plagued by problemsthat constrain the efficient use of its coastal zone. Suchproblems are not necessarily unique to México, butthey are generally classified as substantive problemsand decision-process problems. Substantive problems
include air and water pollution, conflicts between com-peting uses, population pressures, habitat degradationand destruction, reduced coastal access, and distortionof local coastal economies. Decision process problemsinclude lack of planning and coordination, lack of lo-cal participation, overcentralized decision making, lackof scientific studies, lack of funding, and lack of con-sideration of the coastal zone as an entity. Each ofthese general categories can be countered through im-proved coastal zone legislation and funding imple-mented by professionals educated in coastal zone man-agement.
Higher education in coastal zone managementthroughout the world is a recent phenomenon. It wasnot until the early 1970s that coastal studies and ma-rine affairs programs began to emerge in the UnitedStates, and even there, few strong programs specificallyoriented to the coastal zone have been strengthenedand survived. Today only seven higher education pro-
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 63
grams in coastal studies have been identified in theU.S. (West, 1986), while others have disappeared by be-ing forced to exist on external funding or have suc-cumbed to academic “turf wars” (Fischer, 1983).
Coastal zone scholars in the United States credit thepassage of the National Coastal Zone Management Actof 1972 and the subsequent demand for specially edu-cated coastal professionals by federal and state govern-ments for the success of the remaining higher educa-tion programs in coastal studies. One element that iskey to the continued success of the remaining pro-grams is the growing demand for professionally edu-cated coastal zone managers worldwide. Indeed, todate only one university offers a master’s degree spe-cifically in coastal zone management geared to maturestudents from less developed nations (West, 1987).
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENTEDUCATION IN MEXICO
The graduate programs in coastal management inMéxico have been developed since 1980 by differentuniversities:
1. Instituto Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores deMonterrey Campus Guaymas, Sonora (High Educa-tion Institute of Monterrey in Guaymas, Sonora)
This institute offers a master’s program in NaturalResources Management, Ecology and Conservation.
2. Universidad Autónoma de Campeche (AutonomousUniversity of Campeche)
This university began a program called Ecology,Fisheries and Oceanography of the Gulf of México(EPOMEX). This program offer different courses incoastal management such as Economic of TropicalCoastal Ecosystems.
3. Centro de Investigaciones de Quintana Roo, CIQRO.(Research Center of Quintana Roo)
This research center offers a program called Inte-grated Coastal Zone Management and involves the de-velopment of different research topics and shortcourses including Coastal Environmental Impact As-sessments and Coastal Regional Planning and Protec-tion of Coastal Areas.
UNIVERSIDAD AUTONOMA DE BAJA CALIFORNIA(UABC)
The UABC has been developing research andacademic programs in coastal management in twoschools—the Marine Sciences School and the SciencesSchool. Both are located at the Ensenada Campus.
MARINE SCIENCES SCHOOLThe Marine Sciences School at Ensenada began in
1960. Oceanographic studies and research began at the
bachelor’s level with specialities in marine biology, ma-rine chemistry, marine geology, and physical oceanog-raphy. In 1985, the master’s degree program in CoastalOceanography was created, and in 1990, the Ph.D. pro-gram was initiated. The graduate programs have 42 stu-dents at the master’s level and eight at the Ph.D. level.At the post-bachelor’s level, the school has a one-yearcertificate program in Marine Resource Management.The two-semester certificate program requires 60 cred-its (see Table 1) for completion and is divided into re-quired and optional courses.
TABLE 1:MARINE RESOURCES MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
REQUIRED COURSES CREDITS OPTIONAL COURSES CREDITS
Natural Resources 9 Fisheries 9Economics Management
Organizational 8 Micro/Macro 8Administration Economics
Coastal Zone 8 Project Evaluation 8Management
Seminar 10 Regional Planning 8
Coastal 8Management Topics
The certificate program has been underway since1989 and 25 students have graduated and are em-ployed in public administration and privateconsultancies. In 1991, the Faculty of Marine Sciencessponsored a Latin American Congress on Coastal ZoneManagement at the Ensenada Campus (March 13-15).More than 400 students and faculty attended; keynotespeakers came from the United States, Spain, Ecuador,and Brazil, and researchers from Latin America pre-sented papers. This event helped to start a new researchand academic line in the Coastal Oceanography gradu-ate program entitled Coastal Zone Management. In1994 this concentration supported six students at themaster’s level and one at the doctoral level. Themaster’s program requires 64 credits (96 credits for thePh.D.) and a thesis. The program is divided into re-quired and optional courses (see Table 2).
One of the most important elements of the coastalzone management graduate programs in developingcountries is that the faculty have the degree and re-search experience in coastal science, coastal policies,coastal planning, and coastal social problems. This pro-gram is supported by a full-time faculty integrated byseven professors (two Ph.D. and five M.S.) and two-parttime professors (M.S.) shown in Table 3.
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64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
TABLE 2: COASTAL OCEANOGRAPHY GRADUATEPROGRAM (COASTAL MANAGEMENT LINE)
REQUIRED COURSES CREDITS OPTIONAL COURSES CREDITS
Coastal 10 Coastal Policy 8Oceanography I Analysis
Coastal 10 Coastal Regional 8Oceanography II Planning
Thesis Seminar 2 Coastal Hazard Planning 8
Natural Resources Economics 8
Coastal Zone Management 6
Introduction to Coastal Zone 4
Fisheries Management 6
Fisheries Economics 8
Environmental Economics 8
Coastal Management Topics I 6
Coastal Management Topics II 6
Coastal Management Topics III 6
Coastal Tourism Planning 8
TABLE 3: COASTAL OCEANOGRAPHY FACULTY(COASTAL MANAGEMENT LINE)
FULL-TIME FACULTY DEGREE
Roberto Enriquez Ph.DDavid Fischer Ph.D.Lorenzo Gómez-Morin Fuentes M.S.Hector Manzo M. M.S.Guillermo Torres Moye M.S.Ana Luz Quintanilla M.S.José Luis Fermán Almada M.S.
PART-TIME FACULTY
Anamaría Escofet M.S.Carlos Israel Vasquez León M.S.
SCIENCES SCHOOLThe Sciences School has begun a master’s program
in Management of Arid Ecosystems which includestopics related to coastal resources management. Thisprogram has been in place since 1989 and has pro-duced 25 graduates. The structure of the program islisted in Table 4.
The faculty (see Table 5) is composed of three full-time professors (one Ph.D. and two M.S.), and twopart-time professors (one Ph.D. and one M.S.).
This group of professors work together with thefaculty of the Marine Sciences School on academic andresearch projects. The students of one graduate pro-gram can take courses in the other in order to enrichthe Coastal Zone Management curricula.
TABLE 4: MANAGEMENT OF ARID ECOSYSTEMS(COASTAL MANAGEMENT LINE)
REQUIRED COURSES CREDITS OPTIONAL COURSES CREDITS
Biostatistics 10 Arid resources 8management
Ecology 10 Environmental 8impact assessment
Projects evaluation 8 Socioeconomic 8topics
Thesis Seminar I 4 Geographic 8information systemsin management
Thesis Seminar II 4
TABLE 5: MANAGEMENT OF ARID ECOSYSTEMSFACULTY (COASTAL MANAGEMENT LINE)
FULL-TIME FACULTY DEGREE
Ileana Espejel Carbajal Ph.D.Mayra Franck Hoeflich M.Sc.Guillermo Aramburo Vizcarra M.Sc.
PART-TIME FACULTY
Pilar Ruiz Azuara Ph.D.Anamaría Escofet M.Sc.
FACULTY DEVELOPMENT AND FINANCINGDoctors are working with graduate students at the un-
dergraduate level to help them pursue master of sciencedegrees. The faculty also works to help master’s studentsto move up to a Ph.D. The National Research and Tech-nology Council of México (CONACYT) provides scholar-ships for undergraduates and M.S. faculty to pursue thesehigher degrees. In addition, CONACYT funds researchprojects which partially support graduate students andfaculty in order to assist them with thesis research.
The constraint to faculty development is the lack ofappropriate Ph.D. faculty to act as mentors for under-graduates and master’s-level students. CONACYT hastaken a lead role in funding study abroad for Méxicanfaculty who wish to return to México as universityfaculty. CONACYT also funds foreign faculty who wishto work one or two years as full-time faculty in México.The emphasis of CONACYT, in this regard, is to facili-tate the development of faculty resources for México.
Other sources of financing include governmentagencies at the state, federal, and international levelsthat will support research of interest to them. ABC fac-ulty in coastal management have been sought after topropose and conduct research supported by these agen-cies. At the national level, the results of these projects
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 65
have modified coastal planning methodologies and theconcept of the coast as an integrated coastal system.
RESEARCH AND SERVICEAs noted, Mexican science and line agencies fund re-
search projects in coastal management. Interdiscipli-nary planning methodology and products that resultfrom coastal management is of particular interest.UABC has a strong reputation in coastal managementresearch (see Table 6) and attracts both students andfunding throughout México.
Besides an emphasis on integrated coastal planningand management programming, UABC faculty incoastal management are developing research themes inenvironmental impact assessment, energy and technol-ogy assessment, hazard mitigation, tourist develop-ment planning, port planning, and base line studies ofcoastal ecosystems.
The research performed by the faculty provides thebasis for consulting contracts for government and pri-vate entities. Faculty also acts as advisors to legislativecommunities and other government authorities. To ex-pand the scope of services to coastal organizations, anexternal advisory council for the coastal managementfaculty is being considered. The council would assistthe faculty in identifying others sources of founding insupport of coastal management programs at UABC.
The faculty of the Marine Sciences School and theSciences School have been working together on aca-demic and research projects since 1991. Most of theprojects have been in coastal planning with fundingfrom CONACYT and the federal and state governments.
THE FUTURE: A COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENTGRADUATE PROGRAM AT UABC, ENSENADACAMPUS
The experience of the last three years have made itpossible for UABC to start implementing a program incoastal zone management that would rest on three fun-damental principles:
• An adequate academic paradigm expressing thetransdisciplinary integration necessary to encom-pass the coastal problems encountered
• Recognition by government authorities and coastalindustries that students from this program can meettheir needs
• Adequate funding levels for academic teaching andresearch support
The academic paradigm is that any coastal nationshould manage its coastal zone in such a way as to en-hance its contributions to society and to the natural,regional, and local economy. In particular, a coastalzone management program should promote a greaterknowledge of the coastal zone to include its resources,hazards, and interrelationships; a greater capability for
TABLE 6: RESEARCH PROJECTS(COASTAL MANAGEMENT)
PROJECT FUNDING BY PERIOD
Coastal planning in the Punta Organization of 91 -92Banda region, Ensenada, Baja American StatesCalifornia State, México O.E.A.
Tourism, urban and ecological Federal and state 92 - 93coastal planning of the government, theTijuana - Ensenada corridor, private sectorBaja California State, México
Environmental mapping of the State government 1993State of Baja California, México
Aquaculture and ecological Federal 93 - 94coastal planning for the governmentsouthern coast of Sinaloa State,México
Northern Gulf of California International 94 - 95and Colorado River Delta conservancybiosphere reserve managementprogram
Coastal resources atlas of the CONACYT 94 - 95northwest coast of Baja (National ResearchCalifornia, México and Technology
Council)
understanding and communicating the policy valuesinherent among the various coastal constituencies; anda greater ability to coordinate and manage the eco-nomic choices found within, or affecting, the coastalzone with those at local, regional, and national levels.
To implement such a program, a balanced curricu-lum will be based on a comprehensive yet integratedset of concepts as follows:
In order for successful approaches to coastal chal-lenges to emerge, this configuration requires a continu-ing interaction of theory, analysis, and practicegrounded in an understanding of the entire coastalzone. The various contributing disciplines are additionsto this kind of education rather than ends in and ofthemselves. Indeed, one can expect disciplinary bound-
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66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
research lines—Coastal Planning, Natural Coastal Eco-systems Management, and Coastal Resources Economics.
RECOGNITION BY GOVERNMENTAn important factor is the official recognition of the
national value of coastal higher education in Méxicoalong with an adequate funding base for it to succeed.The coastal problems experienced in México can be re-solved only when an adequate number of well-edu-cated coastal professionals address them, and such pro-fessionals cannot earn degrees without sufficient fundsfor the programs involved.
ADEQUATE FUNDING FOR THE MASTER’SPROGRAM
México is in an economic recession and budget cutsare affecting both CONACYT and the state universities.Integrated coastal management education will remainonly a distant ideal unless external funding can befound. It is hoped that private foundations and interna-tional agencies will be willing to assist Mexican universi-ties such as UABC which have invested so much in ICM.
The needs of the master’s program at UABC include:
Faculty: The UABC Ensenada faculty needs support interms of scholarships and funds in order to finish theirdegrees (M.S. and Ph.D.) or to finish a thesis project.Some professors have already their Ph.D. credits, sothey only need to work on their thesis. Another need issupport to bring professors from other universities andother countries to Mexico, in order to enrich our pro-
aries to lessen as faculty work together in one organiza-tional setting devoted to coastal zone management(Fischer, 1993).
Courses that contribute to a comprehensive yet inte-grated program should include an orientation to theoryas well as to in-depth research into particular cases fol-lowed by comparative analysis among cases. Thistheory-case approach roots coastal zone management inreality, thereby contributing to both useful analysis andsound application. The time scales and processes ofnature, culture, technology, and policy require a trans-disciplinary effort leading to an acceptable synthesis asthe base for managing México’s coastal zone.
In order to implement this approach, a coastal zonemanagement curriculum for a master’s program (seeTable 7) can be created that builds on past successesfrom the certificate program in Marine Resources Man-agement, the graduate programs in Coastal Oceanogra-phy and Arid Ecosystems Management, as well as re-search experience.
The administration of the master’s program and theresearch in the near future (1995-1996) will be part ofthe Integrated Coastal Resources Management Center.Through this center, the UABC at Ensenada would for-mally implement a coastal zone management programresulting from the experience of the faculty in aca-demic and coastal research.
The curricula of the proposed master’s program inCoastal Zone Management is divided into required andoptional courses. The program requires 64 credits and athesis. The optional courses define three academic and
TABLE 7: MASTER OF SCIENCE IN COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT AT UABC ENSENADA CAMPUS INTE-GRATED COASTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT CENTER
REQUIRED COURSES
Courses Credits
Introduction to Coastal Zone Management 6
Thesis Seminar I 2
Thesis Seminar II 2
OPTIONAL COURSES
Coastal Planning Natural Coastal Ecosystems Management Coastal Resources Economics
Courses Credits Courses Credits Courses Credits
Coastal Zone Management 8 Coastal Zone Management 8 Coastal Zone Management 8
Regional Planning 8 Regional Planning 8 Regional Planning 8
Coastal Policy Analysis 8 Coastal Policy Analysis 8 Coastal Policy Analysis 8
Planning for Coastal Hazard 8 Environmental Impact Assessment 8 Natural Resources Economics 8
Planning for Coastal Tourism 9 Coastal Ecosystems Management 8 Fisheries Economics 8
G.I.S. in Management 8 Fisheries Management 6 Topics on Socioeconomic Issues 8
Topics on Socioeconomic Issuesxs 8 G.I.S. in Management 8 Environmental Economics 8
Topics on Coastal Management I 6 Topics on Coastal Management II 6 Topics on Coastal Management III 6
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 67
gram with experiences in coastal management fromdifferent parts of the world.
Students: In order to get full-time students into themaster’s program, scholarship support will benecessary.
Integrated Coastal Resources Management Center:By the middle of 1997, this center will need funds foradministration, computer software and equipment, theacquisition of books and journals (a small library), andmoney to build a small building.
REFERENCES
Fischer, D.W. (1983). In pursuit of excellence in coastalzone studies at the University of West Florida. Unpub-lished manuscript, University of West Florida,Pensacola.
Fischer, D.W. (1993). Coastal higher education inMéxico. In J.L. Fermán Almada, L. Gómez-Morin yD. W. Fischer (Eds): Coastal management in Mexico,(pp. 148-155). New York, NY: American society ofcivil engineers.
Toledo, A. (1993). La Zona Costera del Pacífico Sur: UnEcosistema Amenazado. Boletín de HumedalesCosteros de México, 1(3), 8-16.
West N. (1986). Graduate education in marine affairs:A preliminary assessment. Marine Technology SocietyJournal, 20, 11-20.
West N. (1987). International coastal zone education.Unpublished manuscript, University of Rhode Is-land, International Coastal Resources managementproject, Narragansett.
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68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
INTERDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONWITH CONSIDERATION FOR COASTAL MANAGEMENT
Elizabeth FullerCoastal Resources CenterUniversity of Rhode IslandNarragansett, RI, USA
ABSTRACTKnowledge from multiple disciplines, such as geography, economics, sociology, and physical sciences,can benefit coastal managers. However, which information should be provided to whom, and howshould that material be conveyed? As the first step in their training, people who hope to become coastalmanagement practitioners should establish a professional identity or specialty and pursue training thatallows them to apply that chosen discipline to coastal management. An institutional structure wellsuited to this mode of education would be to create interdisciplinary studies departments that offer aspecialty in coastal management.
INTRODUCTIONInterdisciplinary education is often proposed as the
solution to the dilemma of how to educate coastalmanagers. Coastal managers work to bring order to aregion that, in a global context, is the site of a rapid in-crease of human population and that hosts a signifi-cant concentration of natural resources and industrialdevelopment. With such an amalgam of issues, it isclear that knowledge from multiple disciplines, such asgeography, economics, sociology, and physical sci-ences, would benefit coastal managers. However, whichinformation should be provided to whom and howshould that material be conveyed? This paper seeks toaddress the “how”. An overview of issues in interdisci-plinary education is followed by examples of effectiveapproaches from other fields. The paper concludeswith three options for establishing institutional ar-rangements for the support of interdisciplinary educa-tion and recommendations for coastal managementeducation.
A discipline is a domain of knowledge or compe-tence within a society (Gardner and Boix-Mansilla,1994). Each discipline addresses intellectual issues inan established, formal manner and entails particularmodes of thinking about or interpreting the world(Gardner and Boix-Mansilla, 1994). Characterized byfour features, disciplines:
• Are established to investigate a special subject ofstudy or particular problem (i.e., the humanitiesfocus on the study of expressive and constitutivecultural forms)
• Generate theories to address their subjects or par-ticular problems (i.e., the theory of evolution isfundamental to the study of genetics)
• Evolve and approve their own methods and tech-niques (i.e., an anthropologist accepts ethnographicinterviews as a valid technique to elicit cultural in-formation from a group)
• Accumulate and return information to their owndatabase i.e., the discipline builds on a foundationof past research (Sutlive, 1989).
Based on these definitions, coastal managementcannot be accepted as a discipline. The “special sub-ject” that coastal managers investigate and the man-agement of coastal ecosystems, is a specializationwithin many disciplines rather than a discipline untoitself. To date there are no accepted theories, methods,or techniques for conducting coastal management re-search or field projects. A database of coastal manage-ment research is beginning to be developed. However,there is very little documentation of some of the long-est-running coastal management projects, and what
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 69
has been published tends to be more anecdotal thanempirical.
Coastal management is not a discipline, yet it re-quires input from many disciplines. Therefore, is it bet-ter to train individuals as specialists in particular fieldsand hope they can communicate and work with spe-cialists from other disciplines later in their careers? Orshould individuals be trained so that they becomeknowledgeable about the great breadth of issues con-fronted by coastal managers? Interdisciplinary educa-tion is the form of instruction necessary to producethis second type of professional.
INTERDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONInterdisciplinary education is “centered on a prob-
lem, theme, or issue designed to integrate the knowl-edge and perspectives of several traditional disciplines”(Alkin, 1992). It addresses the need for specializedknowledge across a range of fields. Interdisciplinaryeducation can be applied to a single class, a year-longproject, or an academic degree program. Classes maybe team taught or developed with the input of facultyrepresenting different disciplines. Guest lecturers andclinical experience are common features of interdisci-plinary education.
Interdisciplinary education is often criticized forlacking academic rigor (Shanker, 1995,). Roth (1994)complains that it “does not focus on the powerful ideasor organizing concepts from the disciplines”, the con-cepts are selected for reasons other than their utility toa discipline, and proper consideration is not given towhat is most valuable for students to learn. Sbarattaobjects that “combining more than one discipline in acourse weakens each of the disciplines” (1983) and thatteam teaching is often ineffective because of a lack ofunderstanding and respect among faculty from differ-ent departments. Each of these objections is valid butnot necessary. The School of Interdisciplinary Studiesat Miami University provides an excellent example ofhow effective interdisciplinary education can be whenapproached with an open mind and the high expecta-tions of both faculty and students.
The School of Interdisciplinary Studies is one of thepremier undergraduate interdisciplinary programs inthe United States. The intent of the program is to“challenge students’ unexamined assumptions aboutthemselves and their world, on the limitations as wellas the strengths of each discipline, and [to develop] aholistic understanding informed by materials fromvarious disciplines” (Newell, 1992). The program at Mi-ami has addressed and found solutions to each of theobjections described above. First of all, there is an em-phasis on disciplinary analysis. Newell (1992) proposesthat if students are to develop a feel for a discipline’sperspective, they must learn to think like a practitionerof that discipline. Members of a discipline are not so
much characterized by the conclusions they arrive at,but by the way they approach the topic—the questionsthey ask, the concepts that come to mind, and thetheories behind them.
Rather than learning all aspects and facets of asingle discipline, students are encouraged to confront atopic from multiple perspectives by reading illustrativereadings from several disciplines that offer contrastingviews of the same topic. For any given course, studentslearn enough about a discipline to appreciate its per-spective and goals. The concepts theories and methodsfrom various disciplines are presented with exactly thesame rigor as in traditional disciplinary courses(Newell, 1992). The cumulative effect of a four yearbaccalaureate program is that students are able to drawfrom many different disciplinary bases.
Classes are usually team-developed and occasionallyteam-taught. For this approach to be effective, it is es-sential that the faculty have faith in the expertise oftheir colleagues as well as an appreciation for the per-spective of the other discipline(s). When recruiting fac-ulty, the School of Interdisciplinary Studies has foundthat the depth and rigor of the candidates’ postgradu-ate education is more important than its breadth. Thekey to successful interdisciplinary teaching is a “will-ingness, and preferably eagerness, to learn other per-spectives” (Newell, 1992).
Miami University has found that the graduates of itsSchool of Interdisciplinary Studies, as indicated bygraduate placements and standardized test scores, arewell equipped with the traditional intellectual skills, at-titudes, and values necessary for advanced disciplinarystudies and/or careers. The proportion of Interdiscipli-nary Studies students to go on to doctoral programs indisciplinary postgraduate schools is higher than the na-tional average. The average percentile ranking on theLaw School Admission Test for Interdisciplinary Studiesstudents is 85.7 percent. Interdisciplinary Studies stu-dents also perform well on the Graduate Record Exam(Newell, 1992).
The example from Miami University demonstratesthat interdisciplinary education is a valid and effectiveform of education. Students learn “multilogical think-ing—the ability to think accurately and fair-mindedlywithin opposing points of view and contradictoryframes of reference—as well as the ability to enter sym-pathetically into and reconstruct the strongest argu-ments for points of view fundamentally opposed totheir own” (Newell, 1992). In other words, students aretrained to understand, appreciate, and be conversant inmultiple disciplines.
The field of geriatrics, the study and practice ofmedicine as it relates to old age, has adopted interdisci-plinary techniques to produce health care professionalswho are capable of working together in collaborativeefforts. Like coastal management, geriatrics requires the
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70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
input of specialists from many different disciplines.Gerontologists must address issues associated with “in-creased economic dependence, narrowed social interac-tions, geographic confinement, decreased mentalstimulation, and increased psychological stress due todisability, pain and imminent death” as well as acuteand chronic diseases (Shepard et al., 1985). Proper pa-tient care requires that health care professionals “un-derstand the presence and interrelatedness of theseproblems and…understand each others’ roles and theinterface of these roles among team members”(Shepard et al. 1985, 300).
The Administration on Aging has been funding uni-versity and college-based geriatrics training programsunder the Older Americans Act since 1967. After morethan a decade of experience, a substantial amount ofliterature concerning different approaches to geriatriceducation was published in the early- to mid-1980s.The primary questions being asked concerned “whichstudents to include at what levels of education andwhich topics should be taught by whom” (Shepard etal., 1985). The types of issues that geriatric care educa-tors faced then, coastal managers are facing now. Othersimilarities between the two fields include disparities inacademic backgrounds and personal goals that indi-viduals bring to both fields, the great demand for ex-perts in both fields, and the traditional emphasis inboth fields on treating acute illness/problems ratherthan adopting a more holistic approach to manage-ment (whether it be management of health care orcoastal ecosystems).
Over the years, gerontologists have come to acceptinterdisciplinary education as dictum (Yeo, 1995, pers.comm.). Because of the numerous parallels betweencoastal management and geriatric medicine, it is usefulto investigate which aspects of interdisciplinary educa-tion proved to be most useful for training health careprofessionals to work as team members caring for elderlypatients. The advice listed below has been culled prima-rily, but not exclusively, from reviews of geriatric educa-tion programs. It may not all be applicable to coastalmanagement education. At a minimum, the informationprovides an opportunity for careful consideration ascoastal management educators prepare to further de-velop existing programs and/or to create new ones.
• Interdisciplinary education must be the highest orone of the highest priorities of the program (Satin,1987).
• The authority controlling the education program mustunderstand and be committed to interdisciplinary edu-cation. Procure the support of educational authoritiessuch as presidents, deans, department chairs, and di-rectors of funding agencies (Satin, 1987).
• Honesty, trust, and respect among participants is es-sential to interdisciplinary education. It is only in such
an atmosphere that people within a discipline cancommunicate their values, knowledge, and skills, andlearn those of other disciplines (Satin, 1987).
• Real or simulated clinical and nonclinical experi-ence is necessary (Shepard et al., 1985).
• Topics such as financing, government regulations,and delivery systems lend themselves to interdisci-plinary curricula (Shepard et al., 1985).
• Short experiences in interdisciplinary educationgiven over the entire span of professional trainingappear to be more effective in yielding long-term be-havioral changes than an intensive onetime experi-ence (Shepard et al., 1985).
• Using peer teachers is an effective way to breakdown barriers and initiate and reinforce collabora-tive activities (Shepard et al., 1985).
• A multidisciplinary master’s degree was proven to bea better vehicle for an “applied” program than a dis-ciplinary or professional school degree (Friedsamand Martin, 1980).
• The faculty must be competent in their own disci-plines and conversant with, and appreciative of, thepositions of their fellows (Sutlive, 1989).
• Consult with the faculty of disciplines which would beaffected by the interdisciplinary programs before theinitiation of courses or programs. Refer material nor-mally covered by another department to members ofthat department for comment (Sutlive, 1989).
• Avoid a “least common denominator” approach.Students should be recipients of provocative lecturesand engage in seminars that deal with complex con-troversies (Shepard et al. ,1985).
• Because graduates will have to work collaborativelyas professionals, formal coursework in organiza-tional dynamics should include topics such as teamproblem-solving techniques, goal setting based onconsensual decision making, leadership styles, andconflict resolution (Shepard et al., 1985).
• Maintain contact with the industry. Hire a practi-tioner with a national reputation as a member of thecore faculty; seek feedback on the curricula frompreceptors and employers of the graduates; facultymembers should attend meetings of practitioners aswell as discipline-specific meetings; and keep intouch with graduates after they become practi-tioners (Friedsam and Martin, 1980).
• Interdisciplinary education threatens vested inter-ests. Therefore, establish interdisciplinary educationprograms as autonomous units within educationalinstitutions (Satin, 1987).
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 71
• Resources of money, time, and good will are neces-sary for the success of an interdisciplinary educationprogram. Make the program self-sustaining. Self-suf-ficiency will increase both the practical and ideologi-cal support of educational authorities (Satin, 1987).
• Coursework in the biological and physical sciencesis not well suited to interdisciplinary education(Shepard et al., 1985).
• Establishing a student’s professional identity mustprecede clinical interdisciplinary education (Shepardet al., 1985).
• Specializations within the multidisciplinary programproved beneficial (Friedsam and Martin, 1980).
• Interdisciplinary courses must be taught by educa-tors representing all of the disciplines of the stu-dents involved (Shepard et al., 1985).
• Provide “postgraduate work fellowships” to give re-cent graduates an opportunity to gain professionalexperience (Mangum and Rich, 1980).
• Guest lecturers with a wide variety of education andexperience can make significant contributions(Sutlive, 1989).
• Sutlive (1989) perceives that there are two ways toteach interdisciplinary courses. There is either oneinstructor with education in a second field beyondhis or her major professional discipline, or the classis team taught by instructors from different disci-plines. Problems arise with the first approach whenthe instructor is not sufficiently versed in the sec-ondary discipline. Problems arise in the team-taughtapproach when participants are not conversantwith, or appreciative of, the positions of their col-leagues; when they understand one another’s mod-els, methods and theories only minimally.
• Classes must be held at times and locations that areaccessible to students (Shepard et al., 1985).
• Be flexible, creative, persistent, and committed(Satin, 1987).
Other issues to consider when developing coastal man-agement education programs relate to institutional ar-rangements. If an educational approach is adopted thatrelies in part or in full on interdisciplinary education,where will that unit be housed within any given univer-sity or college? At least three options exist: establish anacademic center or institute, promote facilitative units, orcreate a Department of Interdisciplinary Studies.
INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTSStahler and Tash (1994) investigated the role of
academic centers and institutes at the fastest growingresearch universities in the United States. Research
centers and institutes refer to any number of academicorganizational entities whose primary mission is toconduct research. Despite criticism that centers oftendo not contribute to the educational mission of univer-sities, Stahler and Tash (1994) found that the largestfunded centers at the fastest-growing universities typi-cally complemented and enhanced the academic roleof departments. They appeared to engage in consider-able interdepartmental activity and, at the same time,were fairly well integrated to a lead department, so thatthey supported and enhanced the research and eventhe teaching roles of the departments.
Other benefits of centers include substantial accessto sophisticated equipment, graduate student and ad-ministrative support, and the capability to respondflexibly and rapidly to sponsor’s requests.
McCall (1990, 1319) describes a facilitative unit thatwas established at the University of Pittsburgh to “pro-mote interdisciplinary research and education withinthe university and to facilitate mutually beneficial rela-tions between the university faculty and human serviceproviders and policy makers.” A major function of sucha unit is to be the touchstone between faculty and thecommunity. Rather than creating a new department orcenter, the facilitative unit draws on the strength of ex-isting departments to fill a need or create a solution toan issue requiring knowledge from multiple disciplines.The concept is intriguing, and McCall offers seeminglyexcellent advice on developing an integrating theme (itmust cut across numerous traditional academic disci-plines and have relevance for a substantial number ofapplied professionals and social issues); building a baseof support (the emphasis must be on service); securingfunding (ideally, funds should be contributed from theinstitutions that represent the unit’s constituencies—the university, the human service [or coastal manage-ment] providers, and the policy makers in the commu-nity); hiring a staff (collectively, the staff needs to haveexperience with interdisciplinary research and training,applied research and evaluation, policy formulation,and professional services); and planning programs andprojects (preliminaries, facilitating collaboration, iden-tifying specific projects, and managing specialprojects).
Sbaratta (1983) describes the Department of Inter-disciplinary Studies at North Shore Community Col-lege (United States). The department was developed bya core group of faculty who were interested in disman-tling the barriers between traditional disciplines. Thedepartment is home to courses that embrace a varietyof organizational and methodological strategies such asteam-teaching, multi-discipline courses taught by oneindividual, thematic courses, and discipline combina-tions. The classes are cross-listed in appropriate depart-ments, and the faculty in the Department of Interdisci-plinary Studies have dual academic citizenship.
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72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
Courses are evaluated within the Department of Inter-disciplinary Studies for their merits as interdisciplinaryofferings. Representatives of traditional disciplinesscrutinize course content to protect the academic in-tegrity of specific disciplines (Sbaratta, 1983). The De-partment of Interdisciplinary Studies has built a neu-tral ground on which faculty from different disciplinescan convene and from which special interests, talents,and expertise that do not fit the traditional disciplinemold can be expressed.
RECOMMENDATIONSIt is accepted practice to train geriatric health care
workers through interdisciplinary course work thataugments their discipline-specific studies. This indi-cates that an interdisciplinary approach is an effectivemethod of training practitioners for careers in fieldsthat require inputs from multiple disciplines. As thefirst step in their training, people who hope to becomecoastal management practitioners should establish aprofessional identity or a specialty. Once a person iden-tifies him or herself as a planner, a communicationsspecialist, a lawyer, an administrator, or a host of otherpossibilities, then he or she can pursue training that al-lows for the practical application of that chosen disci-pline to coastal management. Because of the emphasison education, rather than research or service, depart-ments of interdisciplinary studies that offer a specialtyin coastal management provide an institutional struc-ture that is well suited to this mode of education. Stu-dents from such disparate disciplines as biology, politi-cal science, and education could register for coursessuch as
• Communicating for Policy Change
• Compiling and Analyzing Monitoring Data forManagement Decisions
• The Science and Policy of Beach Management
These interdisciplinary courses emphasize skill de-velopment and use. Faculty should be drawn from ap-propriate academic departments and be willing andable to incorporate material from multiple disciplinesinto a single course. Students could be selected frombaccalaureate, master’s, or doctoral-level candidatesand should have exposure to interdisciplinary educa-tion throughout the entire span of their professionaltraining.
REFERENCES
Alkin, M.C. (Ed.). (1992). Encyclopedia of educationalresearch. New York: Macmillan.
Begala, J.A. (1980). Geriatric education in Ohio: Amodel for change. The Gerontologist, 20, 547-551.
Cross, B.E. (1994). Global issues in curriculum develop-ment. Peabody Journal of Education, 69, 131-140.
Friedsam, H.J. & Martin, C.A. (1980). An applied pro-gram in social gerontology: A report on ten years’experience. The Gerontologist, 20, 514-518.
Gardner, H. & Boix-Mansilla, V. (1994). Teaching forunderstanding in the disciplines—and beyond.Teachers College Record, 96, 198-218.
Mangum, W.P. & Rich, T.A. (1980). Ten years of careertraining in gerontology: The University of SouthFlorida Experience. The Gerontologist, 20, 519-525.
McCall, R.B. (1990). Promoting interdisciplinary andFaculty-Service-Provider relations. American Psycholo-gist, 45, 1319-1324.
Newell, W.H. (1992). Academic disciplines and under-graduate interdisciplinary education: Lessons fromthe School of Interdisciplinary Studies at MiamiUniversity, Ohio. European Journal of Education, 27,211-221.
Roth, K. (1994). Second thoughts about interdiscipli-nary studies. American Educator, 18, 44-48.
Satin, D.G. (1987). The difficulties of interdisciplinaryeducation: Lessons from three failures and a success.Educational Gerontology, 13, 53-69.
Sbaratta, P.A. (1983). Defeating the learned ignoramus.Community College Review, 10, 33-39.
Shanker, A. (1995). Disciplinary learning. New YorkTimes. February 5, 1995, E7.
Shepard, K., Yeo, G. & McGann, L. (1985). Successfulcomponents of interdisciplinary education. Journalof Allied Health, 14, 297-303.
Stahler, G.J. & Tash, W.R. (1994). Centers and institutesin the Research University. Journal of Higher Educa-tion, 65, 540-554.
Sutlive Jr., V.H. (1989). Breakthrough or babble: Com-munication or confusion in interdisciplinary educa-tion. Urban Anthropology and Studies of Cultural Sys-tems and World Economic Development, 18, 95-109.
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 73
MEETING THE CHALLENGE: THE MARINE STUDIES PROGRAMMEAT THE UNIVERSITY OF THE SOUTH PACIFIC
G. Robin SouthJoeli VeitayakiMarine Studies ProgrammeThe University of the South PacificSuva, Fiji
ABSTRACTThere is a major shortage in technical and management skills in the marine sector in all Pacific Islandstates served by the University of the South Pacific (USP). This situation is exacerbated by theenormous increase in responsibilities faced by Pacific Island countries in the management anddevelopment of their coastal regions imposed by the enactment of the Law of the Sea and as a result ofthe United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). In response, USP hasintroduced an interdisciplinary, university-wide Marine Studies Programme and has placed a priorityon its development. Various strategies are being adopted. In the long term, the program is focusing onundergraduate certificate, diploma, or degree programs that will provide a large number of graduateswith at least some training and awareness in issues relating to coastal and ocean resourcesmanagement, development of specialized degrees in Marine Science and Marine Affairs (to beintroduced in 1996), and encouragement of postgraduate training at the master’s and doctoral levels.USP has an advantage in its well-developed Distance Education network throughout the South Pacificregion. Certificates are offered through 11 Extension Centres. Through its Marine Public EducationProgramme, the University is concentrating on improving the marine-related content in school curriculaand in upgrading teachers’ skills in marine science through the initiation of a training-of-the-trainerscurriculum development program. The University is reaching the most important players in the coastalseminars. The University recognizes the importance of networking in its training. The Institute’sOperational Centre (IOI-South Pacific) is to be networked through the new UN/DOALOS TRAIN-SEA-COAST Project. Training courses offered through IOI and TSC will provide the highly professional, job-related training that is urgently needed in the South Pacific region.
INTRODUCTIONEstablished in 1969, the University of the South
Pacific (USP) serves 12 island nations scattered over22 million km2 of the South Pacific Ocean (Solomon Is-lands, Vanuatu, Tuvalu, Nauru, Marshall Islands,Kiribati, Western Samoa, Tokelau, Fiji, Tonga, Niue,and Cook Islands). The people of this vast region arewedded to the sea by tradition, by history, and by ge-ography, and they have relied on its seemingly endlessresources for their daily nutrition since their ancestorsspread from west to east on their epic migratory jour-neys. With their exclusive economic zones established
as a result of the Law of the Sea Convention, the terri-tory of these small nations has been enormously in-creased during the past decade. While this new wealthis largely untapped, the burden that it places on its cus-todians is overwhelming. This responsibility combinedwith growing population pressures and the consequentpollution of sensitive coastal environments, increasesin tourism, greater pressures on the traditional fisheryof reefs and lagoons, lucrative opportunities to give dis-tant water fleets access to the deep sea fishery of theireconomic zones, dwindling resources, an emphasis oneconomic development focusing on ocean resources,
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74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
• Provide research and development opportunities toserve the marine-based industries and governmentsof the region, particularly in the areas of living andnonliving marine resources
• Provide opportunities for technical, professional,and in-service training in marine affairs
• Provide expert consultancy services in a range ofmarine fields to support government, industry, andeducation
• Improve existing and develop new resources (facili-ties, services, institutes, and personnel) in support ofthe marine studies program
• Strengthen existing linkages and develop new for-mal and informal linkages with regional, national,and international bodies in the marine sector
• Improve the quality and scope of part-time anddistance education in marine topics to better servethe emerging needs of working adult learners
The MSP currently coordinates the following programsand activities:
• The Ocean Resources Management Programme(ORMP: located in the School of Social andEconomic Development)
• The Atoll Research Programme (Tarawa, Kiribati)
• The Dravuni Island Field Station, Kadavu Islands,Fiji (in collaboration with Astrolabe, Inc., based inWashington, D.C.)
• The Pacific Islands Marine Resources InformationSystem (PIMRIS: Coordination Unit located in theUSP Library)
• The Marine Public Education Programme (incollaboration with the Institute of Education)
• The International Ocean Institute OperationalCentre at the University of the South Pacific (IOI-South Pacific)
STRATEGYHuman resources surveys in the South Pacific region
have revealed that there is a major shortage in techni-cal as well as management skills in the marine sector inall countries, including those government departmentsresponsible for ocean and coastal management. Atpresent, the majority of the personnel employed in themiddle and senior positions (i.e., the decision makers)have, at most, a bachelor’s degree. Very few are trainedto the master’s level or above.
This situation is exacerbated by the enormous in-crease in responsibilities faced by Pacific Island coun-tries in the management and development of theircoastal regions. These mostly newly-independent coun-
the development of new technology, such as aquacul-ture, and energy production from the sea, has led to anunprecedented expansion of activities in all aspects ofthe marine environment.
USP is one of four main universities located in thetropical South Pacific. The others are the University ofPapua New Guinea, the University of Technology atLae, Papua New Guinea, and the Université Françaisedu Pacifique (UFP). Tertiary institutions providing ter-tiary training and educational opportunities to PacificIslanders in the marine field include the University ofGuam, the University of Hawaii, Nelson Polytechnic,the Australian Maritime College, and others.
USP is in a unique position to lead the way in thedevelopment of a comprehensive program in marinestudies, yet it is remarkable that it was not until 1986that the necessary initiative was taken and the OceanResources Management Programme was established asa joint project with the Forum Fisheries Agency. Seri-ous planning for the development of a Marine StudiesProgramme began in 1990 with the appointment of aprofessor of Marine Studies. In 1993, USP establishedits Marine Studies Programme (MSP) as an interdiscipli-nary, university-wide program focusing on education,research training, and service to its member countries.For the next several years, the University Grants Com-mittee will provide additional funding to MarineStudies, recognizing it as an area of high priority fordevelopment.
The mission for the Marine Studies programme isbroad, as is the subject itself.
• It will provide the necessary opportunities forPacific Islanders to understand, conserve, develop,manage, and utilize their living and nonlivingmarine resources in a rapidly changing world
• It will provide Pacific Islanders with the widest pos-sible range of opportunities for research, education,training, and employment in the marine sector.
• It will provide for better collaboration between USP,island nations, regional and international bodieswith their common goals in the marine sector.
The goals of MSP are to:
• Play a role in the dissemination of information onall aspects of marine studies to schools, the generalpublic, regional governments and agencies, and theacademic community
• Spearhead the development of an appropriate forumwhere the development of marine programs can beachieved through cooperation
• Strengthen the University’s role as the principal re-gional tertiary institution by providing appropriateeducational programs to serve the social and economicdevelopment of the region in the marine sector
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 75
tries control huge Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) and,at the same time, they are major participants in newdevelopments at the global level resulting from theLaw of the Sea coming into force and the various de-velopments resulting from the United Nations Confer-ence on Environment and Development II (UNCED).While they are assisted, in part, by (largely) expatriateexperts who are employed by the various regional orga-nizations in the South Pacific, they are very consciousof the need to become self-sufficient and of the markedshortfall in human resources and expertise that theyface. Most of the Pacific Island nations are small is-lands, they have small populations, and the vast ma-jority of the people live on the coast and rely on its re-sources for their nutrition and survival. For thesereasons, it is clear that human resource development inthe area of coastal management is a high priority.
It is against this background that USP’s Marine Stud-ies Programme is being developed. There are two paral-lel strategies being adopted. The first is long-term, fo-cusing on the development of certificate, diploma, andundergraduate degree programs that will provide alarge number of graduates with at least some trainingand awareness in issues relating to coastal and oceanresources management. This strategy is geared to thefact that the career goal in most Pacific Island govern-ments is at the bachelor’s level. A smaller group of thebest graduates is being encouraged to undertake post-graduate degrees, where developing the appropriatetechnical skills is emphasized.
The second strategy is short-term, aimed at reachingthe most important players in the coastal managementdecision-making process through workshops, seminars,and short-term training. From 1986 to 1990, theUniversity’s Ocean Resources Management Programmeconducted six in-country workshops on ocean re-sources management throughout the South Pacific re-gion. More recently, the University’s Marine PublicEducation Programme has been concentrating on im-proving the marine-related content in school curriculaand upgrading teachers’ skills in marine science by ini-tiating training of the trainers curriculum developmentprogram. USP’s institutes are playing an important rolein this process and, in particular, the InternationalOcean Institute Operational Centre at USP (IOI-SouthPacific). One opportunity that is being exploited by theUniversity is the availability of distance learningthrough 12 centers operating throughout the region. Inparticular, certificates and diplomas are now being of-fered by Extension, thus enabling individuals to enrollin part-time study programs while still employed.
ORGANIZATIONThe organization of the programs and activities are
shown in Figure 1. Academic Programmes (undergradu-ate and postgraduate degrees) are offered under the
aegis of the Schools, while short-term courses andtraining are offered through the IOI-South Pacific.
Undergraduate programmes are structured in such away that students can progress from certificate and di-ploma programs, to undergraduate and postgraduatedegrees through the following steps:
Step 1: Certificates (see Table 1)Certificate in Tropical FisheriesCertificate in Ocean Resources Management
Each of these certificates comprises six courses andcan be completed in a full year on campus or over alonger period through Extension. An additional certifi-cate, the Certificate in Earth Science and Marine Geol-ogy is offered at the sub-degree level in collaborationwith the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commis-sion. This targets technicians, for example, in regionalgovernment departments of mineral resources.
Step 2: Diplomas (see Table 2)Credits from the degree-level certificates can be car-
ried over toward the completion of the following di-plomas, which require a total of 12 credits
Diploma in Tropical Fisheries–the School of Pureand Applied Sciences (SPAS)
Diploma in Ocean Resources Management (theSchool of Social and Economic Development)
Diploma in Fisheries Economics and Managementin the School of Social and Economic Development(SSED)
Step 3: Bachelor’s DegreesIn science, undergraduate students may include up
to eight courses focusing on marine topics as part oftheir bachelor’s degree. There are plans to introduce abachelor of science major in marine science starting in1996.
In the social sciences, students may complete allfour courses in the ORMP programme, together withappropriately related courses from other SSED depart-ments, to complete their bachelor’s degree. There areplans to introduce a bachelor’s degree majoring in ma-rine studies in 1996.
Step 4: Postgraduate degreesAt the postgraduate level, students may earn a post-
graduate diploma, an M.S. and Ph.D in Marine Studies.The M.S. and Ph.D. degrees are based on substantivesupervised research topics with a thesis, and may focuson areas relevant to coastal management.
THE INTERNATIONAL OCEAN INSTITUTE (IOI)In 1993, USP became a member of the IOI network.
Established in 1972, with its headquarters in Malta, theIOI is an international nongovernmental organizationregistered in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. The IOI has
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76 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
University of University of KagoshimaOtago Victoria University
MARINE STUDIESPROGRAMME
Ocean ResourcesManagement Programme
Atoll Research Programme School of(Kiribati) Humanities
USP Library Pacific Islands School ofMarine Resources Pure & Applied
Information System SciencesInstitute ofEducation Marine Public Education
Institute of School of SocialMarine Resources & Economic(Solomon Islands) Development
Astrolabe Inc. Dravuni Island Institute ofWashington DC Field Station Applied Sciences
UN/DOALOS INTERNATIONAL IOI NetworkTRAIN-SEA OCEAN INSTITUTE Malta-Halifax-
COAST SOUTH PACIFIC India-Senegal-Network Costa Rica-
Japan-China
AustralianMaritime College
Figure 1. The Program Components and Institutional Linkages of the University of the South PacificMarine Studies Programme
a broad mandate for training, research, and develop-ment in the ocean sector. One of its core activities hasbeen to develop and run training programs focusing onocean affairs and the Law of the Sea. There are nowmore than 1,000 alumni worldwide, especially in de-veloping countries, who have successfully completedIOI courses. With funding from the UNDP (GlobalEnvironment Facility), the IOI embarked on a globali-zation program in 1993 and established operationalcenters in four countries: Fiji, India, Senegal, and CostaRica. Since then, more centers have joined the networkand others are planned (see Fig. 1). In Fiji, IOI-SouthPacific operates under a Memorandum of Agreement
with USP and under a Memorandum of Understandingwith the Government of Fiji.
The partnership between IOI and USP is provinghighly beneficial to the development of courses andprogrammes, especially in the Ocean Resources Man-agement Programme. Approved courses presently avail-able or under development by IOI-South Pacific are:
• Management and Development of Coastal Fisheries(five-week course, first offered in October 1994)
• Resource and Environmental Economics (five-weekcourse to be offered in July 1995)
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 77
TABLE 1: MARINE STUDIES PROGRAMMECERTIFICATES
CERTIFICATE IN TROPICAL FISHERIES
BIF02 Foundation Biology ABIF03 Foundation Biology BCS121 Introduction to Information TechnologyMA131 Basic StatisticsUU111 Introduction to Marine Science for
Pacific IslandsUU201 Introduction to Ocean Resources
Management
CERTIFICATE IN OCEAN RESOURCESMANAGEMENT
CS121 Introduction to Information TechnologyEC100 Introduction to EconomicsMG101 Introduction to ManagementUU111 Introduction to Marine Science for
Pacific IslandsUU201 Introduction to Ocean Resources
Management
and ONE of the following:
HP101 Government & Public Policy in theSouth Pacific
HP102 Contemporary HistoryPS171 Introduction to PsychologySE101 Introduction to Population StudiesSE103 Principles & Problems of Land TenureSO100 The Study of Society
CERTIFICATE IN EARTH SCIENCE& MARINE GEOLOGY 1
(Pre-degree level)
SCC01 Basic Earth Science & Marine GeologySCC21 Earth MaterialsSCC22 Marine Geology & Earth HistorySCC23 Earth Resources & MappingSCC24 Earth Science in Development ProjectsSSC25 Hydrology & Hydrogeology
TABLE 2: MARINE STUDIES PROGRAMMEDIPLOMAS
(The diploma consists of 12 courses, including sixcross-credited from the appropriate certificate)
DIPLOMA IN TROPICAL FISHERIES
Certificate in Tropical Fisheriesplus
BI201 Population BiologyBI202 Invertebrate BiologyUU201 Introduction to Ocean Resources
ManagementUU203 Fisheries Economics & ManagementBI305 Marine BiologyBI307 Fish & Fisheries Biology
DIPLOMA IN OCEAN RESOURCESMANAGEMENT AND POLICY
Certificate in Ocean Resources Managementplus
UU203 Fisheries Economics & ManagementUU301 Ocean Resources Management in the
South Pacific
plus 4 from options underthe Certificate, and
GE102 Introduction to Human GeographySO201 Society, Culture & Change in the
PacificSO205 Sociology of Resources Management
and Development
DIPLOMA IN FISHERIES ECONOMICSAND MANAGEMENT
Certificate in Ocean Resources Managementplus
EC101 Macroeconomics IEC102 Microeconomics IUU203 Fisheries Economics & ManagementUU301 Ocean Resource Management in the
South Pacific
plus 2 from options underthe Certificate, and
EC203 Economic StatisticsGE203 Social & Economic Geography of the
WorldHP200 The Politics of Developing CountriesMG206 Marketing in Developing CountriesSO205 Sociology of Resources Management
and Development
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78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
• Fisheries Economics and Management (five-weekcourse to be offered in 1996)
With the assistance of the UNDP/Division for OceanAffairs and the Law of the Sea (DOALOS) and IOI, USP/IOI-South Pacific course developers have received train-ing (1993 and 1995) in the TRAIN-X methodology.These courses are in the process of being fully adaptedaccording to this system.
TRAIN-SEA-COAST PROGRAMMEIn 1995, IOI-South Pacific and MSP were invited to
join the TRAIN-SEA-COAST PROGRAMME (TSC). Thisprogram has been developed by the UN/DOALOS un-der the guidance of Stella Maris Vallejo. TSC is a net-work of nine UN, IOI, and other training centres dedi-cated to the development of up to 14 courses/modulesthat are designed to train coastal managers and plan-ners. It is a direct response to UNCED and AGENDA 21,Chapter 17 of the Rio Conference. The courses/mod-ules will be developed according to the TRAIN-X meth-odology, and a new training manual was developedspecifically for this purpose by the TRAIN-X network.The first meeting of the network participants tookplace at Stony Brook, NY in January 1995, when 21participants received intensive training in the TRAIN-Xmethodology.
IOI-South Pacific will be engaged in the develop-ment of three of the courses under TSC namely:
• Sustainable Management of Coastal Fisheries in theTropics
• Resources and Environmental Economics
• Ocean Governance with specific reference to SmallIsland Developing States (SIDS) (to be developedjointly with the University of Wales, Cardiff, UK)
The above courses will target middle to upper-levelmanagement in government and planners and users atvarious levels in the marine sector. The courses/mod-ules will greatly enhance IOI-South Pacific’s and henceUSP’s capabilities in the delivery of appropriate educa-tion and training to its island country members. In ad-dition, through exchange of courses with the othermembers of the TSC network, USP will gain access to amuch wider selection of training materials for the over-all benefit of its member countries. Membership of theTSC network will further enhance USP’s overall net-working in the marine training sector. Building on theexisting networks within the IOI system, USP will alsoprovide access to a proven training methodologythrough the TRAIN-X system.
FUTURE PLANSCertificates are currently available by Extension.
Given the large size of the USP region, and the factthat many who wish to undertake programs in marine
studies may already be in the work-force, it is hopedthat the two diplomas offered by SSED (Ocean Re-sources Management and Policy, and Fisheries Eco-nomics and Management) will be available entirely byExtension as well as on campus. The introduction ofundergraduate degrees at the bachelor’s level, specializ-ing in Marine Science (SPAS) or Marine Studies (SSED),is planned for the 1996 academic year onwards.
Providing that adequate funding can be secured, it isexpected that postgraduate degree programs (post-graduate diploma, master’s and doctoral levels) willcontinue to expand at a moderate rate. Wherever pos-sible, USP and IOI-South Pacific will explore linkageswith other institutions worldwide, where these can beof demonstrated mutual advantage, emphasizing edu-cation, training, and research in marine studies.
It is anticipated that IOI-South Pacific will continueits association with the Marine Studies Programme atUSP and that the MSP’s involvement in the TSC Net-work will become an integral part of the University’sinvolvement in training at the regional, subregional,and international levels. Above all, the University rec-ognizes the importance of participating in marine edu-cation and training networks. It cannot work in isola-tion of the world community. Training in the area ofIntegrated Coastal Management is of paramount im-portance to all the people of the South Pacific region,and USP is glad to have the opportunity to collaboratewith other institutions to ensure that its programs arerelevant and meet the needs of these countries in the21st century.
Through the IOI-South Pacific and other USP insti-tutes, the development of specific training packages forclearly identified target groups will continue. Capabili-ties exist for the development of seminars, workshopsand training packages ranging from one day to fiveweeks.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTWe are grateful for the financial assistance of the Ca-
nadian International Development Agency (CIDA), theUnited Nations Development Programme (UNDP), theGovernment of France, the Canada Fund , the WesternPacific Fisheries Consultative Committee (WPFCC) andthe United States Agency for International Develop-ment (USAID). The support services formerly providedby the International Centre for Ocean Development(ICOD), and currently by Canadian Ocean ResourceAssociates Inc. (CORA) are warmly appreciated.
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 79
COASTAL MANAGEMENT AND MARINE AFFAIRSEDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
Niels WestDepartment of Marine AffairsUniversity of Rhode IslandKingston, RI, U.S.A.
ABSTRACTAcademic programs offering graduate degrees in coastal management have increased significantly inthe past five years from seven in 1987 (all in the United States) to more than two dozen in 1994. Thisdevelopment has been stimulated by a demand for coastal management professionals both in the U.S.and abroad which, in turn, raises a number of important questions related to both training of coastalmanagers and the future of this emerging profession. This paper describes the evolution of MarineAffairs/Coastal Management programs in North America and in Europe given the demand and supplyconsiderations for professionals in this field. Considering the inability to fill the overseas demand forcoastal managers (largely because of the high costs and lack of financial support) by the existinggraduate programs, a number of short term coastal management training initiatives have been createdin North America, Europe, and several overseas countries. The objectives of these initiatives differ fromacademic programs that aim to educate and conduct applied and basic research. The paper concludeswith an analysis of the often divergent missions of training with those of the academic-based coastalprograms. The primary missions of short-term training courses is to transfer existing coastalmanagement principles and methods while university-based coastal educational programs formulateand test management hypotheses related to coastal management problems.
HISTORYThe development of academic programs leading to
advanced degrees in marine affairs and coastal manage-ment has had a relatively short history, dating back to1969. In little more than 25 years, approximately 24academic programs have been developed worldwide.Given this impressive growth and the number of statesthat have or are adopting coastal management pro-grams, and the dearth of professionals with capabilitiesto develop and implement such programs, it may beuseful to review what has been accomplished and usethis information as a baseline from which we might beable to project where we are going. Following the evo-lutionary review of marine affairs and coastal pro-grams, the paper discusses the different educationaltracks which have evolved in the United States andabroad with special emphasis on how Europeans havedeveloped their professional coastal management capa-
bilities. The paper concludes with a series of observa-tions and recommendations.
Two events have contributed to the development ofmarine affairs programs in the United States. One isthe ongoing Law of the Sea conventions (UNCLOS)while the other is a series of coastal environmentalcommittee reports that were published in the UnitedStates during the 1960s, culminating in the StrattonCommission in 1969. Before the Stratton CommissionReport was issued, virtually all environmental legisla-tion enacted in the U.S. had been created as sectorallegislation, defined here as legislation that addressedspecific environmental problems. This is evidenced bythe title of the acts which usually reflect the major rea-son or purpose of the legislation (e.g., clean air, cleanwater, solid waste, ocean dumping, wild and scenic riv-ers). As has been articulated elsewhere, these acts andthe programs that were built around them more often
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80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
than not simply converted one environmental problemto another. While no one would argue that the CleanWater Act has resulted in cleaner rivers, lakes, and estu-aries, some of these successes have had an adverse im-pact on other environments. The sludge left from sec-ondary treatment became an ocean dumping problemuntil it was terminated a few years back by anothersectoral law (Ocean Dumping Act). The prohibition ofocean dumping only exacerbated the problem by con-verting it to either an air pollution or landfill problemas alternate ways were considered to dispose of thesludge. The inefficiencies inherent in sectoral environ-mental management were finally recognized when theCoastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) was enacted in1972, one of two environmental programs in the U.S.that called for a comprehensive managementapproach.
Until the passage of CZMA in 1972, nearly all envi-ronmental managers and policy makers were drawnfrom the sciences, planning, economics, geography,and political sciences. Each professional sought to in-terpret, develop, and implement solutions based onhis/her own perception of how the problems ought tobe solved in a normative sense. This sectoral approachto environmental problem solving has often resulted insuboptimal solutions and has neither benefited the en-vironment nor the population for whom the plan wasdeveloped. Over time, it has been recognized that envi-ronmental problem solving can best be accomplishedin an interdisciplinary setting involving the social,physical, and biochemical sciences and, most impor-tantly, the constituencies for whom these programshave been developed. While this lesson seems ratherobvious, considerable opposition has been voiced fromtraditional groups and government bureaucracies,many of whom are attuned to do “business as usual.”To some extent, these problems are related to “turf”considerations, having less to do with how well an in-terdisciplinary approach might solve a problem.
I believe these developments, particularly thoseleading up to the enactment of the National Environ-mental Policy Act (1969) and CZMA, presented aca-demic institutions with a problem as well as an oppor-tunity. The problem, in part, is related to the difficultymany science graduates have in finding suitable em-ployment within their field. In our own department,approximately 50 percent of our matriculating gradu-ate students have undergraduate degrees in natural sci-ences. Many of those have been unsuccessful in find-ing employment in their respective disciplines.
The recognition that socio-environmental problemsrequire an interdisciplinary approach presents universi-ties with opportunities as well as dangers, particularlyin those disciplines which have supplied the bulk ofthe environmental professionals. Furthermore, I be-lieve these developments are likely to have an impact
on both graduate and undergraduate education in theU.S. and elsewhere.
The successful environmental manager of the futurewill have an interdisciplinary education rather than ahighly specialized education as is now the norm. Thisis not to say there will not be a demand for well-edu-cated scientists. I believe, rather, that opportunitieshere will increase in the future, recognizing that envi-ronmental problems will increase, not decrease. Theimplications of these developments are twofold. As in-dicated, I think traditional science departments will be-come more focused and academically challenging, of-fering exciting research and teaching opportunities forstudents and professionals whose primary interest is toteach and do research. The second development is theformation of a series of interdisciplinary departmentswith the primary focus of developing a management-policy-communication professional who is fully con-versant with the most recent theories related to envi-ronmental management. Such a professional must beable to communicate with both the natural and socialscientists, including policy makers, and have the skillsto communicate with the general public. S(he) willhave expertise in law, planning, environmental sci-ence, communication skills and several technical skills,such as GIS, and statistics. The primary purpose of thisprofessional is to act as a link between the scientificcommunity, the general public, and elected officials.That person’s key responsibilities will be to developplans that are viable from an ecosystems point of viewand, to the maximum extent possible, should includethe concerns and objectives of the population who willbe living with the consequences of the environmentaldecision as well as having to pay for the projects eco-nomically, socially, and environmentally. I believe weare already beginning to see the creation of such aca-demic departments both in the U.S. and abroad. Theapproximately two dozen marine affairs departmentsthat offer advanced degrees in coastal management arethe forerunners of other environmental managementand policy departments that will address similar prob-lems except that they will be land based.
PROGRAM MODELSThe organization of marine affairs programs in the
U.S. has basically followed two paths. One relates to theacademic home of the program and the other pertainsto the structural organization of the program. Abouthalf of these initiatives have been developed within ex-isting oceanographic colleges or schools and the bal-ance within arts and science colleges. Structurally, mosthave been “floating programs,” and are best describedas a selection of courses drawn from a number of differ-ent departments. The involvement of the various de-partments is more a function of the faculty’s interest inmarine/coastal management and policy than the
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 81
department’s orientation. The floating department of-ten has no “roof” of its own, which means that bothstudents and classes are spread throughout the campus.The permanent staff often consists of only one or twopeople who act as coordinators or program directors.
The other model consists of programs which havedepartmental, school, or college status and are charac-terized by a permanent faculty, perhaps complementedby adjunct faculty, drawn from within and beyond theinstitution. There are several advantages to this model.Such a program is better able to compete for scarce re-sources (staff, faculty, and budget) during fiscal criseswhich have characterized most public universities in re-cent years. I believe there are other advantages, as well,related to students’ progress and academic welfare. Ifthe program has a “roof” where both students and fac-ulty tend to congregate and where most, if not all, theclasses are taught, it means that both social, and, inparticular, academic interaction are facilitated. Such in-teractions should improve the student’s education aswell as enhance the overall status of the program.
TABLE 1: CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE AFFAIRS/COASTAL MANAGEMENT ACADEMIC PROGRAMS
Academic StructureHome Floating Program Status
Oceanography/Science Based
Social Science
These two models can be illustrated graphically (seeTable 1) where one axis exemplifies the academic homeof the department and the other represents the struc-ture of the program.
During the past several years, there has been grow-ing interest in developing training courses in coastalmanagement, fisheries, and related topics, raising thequestion of the relationship between training and edu-cation. Before briefly discussing this issue, I believe it isimportant to analyze the growth of training coursesboth in the U.S. and abroad. While the differences be-tween the two concepts are not as clear as one wouldlike, the primary purpose of training is to transfer exist-ing information to the trainee in such a way that s(he)may undertake relatively routine activities uponcompletion of the training. This differs from educationwhere the primary purpose is to collect, develop, anddisseminate new knowledge and information. Ideally,the end product of an educational experience shouldbe superior to that of a training experience if for noother reason than the emphasis—especially on thegraduate level—is to identify resource managementproblems and then, based on the student’s academic
experience, begin to develop a set of alternative solu-tions to the problem. What should be obvious, ofcourse, is that before new knowledge can be generated,a lot of informational transfer (i.e., training) will haveto be accomplished. Nonetheless, the key function of auniversity program (whether graduate or postgraduate)is to uncover new knowledge pertinent to the fieldwhich, in this case, is coastal management.
NORTH AMERICAN VERSUS EUROPEANAPPROACHES TO COASTAL MANAGEMENT
There are fairly significant differences between thetraditional North American model of environmentaleducation and that which has evolved in Europe1. Byway of general background, the European tradition hasa much longer history and is based more on self-studycompared to the U.S. model which from a temporalperspective is more rigorous, especially at the under-graduate and master’s levels. The number of requiredcourses in an American university has generally beenhigher compared to the European counterpart. The lat-ter is responsible for showing evidence of overall com-prehension of the material; how it is accomplished isthe student’s responsibility. Historically, this has led toa longer university education for most European stu-dents with total costs (direct and indirect) that tend tobe considerably higher. However, in most Europeancountries, the financial obligation rests with the na-tional government as opposed to the American studentwho is personally responsible for a much higher pro-portion of the cost of education.
Another fundamental difference is the emphasisplaced on the transfer versus the development of infor-mation. In general, the European undergraduate stu-dent is better prepared in basic studies (language,mathematics, writing, and communication) comparedto his North American counterpart. The emphasis inthe U.S. and Canada, especially on the master’s anddoctorate levels, is on problem identification and prob-lem solving. From an environmental point of view,these differences may be related to the different waysin which environmental management has been formu-lated and implemented. For many years in Europe,there has been an emphasis on comprehensive plan-ning, sometimes referred to as physical planning. Inpart, this development is a result of overall higherpopulation densities and the need to allocate and man-age environmental resources from a social equity per-spective. In North America, especially in the U.S., per-sonal property rights have had a much strongertradition resulting in a de-emphasis of that regionaland national planning model. It is suggested that thedifferences in national planning goals have had funda-
1 These comments apply, in particular, to the traditional academicprograms (history, biology, mathematics, etc).
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82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
mental impacts on both educational systems. The Eu-ropean planning and resource management studentviews problems from a comprehensive planning per-spective, whereas the North American emphasis hasbeen to concentrate on identifying a problem followedby the development of a series of possible solutions.Comprehensive planning requires a nationwide com-mitment of both human and economic resources. For avariety of reasons, this has not been considered viablein either the U.S. or Canada.
A third philosophical difference between the twosystems, which may become less significant with afully integrated EU, is the hiring policy which prevailswithin European universities. Most universities inNorth America have instituted policies which effec-tively prevent them from hiring within their own insti-tution. The result has been more cross-fertilization ofideas between and among faculty and students. Thesame pattern has evolved, although to a lesser extent,when students choose what university to attend fortheir higher education. A much higher proportion ofNorth American students seek different educationalprograms at all levels of the educational hierarchy.Consequently, most graduate students will study atdifferent universities from where they received theirprevious degrees. This pattern tends to foster diversityand, generally, results in more and better ideas.
The different paths which the two continents havetaken have had fairly important implications for over-seas coastal aid efforts. Given that many of the hostnations are former colonies of European powers, onewould assume that European-initiated aid would havebeen a comprehensive effort that stressed overallplanning. However, many European coastal aid effortshave stressed technical solutions as opposed to com-prehensive regional approaches to physical planning.Examples include engineering projects such as harbordevelopments and beach stabilization projects.
On the other hand, the U.S. coastal aid efforts havebeen quite different, emphasizing soft approachescompared to European efforts. Most have been in theform of demonstration projects intended to serve asexamples of what can be done with the expectationthat such demonstration projects would be copiedelsewhere.
The suggestion here is that the European educationalmodel, and the way aid money has been spent, hasbeen less successful in solving coastal problems in ahost country. Part of the reason may be the lack of acountrywide comprehensive planning system in mostof the countries that have received donor aid. In thatcontext, the U.S.-oriented model, emphasizing problemidentification and problem solving, may be more ap-propriate in host countries where the physical and so-cial infrastructure is not as developed as it is in Europe.
There is little doubt that what has driven the aca-
demic programs in the U.S. has been the ability toplace graduates in positions where they can use theirnew professional skills. Historically, most of the gradu-ates from U.S. marine affairs (coastal) institutions findemployment with the federal government. As the fed-eral role in coastal management has become decentral-ized, placing more of the implementation burden onthe coastal states, recent job opportunities have beenfound primarily on the state and local levels. One po-tential growth area is the private sector which, duringthe past quarter century, has had to operate within acomplex coastal regulatory system. Another potentialgrowth area is the NGO community, many of whichare becoming increasingly involved in developing,implementing, and managing overseas projects. Thesedevelopments are also part of the federal government’sefforts to decentralize as many of the activities thatwere controlled exclusively from Washington. I believethese developments have resulted in the creation of anew marine affairs concentration which, to some ex-tent, transcends the traditional areas which have char-acterized marine affairs degree programs. For lack of abetter term, we may call this new concentration inter-national marine management. Most European coun-tries do not make a distinction between coastal man-agement, fisheries, pollution abatement, or ports andshipping. Since all are operating within the coastalzone, however it is being defined, most host countrieshave tried to address problems within the broader ru-bric of coastal management.
Should this subject concentration materialize, it willbring a new dimension to what has been identified for25 years as marine affairs and undoubtedly will impactthe way in which marine affairs is being taught in theUnited States and perhaps elsewhere as well.
CONCLUDING REMARKSA lively discussion has begun during the past couple
of years concerning the discipline of coastal manage-ment. This discussion has centered on two related top-ics: the relationship between training and formal edu-cation and the relationship between applied coastalmanagement and coastal management as a full-fledgeddiscipline. It is clear that these issues have not yet beensatisfactorily clarified. Most of the research which hasbeen carried out within the broad rubric of coastalmanagement has been case studies and reports. Whilesuch studies are vitally important to professionalscharged with solving practical coastal problems, thefindings are generally limited to a specific site andcannot easily be transferred to other locations withoutserious risk of failure2.
2 An excellent example of this problem is illustrated by the biennialProceedings of the Coastal Zone Conferences that, in recent years,has approached and sometimes exceeded 5,000 pages, nearly all ofwhich are in the form of case studies.
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 83
The reason for this is that academic coastal profes-sionals have been unable to formulate and test hypoth-eses related to coastal issues. This failure is due, in part,because the number of academic professionals is small,perhaps no more than a few dozen worldwide. Forcoastal management to develop from a strictly appliedactivity to a recognized academic discipline, the ap-proach to problem solving will have to change fromone of solving questions related to a specific site to onewhere the problem(s) will be formulated as a hypoth-esis (theory) which is then tested, accepted (rejected),or restated. In short, a body of hypotheses and theorieswill have to be developed that is unique to coastalmanagement. To the extent that coastal managers uti-lize the scientific approach, the hypotheses and theo-ries are borrowed from allied fields. Examples includepolitical science, geography, economics, ecology, etc.While this is neither wrong nor inappropriate, the so-lutions will invariably reflect the discipline from whichmethods, models, and hypotheses have been invoked.
If coastal management is to make the transitionfrom subfields of established disciplines to a disciplinein its own right with a well-tested research approach,hypotheses, and theories, this evolution is absolutelyessential. Furthermore, the successful creation of such a“philosophy” comprising methods, hypotheses, andeventually theories unique to coastal management willobviate the need for reinventing the wheel every timea coastal professional is confronted with a manage-ment problem which has already been solved some-times in a number of different locations. For this toevolve, the academic profession must redirect its ownresearch emphasis from conventional case studies tobasic research, the primary purpose being to formulateand test coastal hypotheses, develop common researchapproaches and, as far as possible, create a data collec-tion system which can be replicated over a range of dif-ferent locations. The research which will result fromsuch efforts is absolutely essential if we are to moveaway from the “finger-in-the-dike” approach to coastalmanagement which has characterized this profession.
The search for common themes will no doubt befraught with failure. However, negative findings are im-portant contributions to the growing body of coastalmanagement literature as are the research hypotheseswhich have been accepted as truth. This evolutionarystep is identical for every other research activity thatstarted as an interesting research activity and evolved intoa full-fledged discipline. The evolution of ecology involv-ing biologists, hydrologists, soil scientists, and biogeogra-phers is but one recent example. Finally, the successfuldevelopment of a coastal management discipline will re-sult in some direct benefits to coastal practitioners. Theywill be able to apply field-tested models and concepts to alarge class of problems that share approximately the samesocial and physical characteristics.
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84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
MEDCOAST INSTITUTE: A TRAINING PROGRAM ON COASTAL ZONEMANAGEMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN AND THE BLACK SEA
Erdal Özhan and E. B. ÇulhaogluMedcoast Permanent SecretariatMiddle East Technical UniversityAnkara, Turkey
ABSTRACTThere is a great need for expertise on integrated coastal zone management in many Mediterranean andBlack Sea countries. An international certificate program has been started with the financial support ofthe Med-Campus Program of the European Community and institutions collaborating in the NetworkMEDCOAST. This annual program gives “hands-on” training to participants who are selected based ontheir background and job positions.
BACKGROUNDThe MEDCOAST Initiative began with the First In-
ternational Conference on the Mediterranean CoastalEnvironment, MEDCOAST 93 which was held inAntalya, Turkey on November 1-5, 1993. The initiativewas launched with the intention of contributing to theenvironmental management of the Mediterranean andthe Black Sea with research, human resource develop-ment, and by exchanging information and know-how.
MEDCOAST Institute 94, the international trainingprogram on the theme of Coastal Zone Management inthe Mediterranean and the Black Sea, was organizedwithin the framework of the MEDCOAST Initiative, withsupport and contributions of the Network MEDCOASTmember institutions, and the generous financial supportof the European Community through their Med-Cam-pus program. The historical background of theMEDCOAST Initiative, together with various training,research, and information exchange activities whichhave been carried out, will be described in this paper.
OBJECTIVESThe four major objectives of the MEDCOAST Insti-
tutes are:
• To train professionals from the riparian countries onrelevant environmental management issues con-cerning the coastal and sea areas of the Mediterra-nean and the Black Sea with in-class training,observations, and applied research
• To serve as a vehicle and a forum for exchange ofinformation and experience among professionals ofthe Mediterranean and the Black Sea and expertsfrom other coastal countries, for successful coastalzone management practices relevant to the Mediter-ranean and the Black Sea by relying on scientificinformation and modern management tools
• To contribute to the international efforts, such asthe Mediterranean Action Plan, the Global Environ-mental Facility (GEF) Black Sea EnvironmentalProgramme, and the Black Sea Action Plan, by intro-ducing these activities to the participants and bycontributing to the development of human resourcecapacities in the riparian countries where they arevery much needed for the execution of these inter-national programs
• To carry out applied research on various aspects ofcoastal and sea management in the Mediterraneanand Black Sea and contribute to public awareness
PARTICIPANTSThe highest priority target group for the MEDCOAST
Institute 94 participants were professionals holdingmid-management positions in their central govern-ments who are responsible for the planning and execu-tion of programs or projects on coastal and sea issues.The other groups, in decreasing order of priority, wereemployees of coastal municipalities, nongovernmental
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 85
environmental organizations, and universities and re-search centers. The participants were required to have auniversity degree (bachelor of science, engineering, art,or law) in a relevant field, and at least five years of workexperience.
25 participants from 16 Mediterranean and BlackSea countries (see Annex 1) took part in the activitiesof the Institute. The participants’ ages ranged from 22years old to 52 years old. Some details regarding par-ticipants’ backgrounds, degrees, and positions areprovided in Annex 2.
FACULTY AND CONTRIBUTORSThe Institute was developed through the leadership
of Middle East Technical University (METU) in collabo-ration with seven institutions (four universities, one re-search, and two non-governmental professional organi-zations) participating in the Network MEDCOAST in1994. Scientists and professionals from these seven in-stitutions contributed to the curriculum of the Insti-tute. In addition, experts from the Mediterranean Ac-tion Plan (MAP) and the GEF Black Sea EnvironmentalProgramme were invited as guest lecturers to discussthese important international efforts to the partici-pants. The list of faculty members of the MEDCOASTInstitute 94 is given in Annex 3.
CURRICULUMThe program of the MEDCOAST Institute 94 con-
sisted of three parts:
• A two-week training in the classroom on various top-ics related to integrated coastal management (ICM) inthe Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The class,which included formal lectures given by the facultyon various topics related to ICM, incorporated theuse of audiovisual equipment and group exercises(METU Campus, August 22 - September 2, 1994).
• An eight-day field trip on three traditional woodenboats that sailed along the coast of Bodrum Penin-sula and in Gökova Bay, anchoring at places wheresignificant coastal conservation had taken place orwhere participants could observe development ac-tivities, applied research, or have an opportunity toconduct interviews (September 3-11, 1994).
• A two-day concluding workshop included a half-daysimulation game of an ICM scenario, presentationsby the participants, and group work (METU Cam-pus, September 13-14, 1994).
IN-CLASS TRAININGDuring the first two weeks of the Institute, lectures
were delivered by the faculty on various aspects of ICMin the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The topicscovered are listed in Annex 4. Participants were pro-vided a set of course materials that included lecture
notes, earlier papers and reports, and references. Theparticipants and faculty members discussed the lecturefollowing the faculty member presentation. Slides andtransparencies were used in all lectures. PC demonstra-tions and video were also used in some lectures. In ad-dition to the lectures given by the faculty, four groupwork sessions were carried out. During these sessions,various ICM issues were debated. These four groupwork sessions are briefly described:
PRESENTATIONS BY PARTICIPANTSON ICM ISSUES IN THEIR COUNTRIES
When participants were accepted to the Institute,they were asked to prepare a short presentation onICM issues in their countries. The presentations pro-vided general information about the country and de-scribed important ICM issues (e.g., population, area,length of coasts, important coastal uses and problems,existing legislation on coasts, institutional structure).Both faculty and participants found the presentationsvery interesting and instructive.
IMPORTANT COASTAL USES ANDPROBLEMS OF EACH COUNTRY
For their own countries, the participants were askedto list—independently—six coastal uses and ICM prob-lems in decreasing order of importance. The responseswere gathered and evaluated collectively. Urbanizationand energy were ranked as the primary coastal uses bythe majority of participants. Tourism, transportation,ports, and fisheries emerged as the second category ofmost important coastal uses.
According to the participants, the list of importantICM issues in the Mediterranean and Black Sea coun-tries included insufficient infrastructure, hazards to theunderwater world, landscaping or destruction to na-ture, declining biodiversity, coastal erosion, air pollu-tion, water pollution, lack of technical staff, lack oflaws, rapid development, market economy, transporta-tion/industrial hazards, and lack of planning. The ma-jority said that water pollution was the most importantissue while erosion, air pollution, lack of laws, trans-portation, and destruction to nature also were rankedhigh in importance.
PRIMARY COASTAL USES AND PROBLEMSON A REGIONAL SCALE
This exercise had a similar objective as the oneabove, but the perspective was broadened to includeregional seas. The participants were grouped as belong-ing to three geographical regions: the Black Sea, theeastern Mediterranean, and the western Mediterranean.Collectively, the participants debated collectively as tothe important uses of the seas and the ICM issues thatexist in their regions, and negotiated to list six usesand issues in decreasing order of importance. Tourism
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86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
emerged as the primary coastal use in all three regions.The Black Sea and the eastern Mediterranean groupsranked industry as the second most important, whereasthe western Mediterranean group chose urban settle-ments. Ports and harbors, facilities, and transportationwere the third most important use for western Mediter-ranean and Black Sea, whereas it was urbanization forthe eastern Mediterranean.
The primary coastal problem noted by all groupswas pollution. The second was erosion for the westernMediterranean, lack of legal arrangements for the east-ern Mediterranean, and destruction of coastal habitatsfor the Black Sea.
COASTAL USES MATRIXThe participants were given a comprehensive
coastal-use matrix and asked to fill out the relationshipamong various uses as conflicting, complementing, ormutually exclusive, relying on experiences from theirown countries.
FIELD OBSERVATIONS AND INVESTIGATIONSThe field study portion of the Institute provided a
highly valuable experience for both participants and fac-ulty. Faculty and participants traveled on three tradi-tional wooden boats along the coast of Bodrum Penin-sula. The peninsula is the site of a pilot ICM study whilethe coast of Gökova Bay is a specially protected area.
During the boat trip, significant coastal habitats, con-servation areas, and important coastal developmentswere observed. Institute participants conducted inter-views with developers, local NGO representatives, pro-tected area managers, and central government officials.
Participants, in pairs, were assigned topics for de-tailed observation and investigation during the fieldtrip and required to present their reports later duringthe concluding workshop. The topics included harborsand marinas, the controversial airport constructionnext to Güllük Wetland, beaches around the peninsula,coastal uses and issues, tourism development, fisheries,coastal impacts, urbanization, specially protected areas,environmentally sensitive areas, roles of NGOs and lo-cal governments, and appraisal of development withrespect to Turkish shore law. Important aspects of thefield trip were recorded with a video camera to use as adocumentary film for public awareness and educationon ICM issues.
CONCLUDING WORKSHOPOn returning to Ankara, after a one-day break, the
concluding workshop was held. In the first part of theworkshop, participants made presentations with the in-formation they had gathered through observations andinvestigations during the field trip on their assignedtopics. Each presentation was followed by an open dis-cussion. Some of the presentations were excellent. This
activity was very educational and valuable for the fac-ulty and participants.
The scenario of the simulation game, which contin-ued for a full morning, was kindly provided by the In-ternational Academy of the Environment-Geneva. Themulti-party simulation was based on Ibis Bay, an estu-ary located between two municipalities, Meditalya andAegeana. Eight participants acted out the different char-acters who were involved in the “dispute.” The scenariowas based on a dispute among two municipalities. Theproblems included use of the coastal zone, water pollu-tion and a required sewage treatment plant, and financ-ing the treatment plant by involving the central gov-ernment offices and international donor agencies.
The concluding workshop consisted of two parts.The highlight of the field trip was a trip to Sedir Island.This remarkable island, roughly 600 meters long and400 meters wide, is located a few hundred meters off-shore in the Gökova Bay. The island is famous for itsnatural beauty, a variety of archaeological remains, andthe only ooid beach (Cleopatra Beach) along the Turk-ish coast. The group discussed and made conclusionsabout the important resources of Sedir Island, howthey are utilized, and the associated problems. Thegroup debated various aspects of a proper managementplan and important management rules were eventuallydecided by voting. This exercise was very enjoyableand instructive.
In the final hour of the workshop, 300 slides wereshown sequentially from the field trip, depicting theimportant highlights of the field trip and enjoyablescenes of boat life! During the farewell party held thatevening, participants were awarded the Med-CampusCertificate on Coastal Zone Management in the Medi-terranean and the Black Sea.
EVALUATIONParticipants were asked to evaluate the MEDCOAST
Institute 94 activities at two stages; first, after the in-class training, and second, at the conclusion of theworkshop. The participants were asked to comment onthe in-class training, including their views on thechoice of curriculum subjects, group work, lectures,and faculty and to make suggestions for improvements.All participants were asked to complete a questionnaireconcerning all three parts of the Institute. The ques-tions covered many academic matters in addition tothe overall evaluation. Many important suggestionswere received. Some of these will be implemented inthe MEDCOAST Institute 95. With the conclusion ofthe Institute, faculty members wrote evaluation reportsand made valuable suggestions for the next event.
The overall opinion of the participants and facultywas that MEDCOAST Institute 94 was highly successfulas a starting event. The three stages of the Institutewere considered to be appropriate and useful. It was
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 87
the general belief that the Institute provided an oppor-tunity for high-quality training for qualified profes-sionals from the Mediterranean and the Black Seariparian countries.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
• MEDCOAST Institute 94 was a successful beginningfor a balanced, high-quality training course on ICMin the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, designed forprofessionals of the riparian countries who will be in-volved in national or international ICM programs.
• The MEDCOAST Institute 95 is scheduled to takeplace from August 28 to September 15, 1995, in An-kara and Marmaris. The Institute will be slightlymodified in light of the experience gained duringthe 1994 Institute with the suggestions of partici-pants and the faculty. The 1995 Institute will beshortened to three weeks and the role of the partici-pants (presentations, discussions, group work) willbe upgraded. In addition to oral presentations, aposter session will be organized with contributionsfrom the participants. Theoretical lecture informa-tion will be replaced, to some degree, by real casestudies typical of the Mediterranean and the BlackSea. Professional interaction between the facultyand the participants will be increased.
• For 1995, the Network MEDCOAST has increased to10 members including the Polytechnical Universityof Catalonia (Spain), the University of Malta, andTechnion (Israel). It is expected that a greater num-ber of faculty will contribute to the 1995 Institute.
• The MEDCOAST Institute 1994 was sponsoredbasically by the Med-Campus Program of the Euro-pean Communities and the Middle East TechnicalUniversity. It has been agreed that the Global Envi-ronmental Facility (GEF) Black Sea EnvironmentalProgramme Coordinating Unit will be a cosponsorfor professionals from the Black Sea riparian coun-tries at the 1995 Institute.
• A highly condensed version of the 1995 Institutewill be offered as a two-day long short course (Octo-ber 23) prior to the Second International Conferenceon the Mediterranean Coastal Environment,MEDCOAST 95, to be held in Barcelona, Spain,October 24-27, 1995.
REFERENCEÖzhan, E. (1995), “MEDCOAST Initiative: Contributing
to the Environmental Management Coastal and SeaAreas of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea”, InProceedings of the Workshop on Educating CoastalManagers, 5-10 July 1995. Narragansett: Coastal Re-sources Center, The University of Rhode Island.
ANNEX 1: COUNTRIES REPRESENTED BYPARTICIPANTS IN MEDCOAST INSTITUTE 94
Bulgaria 2 Croatia 1 Egypt 1Georgia 1 Israel 1 Italy 1Jordan 1 Libya 1 Morocco 1Rumania 1 Russia 1 Slovenia 1Spain 1 Tunisia 1 Turkey 9Ukraine 1
ANNEX 2: INFORMATION ON THE BACKGROUNDS,DEGREES, AND POSITIONS OF THE PARTICIPANTS
Backgrounds: Engineering 11Natural Sciences 9Social Sciences 5
Degrees: B. Eng., B.S., or B.A. 11M.Eng., M.S., or M.A. 7Ph.D. 7
Positions: Government Agency 13NGO 1University/Research Org. 10Private Sector 1
The Positions of the MEDCOAST Institute 94Participants
• Expert in the Ministry of Environment• Senior Scientist, Project Manager• President of an NGO• Chief Specialist, Ministry of Science and Technology Policy of the Russian Federation• New graduate• University instructor (2)• Researcher (6)• Regional Planner in the Ministry of Environment• Government Consultant• Government Adviser• City Planner• Director of Department
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88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
ANNEX 3: FACULTY MEMBERS WHO CONTRIBUTED TO THE MEDCOAST INSTITUTE ‘94
Prof. Ayƒen Ergin, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, TurkeyDr. Frank van der Meulen, University of Amsterdam, The NetherlandsProf. Erdal Özhan (Head), Middle East Technical University, Ankara, TurkeyDr. Jens Sorensen, University of Massachusetts, Boston, U.S.A.Prof. Adalberto Vallega, University of Genoa and ICCOPS, ItalyMr. Jentje van der Weide-Delft Hydraulics, De Voorst, The NetherlandsProf. Allan T. Williams-University of Glamorgan, Pontypridd, Wales, U.K.Dr. Ljubomir Jeftic, Deputy Coordinator, UNEP-MAP (guest lecturer), Athens, Greece
ANNEX 4: COMPLETE PROGRAM OF THE MEDCOAST INSTITUTE 94
August 21, 1994, Sunday ArrivalAnkara
August 22, 1994, Monday Openingsession
Welcome addresses and general intro-duction to the MEDCOAST Institute94 (Özhan)
Concept and history of ICM and sus-tainable development (Sorensen)
Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) ofUNEP (Jeftic)
Coastal Zone Management (CZM) inthe MAP (Jeftic)
Orientation of the participants (Staff)
August 23, 1994, TuesdayICM, Common methodology using
systems analysisPart A: Basic concepts of the system
approach (vd Weide)ICM, Common methodology using
systems analysisPart B: A general system analogy for the
coast (vd Weide)Coastal resources (Sorensen)Coastal uses (Sorensen)The natural coastal system in a global
perspective (vd Weide)Hydrodynamic processes I (Waves and
wave induced currents) (Ergin)
August 24, 1994, WednesdayHydrodynamic processes II (Waves and
wave induced currents) (Ergin)The coastal and marine systems: Basic
ecological concepts and systems(two lectures) (vd Meulen)
Sightseeing around Ankara
August 25, 1994, ThursdayTransport phenomena and coastal water
quality (Özhan)Coastal water quality management
(Özhan)
Coastal and marine systems: Rockycoastal management (Williams)
Coastal and marine systems: Sandycoasts and dunes (two lectures)(vd Meulen and vd Weide)
Coastal and marine systems: Mudcoasts and wetlands (Williams)
August 26, 1994, FridayEngineering Technology (two lectures)
(Ergin)Coastal development and environmen-
tal impacts (two lectures) (Özhan)Coastal uses and problems at national
and regional levels (group work)(Özhan and Williams)
August 27-28, 1994, Saturday and SundayTrip to Cappadocia (sightseeing)
August 29, 1994, MondayUse of models and decision support
systems in CZM (vd Weide, vdMeulen and Özhan)
ICM techniques and instruments (twolectures) (Sorensen)
Environmental economics (Sorensen)Participants’ presentations on national
ICM issues and practices (groupwork) (All staff)
August 30, 1994, TuesdayBeach management (Williams)Coastal tourism (Özhan)Marinas (Özhan)Specially protected areas I (Özhan)Specially protected areas II (Williams)Sea level rise and challenges for CZM
(Williams)
August 31, 1994, WednesdayGovernance and institutional arrange-
ments (two lectures) (Sorensen)The structure of Agenda 21 for the
Mediterranean (two lectures)(Vallega)
Afternoon Free
September 1, 1994, ThursdayNatural processes and economic
contexts in the Mediterranean area(two lectures) (Vallega)
The role of legal and jurisdictionalMediterranean frameworks (twolectures) (Vallega)
Participants’ presentations on nationalCZM issues and practices (Groupwork) (All staff)
September 2, 1994, FridayCoastal use structure (two lectures)
(Vallega)Coastal use interactions (Group work)
(Vallega)Core issues and possible options
(Vallega)Bodrum Peninsula: Introduction to field
studies (Özhan)Bodrum Peninsula: Introduction to field
studies (Özhan & Kìraç)Training class evaluation by participantsEvening Travel to Bodrum
September 3-11, 1994Field studies along the Bodrum Penin-
sula and the Gökova Bay
September 13, 1994Concluding Workshop at METUParticipants’ presentations of field study
reports
September 14, 1994Concluding Workshop at METUSimulation game on Ibis BayManagement plan of Sedir Island
(Group work)Slide show on the field trip. Course
evaluation questionnaire.
September 14, 1994Banquet and graduation ceremony
September 15, 1994 Departures
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TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS 89
COASTAL MANAGEMENT TRAINING AND DEGREE PROGRAMS:STATUS AND TRENDS
PANELISTS: R. South, L.M. Chou, N. West, J.L. FermanMODERATOR: E. FerrerRAPPORTEUR: Brian Crawford
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
Content:
• How well do programs address needed skills andknowledge?
• To what extent should demand drive the content ofcurricula?
• What are the priorities for course/curriculum/pro-gram development?
Educational Approaches:
• What should the balance be between academiccourses and practicums-internships-theses?
• What are the merits of graduate, professional, andundergraduate degree programs?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of vari-ous educational methods/approaches (adult educa-tional methods, on-the-job training, internships,exchanges, and distance learning)?
• How do training and educational programs differ(content, methods, clients, participants), and whatis the balance between the two?
RAPPORTEUR’S REPORTThere is a wide diversity of university program mod-
els, both in the type of institutional arrangements andin the content of the programs. Many IntegratedCoastal Management (ICM) educational programs havebeen grafted onto existing disciplinary programs and,therefore, reflect the bias of the originating departmentin terms of content emphasis. Some, such as the pro-gram at the University of Technology Sydney, and theUniversity of the South Pacific, have been driven by acareful assessment of needs.
It was the general consensus that a diversity of pro-grams is probably required to meet the varied de-mands. Programs are, in part, a function of existing in-
stitutional arrangements and opportunities. Some pro-grams have started as a specialization in a disciplinaryprogram and have evolved into a separate ICM pro-gram over time. Since needs are driven by the localcontext and institutional setting, it is difficult to deter-mine a “core” curriculum that may apply universally. Abetter approach may be to look at a “framework” cur-riculum from which a core curriculum can be selectedand adapted to any given place. There is a need for abalance between a technical orientation and a policyand management orientation. Determining that bal-ance is difficult and may depend on institutional con-straints and opportunities.
The group agreed that curricula must target differenttypes of individuals. Two basic groups were identified.The first are those who are in traditional disciplinary orsectoral programs such as fisheries, marine science, en-gineering, or forestry. While this group will alwaysidentify themselves with their core discipline, theyneed to broaden their understanding to participate ef-fectively as members of interdisciplinary teams whichcontribute specialized expertise to coastal managementinitiatives. The second group are those who identifythemselves more as coastal managers. These individu-als are general practitioners—and they need a broadperspective and an ability to integrate informationfrom many disciplines. It was also recognized thatsome nations, where local officials attain less than acollege-level education, will require ICM curriculumtargeted at the undergraduate and high school level.Programs need to be designed that carefully considerthe starting point of their clientele.
Regardless of the targeted group, it was felt thatcoastal management practitioners need to be involvedin the educational process, either by teaching a few lec-tures or courses, or by providing internships and prac-tical experience to students. The use of practitionerscan also help compensate for the fact that many uni-versity programs have small numbers of faculty capableof teaching ICM.
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90 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
There is a need to tailor learning to the meaning ofmanagement and, therefore, to the core of the coastalmanagement profession. It is recognized that coastalmanagement is people oriented and requires changinghuman behavior. In addition, the profession needs toidentify the tools, methods, and principles that can beapplied regardless of location or local context. This hasnot been well identified nor has consensus beenachieved in the past.
There was much discussion about demand. Every-one felt the needs are great but difficult to quantify ona broad scale. It was also felt that because ICM is a newand emerging field, local institutions may not be ableto express their needs directly or be aware of theirneeds. In such circumstances, universities may want todevelop training and degree programs which take aproactive approach to spurring demand and catalyzingcoastal management through the pioneering efforts oftheir graduates and through faculty research and publicservice. Needs can be diagnosed by looking at currentgovernance practices and the conditions and trends ofthe coastal resources and environment.
One educational strategy may be to inject coastalmanagement courses into existing programs that areoffered for technical specialists. This will provide acommon framework of terminology and concepts andfoster communication and integration with specialistsfrom other disciplines. The second strategy is to de-velop programs for individuals who identify them-selves as a coastal manager. For these individuals, theirposition title may not be coastal manager even thoughthey perform this role. These are the supervisory levelindividuals who manage interdisciplinary teams andwho have decision-making powers. They are more gen-eralist in nature and play the role of integrator.
There was much discussion about the need for a co-herent method and an approach for the coastal man-agement profession (as established in other profes-sions) that crosses regional, national, political, social,and economic boundaries. However, educational pro-grams must then be tailored to the needs of any givenplace.
It was clearly recognized that coastal management isan interdisciplinary field that, ideally, requires a di-verse and broad range of knowledge and skills. There isa need to prepare the next generation of managers bet-ter since the current generation is failing as evidencedin the decline of coastal quality in many places aroundthe world. This is also an indicator that educationalprograms are not fully meeting needs.
Since the types of people involved in coastal man-agement are diverse, this raises the challenge of provid-ing a core curriculum. On-the-job training and intern-ships need to be given more consideration as aneducational and training strategy, particularly for exist-ing managers. There is certainly a need for individuals
with good communication skills and the ability to inte-grate science and policy, particularly as evidenced inthe United States coastal management experience.However, a flexible curriculum which can be tailored tothe specific needs of individuals must take into ac-count entry level abilities which can vary considerably.A tailor-made curriculum can be selected from theframework curriculum to meet needs for individualsand for any given place.
The group felt that there was a common need for anemphasis in the curriculum on the principles, para-digm, philosophy, and ethics in coastal management.This includes the ability to measure outputs of whethercoastal management efforts are successful. Two generalcategories of indicators are needed: determining thequality of the environment (is the condition improv-ing) and assessing the capability of governance systemsand whether coastal communities are better off. It wasagreed that there is a need for a set of fundamentaltools and concepts as well as an understanding of pastexperience in coastal management as part of the cur-riculum framework. Tools include skills in:
• Resource assessment
• Planning and research evaluation
• Resource economics
• Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
• Communication and group facilitation
• Legal, institutional, policy, and governance analysis
• Social preparation skills (e.g., community organiz-ing, conflict resolution)
Additional skills and attitudes include:
• An ability to integrate a diverse array of technicalinformation and issues (including socioeconomic,political, and cultural issues)
• A common philosophy of ICM which includes theconcept of participation.
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CAPACITY BUILDING EXPERIENCES 91
SECTION 3EXPERIENCE IN CAPACITYBUILDING: CASE STUDIESAND LESSONS LEARNED
Development of the Coastal ResourcesInstitute (CORIN)Somsak Boromthanarat 93
Coastal Resource Management:Education and Capacity Building inGovernment, Community, and the UniversityKenneth R. Brown 97
Building Capacity for Coastal Managementat UniversitiesJ. Stanley Cobb 102
Capacity Building: A Case Study of theMarine Science Institute, University ofthe PhilippinesEdgardo Gomez 110
Rapporteur’s ReportsExperience in Capacity Building:Case Studies and Lessons Learned 115
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CAPACITY BUILDING EXPERIENCES 93
DEVELOPMENT OF THE COASTAL RESOURCES INSTITUTE (CORIN)
Somsak BoromthanaratCoastal Resources InstitutePrince of Songkla UniversityHat Yai, Thailand
ABSTRACTThailand has 2,600km of coastline. Southern Thailand’s economy has been traditionally linked withits coastal resources. With growing pressure from different user groups for coastal resources, such asmangroves, it is inevitable that management plans must be put in place to avoid social problems andto sustain important natural resources. To address these issues, the Coastal Resources Institute(CORIN) was created at Prince of Songkla University with the intent to develop long-range plans forlocal and national governments and other countries in the Asia-Pacific region.
CORIN STRATEGYIt is because of these needs that the Coastal Re-
sources Institute (CORIN) at Prince of Songkla Univer-sity (PSU) in southern Thailand came into being. Theidea for CORIN grew from a cooperative effort betweenthe governments of Thailand and the United States tostrengthen Thailand’s policies institutional capabilitiesin coastal management. CORIN was established in1989 as a result of an agreement between the Univer-sity of Rhode Island and PSU.
CORIN is an interdisciplinary center of excellence inintegrated coastal management within the university.Its aim is to service local and national governments inThailand and other countries in the Asia-Pacific region.
To meet its goals, CORIN has developed a long rangeplan for growth that will strengthen its capacity for In-tegrated Coastal Management (lCM). The growth andstrengthening will be accomplished with the followingactivities:
• Providing opportunities for future education ortraining of CORIN staff and associates
• Developing training courses for coastal resourcemanagers
• Practicing ICM through research, planning, andpolicy formulation
INTRODUCTIONThailand has 2,600km of coastline bordering the
Gulf of Thailand to the east and the Andaman Sea tothe west. More than 70 percent of the Thailand’s coast-line is located on its southern isthmus. SouthernThailand’s economy has traditionally been linked tocoastal resources.
The coastal resources in Thailand are increasinglysubject to conflicts of interest between different re-source users. An example is the management of man-groves in the Pak Phanang River and Bay area in south-ern Thailand. Although the Thai government hasofficially given mangroves a protected status to con-serve valuable genetic resources and to enhance coastalprotection, mangrove forests continue to be displacedbecause of shrimp culture and tree harvesting. Fisher-men, on the other hand, see mangroves as productivefish habitats and want mangroves preserved.
In such a situation, it becomes inevitable that theseareas have to be managed in order to avoid social prob-lems or to avoid the destruction of natural resources.To be able to design a functional management strategy,it is essential that each issue is properly analyzed andthat the impacts of different management strategies areassessed.
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94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
An ICM plan requires the capabilities to analyzethree main components:
• The natural environment
• The socioeconomic system
• The management arrangements
Special attention is paid to the relationship betweenthe functions that are provided by the natural environ-ment and the values that are given to these functionsby society. We concentrate on the construction of a so-called function/value matrix. Such a matrix is a firstand necessary step in the formulation of coastal re-sources management strategies.
Environmental functions can be translated into ser-vices and goods for society. A distinction is made be-tween regulation functions (such as coastal protectionor maintenance of biological diversity), carrier func-tions that provide facilities for human activities (suchas a suitable substrate for agriculture, aquaculture, orhousing), production functions (fish, trees, minerals,water), and information functions (scenery, preserva-tion areas for scientific research, religious or culturalperception of nature).
By using these goods and services, the socioeco-nomic system puts a value on functions. Differentvalues can be identified:
• Social values refer to the quality of life in its broad-est sense (health and safety, housing conditions,religious and cultural values).
• Economic values, both as direct consumption or asinput in other economic activities, are usually ex-pressed in monetary units (cost/benefit of economicsectors such as fishery or aquaculture; householdincome as an indicator of the effects of economicactivities; or gross domestic product as a nationalindicator).
• Ecological values include cross-boundary influenceson other regions or ecosystems, and intergenera-tional aspects that refer to the importance of theenvironmental functions for future generations(usually translated as sustainability).
The CORlN approach can help to clarify the value ofcoastal resources for society and may lead to a moreaccurate weighting of coastal resources in the decision-making process. However, a variety of tasks are re-quired to obtain the relevant data for ICZM frameworkanalysis. The tasks are accomplished by using a set of“tools” for management. They include:
• Participatory rural assessment results in an historicalprofile of the ecological and social changes of thearea and the identification of issues and conflictsplaced in an historical context
• Governance analysis identifies the context of laws,customs organizations, and management strategiesestablished by society to allocate scarce resourcesand competing values for a social purpose, such asmanaging a nation’s coastal resources
• Geographical organization of data (via the technol-ogy of Geographical Information Systems) that al-lows the computerized storage and analysis of geo-graphical databases such as the distribution of soils,land use, and wetlands. This is also a planning toolsince the preparation and analysis of various land-use options can be performed
• Workshops, interviews and “town meetings” that in-volve and inform local citizens and government of-ficials in the development of management policiesand plans.
• Public awareness and environmental education isused to develop the understanding of coastal re-source issues and solutions and to promote citizeninvolvement in the decision-making process and,ultimately, to promote acceptance of policies andplans.
The advantage of CORIN’s approach is that we arebuilding problem-solving skills while working with thepublic and private sectors to address issues that are im-portant for them. Moreover, we transfer our knowledgeand experience to those with whom we are working,making our projects successful with longlasting effects.The benefits of our approach include:
• Use of practical hands-on experience (learning bydoing)
• Building and strengthening local capabilities toprovide necessary technologies and skills
• Local populations become aware of the relationshipsbetween their environment and their economicsituation
• The development of resource management supportslocal and short-term goals, and global and long-termgoals
• Regional networks are developed
CORIN has developed an international trainingcourse in Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) forThai and foreign trainees that has been well attendedby scientists, teachers, managers, government officials,policy makers, and members of the private sector witheducational background ranging from a B.Sc. to a Ph.D.from 15 different countries in Southern and SoutheastAsia, Africa, and the South Pacific region. The three-week training course has attracted 25 to 30 participantsannually. The course aims to familiarize participantswith the concepts and tools of ICZM through research,
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CAPACITY BUILDING EXPERIENCES 95
lectures, group work, and case studies in coastal zoneareas. The course emphasis is on planning and integra-tion, rather than technical details.
The first course in 1992 was in cooperation with theUniversity of Rhode Island. In 1993, CORIN presentedthe course by itself based on the 1992 experience. Inl994, the course gave more attention to quantitativeapproaches, concepts, and tools.
To date, CORIN has welcomed participants, includ-ing researchers, government officers, educators, policymakers, and scientists from 20 nations. We feel confi-dent that they have benefited from our courses as eachyear the number of interested individuals grows, manyof them referred to us by former participants.
CORIN’s course content is broad because we feelthere is a need to provide participants with a strongbase of information. In the future, CORIN would liketo offer at least three courses per year. Our goal is tocontinue to offer workshops that focus on the processof integrated coastal management, while developingcourses that provide more hands-on experience withtools and techniques (e.g., GIS, Remote Sensing). Wealso would like to offer courses that deal with manage-ment of specific habitats. Hopefully, COR1N can de-velop a module that we can package and bring to thoseneighboring countries which are in greatest need ofcoastal management strategies.
Before CORIN was established, the Faculty of Natu-ral Resources only offered undergraduate courses. Asone of CORIN’s missions, CORIN in conjunction withthe Faculty of Natural Resources now offers a master’sdegree program in Coastal Zone Management. CORlNstaff teach the core courses and allow students to learnfrom our experience and case studies. Lastly, we wel-come students to do their thesis work at CORIN.
Students who work closely with CORIN have a greatadvantage as they are able to access faculty membersfrom a variety of disciplines. One unique aspect ofCORIN is that the core staff is comprised of individualsfrom natural sciences as well as social sciences.
CORIN STAFFOur initial goal was to have a core staff of ten and
we have nearly fulfilled that goal (CORIN also has anetwork of associate staff which we rely on to provideexpertise in specific areas of research and study). Lastly,we have other contacts within and outside the univer-sity that we utilize on a project-by-project basis.
CORIN’s network of staff and associates is not lim-ited to those individuals working at PSU; rather CORINis blessed with regional and international contacts. Forexample, there are a variety of individuals in Canada,the United States, Spain, Denmark, and The Nether-lands who are interested in providing assistance andtechnology. These individuals realize the need in Asiafor strong and effective coastal resources management
and are eager to transfer their technology. Year by year,CORIN is growing to become not only a regional bodybut also an international one.
Despite the fact that one of CORIN’s role is educa-tion, CORIN is still learning and consistently trying tostrengthen itself. For example, one of the case studiesthat CORIN worked on was in the area of Pak Phanang.CORIN staff benefited from this experience. We learnedhow to use tools to collect data to support the plan-ning process. CORIN also learned about managementarrangements in terms of the need to see how the play-ers/institutions use resources and the niche thatCORIN can fill among the players.
These lessons have proven to be quite significant toCORIN as they have molded and shaped our ideology.Moreover, we have transferred the results of our experi-ence to other projects with which we are currentlyinvolved.
CORIN TODAYThe development concept of CORlN is that it is cru-
cial to create a holistic integrated resource manage-ment strategy that is based on an understanding ofboth the science and politics of resource management.To deal with coastal resources, that are complex in na-ture, CORIN recognizes the importance of coordinationamong professionals from different disciplines. CORINemploys a programmatic development philosophy thatutilizes complex management issues as tools tostrengthen communities and institutions as coopera-tive, interrelated project participants. Apart from thecore staff members, CORIN works with a number ofprofessional workers of various disciplines, both at PSUand from other agencies and institutions. CORIN iswell-placed as a coordinating link to the multidisci-plinary expertise at the university. CORIN is capable ofproviding a diverse spectrum of highly qualified profes-sional inputs required by ICM programs. Additionally,CORIN continues to host visiting international re-search scientists and is currently facilitating its visitingFulbright scholar in research on coastal resourcesmanagement issues.
Since its establishment, CORIN’s staff has developedconsiderable experience in working with local govern-ments and citizens to understand coastal resources is-sues, such as the exploitation of mangrove areas andthe shift from rice cultivation to intensive shrimpfarming. The CORIN research teams employ socioeco-nomic surveys and ecological, hydrological, and waterquality studies to document problem areas and formu-late management strategies.
CORIN is currently developing a computerized data-base on resource management strategies which areavailable to the public, government, and academic re-searchers at its information center at PSU.
CORIN largely operates independent of the univer-
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96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
sity budget and over the years has been supported bya number sources including the USAID MANRESProgram; the Government of The Netherlands; theEuropean Community; the British Government, ODA;the Government of Canada; CIDA; the InternationalCenter for Living Aquatic Resources ManagementICLARM; and the Thai Government, DTEC.
CORIN is presently involved in a number ofprojects. Some of the most significant ones are high-lighted here.
• Watershed-based approach to problem identificationNakhon Si Thammarat; 1991 to present
• Application of GIS to coastal resource managementNakhon Si Thammarat, Koh Samui; from l99l topresent
• Feasibility study on rehabilitation and resettlementprogram for abandoned shrimp farming areasNakhon Si Thammarat, Samut Sakorn; 1993, com-pleted in March 1995; NESDB
• Policy development on poverty, equity, andsustainability in the management of capture fisher-ies in southern and southeast Asia l991, completedin 1994
• The environmental management of coastal aquacul-ture: a study of shrimp culture in Southern Thailand1994, completed in 1995
• Master plan for shrimp culture in Sabah, Malaysialate 1993 (two-year project)
• Mangrove Rehabilitation: a community-based ap-proach Songkhla, Pattani, initiated late 1993(three-year project)
• Coastal ecosystem responses to deforestation andderived siltation (for critical habitats: mangroves,coral reefs, sea grass beds) Phuket; Trang; late 1993(three-year project)
• Annual training short course on Integrated CoastalZone Management. Various localities, three weeksannually since 1992
CORIN has made some impact regarding howcoastal resources are viewed and utilized. Yet it is evi-dent that the need for wise and sustainable coastal re-source management plans is more crucial than ever.CORIN will dedicate itself to:
• Setting up and maintaining a good database with asmuch information about coastal zone managementissues as possible
• Educating and training individuals in governmentand private sectors about integrated coastal zonemanagement including human resourcesdevelopment
• Being an active recognized group of professionalswho function as a team to address the critical issuesfor wise management of Thailand’s precious coastalresources
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CAPACITY BUILDING EXPERIENCES 97
COASTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT:EDUCATION AND CAPACITY BUILDINGIN GOVERNMENT, COMMUNITY, AND THE UNIVERSITY
Kenneth R. BrownInstitute for Coastal Resource ManagementUniversity of TechnologySydney, Australia
ABSTRACTCoastal Resource Management education is relatively new and suffers (or perhaps benefits) from thelack of an established and traditional discipline base. As such, it benefits from the multidisciplinaryapproach taken at the University of Technology Sydney, and indeed, this was a major reason that acourse was introduced. The course derives benefit from its close linkages with government (national,state, and local), NGOs, industry, and communities—in short, all possible stakeholders in coastalmanagement.
INTRODUCTIONRecent events have encouraged the development of
a Coastal Resource Management Program at the Uni-versity of Technology Sydney (UTS). Postgraduate pro-grams have been designed for those who have taken anundergraduate program in a variety of disciplines in-cluding science, business, management, economics,tourism, law, building, architecture and design, andengineering.
The goals of the program are to:
• Offer interdisciplinary professional courses for workin industry and government
• Conduct the research needed to improve the man-agement of coastal resources
• Collaborate with industry and government to iden-tify areas of concern
• Provide consulting and information resources to in-dustry and government
• Help provide effective solutions to the complexproblems of this area of study
• Enhance community education and awareness inthis area
• Provide the professional skills to work in integratedteams for environmental problem solving, planning,and management
An underlying philosophy of the program is toequip the graduate with the skills of a manager andteam member. These future managers will take respon-sibility for decision-making and conflict resolutionwith respect to coastal resources in government (atvarious levels), industry, and even the community.
The Institute for Coastal Resource Management isable to achieve its aims because it
• Does not see issues simply as either or but instead,considers the economic, environmental, social, andindustrial perspectives
• Concentrates on a multidisciplinary approach
• Is dedicated to an open, participatory process involv-ing academia, government, industry, and community
Graduates of the program are prepared for a careerin coastal resource management as a consultant orworking in government, community, or industry.
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98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
COURSE OFFERINGSThe program has a professional postgraduate qualifi-
cation offered by the multidisciplinary Institute forCoastal Resource Management. Apart from the master’sdegree, graduate diplomas, graduate certificates, anddoctoral degrees, continuing professional educationprograms are offered.
The courses (by semester groupings):
1. Principles of Resource ManagementCoastal Resource PolicyBiosystemsCoastal Environmental ChemistryCoastal GeologyEstuarine and Coastal Hydraulics
2. Resource EvaluationCoastal Biological ResourcesGeological Resources and DevelopmentResource Measurement and Assessment
3. Coastal ManagementCoastal Management and AdministrationRecreation, Tourism and Natural System
ManagementIntegrated Environmental Assessment and
Management
4. Legal and Economic PrinciplesLaw and Coastal ResourcesExperimental Design and Resource ManagementEnvironmental Economics and Ecologically
Sustainable Development
5. Policies and PlanningCoastal Resource ManagementCoastal Planning and DevelopmentPollution Assessment and MonitoringLeisure and Tourism Planning
6. Advanced Multidisciplinary ProjectIndividual research project in CRM
Note: During several semesters, students work inteams, undertaking projects designed to extend them-selves in coastal problem solving. During one semester,teams of three or four work with local communitygroups, and in another semester, teams work with agovernment department(s).
Multidisciplinary projects are an essential compo-nent of the program. The project is seen as a test of astudent’s ability to tackle a project in a multidisci-plinary fashion, involving multiple stakeholders anddrawing on local community support and governmentsupport. In 1994, eight students completed the projectwith the support of local government (five students),state government (two students), and Commonwealth(one student).
BACKGROUNDFollowing the McKinnon report “Oceans of Wealth”
in 1989, a UTS task force (see Fig. 1) received a specialDepartment of Employment, Education and Training(DEET) National Priority (Reserve) grant to investigatethe need and desirability of establishing a Coastal Re-source Management (CRM) course in Australia. Thisgrant also provided basic support for curriculumdesign. The multidisciplinary master’s degree inScience (CRM) is a unique degree in Australia andrepresents an outstanding collaboration across the fivefaculties involved.
Commonwealth (National)Government
$$ to research needs/demands
Funded Student Places
$ $
State Developmental Funds for Course
Development
Programme in "CRM" at UTS
Figure 1. The developmental process in establishingthe coastal resource management course (and Institute)at the University of Technology Sydney.
The need for extensive collaboration with govern-ment agencies, industry, and community groups wasjudged to be an integral component of the course andInstitute in:
• Conceiving the course to meet identifiable needs ofthe stakeholders
• Designing the course, setting objectives, curriculumdevelopment
• Teaching the course, provision for visiting lecturersfrom government and industry
• Monitoring and revising the course and student as-sessments
• Funding arrangements, endowments of a chair orvisiting chairs, equipment, gifts
• Sharing other resources (e.g., libraries, laboratories,field stations)
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CAPACITY BUILDING EXPERIENCES 99
all possible stakeholders. The constituents includedrepresentatives of government departments like fisher-ies, planning, national parks and lands. Governmentagencies included the Water Board, EPA, and the Mari-time Services Board. Finally, other groups includedcommunity organizations such as conservation groupsand NGOs like tourism and the Sydney Coastal Coun-cils. Curriculum development was undertaken in fullcollaboration with these constituents.
Degree. The initial concept both broadened the gradu-ate level material by the multidisciplinary approachand increased the depth of studies. Initially the modeof study was part-time, requiring employees to be re-leased for at least one afternoon per week. The programas initially established was part-time for three years,although it has become a two-year program. A shortdissertation is required in the final semester of themaster’s degree.
Funding. This course is fully subsidized, although it isintended that full-fee paying overseas and Australianstudents will be invited to participate.
Further Developments. The course was established withthe intent to take students from a wide variety of gov-ernment departments, agencies, industries, and com-munity groups. This has been achieved, and to furtherincrease its diversity, a graduate diploma (the master’sprogram but without the research project) and gradu-ate certificates were introduced in 1994. These pro-grams are not subsidized and require that fees be paid.This is attractive to local government. Three studentstook advantage of this program in 1995.
RUNNING THE COURSEWhen the course began in 1992 with the planned
cohort of 15 EFTSUs, 24 part-time students enrolled.There has been a retention rate of 92 percent. Thisgroup will graduate in early 1995.
Subsequent Cohorts. In 1993, 12 full-time students and10 part-time students enrolled. Following a slump inenrollment in 1994 (six new students—typical of theeconomic slump throughout Australia), 17 new stu-dents enrolled in 1995. Their backgrounds are variedranging from business (including banking), law, sci-ence (biology, geology), and resource management.The majority of the new students are from outside UTS.There are no restrictions on age or gender. Studentsmust meet the academic entry requirements and havemanagement potential.
Refinement. The course is under continual review andhas been changed when necessary to keep it in theforefront of the stakeholder’s needs and requirements.
• Provision of students for the course and subsequentemployment of graduates.
In recognition of our involvement with industry, theInstitute was given two grants ($254,000) from theNSW Education and Training to establish short coursesand training modules leading to graduate certificates ordiplomas in association with industry and other groups.
In 1993, the research component had been given afundamental boost with an ARC Mechanism B Infra-structure grant of $240,000. This was seen as furthersupport from the Commonwealth Government and theUniversity for the program. The University ranks allnominated projects and the Commonwealth grantingbody either approves of those rankings or makes itsown. The CRM proposal was primarily ranked by both.
Commonwealth Government
approx. 60% $$
State Governments
Local Governments
University Funding
Figure 2. University funding arrangements in Australia
DEVELOPING THE COURSEParticipants. In Australia, university funding is largelyderived from the national or Commonwealth govern-ment. Additional funds may be derived from stategovernments. The University funding from the Com-monwealth government (see Fig. 2) is based on ap-proved courses and student entry. As a metropolitanuniversity (and third largest in Sydney), only limitedprospects for growth and expansion are permitted bythe Commonwealth. Despite this, and in line with theproposal, UTS had set aside 15 effective full-time stu-dent units (EFTSU)—five from each of the Faculties ofScience, Business, and Engineering—per year from itslimited growth profile in 1992 for the CRM program.This would allow for a total enrollment of 45 studentsover a three-year period. The students would reflect amix of environmental science, tourism and recreation,legal, planning and business (finance and economics)backgrounds.
Curriculum Development. From the outset, the programwas thought of as a joint venture between five facultiesand government/industry. Accordingly, an AdvisoryBoard was being established, with representatives from
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100 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
Government/Industrial/Community Support. Support takesthe following forms:
• Representatives sit on the Advisory Board
• Industry provides facilities for laboratory or fieldwork
• Students are released to attend classes
• Fee payments
• Provision of some visiting lecturers
• Selection of dissertation topics and assessment inconjunction with academic staff
• The project in the final year is paid for by industry,or conducted within industry, thereby ensuring adirect-user benefit
• Access to staff and students for research and projectwork.
RESEARCHThe collaboration between industry, government,
and agencies has produced a range of research projectsincluding estuary management (Port Stephens LocalGovernment, $17,000), Gore Cove Benthic Fauna(Shell Refinery Australia Pty. Ltd., $85,000), Pacific oys-ters (NSW Minister for Fisheries $10,000), and theHawkesbury Ecotoxicology project (Sydney WaterBoard $495,000). Recently, government funds (com-monwealth/state/local) have been received to developmariculture proposals in the Wallis Lake andShoalhaven areas. These, together with the review ofoyster management in the state mariculture technol-ogy parks, have totalled in excess of $150,000 during1993/94. From 1991-1993, the academic staff of theInstitute have attracted research funds in excess of $2million. While collaboration across faculties has beenslow to develop, benefits have started to emerge in theform of improving the opportunities for promotionand successful applications for grant funds.
With internationalization, other benefits haveaccrued such as academic and student exchanges.Opportunities are now being, or have been, pursued atthe Universities of Rhode Island, Massachusetts(Boston), Delaware, Miami (Florida), and Simon Fraser(Vancouver, B.C.) to ascertain the feasibility of theseexchanges as well as linkages to Asian institutions in-cluding Tottori University (Japan). CORIN (Coastal Re-sources Centre) at Prince Songkla University Thailand,has already expressed a desire to establish a bilateral re-search project which would be supported from Austra-lia by AIDAB. The first Memorandum of Understandinghas been signed between the University of RhodeIsland and UTS. Doctoral, master’s (by research), andhonors students now (1994/95) have research programsin CRM.
WHAT BENEFITS ARE EXPECTED?The expectations and benefits from collaborating
with industry or government are many and varied.While each side of a partnership may differ, they maybe summarized thus:
The UTS Institute for Coastal Resource Managementwill:
• Grow
• Improve its reputation and, by extension, that ofthe University
• Develop its research activity
• Potential to use the masters’ course material to setup short courses and distance learning packages
• Improve knowledge of industrial, governmental,and agency procedures and operations
• Increase educational opportunities
• Increase access to company material and real casestudies
• Contribute academic knowledge to industry andgovernment
Whereas industry and government would expect thefollowing benefits:
• Opportunities to influence curricula developmentand institutional thinking
• Recruitment and retention of high-quality graduates
• Opportunities to collaborate on research
• Public relations spin-offs
• A means by which industry/government and theircustomers could speak the same language
• Staff development opportunities leading to morecommitted staff
• Relating academic work to professional experience
• Access to ideas, practice, and higher educationresources
GOVERNANCEIn Australia, the internal structure of universities has
been left largely to the universities and the state gov-ernments. Basically, Australian universities consist of anumber of faculties, schools and/or departments (seeFig. 3). There is a trend to reduce this governance totwo tiers. The Centres and Institutes are seen as bodiescreated for specific purposes, and they are not respon-sible for academic programs. Rather, they may comple-ment and provide a focus for those programs which liewithin the conventional academic unit.
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CAPACITY BUILDING EXPERIENCES 101
Univers i ty
Faculties 9
Schools
Departments
Institutes and Centres
Academic Programmes
Figure 3. The internal governance of the University ofTechnology Sydney is based on the nine faculties, eachof which is divided into a number of schools or depart-ments. Centres and Institutes link the faculties or areinternal.
Advisory BoardIndustry, Government, Community
Academic Board
(University Academic
Governance)
Director and Academic Coordinator
Deans Management
Committee
Interfaculty Committee
Course
Figure 4. The internal governance structure of theInstitute for Coastal Resource Management and itslinkages across the university.
An advisory board consisting of representatives frominterested stakeholders in coastal management in-cludes fisheries, the water board, national parks,CALM, maritime services, and community groups, suchas Landcare, Catchment Committees, tourism and rec-reational activities, meets at least twice a year to advisethe Management Committee and Director (see Fig. 4).
The Director and Business Manager are involved inan intensive liaison with government and industry inAustralia and overseas. Both were involved with theRAC Coastal Zone Enquiry and its various aftermaths,as well as state inquiries.
LIMITATIONSThe main limitations are the lack of dedicated staff
to the program and a location or “home.” Academicstaff are drawn from five faculties (an advantage) andgovernment. Both the director and academic coordina-tor have other major responsibilities in the universityadministration such as teaching programs. So the timeand energy devoted to the Institute must be done inaddition to these other responsibilities. Nevertheless,this may be an advantage as it provides an academic“home” and encourages the cross-disciplinary fertiliza-tion which is the strength of the course.
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102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
BUILDING CAPACITY FOR COASTAL MANAGEMENT AT UNIVERSITIES
J. Stanley CobbDepartment of ZoologyUniversity of Rhode IslandKingston, RI, U.S.A.
ABSTRACTAs the need for integrated coastal management is recognized and grows around the world, so does thedemand for well-trained coastal managers. The education of these coastal managers will be centered atuniversities, but there are very few universities with the experience and resources to meet the demand.This paper addresses some of the issues of strengthening the capacity of universities so they are betterable to prepare the next generation of coastal managers. Most of the lessons outlined here were drawnfrom the experience of the Coastal Resources Center at URI. It is critical to recognize the stage ofdevelopment of an institution when establishing programs or strengthening individuals. Strategicplanning is an important part of the process of a strengthening program since it provides clear steps forthe future and builds consensus among members of the group. Support from university and governmentleaders is another key component for developing a successful program. A long-term commitment isneeded from the university and partners in the strengthening effort. Finally, implementing a newcurriculum, as is likely to be necessary for the educational program, is both an intellectual and apolitical exercise that must be approached carefully. A possible strategy for building university capacitycould be to develop a network of “partner” universities that could provide opportunities to each otherfor faculty analysis and strategic planning and assistance in curriculum development. The partnershipmight be built on the principles of collaboration, information exchange, and participation in smallmanagement projects.
INTRODUCTIONThe field of Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) is
relatively young. Twenty years ago there were approxi-mately 50 programs, most of which were located in de-veloped countries and mostly in the United States. In1993, there were more than 140 programs in 47 na-tions (Sorensen, 1993). The rapid growth of coastalmanagement has been propelled by the great economicand ecological importance of coastal environments andthe rapidly expanding human population in coastalareas. Coastal management agendas have been incor-porated into existing environmental managementagencies or planning agencies in many countries. Insome countries, independent coastal managementagencies have been established. Much of the growth
in coastal management is taking place in developingcountries (Sorensen, 1993). The proliferation of coastalmanagement programs has created a demand forpractitioners skilled in various aspects of ICM.
It is clear that a cadre of new professionals needs tobe created to meet the demands of this new and grow-ing discipline. Stephen Olsen, URI, has written aboutthe skills and knowledge required for coastal managers(see page 3). He points out that there are at least twoaspects central to success—the development in indi-viduals of systems thinking and the capability for prac-ticing adaptive management.
Developing individual expertise in ICM can best beaddressed with specific skills training and through edu-cation at universities. When coastal management pro-
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CAPACITY BUILDING EXPERIENCES 103
grams in the United States were created, university pro-grams and curricula that provide an interdisciplinaryapproach to marine affairs and ocean managementwere established to meet the growing need for practi-tioners (Crawford, et. al., 1993.) Graduate degree pro-grams have been started in a number of universities inother developed countries including Canada, Australia,and Great Britain. However, there are no establisheduniversity degree programs in coastal management indeveloping countries, and there are few ICM institutesor centers at universities. There clearly is a need foruniversity-based education for coastal managers.
Universities play many roles in addition to educa-tion. Two of the most important are research intoscientific and policy problems and the provision of a“place” outside government where the major issuescan be debated in a neutral, or relatively neutral,atmosphere. The discovery of new knowledge, or thereinterpretation of current knowledge, is critical to allfields but especially so in an emerging discipline suchas ICM. Universities are ideally suited for this en-deavor. In many—but not all—parts of the world, uni-versities are viewed as places where ideas and issuescan be discussed and debated in a relatively apoliticalway. If there is to be a testing ground for new ideas inICM, universities are likely to be involved.
Thus the role played by universities should beviewed as crucial to the sustainability of coastal man-agement programs. The Coastal Resources Center(CRC) at the University of Rhode Island has assumedthat the long-range prospects for success of a nation’scoastal management program is enhanced when indi-viduals are educated in ICM. CRC also assumed thatjoint government-university efforts enhance the devel-opment of sound coastal management policy. Universi-ties can undertake research, assist in policy formula-tion, and ultimately adjust their curriculum to producegraduates with the knowledge and skills that ICM prac-titioners require. Part of the rationale underlying theseassumptions was that CRC began as a university centerthat started as the planning and policy arm of theRhode Island Coastal Program and later became a Uni-versity center. Fostering such relationships betweencoastal management units that were USAID/CRMPpartners and an in-country university was a feature ofCRC’s capacity-building efforts in Ecuador, Sri Lanka,and Thailand.
The purpose of this workshop is to facilitate the plan-ning and development necessary for university-basededucation and training programs and to investigate theneed to strengthen universities that are choosing to de-velop programs in coastal management. In this paper Iwill draw from the lessons learned from the work doneby CRC. I will also suggest some strategies for develop-ing ICM programs at selected universities that may be astarting point for discussion during the workshop.
APPROACHThe Coastal Resources Center at URI helped develop
research and educational expertise and programs atuniversities using various strategies. It was not alwaysa clearly stated goal of the long-term coastal manage-ment projects in Ecuador, Sri Lanka, and Thailand un-dertaken through CRC’s USAID-funded Coastal Re-sources Management Program. Nevertheless, therewere some clear themes to the approaches that wereemployed. The first and most important was to buildlinks between government agencies involved in ICMand universities. This was started and facilitated byasking CRC’s counterpart agency to identify one ormore academic institutions as a partner. Faculty mem-bers were contracted for some of the work, focusing onresearch needed to support the development of coastalmanagement policies. This builds expertise in indivi-duals and often involves students in the work. Asecond strategy was to foster the development of aunit (center or institute) devoted to research andpolicy planning for ICM at a selected university in thecountry. A careful organizational analysis and strategicplanning at the outset of initiation of the unit was animportant step. When technical assistance was pro-vided to projects being conducted by university staff,they often worked as counterparts and learned fromeach other. This was particularly true in the develop-ment of joint training courses presented at partneruniversities. Other, more traditional strategies alsowere used, such as study tours, exchange visits, train-ing courses, and fellowships for degree programs in theUnited States. During the last 10 years, CRC haslearned a number of lessons.
LESSONS LEARNEDBy working with partners at several universities,
CRC has gained valuable experience and learned somelessons about strengthening efforts. One obvious obser-vation is that universities differ and a “one size fits all”approach will never work. The nature of a universitydepends upon its political and cultural environment,its mission, and its stage of development. Recognizingthe stage of development of an institution is criticalwhen planning appropriate steps to establish programsor strengthen individuals. An important first step instrengthening a program is to assess the strengths andweaknesses, and then begin the planning process. Sup-port from university leaders (not all of these are admin-istrators) is another critical component of developing asuccessful program. Finally, it is important that theparticipants and funding agencies recognize that tobuild a new discipline within a university may use a lotof money and time. In addition, a long-term commit-ment is needed.
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104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENTUnderstanding the key issues that affect success
and when they are likely to arise in the life cycle of anorganization allows the issues to be identified and in-tervention to be planned so that the organization willcontinue to develop. The developmental stages of non-profit health delivery organizations were suggested byVriesendorp, et. al. (1989). All institutions pass throughsimilar phases, and universities in low-income coun-tries face many of the same problems as other publicinstitutions. I have modified the model of Vriesendorpet al. to be more appropriate for universities (see Table1). In the early stages of development, the focus is onbuilding facilities and acquiring teaching resources,building competence in faculty, and attracting qualitystudents. During the growth phases, universities con-centrate on building programs, defining missions, de-veloping research strengths, and controlling change.Finally, mature universities face quite a different set ofissues including initiating innovation. Most of the uni-versities that CRC works with (ESPOL, Kelaniya,Peridiniya, Chulalongkorn, Kasetsart, Prince ofSongkla, U. Philippines, Silliman) are in either the
growth or mature phases (although Chulalongkorn andKasetsart clearly are established, mature institutions).
The nature of the relationship and the type ofstrengthening efforts to be used will depend stronglyon the stage of development of the university. It also isimportant to factor in the stage of development ofcoastal management in the country—the two willinteract strongly in the strategy planning for strength-ening and developing programs.
CRC made deliberate strengthening efforts at twouniversities in different stages of development. In Ec-uador, the Escuela Superior Politecnica del Litoral(ESPOL) is in the growth stage, having just moved to anew campus. Most of the faculty hold M.S., not Ph.D.,degrees. Research is valued at ESPOL, and faculty areencouraged to do it, but few resources can be directedtoward research support. Almost all the students whogo to ESPOL are from coastal regions. The university issupported by a combination of government and inter-national funds. In Thailand, Prince of Songkla recentlymoved into the intellectual advancement stage, havingrecently completed an enormous growth phase. CRC’srelationship with PSU started during the growth phase.
TABLE 1: A GENERALIZED SCHEME OF THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF UNIVERSITIES, SHOWINGCHARACTERISTICS AND KEY ISSUES FOR EACH STAGE.
STAGE OFDEVELOPMENT CHARACTERISTICS KEY ISSUES
Initiation • undergraduate only, students local • Funding, attracting students and competentfaculty, role of govemment;
• faculty young with little training andare underpaid
• little or no research
Growth • undergrad and a few graduate programs • focus and control of growth (campuses, • faculty generally hold MS degrees, buildings, students); quality and breadth of
may need other jobs, many away programs, administrative capacity;studying for advanced degrees
• research valued but not supported
Intellectual • graduate programs in place • controlling change, developing research advancement • strong financlal support from government expertise, maintaining focus, attracting and
• research valued and supported funding research projects, curricular• students from region innovation, retaining key faculty• regional but not international focus• many faculty studying for Ph.D.
Mature • well known undergraduate and graduate • initiating change, maintaining relevance,programs, faculty governance, funding for new
• faculty older, teaching loads low, research programsknown internationally,
• students from region and world
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CAPACITY BUILDING EXPERIENCES 105
Most of the faculty we collaborated with have M.S. de-grees; the minority hold a Ph.D. degree. Many of thefaculty on staff at PSU were away, at that time, study-ing for doctorates on fellowships from internationaldonors. Funding for university programs and growthcame almost entirely from the Royal Thai government.The university administration was very receptive to theinitiation of a new center and able to appropriatesignificant funding to support it.
INITIAL ASSESSMENT AND STRATEGIC PLANNINGAt the beginning of the project at each institution,
an assessment of the relevant part of the institutionwas done. This served two functions: first, it was an op-portunity for the principal participants to get to knoweach other, and second, a self-assessment paved theway for realistic planning. In each case, the NationalAquatic Resources Agency (NARA) in Sri Lanka, ESPOLin Ecuador, and PSU in Thailand, the assessment in-cluded an overview of the expertise and training of thestaff, the equipment available for research, and the is-sues facing the organization, as well as the nation, incoastal management. The possible nature of an insti-tute was discussed in several meetings. The assessmentand the simple fact that meetings were held was ex-tremely important. Meetings both focused attention onthe proposed changes and allowed people to modifyand buy into ideas. The result of the assessment atNARA was a decision not to do very much, because thelevel of funding was very low, and there were signifi-cant difficulties within the organization. At PSU, onthe other hand, an initial assessment was followed byan intensive strategic planning process that includedmeetings with potential CORIN associates, deans, ad-ministrators, and USAID. A planning document wasproduced (Boromthanarat and Cobb, 1990) that laidthe groundwork for the initiation of CORIN, thestrengthening program at PSU, and defined what wasrequired to accomplish the program. Two separateplanning efforts for a coastal center at ESPOL led to dif-ferent conclusions. The first brief effort resulted in aplan for a relatively small research and policy institutewithout a major curricular component at ESPOL. Theaim was to fund the program through a debt swap. Thesecond effort, much longer and more complete, in-volved faculty from ESPOL and Universidad Catolicaand targeted InterAmerican Development Bank fund-ing. Funding did not materialize in either case. Thusthe three institutions had very different funding situa-tions: at PSU and NARA, funding was availablethrough an existing USAID project. The funds forNARA were sufficient to support a very small program,while at PSU, the funding ranged from adequate togenerous. Unfortunately, the funding was withdrawnby USAID shortly after the project began. Nevertheless,CORIN prospered because of the support of PSU and
other donors. At ESPOL, which was quite a differentsituation, the planning was done in hopes of obtainingfunds.
INSTITUTIONAL LEADERSHIPInvolving university leaders is extremely important.
At PSU, the vision and support of president of the uni-versity (Dr. Pasook) and the energy and contacts of thedirector of the Coastal Resources Institute (Dr. Somsak)led very quickly to a viable institute. The support ofthe president was invaluable, providing a sort of “pro-tected status” to the institute and its director. PresidentPhasook saw to it that appropriate office space was pro-vided in the early planning stages and provided fundsto create new space once the project was underway.Similarly, at ESPOL, Rector Flores was very supportiveof attempts to plan a CRC/ESPOL and appointed a re-spected and admired scientist and administrator, Hec-tor Ayon, to do most of the planning. This permittedaccess to the faculty and administrators who areneeded for planning and proposal writing. Once theCRC/ESPOL was formed, a young and administrativelyinexperienced faculty member was chosen to be the di-rector. He has since been replaced by a new dean.Funding for CRC at ESPOL still has not reached levelsgreat enough to support significant projects. At NARA,the director general had many other administrative re-sponsibilities. However, he took an entire day to attenda seminar on developing an ICM core group, an almostunprecedented length of time. It did not go unnoticedby staff and may have contributed to the initial successof forming a coastal management core group fromwhich a more formal center may one day evolve.
As the person leading these efforts for CRC at URI,my own background and experience has also beenhelpful. As a member of the teaching faculty at URIand an active scientist with research interests in marinebiology, I give seminars and occasional lectures inclasses. These, in turn, have led to a good relationshipwith scientists on the faculty based on a shared back-ground and mutual interests. I also have had some ex-perience in university administration. As such, I canunderstand and sometimes anticipate problems thatmight not be apparent to someone without experiencein some of the arcane ways of universities.
TIME AND MONEYBuilding capacity at universities is time consuming
and expensive. The nature of the intervention and howlong it will take depends on the institution’s stage ofdevelopment. This takes approximately five to tenyears. At universities in the initiation stage of develop-ment, many of the staff need training in English or an-other language before they are able to study abroad fora higher degree. This may take as long as two or threeyears per individual and can be quite expensive. Fac-
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106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
ulty granted fellowships for M.S. study can be expectedto be away for two to three years and for a Ph.D. in sci-ence, up to five years. If the intervention includes on-the-job-training, what we call “learning by doing,” ei-ther a resident advisor or frequent TA visits are needed.These are expensive, but they are important not onlyfor guidance but for the personal contact and continu-ity. Providing equipment for scientific research by thecenter may or may not be an issue. New or updatedequipment is significant. A new center needs a way tointerest faculty from various disciplines.
In the first two stages, many faculty are likely to beaway from the university studying for higher degrees(an MS—the initiation stage—and a Ph.D.—the growthstage). This will cause a significant decline in capacityof the university. This was particularly noticeable atCORIN, where a faculty associate who was particularlyhelpful in the beginning phases of the development ofa special area management plan (part of the “learningby doing” strategy) went to Australia for a Ph.D. andthree potential associates started studying for their doc-torates at URI shortly after the project started. In otherwords, a decline in capacity should be expected whensimultaneous overseas fellowships are provided.“Learning by doing” should take this into account.
A temporary decline in capacity can be somewhatmitigated by insisting that Ph.D. students do theirthesis research in-country, on a topic relevant to theinstitution or project. This is not any more expensive ortime-consuming than traditional study, and it providesconsiderable benefits including better communicationbetween student and home university during the pro-longed period away, a significant piece of research on atopic relevant to the institution (if it can be arranged),and the opportunity for the major professor to visit thecountry at least once to oversee the student’s research.This arrangement worked well for the three PSU facultystudying for their doctorates at URI.
CURRICULAR INNOVATIONDeveloping innovative curricula has been difficult
despite the considerable effort applied to the issues.Course offerings and new curricula have been discussedboth at URI and at PSU. At URI, the Marine AffairsDepartment (MAF) offers undergraduate and master’sdegrees in Marine Affairs, with the possibility for spe-cialization in coastal management. However, there isrelatively little interaction, in terms of teaching, be-tween MAF and CRC, and there has been little opportu-nity to incorporate knowledge from the CRMP intoclasses offered at URI. There is no formal impediment tointeraction, rather history and personalities seem toplay the greatest part in keeping the center and thedepartment relatively separate. At a mature universitysuch as URI, departments often take a conservative tack,guarding the knowledge of a discipline, while centers
play a creative role, moving into areas where traditionaldepartments cannot. It is not surprising that there is alack of understanding of goals and roles in such situa-tions, particularly when the center developed, as is thecase at URI, independently of the department.
A new M.S. degree in Coastal Management waswritten into the workplan for PSU. The plans for a newcurriculum initially were stalled for several years, butrecently an M.S. in Coastal Resource Management wasestablished in the School of Natural Resources. Therewere two main reasons why it was difficult to develop anew curriculum. First, there was no group of people atPSU who knew enough about the discipline of coastalmanagement to teach it. Second, shortly before theproject started, PSU initiated an interdisciplinary M.S.degree in Environmental Management. The adminis-tration asked, quite properly, why they should supporttwo new degrees in areas that seemed, on the face of it,quite similar. It was suggested that Coastal Manage-ment be made a specialization within the Environmen-tal Management degree. However, it was decided thatthe present location, within the School of Natural Re-sources, was more appropriate.
At both URI and PSU, new courses and curricula havebeen suggested and discussed. The outline for an inno-vative curriculum in coastal management has beensketched. However, different internal constraints haveslowed the development of an independent ICM cur-riculum. Curricula specific to integrated coastal manage-ment were enacted some years ago at technical universi-ties in Australia and England. Perhaps such innovationsneed to be started at smaller, more agile universities,then later adopted by larger and more mature ones.
A small but important point arose indirectly fromthis project, through involvement at ESPOL, where thesuccessful curriculum in oceanography is about to bediscontinued. Oceanography will no longer be offeredat ESPOL despite a continuing interest by students be-cause there are too few jobs for their graduates. Suc-cessful programs that respond to a specific demandmay one day saturate the market with individualstrained in that specialty. This is a real possibility forcoastal management. When programs are created, theyshould be approached with this in mind, particularlyin small countries or ones in which there are few re-sources for supporting coastal programs.
STRATEGIES FOR THE FUTURETo members of this workshop, and coastal commu-
nities around the world, the development of a cadre ofeffective coastal managers is an important task. ICM isa new field, and there are very few universities in de-veloped countries with curricula specifically addressingit. There are very few universities in developing coun-tries with formal degree programs in coastal manage-ment, and only a few with institutes or centers devoted
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CAPACITY BUILDING EXPERIENCES 107
to integrated management of coastal areas. Given hownew the field is, this is not unexpected. However, it isclear that there is a great need to develop individualswho can work in government agencies, NGOs, anduniversities to initiate, support, and sustain effectivecoastal management in their countries. These indivi-duals will be educated at universities. Therefore, it isimperative that efforts be directed at selected coastaluniversities to enhance their capacity in practicing andteaching coastal management. A number of strategiesmight be suggested to universities in developing coun-tries that are or wish to be involved in the education offuture coastal managers.
ICM can be thought of as ecosystem management incoastal areas. Practitioners in this field must be able tointegrate concepts and information from a wide rangeof traditional disciplines spanning natural science, eco-nomics, law, anthropology, and human behavior ifthey are to produce, test, and refine resource manage-ment strategies that make a difference (Olsen, 1993).Schroeder (1993) identified five key components thatmust be addressed in order to achieve integratedmanagement:
• The nature of the managed system
• The balance between economic development,environmental protection, and social values
• Legal and jurisdictional considerations
• Wide participation in decision-making andmanagement
• A strategic and adaptive approach allowing changeafter evaluation
People skilled in each of these areas will always beneeded. However, it is also clear that for effective ac-tion, we need people who are specialists in the art andscience of integrative thinking for effective action.Education for integrated ecosystem managers shouldbe designed “to impart the skills and knowledge re-quired to be an effective agent of change in the rapidlyevolving, technically complex field of ecosystem man-agement” (Olsen, 1993). To accomplish this, universi-ties must develop programs that are not confinedwithin narrow definitions, but that cut across tradi-tional fields in a transdisciplinary manner. This willnot be easy, nor will it be quick because this approachis new and the field is new, and training new faculty, orretraining present faculty, is a long-term process.Change will require long-term efforts directed towardsstrengthening universities and individuals at thoseuniversities.
University strengthening has played an importantrole in international development efforts for manyyears. Typical interventions include fellowships forselected faculty to study toward an advanced degree,
equipment and other resources, and assistance withresearch or curricular projects. Often a university in adeveloped country will be linked with one or moreuniversities in developing countries. This has not beena high-priority approach, particularly within USAID inrecent years, and efforts directed towards universitystrengthening have declined. There is no indication itwill receive high priority in the near future. Neverthe-less, the issue is critical to the development of anyfield, particularly one as new as ICM.
BUILDING UNIVERSITY CAPACITY IN ICMThe fundamental strategy is to develop centers of
excellence in coastal management at strategic locationsin coastal universities throughout the world. Each cen-ter would draw upon faculty throughout the universityto develop interdisciplinary teams of individuals towork on coastal management projects or teaching. Todevelop and strengthen these centers and the individu-als associated with them, it might be useful to developa “partner” relationship among selected universitiesand/or institutes that practice coastal management.The partnership would strengthen individuals and sup-port course and curricula development that addressesintegrated ecosystem management. It is likely that thiswill be done in sequence and over a relatively long pe-riod of time. Before a course can be implemented or anew curriculum proposed, individuals must be experi-enced in the practice of coastal management. There arefour parts to this strategy:
• To provide opportunities to individual faculty forparticipation in coastal management projects
• To provide assistance in the planning for develop-ment or strengthening of centers and curricula
• To develop courses and curricula in coastal manage-ment in partnership with universities in othercountries
• To build partnerships among universities active incoastal management to work together to implementthe previous three.
OPPORTUNITIES FOR PRACTICEOne of the most successful strategies for learning is
the simplest—to practice, with guidance, the tasks tobe learned. Individuals at universities who want tolearn more skills in coastal management can be en-couraged to work on projects that will build theirknowledge and abilities. CRC at URI has had ample ex-perience in providing opportunities to university staff.However, most of these individuals were hired for theirabilities, ensuring that projects were completed in anexpert and timely fashion. If it were possible to providefunding for small stipends and travel support, then in-experienced individuals at partner universities who
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108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
wished to become experts in ICM could work alongwith, or under the direction of, seasoned ICM profes-sionals on projects at partner institutions or in partnercountries. These “Coastal Management Fellows” wouldperform tasks commensurate with their skills, and de-velop new capabilities. The nature of the tasks assignedmight range from assisting in the preparation of atraining course, to accompanying a seasoned ICM pro-fessional on a visit devoted to research or policy imple-mentation, to perhaps a longer placement at a partneruniversity. In all, the long range goal would be todevelop the individual into a more accomplished CRMpractitioner.
INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSISAND STRATEGIC PLANNING
Strengthening organizations is a complex andlengthy procedure and involves many activities. Centralto these activities is the strategic planning process, a de-fined and organized effort to make decisions and pro-pose actions that will shape the future of the institution.The members of the organization jointly decide whatthe organization is, what it does, and why it does it. Theprocess requires gathering information about the organi-zation itself, and about the environment in which it op-erates. It also requires participation and communicationamong members of the organization, which will, in thelong run, assist in the implementation of the plans. CRChas had some experience in providing strategic planningin university settings. In partnership with experiencedmembers of a coastal management university network,planning advice could become readily available to otheruniversities as they embark on the development of newefforts in coastal management.
COURSES AND CURRICULAThe education of a cadre of coastal managers will re-
quire the development of new courses and curricula atuniversities. Activity along these lines has alreadystarted, particularly in developed countries, with a fewuniversities in several nations offering degrees incoastal management. In developing countries, al-though no formal programs are in place, discussionshave started, and are being facilitated through interna-tional workshops addressing the nature and structureof education supporting integrated coastal manage-ment. Assistance may be offered for the developmentof courses and curricula at universities in several ways:with planning assistance for courses, curricula andtraining sessions, through the presentation of work-shops and facilitation of study tours, by facilitatingsabbaticals and leaves for teaching coastal managementat overseas universities, and by developing and provid-ing for a small library of coastal management books.
It may also be possible to develop an internationalmaster’s degree in coastal management offered by URI
and partner universities in other countries. This pro-gram might be made up of an interdisciplinary team offaculty drawn from URI and other universities, perhapsstarting with those represented at this workshop. Thecore of the course work could be offered at the Univer-sity of Rhode Island, while specialty courses and fieldwork for the thesis would be offered at partner univer-sities. A program such as this might be developedthrough discussion with the URI Marine Affairs Depart-ment. The workshop paper by David Gitlitz exploresthese ideas further (see page 119).
PARTNERSHIPSAccomplishing these goals will not be easy. Each
goal, however, suggests building on the experience ofothers and working in collaboration with individuals atother universities. A way to implement this might beto develop a formal partnership among selected univer-sities interested in coastal management. A partnershipshould be built on the principles of collaboration, in-formation exchange, and participation in small, fo-cused, coastal management projects. A partnershipwould link universities, each with its own coastal man-agement team. Four goals might be suggested:
• To increase the collaboration among individuals in-volved with coastal management in developed anddeveloping countries
• To strengthen individuals and institutions in theirability to conduct research, policy development, andplanning in coastal management
• To promote good quality research, policy develop-ment, and planning efforts in developing countries
• To promote the exchange of information and expe-rience among members of the partnership
A partnership will require a center where communi-cation is facilitated and funding can be coordinated, aswell as providing and administering funds for smallgrants for coastal management initiatives which aredistinctly collaborative. Collaborators would comefrom the partner institutions themselves as well as in-ternational experts. The partnership could run work-shops on topics of interest to the collaborators, publisha newsletter, proceedings of workshops, and supportthe publications of articles by members. It should sup-port faculty and staff exchange visits among memberinstitutions. Finally, the partnership would assist in de-veloping of curricula and training courses throughtechnical advice and helping to find funding.
The partnership might provide small amounts offunds to stimulate interdisciplinary approaches tocoastal management at the partner institutions. Theemphasis should be on projects that are site-specificand oriented towards policy and planning, and engagethe participants in the process of governance. Each of
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CAPACITY BUILDING EXPERIENCES 109
these would include many or all of the components ofIntegrated Coastal Zone Management: ecological ap-praisal, institutional and legal analysis, public aware-ness and public education, policy planning and formu-lation, and implementation. In each component, localand national government must play an important role,and, from the beginning, will be deliberately broughtinto the project and linked to the university partner.
REFERENCES
Boromthanarat, S. and Cobb, J.S. (1990). Planning forthe future: a strengthening strategy. CORIN workingpaper #1, Coastal Resources Institute, Prince ofSongkla University, Hat Yai, Thailand.
Crawford, B.R., Cobb, J.S. & Friedman, A. (1993). Build-ing capacity for integrated coastal management indeveloping countries. Ocean and Coastal Manage-ment, 21, 311-337.
Schröder, P.C. (1993). The need for internationaltraining in coastal management. Ocean and CoastalManagement, 21, 303-310
Vriesendorp, S., Cobb, L., Helfenbein, S., Levine, J.,Wolff Jr., J. (1989). A framework for management devel-opment of family planning programs. Paper presentedat the 117th meeting of the American Public HealthAssociation, Il. Chicago, Il.
Sorensen, J. (1993). The international proliferation ofintegrated coastal management efforts. Ocean andCoastal Management, 21, 45-80.
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110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
CAPACITY BUILDING: A CASE STUDY OF THEMARINE SCIENCE INSTITUTE, UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
Edgardo D. GomezMarine Science InstituteUniversity of the PhilippinesQuezon City, Philippines
ABSTRACTThe Marine Science Institute at the University of the Philippines has grown from a single office in 1974to an institute with many faculty and staff, several buildings, and active research, outreach, andgraduate degree programs. Key factors in the development of MSI were clear goals, leadership, staffdevelopment, and fostering a spirit of cooperation. Budget growth, which was very rapid is modestnow, imposing constraints on further growth of MSI.
INTRODUCTIONThe Establishment of the Marine Sciences Center.The Marine Science Institute (MSI) started from veryhumble beginnings in 1974. With very limited re-sources, the University of the Philippines (UP) decidedto establish a research center that was to be called theMarine Sciences Center (MSC).
Following the completion of my Ph.D. studies atScripps Institution of Oceanography in 1973, I joinedUP in June 1974 as an assistant professor with a con-current appointment as Acting Director of the incipi-ent MSC. But MSC at that time (June 1974) existed ontwo sheets of paper. One of the first things to do was tofind space where I could set up the office. I was fortu-nate enough to get office space in the Natural SciencesResearch Institute. But this Institute was being used bymany departments. We had been given such limitedspace that I had to look around for more. An aban-doned plant physiology building became our first labo-ratory which we used for about 10 years. Since these fa-cilities were on the main campus of the university inMetro Manila, it was necessary to look for a site for amarine laboratory on the coast. In the early 1980s,construction of the Bolinao Marine Laboratory (BML)began with a modest building. Subsequently, fundswere provided by the Philippine government as a coun-terpart to a UNDP project of MSI to expand the facilityto its present state which includes eight separatebuildings.
In its first 10 years of existence, MSC was purely abase of marine research at the University. Its manpowerconsisted of research and administrative personnel.Faculty members from the departments of botany,zoology, chemistry, and the College of Medicine weredoing research with the Center.
The Transformation into the Marine Science Insti-tute. The Marine Sciences Center was transformed intothe Marine Science Institute (MSI) in 1985, while theDepartments of Botany and Zoology ceased to exist asseparate departments and were fused into the Instituteof Biology. A number of the faculty members of Botanyand Zoology joined the new MSI. The Institute adoptedthe master’s degree program in Marine Biology whichused to be administered by the Department of Zoology.The newly established Bolinao Marine Laboratory(BML) served as the site for various research groups. Atabout this time, the first students who had finishedtheir doctoral studies abroad started to return to aug-ment the faculty ranks. These former research assis-tants of the MSC had done well.
THE MARINE SCIENCE INSTITUTEMandates. The transformation of MSI from a Center toan Institute takes into account its capacity for func-tional expansion. The main thrusts of the Institute areresearch and instruction. Extension services being
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CAPACITY BUILDING EXPERIENCES 111
developed. It operates to meet three specific objectives:
1. To generate basic information necessary for optimaland sustained utilization, management, and conser-vation of the marine environment and its resources.
2. To provide graduate level training and extension ser-vices to develop manpower requirements in marinesciences.
3. To develop appropriate and environmentally soundtechnology for industrial and economic develop-ment related to marine resources.
The MSI is headed by a director who is assisted bythree deputy directors—one each for research, instruc-tion, and the BML. MSI is a small department al-though, as of today, it has 14 faculty members. Thereare no bachelor’s or master’s degree holders on our fac-ulty because our recruitment procedures are differentfrom other departments, many of which draw their fac-ulty from among their graduates who have just com-pleted their bachelor’s degrees. In the case of MSI,those with bachelor’s degrees are placed on the Re-search and Extension Personnel (REPS) track and makeup the research staff. After they have earned a doctor-ate, they are taken back as researchers or as facultymembers. In this manner, we are able to build a facultymade up entirely of those who hold doctoral degrees.
Instruction. The courses now offered at MSI are theM.Sc. degree in Marine Science with majors in MarineBiology and Marine Physical Science, and a Ph.D. inMarine Science. The graduate students are given thechance to undertake their thesis or dissertation re-search within the context of existing projects of theInstitute. Through occasional grants, MSI is able toprovide a limited number of scholarships to highlyqualified students.
While we try to emphasize research, we do not sacri-fice teaching. We are doing our part in terms of devel-oping a graduate program. We are the only institutionin the country that offers a Ph.D. program in the fieldof Marine Science. We have some 15 Ph.D. students ina program, which is about five years old now, and wehave 36 master’s degree students.
I believe we have produced some of the best gradu-ate students in the College of Science, if not in thewhole University. The Dean’s medal for the outstand-ing graduate student started about a decade ago and, inthat period, four of the outstanding graduates werefrom the MSI. I am confident we will produce more ofthe same calibre of students as we are determined tomaintain the trademark of excellence in training andteaching young people to be scientists.
MSI also organizes and conducts training courses forboth local and international participants. Both the MSIfaculty and staff serve as trainers or resource speakers
for these training courses. These courses have tendedto focus on methodologies related to specific disci-plines or commodities (e.g., coral and seaweed tax-onomy, giant clam culture, and benthic surveys). Morerecently, training courses have been done in relation tocoastal resources management. It is through thesetraining activities that the Institute has initiated itseducational activities in coastal area management.
While there are no formal courses in this area, thepossibility exists for evolving a curricular program, ini-tially in collaboration with other departments of theuniversity. The basic concept for this was mentioned inan earlier paper presented in Singapore (Gomez, 1991).Since the MSI faculty is presently limited to natural sci-entists, it would be necessary to rely on faculty fromother disciplines to handle the courses outside thenatural sciences. Such a program could involve a col-laborative arrangement with the College of Social Workand Community Development with which we are cur-rently working on a community-based coastal resourcesmanagement project in Bolinao, Pangasinan, the site ofour marine laboratory. No concrete steps have beentaken to create a curriculum, although the results ofthe Singapore workshop and the recommendationsemanating from this meeting could be a beginning.
Research. MSI has expanded its capabilities for con-ducting scientific research by training its technicalpersonnel and by enhancing the research facilitiesthrough grants and cooperative research. Our researchincludes the biology of red tide-causing organisms,plankton ecology, coral reef and seagrass ecosystems,seaweed and invertebrate biology, mariculture,nearshore and offshore oceanographic processes, bio-chemical studies on conotoxins, and natural productschemistry of seaweeds and invertebrates. All membersof the faculty are engaged in research work. From lessthan 10 researchers when MSC was first established, wehave increased the number of research staff to morethan 100. Our selection procedure assures that we hirethe cream of the crop and the various trainings andchallenges that become available to them make theseresearch personnel better trained.
MSI has established linkages with a number of na-tional organizations including the Philippine Councilfor Aquatic and Marine Research and Development(PCAMRD), the National Research Council of the Phil-ippines (NRCP), and the Philippine Association of Ma-rine Science (PAMS). The Institute is also represented inthe following international organizations: the AsianFisheries Society, the Association of Southeast AsianMarine Scientists, the Joint Group of Experts on theScientific Aspects of Marine Protection (GESAMP), theWorld Conservation Union (IUCN), the InternationalAssociation of Biological Oceanographers (IABO), thePacific Science Association (Scientific Committee on
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112 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
Coral Reefs), the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Re-search (SCOR), and the Scientific Steering Committeeof the Land-Ocean Interactions on the Coastal Zone(LOICZ) of the International Geosphere-BiosphereProgramme (IGBP).
Outreach. As the Institute expands its capabilities,there is more pressure to perform services for otherinstitutions outside of the instruction and trainingmentioned previously. As might be expected, serviceareas have been limited generally to the expertise avail-able in the Institute. It is gratifying to note, however,that from a few biological topics, the scientific man-power in the Institute has expanded to include thephysical sciences. In some instances, the Institute’scapabilities are complemented by those of other de-partments. As a concrete example, the Institute is as-sisting the capacity-building initiatives of a state col-lege in the southern island of Mindanao. Anotherdepartment of the University is assisting them in thefield of geological sciences.
Another initiative the Institute has undertaken isnetworking in the marine sciences. Through a series ofworkshops on the marine science capabilities in thecountry, it was learned that communication and link-ages needed to be improved upon among individualsand institutions. Out of this need arose the establish-ment of the Philippine Association of Marine Science(PAMS) which now links virtually all institutions in thecountry with established marine science programs.This association holds periodic national symposia thatserve as a way for marine scientists from all parts of thecountry to meet. While the MSI catalyzed the forma-tion of PAMS, the latter has a charter of its own. Never-theless, MSI continues to give substantial support, nowmostly moral support, since it is the largest and stron-gest single unit in the field of marine science in thecountry and trains staff from many of the other marinescience-related institutions including fisheries colleges.This model could serve as a prototype for capacitybuilding in developing countries.
Facilities. The facilities of MSI meet the instructionand research requirements of the faculty and the staff.The main building (10,000m2) is located in the sciencecomplex of the Diliman Campus of the University. It isequipped with research laboratories, classrooms, audio-visual facilities, a library, a museum, and an herbarium.
Even before the MSI building was constructed, theInstitute was able to get two sizable grants from whatwas then the Department of Natural Resources (nowknown as the Department of Environment and NaturalResources). One grant funded the Seaweed ProcessingProject which allowed us to set up the Seaweed Chem-istry Building and Pilot Plant. We developed the tech-nology to process our seaweeds which were being ex-
ported raw. Thus the pilot plant was set up and the In-stitute was indeed able to develop a process and topatent that process for carrageen. The other big projectwas the investigation of coral resources in the Philip-pines. This project allowed us to build a second build-ing, referred to as the Coral Laboratory.
Both of these projects cost something on the orderof P200,000 to P300,000 (USD 35,000-50,000 in 1980),but with that money, we were able to build two build-ings. So, while we did not have our own buildings, wewere able to construct these two small laboratorieswhich became the powerhouse that allowed us to gaincredibility in the field of marine science.
The Marine Science Institute has other facilities.One of these is the Bolinao Marine Laboratory (BML)which sits on a five-hectare piece of land on the shoresof Lingayen Gulf in Pangasinan. Our facilities includethe main laboratory, the administration building, thediving locker, dormitories, and housing units for seniorstaff. It also has culture tanks in which giant clams,lobsters, sea urchins, and seaweeds are grown. Anocean nursery for giant clams is set up in the field.These are enclosures with plastic cages where juvenileclams are kept until they are large enough to escapepredation, at which point, they are set on the seabottom in shallow water.
The BML also houses a number of small skiffs andboats, basic field instruments and scuba gear, comput-ers, and other specialized laboratories for trace ele-ments, biochemistry and toxinology, organic chemis-try, and natural products. Other laboratories focus onseaweeds, seagrass, energy dynamics of coral reefs, andplankton ecology. Besides doing work in the labora-tory, the Institute also conducts research at sea. This isdone in collaboration with agencies with researchvessels.
Having had a series of projects funded externally hasallowed us to slowly acquire equipment. Right now, wehave about two to three computers per project leader.And if we were to include the research personnel, wecould have perhaps one computer for every two peopleat the Institute.
Why this emphasis on computers? Less than a de-cade after my doctoral studies, I had the opportunity tovisit my alma mater. I was surprised to see that the sec-retaries each had a computer station. I told myself thatin order to keep up with the rest of the scientific com-munity, we had to go electronic. Otherwise, we wouldnever be able to do our work at the rate that the devel-oped world was advancing. So we made a very strongattempt in the early 1980s to get some of our originalPCs. We were able to buy a Radio Shack TRS-80 and,subsequently, get a donation of a KayPro. Then theIBMs and the IBM compatibles started to come in.Now, everybody wants a personal computer, both forword processing and data analysis. I feel that unless we
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CAPACITY BUILDING EXPERIENCES 113
catch up equipment-wise with the rest of the world, itis going to be difficult to keep abreast.
Another feature of MSI is our special library withholdings acquired largely through exchange. The Sea-weed and Invertebrate Information Center, which hascataloged practically all known data and informationabout seaweeds in the Philippines, has been integratedwith our library. We are also now trying to catalogsome of the commercially important invertebrates.Additionally, we have established an herbarium, whichhouses a rich collection of seaweeds and seagrassesfrom all over the country. A reference museum collec-tion of marine fishes and corals is being improved.
FACTORS FOR GROWTH AND ADVANCEMENTFirst and foremost, a vision or clear goals set should
be set which are understood and generally accepted.For MSI, we decided early on to be the best marine sci-ence institution in the country initially, and in South-east Asia within the 20th century. Within this timeframe we wanted to be on the same footing as the bet-ter institutions in the developed countries.
Good leadership is highly essential in steering anyorganization in the right direction. But leadership isjust one thing—good staff is another. We are lucky tohave talented people who are dedicated to their work,determined to achieve high goals, and hungry for ful-fillment in their chosen fields. Most of them had beenour research assistants and students. My free-and-easyassociation with them then has proven handy nowthat they are equal partners in scientific ventures. Hav-ing harbored highly dynamic and intelligent people atMSI and staying even-tempered during potentially ex-plosive situations has been beneficial. Jealousy has noroom at the Institute—it cripples growth. Instead, wetry to share and provide opportunities with and for ev-erybody. We probably have an unspoken understand-ing that our individual actions determine our collectivedestiny, thus, everybody is responsible and gives theirbest.
In addition to the research and teaching that we doon campus or in other parts of the Philippines, we ana-lyze our research data and publish papers in the openliterature. We have been fortunate enough to send ourresearch assistants abroad to attend conferences. Usu-ally, it is the senior staff that is off somewhere. The ma-jority of activities they attend are scientific symposia.
Well, I think I should wind down and discuss some-thing I call “limits to growth.” I think we all sufferfrom budget constraints. The MSI began operating in1975 with a budget of about P200,000, and after we de-veloped and organized, this went up to about P500,000from 1976 to 1982 and remained relatively stable. Ap-parently, MSC suffered from benign neglect by the Uni-versity during this period, but in 1983 the PhilippineCouncil for Agriculture and Resources Research and De-
velopment went to the Department of Budget andManagement and, pointing to our research productiv-ity, asked them to raise our budget by about 1.3 mil-lion. It took some help from the outside the universityto make that happen.
In 1986 we started to get the Philippine governmentcounterpart to our UNDP project. The increment wasbecause we had the Bolinao facility to develop and ex-pand. After that, increased funding was given in termsof general salary adjustments. The government budgethas more or less stabilized from 1988 to the present,with slight increases because of the personnelcomponent.
The greater share of the Institute’s budget representsthe external funds generated which necessarily show abit of a fluctuation. But here is where the big funds, in-cluding the UNDP project and the regional ASEANprojects, came in. From about 1985 to the present, wehave been able to generate substantial external sup-port. I think if we are to average these funds and com-pare them with the government support (with the pos-sible exception of the infrastructure that has beengiven to us), for every P1.00 that we get from the Uni-versity, we bring in P2.00. I am not sure how long wecan sustain that, but we’ll keep trying. There are somelimitations to what we can do because of our budgetaryconstraints. I wish there were a way to increase the UPsupport, particularly for operations.
I suppose I do not have to elaborate on some of theconstraints in terms of administrative support. Westruggle perennially with some of these problems in-cluding the support, or the lack thereof, from the Cam-pus Planning and Development Office for some of ourinfrastructure development. And, invariably, a little bitof politics comes into play which sometimes slows ourdevelopment and the ability to move forward.
THE FUTURE AT A GLANCEFinally, let me end with a few words about the fu-
ture. I think it is important to emphasize the trend to-wards globalization. Today, we are faced with manyprograms that are globally significant. Unfortunately,the Philippines is not well-prepared to meet the needsof these global programs. I hope that at MSI we canmake our contribution by training people, includingsome of our staff, to properly respond to these globalneeds. There are many areas of science that call for in-ternational cooperation and, unless you have the rightkind of people who are properly trained and have thecredibility, it will be difficult for the Philippines to linkup with other countries to hold its own in the worldcommunity.
This, essentially, brings to an end the points I wantto share with you. Don’t forget, we got where we areworking now under the same conditions as everybodyelse in the University. We have been fortunate in hav-
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114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
ing been able to recruit people who have measured upto our expectations. What is important is that the spir-its of cooperation and competitiveness are maintained.It is important that people are supportive of one an-other. My hope is that from among these 14 facultymembers of the MSI, at least half of them will becomereal racers, and they will have a multiplier effect andbring in resources. At the same time, they will continueto do important and relevant science and train youngpeople that need to be trained, so that MSI can standin a world community as a proper institution of higherlearning.
I think we are now at the vantage point that ifeveryone does their part, no one will question ourposition in the field of marine science. Significantly,on December 15,1994, President Fidel V. Ramos pro-claimed MSI a National Center for Excellence. The nextgoal is for MSI to be the best tropical marine scienceinstitution in the world.
REFERENCE
Gomez, E.D. (1991). Marine science education in thePhilippines: Prospects for a program in coastal zonemanagement. In T.-E. Chua (Ed.), Coastal area man-agement education in the ASEAN region. Manila, Phil-ippines: International Center for Living AquaticResources Management.
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CAPACITY BUILDING EXPERIENCES 115
EXPERIENCE IN CAPACITY BUILDING:CASE STUDIES AND LESSONS LEARNED
PANELISTS: E. Gomez, S. Boromthanarat, M. Leinen, K. BrownMODERATOR: S. CobbRAPPORTEUR: Segundo Coello
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• What are the implications of this stage of institu-tional and national development?
• What regional differences exist?
• How do we assess institutional needs and capability?
RAPPORTEUR’S REPORTEdgardo Gomez, Director of the Marine Science In-
stitute (MSI) of the University of the Philippines, pre-sented information based on more than a decade of ex-perience in developing MSI. MSI differs from otherdepartments in that there is a large concentration onresearch, and it is mostly funded by external sources.He stressed the importance of long-term goal setting,personnel, and funding for capacity building. A majorcommitment to quality of faculty, staff, and studentswas a critical component. Long-term goals were neces-sary to inspire collaborators and provide a sense ofteam effort. The goal MSI set for itself was to be thebest marine science institute in Asia. MSI recruitedwell-qualified staff for research positions. The best ofthese were encouraged to study abroad for doctorates.Moral support and making them feel part of the long-term future of the institution led to a 100 percent re-turn of staff studying abroad. The selection of person-nel should not promote “inbreeding.” On the contrary,MSI has looked for quality staff educated at diverse in-stitutions. MSI has also provided incentives such as al-lowing scientists to top off their University salaries(which are comparatively low) with honoraria fromtheir grants. Funding has been crucial for MSI, andthey encourage scientists to find their own grants fortraining or research. The external funding to MSI hasincreased exponentially in recent years.
Somsak Boromthanarat, Director of the Coastal Re-sources Institute (CORIN) at Prince of Songkla Univer-
sity (PSU), presented his experience. CORIN was estab-lished in 1990 as an interdisciplinary institute of PSU.It has a core staff of scientists, dedicated only to coastalmanagement, and an associated staff that are facultymembers from different departments of PSU. Capacitybuilding in coastal management at PSU included a stra-tegic planning process, doctoral-level education forstaff, and “learning-by-doing” in preparing manage-ment plans. CORIN is working in training, research,planning, and policy formulation. Its approach is to“glue” the government and the community togetherwith information. The Institute has attracted signifi-cant outside funding, and the funding base is rapidlygrowing. CORIN also contributes to a recently ap-proved coastal management degree specialization aspart of the master’s program in Natural Resources Man-agement.
Margaret Leinen, Dean of the Graduate School ofOceanography (GSO) and Vice Provost of Marine Af-fairs at URI presented an outline of the most importantaspects to be considered in capacity building, illustrat-ing her points with examples from her institution:
• A set of well-defined and long-term goals must beestablished that will serve to attract expertise, re-sources, and form a local constituency. Several yearsago, GSO redefined its goals through a strategicplanning process. To share and publicize the goals,the strategic plan was published in a very attractiveformat.
• Good people are critical to the research and teach-ing programs at GSO. Having defined goals is impor-tant in order to attract quality people. It is also veryimportant to develop a sense of belonging so thateveryone feels a part of the institution.
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116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
• Infrastructure, the “bricks and mortar,” as well asclerical, fiscal, and maintenance systems of anorganization, can be built in different ways. How-ever, she stressed that infrastructure has to serve re-search and education. Finding funding for infra-structure can be a challenge, particularly in light ofthe current financial and political climate for publicinstitutions.
• New initiatives, such as the Coastal Institute that isbeing built at GSO, can be a source of pride and re-juvenation. However, careful planning and coordi-nation are required to get support from the faculty.New initiatives can be important to raise funds for anew infrastructure.
• A set of well-defined goals helps in fund raising. It isvery useful to develop mechanisms that link facultyand private companies.
Ken Brown, Professor and Director of the Institutefor Coastal Resource Management at the University ofTechnology Sydney (Australia), presented the structureof the new master’s degree in Coastal Resource Man-agement. He pointed out that a key aspect in the devel-opment of the program was to identify the real needs.UTS was fortunate to receive a government grant to re-search the need for, and the requirements of, a coastalmanagement program in Australia. Widespread consul-tation ensured that a program relevant to the needs ofthe expected stakeholders was developed. A further ma-jor component was the establishment of an advisoryboard comprised of representative stakeholders. Thisboard meets regularly and acts, in part, as quality con-trol for the subject and the course offerings. The objec-tive of the new curriculum was to train managers whocould manage the managers of coastal resources. Forthe course, academic staff from various units weredrawn together. Ken highlighted the need to be veryselective and use only those faculty members who canreadily contribute to the course. These faculty memberscould be rewarded with promotion by the challenge ofteaching a completely different set of students and byrecognized research grants. It was pointed out that thiscourse was developed after extensively researching theneed for professionals in coastal management.
During the general discussion it was mentioned thatthe previous coastal management education programsthat have failed in the United States occurred mostlybecause of communication breakdowns among the dif-ferent departments contributing to the effort. Harmo-nious work is essential for the success of integratedcoastal management programs. It was also mentionedthat the older the University is, the more difficult itmay be to introduce changes and new ideas. Therefore,leaders play an important role in facilitating change. Indeveloping countries, it is difficult to retain good staffmembers because the salaries, incentives, and infra-
structure that universities are able to offer often arepoor. To build capacity in an institution, it is necessaryto create long-term working teams and a minimumcore of people who maintain a long-term effort. In thePhilippines, MSI incorporates staff returning from over-seas training in ongoing projects. In this way, theyhave a place to work as soon as they arrive until theycan start preparing their own proposals for researchfunding.
It was also mentioned that some universities in de-veloping countries do not have enough diversity of fac-ulties or departments to support an integrated coastalmanagement program. In such cases, to pool limitedresources, some sort of regional cooperative program orcenter could be useful in an initial phase. However, re-gional programs have problems due to political andcultural differences between countries and because ofthe large costs associated with building and maintain-ing a new institution. One suggestion was that a re-gional program or center could be a transitory arrange-ment which would be dismantled once capacity atexisting local institutions is established.
The stage of development of coastal management inthe region or country also may be important, since thisdefines the market for graduates of the university. Thetype or mix of programs offered (training, certificate,undergraduate, or graduate degree) will depend bothon the stage of development of the coastal manage-ment programs in the country and on the capability(stage of development) of the university.
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NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS 117
SECTION 4NETWORKS ANDPARTNERSHIPS
The Network for Environmental Trainingat Tertiary-Level in Asia and the Pacific(NETTLAP): An Experience inEnvironmental NetworkingC.M. Madduma Bandara 119
MEDCOAST Initiative: Contributing tothe Environmental Management ofCoastal and Sea Areas of the Mediterraneanand the Black SeaErdal Ozhan 123
The TRAIN-SEA-COAST Program:A Decentralized, Cooperative TrainingNetwork for the Systematic Developmentof Human ResourcesStella Maris Vallejo 128
The International Ocean Institute NetworkMargaret J. Wood 133
Rapporteur’s ReportNetworks and Partnerships 141
Rapporteur’s ReportDonor Initiatives for Building HumanCapacity for Integrated Coastal Management 143
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NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS 119
THE NETWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL TRAININGAT TERTIARY-LEVEL IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (NETTLAP):AN EXPERIENCE IN ENVIRONMENTAL NETWORKING
C. M. Madduma BandaraUniversity of PeradeniyaKandy, Sri Lanka
ABSTRACTThe Network for Environmental Training at Tertiary Level in Asia and the Pacific, established by theUnited Nations Environment Program through the Environmental Education Unit and the RegionalOffice for Asia and the Pacific is described in this paper. The purpose of the network is to strengthentertiary-level institutions in the region active in environmental education and training to enhance theexpertise of decision makers, policy formulators, and educators. Coastal zone management is one ofseveral thematic networks supported by the overall project. The activities, strengths and weaknesses,and future direction of the network are summarized.
NETWORK OBJECTIVESThe coastal environment features prominently in
the Asia Pacific Region. Out of the 54 countries withinthe region, 34 have coastlines. Most Island Nations de-pend heavily on their coastal resources which entailsheavy management responsibilities. The coastal envi-ronments of the Asia-Pacific region are also among themost diverse and productive ecosystems of the world.Over half of the world’s population lives in the Asia-Pacific region. A high proportion of this populace isconcentrated in coastal settlements, most of which aremajor cities. The increasing trend of increasing concen-trations of people in coastal areas, combined withrapid coastal development programs, has resulted inheavy pressures on coastal resources, causing habitatdestruction, marine pollution, and increasing the vul-nerability of coastal residents and infrastructure toproblems caused by coastal erosion.
Agenda 21 of the U.N. Conference on Environmentand Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro in1992 urged that “countries could support universityand other tertiary activities and networks for environ-mental and development education... There is a needto strengthen, within five years, information exchangeby enhancing technologies and capacities necessary topromote environment and development education andpublic awareness.” In the spirit of this resolution,
UNEP supported the establishment of the Network forEnvironmental Training at Tertiary-Level in Asia andthe Pacific (NETTLAP) through its Environmental Edu-cation Unit (EETU) and its Regional Office for Asia andthe Pacific (ROAP). In the Asia-Pacific region, perhapsmore so than in many other parts of the world, the ter-tiary institutions can take a leading role in coastal zonemanagement education and training. This is particu-larly so because these institutions continue to be themost important source of expertise in different disci-plines and contribute significantly to the generation ofscientific information. It is those who graduate fromthese institutions that hold key management positionsin environmental management, which is largely aresponsibility of the State. Therefore, the primaryobjective of the network is to harness the manpowerresources available at tertiary institutions to achieve agreater degree of efficiency in coastal zone manage-ment in the region.
NETTLAPNETTLAP consists of institutions and individuals
active in environmental education and training at thetertiary level in the Asia-Pacific region. The objectivesof NETTLAP include enhancing environmental exper-tise among the decision makers, policy formulators,and tertiary-level educators. It aims to strengthen the
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120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
overall environmental expertise in the region at tech-nical, management, and policy levels. It identifies re-gional training needs while sharing knowledge throughcontinued interaction among network partners.
The implementation of the network programs isfacilitated by several thematic networks: Coastal ZoneManagement, Environmental Economics, and ToxicChemicals and Hazardous Waste. In keeping with theconsensus of a regional consultative meeting held in1993, NETTLAP is now considering adding new themesthat include Theory and Practice of EnvironmentalEducation and Training, Environmental Planning, En-vironmental Information Management, and Interna-tional and Regional Legal Environmental Agreements.
The implementation of network programs is orga-nized by a NETTLAP coordinator based in Bangkok.The activities under each of the themes is organized bya Thematic Network Coordinator (TNC) who has theexpertise in the relevant field. In view of the large geo-graphical area covered by the Asia-Pacific region com-prised of 54 nations, subregional Thematic NetworkNodes (TNN) with a proven academic record in the re-spective field are identified and entrusted with relevanttasks. In order to facilitate the management of the re-spective programs, specialist focal points, such as gov-ernment ministries, departments, or corporations, areidentified and the NETTLAP activities are often chan-neled through them. The TNCs and TNNs often workthrough these agencies.
The tasks and responsibilities of a TNN/CZM in-cludes participation in coordination meetings, identify-ing additional NETTLAP members, preparation of aninventory of environmental education and training ac-tivities in CZM at tertiary level in the region, determin-ing additional training requirements of tertiary institu-tions, hosting subregional resource developmentworkshops, contributing material to NETTLAP news,and identifying appropriate participants and resourcepersons for network workshops and other activities.The TNNs are also expected to help prepare of curricu-lum guidelines, training materials and instructionalaids, and contribute to the general activities ofNETTLAP. These responsibilities are discharged byTNNs in collaboration with the Network and ThematicNetwork Coordinators.
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF NETTLAPThe increasing concern for environmental training
among national governments as well as in tertiary in-stitutions and among the general public in the region,provides a source of strength to NETTLAP programs.Compared with the situation a decade or two ago, en-vironmental management is now treated as a matter ofvital relevance in development planning. The imple-mentation strategies adopted by NETTLAP with re-gional as well as thematic approaches also provide
strength and sustainability. Above all, the supportivestructure based on UNEP and ROAP led to the develop-ment of strong international linkages. The track recordof success of NETTLAP within a short period as exem-plified by newsletters and numerous publications indi-cate the strength of the network.
On the weaker side of the network, one may iden-tify a certain degree of vulnerability in its activities.NETTLAP is a small organization attempting to satisfy aneed which is too big for its size. This had led to a per-ception of a “little fish in a big pond”. On the otherhand, it has the advantage of reaching places wherethe big “fish” cannot. Up to now, NETTLAP has had toadopt a “top down” approach in planning its activities.This was necessary in its early stages. The activities ofthe network were also confined to staff training prima-rily in tertiary institutions, a focus too narrow for thefield of environmental training. Despite the growingconcern for environmental education, the lack ofstrong political will and support at the regional leveltends to make the future of the network somewhat un-certain. This is largely due to the preoccupation ofmost countries in the Asia Pacific with their immediatedevelopment needs. This is understandable in view ofthe problems of overriding importance such as povertyand unemployment. NETTLAP also has to face morecompetition than collaboration both within the UNEPand outside, often due to areas overlapping activities.The threat that funding can be withdrawn from UNEPalways hangs above NETTLAP. Finally, the overly suc-cessful program of the network tends to suffer fromthe “tall poppy” syndrome which creates flexibilityproblems.
A challenge faced by NETTLAP and similar networksin the field of environment management is how theywill be sustained over a reasonable period of time. Ifone looks at the life span of similar networks, it maybecome clear that generally, they are short-lived. Thesecret of more enduring networks, particularly in de-veloping countries, has been the long-term commit-ment of resources by funding agencies, rather than thesheer interest and enthusiasm of their initiatinggroups. Some of the more successful networks tend togrow into more stable organizations depending ontheir demand. In this context, it would also be appro-priate to perceive networks as “birds of passage”, onlypaving the way to achieve some specific goal within agiven period of time.
RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT WORKSHOPS (RDW)It is through the concept of the Resources Develop-
ment Workshops (RDW) that NETTLAP has adopted asomewhat innovative approach in achieving a multi-plier effect in its training activities. In order to illus-trate this approach and its potential for further devel-opment, an attempt is made here to discuss the
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NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS 121
outputs and evaluate the training and resources devel-opment workshop on coastal zone management heldin Kandy, Sri Lanka, toward the end of November1994. Sri Lanka was chosen to host this workshop be-cause it is centrally located within the region, and ithas made rapid progress in coastal zone managementduring the last decade particularly through externalassistance from Denmark, Germany, Japan, the UnitedStates, and The Netherlands.
An RDW was held in Kandy for about 20 peoplefrom countries in Southern and Central Asia includingSri Lanka. The primary goals were to prepare curricu-lum guide lines, training materials, instructional aids,and resources. The Centre for Environmental Studies atthe University of Peradeniya, Kandy, Sri Lanka was thesite chosen for the conference and where TNN was lo-cated. Although Kandy is not a coastal city, it is nearthe largest university in the country where there ismuch potential for integrated coastal zone manage-ment education
The workshop program, in addition to the inauguraland introductory sessions, concentrated on four topics.Participants presented papers that addressed thesesubjects:
• Role of Tertiary Institutions in Training for CoastalZone Management.
• Issues and Challenges for Trainers in Coastal ZoneManagement
• National and Sub-Regional Experiences of Trainingin Coastal Zone Management
• Training Methods for Coastal Zone Management
Each topic was introduced by a keynote speakerwith experience in the field who gave a lectured on arelated theme. The presentations ranged from country-specific experiences to highly specialized aspects ofcoastal ecosystems and specific training method-ologies.
The most positive aspect of the workshop was that itenabled a truly interdisciplinary and internationalgroup of academics and actual practitioners in the fieldof coastal zone management to be brought together. Itwas quite fascinating to observe the different ap-proaches and emphases on CZM displayed by partici-pants from India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh dependingon their specific country requirements. India, in par-ticular, has a large land mass with a long coast line anda wide range of coastal ecosystems which need verydifferent management treatments. India, therefore, hasa wide array of training needs. Sri Lanka, on the otherhand, is an Island Nation and has a long coastline forits size with a variety of coastal environments whereproblems of coastal erosion tend to stand out in rela-tion to other issues. The dialogue would have beenmuch more enriched if other countries in the region,
such as the Maldives, Iran, and Afghanistan, could alsohave participated in the meeting.
The convergence of people from a variety of aca-demic and professional backgrounds led to lively de-bates generated largely by different perceptions of thesame issues. Very often even people from the same in-stitution, if they belong to different faculties, find fewopportunities to meet and discuss such issues. Onecommon message that surfaced from these discussionsis the need for innovative approaches rather than de-pending on traditional discipline-bound training meth-ods. The “role play” approach, as well as participatoryfield mapping, appears to have had good potential inthis regard. It was remarked that a trainee who doesnot like to get suntanned in the tropical sun can makea good manager!
The discussions also established the validity of thecriticism that the current preoccupation with techno-logical and biophysical approaches rather than socialand economic aspects results in poorly integrated man-agement of coastal resources. In most countries, the en-gineer and the ecologist were drawn into coastal zonemanagement rather than people from other disciplinesdue to historical as well as practical reasons. There is aneed to redress these imbalances in order to achievebetter results in coastal zone management. This alsoprovides the rationale for the development of an inte-grated “core curriculum”, at least at undergraduatelevel, while leaving more specialized training to post-graduate and in-service training programs.
CZM EDUCATION AND TRAININGIN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION
An ESCAP study (1985) indicated that many CZMcourses in tertiary institutions were being taught froma traditional discipline base rather than in an interdis-ciplinary academic environment. Similarly, at anASEAN-USAID Workshop on CZM Education in theASEAN region (Chua, 1990), it was agreed that trainedmanpower in integrated CZM is not adequately pro-vided by educational institutions in the region. A morecomprehensive assessment of issues related to CZM inthe Asia-Pacific region is given by Hay et al (1994) andby Chou (1994). These assessments indicate that thegreatest need at present is the provision of facilities atthe tertiary level for integrated coastal zone manage-ment training. This may be best achieved, not throughthe discipline-based faculties and departments, butthrough the interdisciplinary centers for environmen-tal studies which are emerging in some universities.
It could also be observed that most tertiary institu-tions in the region are largely involved in CZM “educa-tion” rather than “training” since education is theirprimary mission. Here, although one need not get in-volved too much with the semantics of definitions,education is a much more involved activity that refines
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122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
the powers of observation and reasoning than doestraining for a specific task. Needless to say, even mosthigher order animals can be trained, but they cannotbe educated. CZM managers needed in the times tocome will have to be people with leadership qualitiesand problem-solving attributes. Therefore, it couldbe argued that our approach should be to developcurricula and teaching methods based on realities andproblems in each society rather than highly universalapproaches.
THE FUTURE OF THE NETTLAPThe continuity of NETTLAP depends largely on the
support from UNEP and its policy regarding financialcommitments for the future. There is a great need tomake NETTLAP financially self-sustaining. Assumingthat it becomes self sustaining through UNEP or byother means, NETTLAP will go ahead with its programof decentralization to subregions and even to the na-tional level. This would become necessary in view ofthe large geographical area as well as the large popula-tion it has to serve.
The focus of NETTLAP, which remained somewhatnarrow up to now, is likely to expand by incorporatingmore topics such as environmental planning, environ-mental information management, and environmentalimpact assessment of coastal projects. It will also ex-pand its target groups from tertiary institutions to deci-sion makers in the government, industry, and coastalcommunities. It will strive to bring about a greater de-gree of coordination among environmental educationand training efforts both internationally and nation-ally through specialist focal points to avoid any waste-ful duplication.
In its programs of education and training, NETTLAPwill promote the innovative application of informationtechnology through the use of Internet and data bases.Since networking is essentially an interpersonal, inter-institutional, and international linkage process, it isthought that promotion of information technologywould become a fertile area for bilateral cooperationand assistance. Finally, NETTLAP should ideally de-velop a long-term strategic plan in consultation withits members and partners, and evolve a managementsystem which would improve its performance.
REFERENCES
Chou, L.M. (1994, November-December). The role oftertiary institutions in integrated coastal zone man-agement training. Paper presented at the UNEP/NETTLAP Training and Resources DevelopmentWorkshop in Coastal Zone Management, Kandy, SriLanka.
Chua, T.E. (Ed.) (1991). Coastal area management educa-tion in the ASEAN Region. Manila, Philippines: Inter-national Center for Living Aquatic Resources Man-agement.
United Nations, Economic and Social Commission forAsia and the Pacific. Training and fellowship re-quirements and facilities in the field of marine envi-ronment protection in the ESCAP region. Bangkok:The Commission.
Hay, J.E., Chou, L.M., Sharp, B. & Thom, N.G. (1994).Environmental and related issues in the Asia Pacificregion: Implications for tertiary level environmentaltraining. UNEP/ROAP, Bangkok: Network for Envi-ronmental Training at Tertiary Level in Asia andPacific.
UNEP/NETTLAP: Miscellaneous unpublished papers.
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NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS 123
MEDCOAST INITIATIVE: CONTRIBUTING TO THE ENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENT OF COASTAL AND SEA AREAS OF THE MEDITERRANEANAND THE BLACK SEA
Erdal ÖzhanMedcoast Permanent SecretariatMiddle East Technical UniversityAnkara, Turkey
ABSTRACTMEDCOAST is a network initiative aiming at contributing to the environmental health of theMediterranean and Black Sea in three ways. These are 1) the MEDCOAST conferences, 2) humanresource development programs, and 3) collaborative research. These three dimensions complement thepriorities and programs of the Mediterranean Action Plan which is being developed in accordance withthe principles of UNCED (e.g., Agenda 21) and the GEF Black Sea Environmental Programme. TheMEDCOAST Initiative can provide needed scientific and professional support to national andinternational politics.
BACKGROUNDGreat numbers of coastal and sea areas of the world
are beset by serious problems, resulting from rapid de-velopment, improper use patterns, and insufficientprotection. For this reason, proper coastal and sea man-agement that aims to achieve sustainable uses ofcoastal and sea resources and their protection, has beenon the top of the world’s environmental agenda for thelast two decades.
The Mediterranean basin, including the Black Sea, isone of the major seas where rational management ofcoastal and sea resources, incorporating a high level ofprotection and regeneration in certain cases, is stronglyneeded. This need was realized by the United Nationsfollowing the Stockholm Conference in 1972. TheMediterranean Action Plan and follow-up activitieswere launched as the first project in their new RegionalSeas Programme.
Today, however, after almost two decades of intenseinterest by a number of prominent international orga-nizations, the level of international networking andcollaboration in solving environmental problems incoastal and sea areas of the Mediterranean is far fromsufficient.
On the other hand, the Black Sea was not includedin the Mediterranean Action Plan. This unique en-
closed basin, an extremely important common re-source for six riparian countries, has seen a drasticdecline in resource value since the 1950s. This declinehas accelerated during the last two decades, mostnotably in water quality and fisheries, and in theenvironmental conditions of important natural coastalhabitats. As a response to the crisis, significant interna-tional efforts (the GEF Black Sea EnvironmentalProgramme, the Black Sea Action Plan) have emergedrecently to turn the tide.
The idea to start the MEDCOAST initiative, focusingon coastal and sea issues of the Mediterranean and theBlack Sea, began in July 1990 during the Littoral 1990conference organized by the EUROCOAST Association.The project was discussed with colleagues internation-ally. It was noted that although there were significantconcerns about the environmental well-being of theMediterranean and the Black Sea, and that serious ef-forts had been made by international organizations,national authorities, and NGO’s to preserve the envi-ronment and the sustainability of resources, the levelof international scientific cooperation and the benefitsof experiences of different nations were far from satis-factory. It was concluded that a) there was an immedi-ate need for an international conference series open toall interested, b) it would be beneficial to improve the
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124 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
exchange of information and know-how by establish-ing a network of professional and scientific centersaround the Mediterranean basin and elsewhere wherethere is an interest in the coastal and sea environmentof the Mediterranean/Black Sea, and c) it would be veryvaluable to develop international education programsfocusing on the coastal and sea environment and man-agement issues of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.
THE GOALThe MEDCOAST Initiative has three components—a
MEDCOAST conference series; human resource devel-opment (conferences, training programs, networking);and collaborative research. The goal of the initiative isto enhance scientific and professional collaborationamong individuals and institutes (networking) in theMediterranean and the Black Sea countries or else-where for the purposes of:
• Improving our understanding of physical, biochemi-cal, and ecological processes taking place in theMediterranean and the Black Sea coastal and sea en-vironment and their interactions with human ac-tivities (research component)
• Utilizing scientific knowledge and modern manage-ment tools in achieving integrated coastal and seamanagement (conferences, training programs, publi-cations, newsletter)
• Complementing and contributing to the existing ef-forts that have similar goals, most notably those ofthe Mediterranean Action Plan, the GEF Black SeaEnvironmental Programme, and the future Black SeaAction Plan (all components)
MEDCOAST CONFERENCE SERIESThe MEDCOAST conferences were planned as an in-
ternationally administered conference series focusingon the conservation and sustainable use of coastal andsea resources of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.In fact, the MEDCOAST Initiative was launched withthe First International Conference on the Mediterra-nean Coastal Environment, MEDCOAST 93, whichtook place in Antalya (Turkey) November 2-5, 1993.The conference was organized jointly by the TurkishNational Committee on Coastal Zone Management(KAY) and Middle East Technical University. It wassponsored by 16 international and Turkish organiza-tions including the Council of Europe, UNEP Mediter-ranean Action Plan, UNDP, the International Coastaland Ocean Organization (ICO), the AssociationEUROCOAST, and the European Union for CoastalConservation (EUCC).
The conference topics, which were broad enough tocover almost all relevant issues, were presented in threegroups: 1) physical, ecological, and conservation issues,2) integrated coastal and sea resource management and
development, and 3) coastal engineering, modellingand data management. About 120 abstracts were se-lected for oral and poster presentations, and a signifi-cant number of proposals had to be rejected due toprogram limitations. About 90 papers were received be-fore deadline to be included in the conference proceed-ings (two volumes). Thirteen papers selected from theproceedings are being peer reviewed and may be in-cluded in the special double volume, MediterraneanIssue of the Journal of Coastal and Ocean Management.This special issue is expected to be printed before themeeting of MEDCOAST 95.
MEDCOAST 93 was a lively and stimulating meet-ing. 140 professionals from 26 countries, representingvarious disciplines and affiliations, participated in theconference. It demonstrated that the new conferenceseries was indeed very timely and much needed. An In-ternational Committee and a Permanent Secretariat forMEDCOAST conferences was set up to look after futureconferences.
The next conference, MEDCOAST 95, organizedjointly by the MEDCOAST Permanent Secretariat andthe Local Organizing Committee (led by the MaritimeEngineering Laboratory of Catalonian University ofTechnology), is scheduled to take place in Tarragona,Spain, October 24–27, 1995. Tarragona, an ancientMediterranean town near Barcelona, was chosen in rec-ognition of the 20th anniversary of the Barcelona Con-vention. It is anticipated that around 150 papers deal-ing with coastal and sea environments of theMediterranean and the Black Sea and various manage-ment issues will be presented at MEDCOAST 95 inthree or four parallel sessions, in addition to plenaryand concluding sessions and panel discussions.
One of the major goals of the MEDCOAST confer-ence is to bring together a wide variety of experts, sci-entists, managers, planners, policy makers, resource de-velopers, users, and conservationists from bothMediterranean and Black Sea countries and elsewherewho have been directly involved in coastal and seamanagement issues in the Mediterranean and the BlackSea or who have acquired experience and knowledgeelsewhere on matters that are relevant to the Mediter-ranean and the Black Sea. The range of topics coveredis rather large including highly scientific subjects suchas various disciplines of oceanography, on one hand,and managerial issues including institutional and legalarrangements for proper management or specific man-agement experiences, on the other.
The MEDCOAST conferences will convene every twoyears (in odd-numbered years) in a different Mediterra-nean or Black Sea location. The MEDCOAST PermanentSecretariat assumes scientific responsibility for all con-ferences including conference topics, organization ofthe paper selection process, editing the proceedings,and publication of selected papers in the refereed me-
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NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS 125
dia. The Secretariat also carries out promotional workat the international level. In addition to finding inter-national donors to sponsor conferences, the Secretariathandles design, printing, and mailing of promotionalpublications (Call for Papers, bulletins, conference pro-grams, or posters) and arranges to have conference in-formation printed in the international media (journals,newsletters, bulletins).
HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENTIn addition to the international efforts aimed at en-
vironmental management of the Mediterranean andthe Black Sea mentioned earlier, various riparian coun-tries have already started, or are about to start, their in-tegrated coastal zone management programs. There-fore, there is a great need for expertise in governmentalagencies both for design and implementation of na-tional management projects and for contribution tothe international programs.
The most important human resource developmentactivity carried out in the framework of theMEDCOAST initiative is the MEDCOAST Institute. Thistraining program is handled collaboratively by memberinstitutions of the Network MEDCOAST, under theleadership of the MEDCOAST Permanent Secretariat atthe Middle East Technical University (Ankara, Turkey)with sponsorship of the Med-Campus Programme ofthe European Communities. The 10 institutions thatare members of the Network MEDCOAST (as of January1995) and names of the point persons, are given inAnnex 1.
The MEDCOAST Institute offers a three to four weekintensive training program entitled Coastal Zone Man-agement in the Mediterranean / Black Sea. The cur-riculum is comprised of extensive in-class training, afield trip, and a concluding workshop. It is designed toaddress issues and problems that are particular to orsignificant to the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.With this regional emphasis, the MEDCOAST Institutediffers from other programs that are available for inter-national participation.
The first institute (MEDCOAST Institute 94) washeld in Ankara and Bodrum from August 22 - Septem-ber 14, 1994. There were 25 qualified professionalsfrom 16 countries who participated. The Institute’s fac-ulty included seven internationally known expertsfrom five countries and a guest lecturer from the Medi-terranean Action Plan Coordinating Unit. MEDCOASTInstitute 94 is described in detail in Özhan andÇulhaoglu (1995). The next event, MEDCOAST Insti-tute 95, is scheduled to take place in Ankara andMarmaris August 28 - September 15, 1995. In additionto the Med-Campus Program of the European Commu-nities, the GEF Black Sea Environmental ProgrammeCoordinating Unit (Istanbul, Turkey) has alreadyagreed to sponsor the participation of the professionals
from the Black Sea countries at the MEDCOAST Insti-tute 95. A condensed version of the in-class trainingpart of the MEDCOAST Institute 95 will be offeredas a two-day short course October 22-23, 1995 inTarragona, Spain, prior to the MEDCOAST 95conference.
Additionally, the Network MEDCOAST is organizingmore specialized, thematic training programs relevantto coastal and sea management. The first example isthe International Workshop/Training Program onBeach Management in the Mediterranean/Black Sea, tobe held in Erice, Sicily, April 7 - 12, 1995. In additionto the MEDCOAST Permanent Secretariat and the Net-work MEDCOAST, two major sponsors for this trainingactivity are the ICSC-World Laboratory (Land-3 Project)in Erice, Italy and Lausanne, Switzerland, and the Euro-pean Center on Insular Coastal Dynamics in Valetta,Malta. The lecturers who will contribute to this pro-gram include 13 well known experts from 11 countries.
The Network MEDCOAST plans to publish a bian-nual MEDCOAST Newsletter starting in April 1995sponsored by the Med-Campus Program of the EC. Thenewsletter will disseminate information on MEDCOASTactivities, news on progress of the international pro-grams over the Mediterranean and the Black Sea,reports on activities of the riparian countries relevantto coastal and sea management, and short technicalreports on new ideas and initiatives and recentdevelopments.
Another goal of the project sponsored by the Med-Campus Program of the EC is the development of agraduate program on coastal zone management at theMiddle East Technical University. This program, whichwill be conducted in English, is in the developmentstages.
This interdisciplinary graduate program aims to edu-cate teachers and qualified professionals who have dif-ferent undergraduate backgrounds and who wish to de-velop expertise relevant to rational use and protectionof coastal and sea resources. The undergraduate degreesof students eligible for admission to coastal zone man-agement graduate program may be from diverse areas,ranging from natural sciences (chemistry, biology, ecol-ogy, geomorphology) and engineering (civil, environ-mental) to law (environmental, international) and so-cial sciences (resource economics and management,land use planning, and sociology).
The graduate program, which will be run by an in-terdisciplinary faculty of Middle East Technical Univer-sity with the support of the partner institutions in-volved in the Network MEDCOAST, started initially asa master’s program. The program is now developedwithin the scope of the Med-Campus project, and thefirst intake of students to the program began in the fallof the 1994-95 academic year.
The student body of Middle East Technical Univer-
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126 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
sity is very international—about 35 countries are repre-sented. The coastal zone management graduate pro-gram will also be available for students from differentcountries, but preference will be given to those comingfrom the Mediterranean and the Black Sea ripariancountries.
The minimum, average, and maximum durations ofa master’s program at Middle East Technical Universityare two, four, and six academic semesters respectively.These minimum and maximum durations will also ap-ply to the new program. The average duration of studyis also expected to be around four semesters (twoyears). About 500 total teaching hours are expected tobe completed each year, corresponding to 10 courses(five courses per semester).
Typical courses in the graduate program will be:
• Coastal and marine sciences (oceanography courses;coastal and marine chemistry, biology, ecology;coastal geomorphology)
• Engineering (coastal engineering, coastal pollutioncontrol, coastal sedimentation and shoreline man-agement, environmental impact assessment ofcoastal projects);
• Coastal and sea resources (living resources, non-living resources, special areas)
• Coastal and sea development (tourism, transporta-tion, fisheries, urbanization, industry)
• Management of coastal and sea resources (land-useplanning, resource economics, institutional arrange-ments for management, management of speciallyprotected areas, national and international legisla-tion, international policies and programs)
It is anticipated that a few years after the beginningof the master’s program, the capacity that will havebeen built up and the experience gained will be suffi-cient for the start of the doctoral program. This pro-gram will produce young academicians in the field.
COLLABORATIVE RESEARCHThe third dimension of the MEDCOAST initiative is
collaborative research among the network institutionsin cooperation with third parties on the coastal and seaenvironment of the Mediterranean and the Black Seaand management issues.
Two research projects are already in progress. One ofthese is a study on the priorities of beach users. Thegoal is to achieve a rational beach rating scheme inwhich a comprehensive list of parameters are consid-ered together with the level of importance given toeach by the users. Such a scheme will no doubt providea very valuable guideline to beach managers. MiddleEast Technical University (Turkey), University of
Glamorgan (Wales, UK), and Catalonian University ofTechnology (Spain) are partners in this project. In addi-tion to these universities, the British Council and theWelsh Office sponsor the project activities.
The second project is wind and wave climatology ofthe Black Sea and the Eastern Mediterranean. It in-volves measurement and analysis of wind waves, windand wave modelling, and statistical interpretation ofwind and wave data. One of the goals is to construct areliable wind and wave atlas (both in the form of apublication and a PC data base). The other is to de-velop a wind wave model, verified by wave measure-ments, which may be used reliably for future wave pre-diction. This comprehensive project is led by theMiddle East Technical University. Four oceanographicinstitutions from four Black Sea countries contribute tothe Black Sea component. This component is spon-sored by the Science for Stability Program of NATO.
The Middle East Technical University is cooperatingwith the ISCS-World Laboratory (the LAND-3 Project)to develop the Eastern Mediterranean component ofthe wind and wave climate project. At a later stage, re-search organizations from a number of riparian coun-tries are expected to contribute.
A major target of the research component of theMEDCOAST Initiative is to set up a coastal monitoringnetwork of nongovernmental institutions from theriparian countries of the Mediterranean and the BlackSea and a data management center. This challengingproject requires a significant level of internationalsponsorship.
CONCLUDING REMARKSThe MEDCOAST Initiative has gone a long way in a
relatively short time since its initiation through the ef-forts of many colleagues and various national and in-ternational organizations. The MEDCOAST conferenceseries has been well received by the international com-munity, which has an interest in the environmentalwell-being of the coastal and sea areas of the Mediterra-nean and the Black Sea. With the second event,MEDCOAST 95, the series will have established itselfsufficiently for successful continuation in the future.
The three to four week training program (MEDCOASTInstitute) and the graduate program on coastal zonemanagement in the Mediterranean and the Black Seaprovide valuable opportunities to train professionalsfrom the riparian countries and for an internationalgroup of experts to observe the progress of the interna-tional and national efforts for coastal and sea manage-ment. These activities will be sponsored by the Euro-pean Communities through their Med-Campusprogram during 1995, and probably during 1996. How-ever, successful continuation and further developmentof these activities (especially the MEDCOAST Institute)require more definite, continuous financial support and
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NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS 127
a stronger institutionalization as a regional Center ofExcellence serving the Mediterranean and the Black Seacountries.
All three dimensions of the MEDCOAST projectcomplement the priorities and programs of the Medi-terranean Action Plan that are being developed alongthe principles of the UNCED (e.g., Agenda 21) and theGEF Black Sea Environmental Programme. If platformsfor valuable mutual interactions can be established, theMEDCOAST Initiative and Network MEDCOAST, withactivities in all three components, have the capacity tomake significant contributions to these important ef-forts by providing much needed scientific and profes-sional support to national and international politics.
REFERENCE
Özhan, E. & Çulhaoglu, E.B. (in press). “MEDCOASTInstitute: A Training Program on Coastal Zone Man-agement in the Mediterranean/Black Sea”, In Pro-ceedings of the Workshop on Educating Coastal Man-agers, 5-10 July 1995. Narragansett: CoastalResources Center, The University of Rhode Island.
ANNEX 1
Member institutions of the Network MEDCOAST andthe contact persons:
(January 1995)
1. Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey.(Prof. Erdal Özhan, The Coordinator)
2. University of Genoa, Italy. (Prof. Adalberto Vallega)
3. University of Glamorgan, Wales, U.K.(Prof. Allan Williams)
4. University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands.(Dr. Frank van der Meulen)
5. Delft Hydraulics, The Netherlands.(Mr. Jentje van der Weide)
6. International Center for Coastal & Ocean PolicyStudies (ICCOPS), Genoa, Italy.(Prof. Adalberto Vallega)
7. Turkish National Committee on coastal ZoneManagement (KAY), Ankara, Turkey.(Prof. Erdal Özhan)
8. Catalonian University of Technology, Barcelona,Spain. (Prof. Agustin, Sanchez-Arcilla)
9. University of Malta, Valetta, Malta.(Mr. Anton Micallef)
10. Israel Institute of Technology (TECHNION), Haifa,Israel. (Prof. Michael Stiassnie)
Note: The first seven institutions are the foundingmembers.
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128 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
THE TRAIN-SEA-COAST PROGRAM:A DECENTRALIZED, COOPERATIVE TRAINING NETWORKFOR THE SYSTEMATIC DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES
Stella Maris VallejoOffice of Legal AffairsUnited NationsNew York, NY, U.S.A.
ABSTRACTThis paper discusses the main features of the TRAIN-SEA-COAST Program by comparing traditionalapproaches to human resources development and the TRAIN-X approach. Then it presents a summaryof activities within the TRAIN-SEA-COAST Program.
INTRODUCTIONCapacity building involves human resource develop-
ment. It involves developing organizations and pro-moting an overall policy environment that is condu-cive to generating appropriate responses to corenational objectives for the sustainable development ofcoastal and marine areas. More than 20 years of experi-ence in training and education in coastal and oceanmanagement have rendered highly relevant lessonsthat can provide new directions for future activities.
A variety of formal and nonformal training programshave been developed to cope with the increasingdemands of the maritime sector (coastal and ocean com-ponents). These training programs are delivered in con-junction with technical assistance programs, universityprograms, and research programs by international, gov-ernmental, or nongovernmental organizations.
However, a number of gaps and limitations havebeen identified in the current offerings, in particular,the ad hoc response to human resources development(HRD) that has been undertaken with myriad uncoor-dinated efforts and have led to duplication, limitedimpact upon the target population, and limited costeffectiveness. Therefore, it is timely to identify morecoherent strategies and instruments for HRD that bet-ter respond to the needs of developing countries andhave a long-term impact and attain sustainable efforts.
The TRAIN-SEA-COAST Programme is the primaryinstrument used by the United Nations Division forOcean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (UN/DOALOS) tobuild national capabilities for HRD in the field of
coastal and ocean management. The TRAIN-X ap-proach is the strategy which has been used for 15 yearsby a number of UN agencies. The TRAIN-X strategy isbased on cooperative training and HRD networks forthe development and sharing of high-quality coursematerials. Meeting the rigorous requirements of theTRAIN-X course development methodology can lead tobroad improvements in training centers and their asso-ciated policies and programs. In this way, TRAIN-X canbe used to spearhead broader HRD improvements.
Programs (see Fig. 1) already established areCODEVTEL/ITU (telecommunications); TRAINMAR/UNCTAD (maritime transport); TRAINAIR/ICAO (civilaviation); TRAINFORTRADE/UNCTAD (foreign trade).
This paper discusses the main features of theTRAIN-SEA-COAST Programme by comparing tradi-tional approaches to human resources developmentversus the TRAIN-X approach. Then it presents asummary of current activities within the TRAIN-SEA-COAST Programme.
APPROACHES TO HUMAN RESOURCESDEVELOPMENT: THE TRADITIONAL APPROACHVERSUS THE TRAIN-X APPROACH
There are 10 major points affecting the process ofcapacity building, in particular, the development ofhuman resources (HRD) (see Fig. 2). This paper com-pares the traditional approach to training with theTRAIN-X method. (To stress the elements of TRAIN-X, Ihave somewhat exaggerated the limitations of the tra-ditional methods.)
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NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS 129
Determination of HRD Priorities. Traditional ap-proaches to HRD have not been based on accurate oreffective data on manpower requirements and trainingneeds to meet anticipated developments in integratedcoastal zone management (ICZM) and ocean manage-ment (OM). This impinges on the definition of prioritytraining needs and in measuring the impact andprogress achieved by HRD in past decades.
The TRAIN-X approach to HRD is based on a cleardefinition of human resources that are necessary tomeet the emerging demands for manpower. This defi-nition is based on an assessment of the existing level ofmanpower skills as well as looking ahead to the skillsthat will be needed in the future as new technologyand procedures appear on the horizon. This is followedby an evaluation of the training and nontraining needsof those involved in ICM and OM—the number ofpeople in each job category and function to be trainedin different subjects over time—as well as the perfor-mance the training is supposed to be improve.
Training Strategy. Traditional approaches to HRD arecharacterized by a one-to-one partnership between
educational institutions (generally universities) or be-tween international organizations working togetherwith a training/educational institution or an NGO. Theresult is a myriad of individualized, uncoordinated HRDefforts that leads to duplication or overlap, limitedimpact on the target population, and limited costeffectiveness.
The TRAIN-X approach to HRD is based on the cre-ation of intercountry cooperative training and HRD net-works of training/educational centers that agree to jointhe global network and share the training developmenttask according to demands on training and its relatedcosts. Joint discussion and consensus at the network levelregarding priority courses avoids duplication, multipliesthe impact, and increases cost-effectiveness. Furthermore,cooperation in sharing training tasks allows each trainingcenter to concentrate on its chosen priority subject,avoiding the traditional dilution of quality which resultsfrom trying to do everything with limited resources.
Methodology of Course Design. Traditional ap-proaches to HRD have followed a number of trainingmethodologies depending on the experience, expertise,
Figure 1. Historical development of UN networks.
Networkcoordination &collaboration
TRAIN-X ITUCODEVTELNetwork
1970s1990s
UN-DOALOSTRAIN
SEACOASTNetwork
UNCTADTRAIN
for TRADENetwork
ICAOTRAINAIRNetwork
UNCTADTRAINMARNetwork
Training inInternationalIntegratedOcean and
CoastalManagement
Training inInternational
Trade
Training inInternationalCivil Aviation
Training in theInternational
MaritimeIndustries
Training inInternational
Telecommunications
1980s
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130 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
tion and delivery of one or a few courses that oftenreach only a limited audience. This has proven to be aninappropriate and ineffective way to tackle the HRDneeds in developing countries.
The TRAIN-X approach to HRD is based on coopera-tion and sharing among the members of the networkand agreed-upon course development tasks andup-front costs involved in the preparation of high-quality training materials. The courses are freely ex-changed between the members of the network and lo-cally adapted only when justified. In terms of themultiplier effect, the cost-effectiveness is enormous.
Delivery Approaches. Traditional approaches to HRDinvolve ad hoc initiatives without the support of anoverall assessment of training needs at the local ornational level or a clear definition of what performancethe training is supposed to target and improve. Inter-national subject matter experts are brought in and theyprepare and deliver their own lectures based on theirexperience and expertise. The quality of training de-pends on the individual instructor. Training materialsare not systematically prepared or updated.
The TRAIN-X approach to HRD consists of initia-tives orchestrated at the national level based on a de-tailed evaluation of training needs and anticipated per-formance. The approach depends on the regulardelivery of training courses that have been identified aspriority topics for the network, thus having a wide im-pact on the target population. The quality of trainingdepends on the rigorous preparation of advanced,high-quality course material to TRAIN-SEA-COASTstandards in the form of Standardized Training Pack-ages (STPs). This approach produces very complete ma-terials for the instructor making the courses largelyinstructor-independent and avoiding the crucial prob-lem, in many countries, of losing training capabilitybecause of a rapidly changing instructor population. Italso allows for maximum utilization, exchange, anddistribution of high-quality training courses and mate-rials worldwide, thus having a multiplier effect.
Recipient Country Capability. Traditional approachesto HRD depend on outside expertise. In this context,the quality of training is based on transplanted experi-ences from abroad. The resulting courses may not tacklethe specific needs at the local level or provide ongoingcapability to the recipient institution. Furthermore,once a course is developed, it is never revised unlessexternal funds are available to do it and the local prob-lems are assessed and dealt with by external parties.
The TRAIN-X approach to HRD is based on the prin-ciple of building national training capabilities. Mem-bership in the TRAIN-SEA-COAST Program enablescountries to develop advanced and high-quality train-ing courses in coastal and ocean management. This isachieved by providing member countries with the
Figure 2. A comparison between the traditionalapproach to HRD and the TRAIN-X method.
and approach or philosophy of the particular institu-tion that is delivering the training.
The TRAIN-X approach to HRD is based on a com-mon set of standards, both in the methodology ofcourse design and in the presentation of training mate-rials that are applied throughout the network of train-ing centers. It is intended as a tool for international co-operation in training development. Trainee materialand instructor material are fully documented. Thishelps to ensure high-quality training and its applica-tion worldwide.
Cost Effectiveness of the Training Effort. Traditionalapproaches to HRD involves high costs for the prepara-
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NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS 131
most advanced technical knowledge and tools in thefield of training and building up permanent coursedesign and implementation capability. The systematictraining of course developers gives them the ability todevelop their own curricula. Furthermore, the coursedevelopment methodology has a built-in capability toadapt to change through the method of revision (up-date, adapt, or upgrade). The network copes by havinglocal centers constantly addressing local problems and,on a regional or interregional basis, agreeing to dosomething about them.
Personnel Development. Traditional approaches toHRD involves training of trainers. This training is gen-erally coupled with curricula prepared by internationalexperts. This is then given to national institutions touse as a basis for lesson plans devised by a local in-structor. This leaves the recipient country dependenton imported curricula that may not address local/na-tional needs.
The TRAIN-X approach to HRD is based on the sys-tematic training of course developers, managers, andinstructors in order to improve their competence, pro-fessionalism, and effectiveness as well as drawing fromtheir own human resources and experience to addressHRD needs. Furthermore, the functions of coursedevelopers, managers, and instructors within theTRAIN-SEA-COAST network are intended to berecognized as a distinct category of service within theorganizational structure where the TRAIN-SEA-COASTcenters are located.
Policy Context. Traditional approaches to HRD havenot aimed to create an HRD policy in the field of ICMand OM.
The TRAIN-X approach to HRD aims at the defini-tion and implementation of a HRD policy based on thenumber and type of personnel within an institutionthat require training and the training needs based onnational or local priorities. The assessment of the man-power and associated training needs outline the logisti-cal framework that identifies the financial, human,technical, and institutional resources needed to carryout the training.
Sustainability of the Training Effort. Traditionalapproaches to HRD involve, to a great extent, the pro-vision of outside funding to prepare and implementtraining courses.
The TRAIN-X approach to HRD aims to build a na-tional financial commitment to HRD. At the nationallevel, training institutions may obtain the collaborationof the government and the private sector to share thefinancing of the development of priority courses. At theinternational level, costs are spread over a much largertarget group and recovered through the exchange oftraining materials, instructors, and information.
Key Players in HRD. Traditional approaches to HRDinvolve, almost exclusively, participation of educa-tional/training institutions with limited involvementof government and users/ beneficiaries in the designand implementation of training programs. This elimi-nates the crucial feedback from the consumers of train-ing and makes training unresponsive to the needs ofthe labor market.
The TRAIN-X approach to HRD aims to strengthenthe links between the coastal/ocean sector, the educa-tional/training system, and the public/private sector.This is achieved through collaboration, within eachTRAIN-SEA-COAST center, of course developers (whoare pedagogic experts) together with subject matterexperts that may be recruited from the private/publicsector, academia, or industry depending on his or herparticular expertise. This collaborative approach totraining stimulates dialogue and consensus building.A participatory strategy to HRD leads to a shared visionof needs and opportunities and creates a solid founda-tion to formulate HRD policy.
SUMMARY OF ACTIVITIES OF THETRAIN-SEA-COAST PROGRAMME
The TRAIN-SEA-COAST Programme was launched in1993 by UN/DOALOS with the support of the UnitedNations Development Programme, Science, Technologyand Private Sector Division (UNDP/STAPS), and in col-laboration with the UN and other organizations in-volved in course development. The Programme is anoutgrowth of the Plan of Action on Training that was setforth during the Consultative Meeting on Training inIntegrated Management of Coastal and Marine Areas forSustainable Development in June 1993 by UN/DOALOSand UNDP/DGIP (predecessor to UNDP/STAPS).
The TRAIN-SEA-COAST network consists of ninecenters located in Brazil, Costa Rica, Fiji, India, thePhilippines, Senegal, Thailand, United Kingdom, andthe United States.
The TRAIN-SEA-COAST Programme aims tostrengthen qualified training/educational institutionsand individuals with responsibilities in the field ofcoastal and ocean management. The instruments forcapacity building are, on one hand, the developmentof local capacity for the design, production, and deliv-ery of high-quality training courses tailored to theneeds of the countries, and on the other hand, a coop-erative training network for the exchange of standard-ized course materials, training staff, and informationamong the members of the network.
The Central Support Unit at UN/DOALOS providesthe link between the training centers with an overallprogram management and coordination function. ForHRD, this includes a series of courses for training coursedevelopers, instructors, and training managers; a train-ing information system to manage the cooperative net-work and support facilities to provide, if necessary, tech-
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132 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
nical advice to centers participating in the network; andperiodic meetings to monitor network activities.
The first Course Developers Workshop took place inStony Brook, New York, USA, January 23 to February 3,1995. As a result of the Workshop, 19 participants fromparticipating TRAIN-SEA-COAST centers and threefrom UN agencies were trained in the preparation ofadvanced, high-quality course material to TRAIN-SEA-COAST Standards in the form of Standardized TrainingPackages (STPs). Additionally, as members of theTRAIN-SEA-COAST network, the participants jointlydiscussed an extensive menu of courses and agreed, atthe network level, on their particular course develop-ment tasks which will be carried out jointly or indi-vidually with other centers. For the next year, 10courses are being prepared by different centers workingalone or in partnership with another center. In prepar-ing for the first Course Developers Workshop, UN/DOALOS received a number of additional applicationsfrom countries that wish to join the TRAIN-SEA-COASTProgram. These applications, together with other insti-tutions that may want to participate, will be consid-ered for the next Course Developers Workshop tenta-tively scheduled to be held within the next year.
The benefits of the TRAIN-SEA-COAST Programaccrue to a wide range of institutions/individuals inter-ested in widening their knowledge and skills relevantto the planning and management of coastal and oceanareas. This better prepares them to assume new and ex-panded responsibilities within the coastal/ocean sector.Joint training programs and the creation of diplomaprograms is under discussion within the TRAIN-Xsystem. In this respect, TRAINMAR is in the process ofcombining existing short course modules for new portmanagers to create a certificate program on Port Man-agement at the global level. Separate diploma programsin Port Management and Shipping Management havebeen implemented on a trial basis at the regional levelin West Africa since 1989.
CONCLUSIONSThe past 25 years of HRD efforts in the field of
coastal and ocean management have offered up valu-able lessons. Together with recent developments in thecoastal/ocean sector, particularly the impact of theUnited Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopment (UNCED) negotiations and the entry intoforce of the United Nations Convention on the Law ofthe Sea, they have set the stage for development of glo-bal HRD strategies.
The experience gathered through the work of UNand other organizations in the field of training andeducation indicates that strategies for HRD for the nextdecade would benefit from:
• Being more responsive to the specific needs of devel-oping countries
• Being an instrument to build local capacity and en-able countries to develop training solutions to ad-dressing local problems
• Being more cost-effective
• Being more responsive to current and future man-power requirements and training needs
• Setting the stage for more active cooperationbetween UN and other organizations in the field oftraining and to promote cooperation between devel-oping and developed countries
• Assist in the formulation of long-term, sustainedHRD policies and programs
In this respect, a decentralized, cooperative trainingnetwork strategy such as TRAIN-SEACOAST appears tobe one of the most timely and effective tools forachieving the above-mentioned goals. The TRAIN-SEA-COAST Programme fills a gap in the field of training. Itis responsive to the emphasis attached by the UnitedNations Conference on Environment and Develop-ment (UNCED) to capacity building and human re-sources development and within the framework of the1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of theSea. The TRAIN-SEA-COAST Programme will providevaluable support to countries in their efforts to realizethe many benefits in the field of coastal and oceanmanagement.
REFERENCES
United Nations: Action Plan for Human ResourcesDeveiopment and Capacity Building for the Planningand Management of Coastal and Marine Areas. UnitedNations Development Programme, Division for Globaland Interregional Programmes and the UN Division forOcean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, Office of LegalAffairs. New York, March 1994, 58 p.
United Nations: Report of the Consultative Meeting onTraining in Integrated Management of Coastal andMarine Areas for Sustainable Deveiopment. Organizedand convened by the UN and UNDP (Sassari, Sardinia,Italy, 21-23 June 1993). United Nations DevelopmentProgramme, Division for Global and InterregionalProgrammes and the UN Division for Ocean Affairs andthe Law of the Sea, Office of Legal Affairs.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.Follow-up to the recommendations adopted by theConference at its eighth session: policies for humanresources development, with panicular reference totechnical cooperation activities for trade and develop-ment. The Development of Human Resources for Trade.Report of the Secretary-General. TD/B/39(2)/14. 1 Feb-ruary 1993. 23 p.
Vallejo, S.M. Capacity Building and National Planning.Paper presented at the Second International Confer-ence on Oceanography, Lisbon ’94 “Towards Sustain-able Use of Oceans and Coastal Areas, Lisbon, Portugal,14-19 November 1994, 22 p.
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NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS 133
THE INTERNATIONAL OCEAN INSTITUTE NETWORK
Margaret J. WoodInternational Ocean InstituteDalhousie UniversityHalifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
ABSTRACTThe International Ocean Institute (IOI) is an independent, nongovernmental, international, nonprofitorganization. The IOI headquarters is located in Malta with eight operational Centres worldwide. Thetask of IOI is to promote education, training, and research. The peaceful use of ocean space, itsresources, their management and regulation, as well as the protection and conservation of marineresources, are subsequently enhanced.
THE IOI NETWORKThe IOI network consists of a number of internal
and external components, which include operationalcenters, host universities (e.g., Dalhousie University),donor agencies (e.g., UNDP), alumni, faculty, organiza-tions and institutes (e.g., CRC/URI), and UN agencies(e.g., IOC). These networks are maintained throughtraining programs, newsletters (e.g., Across the Oceans),publications (e.g., Ocean Yearbook), conferences (Pacemin Maribus), the Internet, memorandums of under-standing (MOU), in-house committees, and public rela-tions brochures.
These networks build capacity, contribute to anddraw from other initiatives, and must become self-sus-taining. In order to be successful, networking requirescooperation and collaboration to ensure effective train-ing and education.
It is important to recognize that lessons can bedrawn from past experience. However, the world ischanging at such a rapid pace that it is critical to lookahead in an effort to meet the future needs of a dy-namic world. In the words of Thomas Mann, “As Iwrite, the sea whispers to me and I close my eyes. I amlooking into a world unborn and formless, that needsto be ordered and shaped.” A cooperative and collabo-rative approach is required to ensure that the finalproduct that Thomas Mann wrote about is sustainable.
Education and training are vital for setting up for-mal and informal networks. Education, public aware-ness, and training are processes by which people reachtheir full potential. Education is critical for sustainable
development and for improving the capacity of thepeople to address environmental and development is-sues. Both education and training are indispensable forchanging people’s attitudes so that they have the ca-pacity and are willing to address sustainable develop-ment concerns. They are also critical for achieving en-vironmental and ethical awareness, reinforcing values,attitudes, skills, and behavior consistent with sustain-able development, and for effective public participa-tion in decision-making.
Training programs are fundamental in raising soci-etal awareness, particularly for those people who holdkey positions to influence, regulate, and teach others.Programs need to be multidisciplinary, aimed atpolicymakers, planners, scientists, technicians, interna-tional lawyers, the private sector, and NGOs. Demandexists for courses that contribute to the development ofa society that is willing to cooperatively and activelyprotect the environment for future generations. The In-ternational Ocean Institute (IOI) has vast experience inthe area of training, and yet it has much to learn.
The IOI is an independent, nongovernmental, inter-national, nonprofit organization with its head officelocated in Malta. The IOI task, as defined in its statutes,is to:
Promote education, training, and research toenhance the peaceful uses of ocean space and itsresources, their management, and regulation, aswell as the protection and conservation of themarine environment.
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134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
The Institute activities are largely, but not exclu-sively, aimed at organizations, institutions, and peoplein developing countries. The main objective of thetraining program is to focus attention on the ocean en-vironment with special reference to land-sea-air inter-actions, the problems of small island states, and thesustainability of the oceans, especially concerning en-closed and semi-enclosed seas. The approach is to bringtogether various specialists involved in ocean manage-ment (i.e., science, technology, economics, law, andmanagement) and to help them transcend their narrowspecializations and create a common language leadingto a common culture or purpose. This language mustbe kept simple so that the average person can under-stand and help in the creation of a new global environ-mental culture. In its work, the IOI aims to serve asstimulus and catalyst, but not to be utopian. Thepurpose of the training program is to deepen theunderstanding of the ever-increasing importance of theoceans and their resources in world politics and sus-tainable economic development, and to assist devel-oping countries to form a core of decision-makerswho are fully aware of the complex issues of oceanmanagement.
In recent years, IOI has grown from two to eightOperational Centres (see Annex 1) located in the coastalzones of Canada (Dalhousie University, Halifax), China(State Oceanic Administration, Tianjin), Costa Rica(Universidad Nacional, Heredia), Fiji (University of theSouth Pacific, Suva), India (Indian Institute of Technol-ogy, Madras), Japan (Yokohama City University,Yokohama), Malta (University of Malta, Msida), andSenegal (Oceanographic Research Centre, Dakar).Arrangements are underway to establish three addi-tional Operational Centres in 1995 that will be locatedin Qatar, South Africa, and Romania. This expansionhas and will continue to allow the Institute to improveand expand the number and types of courses that canbe offered. In addition to courses focusing on integratedocean management (i.e., The Entry into Force of theUnited Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, itsImplementation and Agenda 21, Canada, June-August1995, 10 weeks), the Institute provides courses with anemphasis on regional issues within a global context(i.e., Coastal Zone Management as a Sustainable Pro-cess, India, October-December 1995, six weeks), andcourses that examine a specific topic in detail (i.e.,Corraline Workshop, Fiji, December 1995, one week).All training programs are conducted in English. How-ever, the Operational Centres in Senegal and Costa Ricaintend to offer training programs in French and Span-ish, respectively, and the Operational Centre in Qatarwill provide training in Arabic.
In an effort to incorporate the most advanced teach-ing technologies in its training programs, IOI is devel-oping a series of teaching modules, which consist of
text, audio tapes, videos, and simulations that can beexchanged within the IOI network. These will also beapplied to distance learning and extension programs.
In the future, all IOI courses of two or more weekswill include a two-week introductory training module,which will cover the basic concepts of integrated oceanmanagement and will be accompanied by a core reader.This initiative will serve a dual purpose to ensure thatall participants have a basic grasp of general oceanprinciples and management practices and to provide acommon thread running through all IOI courses.
A feature that makes the IOI training programmodel unique is its multidisciplinary approach. Topicscovered in the training programs include inter alia,oceanography, Law of the Sea, sustainable develop-ment and implementation of the UNCED programs,management of living and nonliving resources, coastalzone management, development of ports and harbors,shipping and navigation, technology development andtransfer, national legislation and institutional infra-structure, regional cooperation and development, andthe impact of the UNCLOS and UNCED processes onthe restructuring of the UN system. With the increas-ing demands, pressure, and time constraints placed onpeople today, these intensive courses are well-designedfor people who require training yet cannot be releasedfrom their jobs for long periods of time.
The IOI classroom is not seen as a north-southopportunity to mold or shape participants, but rather aplace to share ideas and participate in a dialogue to ex-amine global or regional problems and identify solu-tions. Case studies, seminars, simulation exercises, andfield trips are conducted to supplement the lectures.The participants are also provided with voluminousreference readings and handouts, which they are en-couraged to take home and make available to others.To enhance their learning experience, their nonaca-demic needs are not neglected. Social events and toursto local points of interest are organized, and a sense ofcommunity among participants is nurtured. It is nosmall feat to successfully bring together an average of25 people from various academic, cultural, and reli-gious backgrounds.
Each participant is required to write a major paperduring the training program and briefly present it tothe staff and participants during the final week of thecourse. These papers can be done individually or insmall groups (which is strongly encouraged). The pa-pers reflect the research that has been conducted, aswell as the knowledge gained, during the training pro-gram and relate it to a specific issue from their countryor region. All these papers are compiled into a singledocument, Participant Papers, and provided to thecourse participants and also to each of the OperationalCentres, providing an excellent reference document.
Course evaluations are completed by all participants
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NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS 135
at the conclusion of each training program and aCourse Report is published. The evaluation examinesboth the administrative and substantive aspects of thetraining program as well as exploring interest inalumni activities. The evaluation process provides anexcellent review and resource document for futurecourse development. In addition to a summary of theevaluation, the Course Report includes the syllabus, anoverview of the lectures/field trips/social events, andthe mailing addresses of participants, lecturers, andstaff. The Course Report is circulated to course partici-pants, staff, lecturers, and to all Operational Centres.
To ensure that IOI training programs reach the wid-est possible audience with the very limited amount offunding available, the IOI Training Policy requires thatIOI scholarships can only be awarded to participantsfor one training program. Alumni are welcome to applyfor additional IOI training programs; however, theymust secure external funding in order to do so (thisdoes not apply to Alumni Refresher Courses).
The first regional Alumni Refresher Course was con-ducted in 1993. It brought together all availablealumni from the Indian Ocean region to discuss newdevelopments, initiatives, and recent activities, and toencourage collaborative efforts among the group. Thisone-week event was well received by the participantsand staff and will serve as a model for alumni coursesin other regions in the future.
Training must be more than an isolated onetime ex-perience. There is a critical need to sustain and supportalumni. Alumni networking is a very important aspectof IOI activities. An Alumni Directory, organized bycountry, includes mailing and E-mail addresses, tele-phone, fax, and telex numbers, and indicates the yearand the training program the person attended. TheAlumni Directory is updated regularly and distributedto all alumni and Operational Centres. The Directory isan obvious, yet simple, cost-effective way to promotenetworking both among alumni and between alumniand Operational Centres.
The Institute publishes a quarterly newsletter, Acrossthe Oceans. This publication includes news from theOperational Centres and alumni, and the names andaddresses of participants who attended recently con-ducted IOI training programs, as well as items on re-cent ocean-related events. The editor invites submis-sions from alumni and other sources to be consideredfor publication. Across the Oceans is distributed toalumni, staff, lecturers, and others who are interestedin the ongoing activities of the IOI. Across the Oceansprovides a voice to a very large and diverse audience.
Strengthening IOI Operational Centre networks isdone in a variety of ways. Networking is part of theProject Document developed to manage the outputsand objectives under the World Bank, Global Environ-mental Facility (GEF) grant administered by UNDP. Al-
though only four of the eight Operations Centres re-ceive funding from the GEF grant, it has served as thenetworking impetus.
One of the most important elements of OperationalCentre networking is the regularly scheduled meetingsof the Centre representatives that are held to discuss is-sues of common interest and to conduct strategic plan-ning in an effort to harmonize activities. The committeeis composed of the Centre Directors, the Founder andHonorary President (Chairperson), the Executive Direc-tor, and one representative from each of the GoverningBoard and the Planning Council. A senior administratorfrom each of the host universities is also invited to par-ticipate in the meetings. By convening these meetings atthe Operational Centres, it provides an appreciation ofthe context in which the other operates.
The Course Development Committee, having thesame membership, meets in conjunction with the Cen-tre Representative to review proposed training pro-grams, share materials and newly developed programs,and report on recently conducted training programs.One of the many benefits of this peer review is the im-provement in the quality of training programs.
Operational Centres are encouraged to collect infor-mation from their regions and circulate it within theIOI network. Quarterly Action Reports, which are regu-larly submitted to the head office from each Opera-tional Centre, are also circulated within the network.This ensures that everyone is aware of what is takingplace throughout the network, and it also makes forcoordinated and synergistic functioning.
Operational Centres operate autonomously. How-ever, there is a support system in place whereby estab-lished Centres assist a new Operational Centre in de-signing an IOI framework from which to create its ownidentity. Staff from new Operational Centres are alsoinvited to participate in training programs conductedby more established Centres.
The Operational Centres are generally staffed bythree salaried positions—a director, a coordinator, anda secretary. However, variations do exist from Centre toCentre. There are a large number of volunteers whowork on an ad hoc basis to help get the job done.
Internet (E-mail) has proven to be a valuable, effi-cient, and inexpensive tool for networking betweenOperational Centres, between alumni, and to answergeneral inquiries. Some of the Operational Centres thatare on-line have established a regular communicationroutine that transcends geographical barriers. An effortis being made to bring all Operational Centres on-linewithin the next year. Software is presently being devel-oped by one of the Operational Centres that will linkthe libraries of the IOI System by Internet. Uses of anon-line system will continue to be discovered andexplored in an effort to enhance communication andresearch capacity.
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136 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
Public relations brochures are designed by each Op-erational Centre to include information pertaining totheir regional activities, placing them in the globalcontext of IOI activities. Brochures to announce indi-vidual training programs (see Annex 2) and solicit ap-plications for participation are published on a regionalbasis. A yearly summary brochure (see Annex 3), high-lighting scheduled training programs worldwide, pro-vides applicants with an opportunity to select and ap-ply for a training program that best suits theirparticular needs. The IOI Canada Operational Centre iswriting and designing a brochure for fund-raising pur-poses. These promotional materials are distributed toall the Operational Centres to keep the flow of infor-mation moving and serve to support and promote theactivities of one another.
Alumni are one of the best sources of participant ap-plications for IOI training programs. There is virtuallyno one better suited to identify people who would ben-efit from, or contribute to, an IOI training program.Operational Centres are encouraged to send Course An-nouncements and application forms to alumni, re-questing that they circulate them to the appropriatepeople. Training program announcements and applica-tion forms are also sent to ministries of foreign affairs,universities, government departments, and institutes.
Each Operational Centre is affiliated with a univer-sity through a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU).Each MOU is written to ensure the mutual benefit ofboth organizations. One advantage for the OperationalCentre is the opportunity to draw on the expertise ofthe host. For example, Dalhousie University has excel-lent faculty in oceanography, biology, maritime law,and environmental and coastal management. A num-ber of these faculty help prepare course modules andthey lecture during the training programs. As the staffof each Operational Centre is small, the host universityalso provides a well-established infrastructure andreputation from which to operate. The IOI trainingprograms are well known and highly regarded world-wide, drawing participants and lecturers from all partsof the globe. There are numerous examples of alumniwho have returned to the host university to pursuegraduate studies. Linkages between the host universi-ties have also occurred as a result of the establishmentof IOI Operational Centres on campus. For example,Dalhousie University and the University of Malta havesigned an MOU to exchange students and faculty be-tween their classics departments — Neptune andPoseidon would approve!
Networks and linkages have developed over theyears between IOI and similar institutes and organiza-tions. The IOI has signed an MOU with UNESCO’s In-tergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC)and one with the UN University (UNU). IOI is finaliz-ing an MOU with the Coastal Resources Center (CRC)
at the University of Rhode Island, and another onewith the International Centre for Coastal and OceanPolicy Studies (ICCOPS) in Genoa, Italy. These net-works provide a variety of opportunities for collabora-tion and support. For example, CRC and IOI-Costa Ricaare discussing the possibility of collaborating on atraining program. There are a number of commonpoints that exist between the two centers that makethis an obvious and natural starting point. Another ex-ample of networking is publication of the dates and lo-cations of IOI training programs in the IOC newsletter.This newsletter is published in the official United Na-tions languages and reaches a large audience. As a re-sult of this initiative, the Institute receives correspon-dence expressing an interest in the training programsfrom developing countries and organizations that havenot previously participated.
The IOI holds an annual conference, Pacem inMaribus, or Peace in the Oceans. To date, 22 Pacem inMaribus conferences have been conducted in all partsof the world. They explore many global and regionalissues as they arise and bring together an internationalbody of experts to examine and debate these matters.The proceedings are summarized into Conclusions andRecommendations for action, combined with the papersthat were presented and subsequently published.
The IOI produces Ocean Yearbook, published by theUniversity of Chicago Press. Eleven volumes (600 pageseach) have been published to date. The purpose ofOcean Yearbook is to produce a publication that tran-scends sectoral boundaries and presents data, statistics,and developments on all major marine activities.
In conclusion, this paper has briefly explored thenetworks that exist within the IOI. Some of the net-works are more obvious than others, although the listis not complete. As the Institute continues to grow,there are a number of arguments which can be put for-ward in support of network strengthening, both withinand outside the Institute:
• The need to avoid re-creating the wheel—there are anumber of established courses and training pro-grams that are excellent.
• The need to avoid competing for limited financialresources—as budgets continue to be cut and fundsbecome more limited, there needs to be a more co-ordinated and cooperative approach.
• The need to avoid working at cross-purposes—executing agencies need to take a more coordinatedand cooperative approach.
• The need to share expertise and experience—there isan excellent group of internationally recognizedresource people available.
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NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS 137
• The need to support and assist in promoting activi-ties—there are a number of very effective existingvehicles which require very little additional effort.
• The need for open dialogue and cooperation amonginstitutes, the community, various levels of govern-ment, and universities—there is a role to play at alllevels.
• The need to support alumni—alumni, staff, and as-sociates of IOI are fondly known as the “OceanMafia”—their numbers are in the thousands, andthey should be seen as a powerful force.
THE IOI NETWORK
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138 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
ANNEX 1
IOI- CANADAMargaret J. Wood Fax: 1 902 494 2034Director, IOI-Canada Tel: 1 902 494 1737Dalhousie University E-Mail: [email protected] LeMarchant StreetHalifax, Nova ScotiaCANADA B3H 3P7
IOI - CHINAProfessor Hou Wenfeng Fax: 86 22 430 4408Director, IOI-China Tel: 86 22 430 1297State Oceanic Tlx: 23138 NODC CN
Administration E-Mail:National Marine Data [email protected] and Information Service93 Liuwei Road, Hedong DistrictTianjin 300171, China
IOI - COSTA RICADr. Alejandro Gutiérrez Fax: 506 260 2546Director, IOI-Costa Rica Tel: 506 277 3594Universidad Nacional E-Mail:P.O. Box 86 [email protected], Costa Rica
IOI - FIJIDr. G. Robin South Fax: 679 301490Director, IOI-South Pacific Tel: 679 305446University of the Tlx: FJ2276
South Pacific E-Mail: [email protected] Studies ProgramP.O. Box 1168Suva, Fiji
IOI - INDIAProfessor R. Rajagopalan Fax: 91 44 235 0509Director, IOI-India Tel: 91 44 2351365 Ext 3350Department of Humanities Tlx: 041 8926
& Social Sciences E-Mail: [email protected] Institute of TechnologyMadras 600 036 India
IOI - JAPANTsutomu Fuse Fax: 81 45 787 2316Director, IOI-Japan Tel: 81 45 787 2311Yokohama City University22-2 Seto Kanazawa-KuYokohama-Shi 236 Japan
IOI - MALTADr. K. Saigal Fax: 356 346502Executive Director Tel: 356 346529International Ocean InstituteP.O. Box 3Gzira GZR 01, Malta
IOI - SENEGALDr. Diafara Toure Fax: 221 324307Director, IOI-Senegal Tel: 221 340536Centre de Recherches
Oceanographiques de Dakar-Thiaroye (CRODT)
Dakar, Senegal
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NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS 139
ANNEX 2
The purpose of the Training Programme is to deepenthe understanding of the ever-increasing importance ofthe oceans and their resources in world politics and sus-tainable economic development; to assist developingcountries in the formation of a core of decision-makersfully aware of the complex issues of ocean management;and to maximize benefits to be derived from the UnitedNations Convention on the Law of the Sea through theproper integration of ocean management into nationaland international development strategy.
The training program covers:OceanographyLaw of the SeaSustainable DevelopmentImplementation of the UNCED Programs with
particular emphasis on Chapter 17 of Agenda 21Management of Living ResourcesManagement of Nonliving ResourcesCoastal Zone ManagementDevelopment of Ports and HarborsShipping and NavigationTechnology Development and TransferNational Legislation and InfrastructureSimulation Exercise on Contract Negotiation
During the past 14 years, more than 50 courses (10weeks each) have been completed, attended by approxi-mately 1,000 participants from more than 100 developingcountries. The Class B Training Programme is specificallydesigned to benefit developing country, mid-career profes-sionals who are responsible for the various aspects of ma-rine management of their Exclusive Economic Zones. Theaim is to increase awareness of the fact that ocean man-agement adds a new dimension of development strategy,that it requires broad interdisciplinary skills, new institu-tional and legal infrastructures, and new forms of local,national, international, intergovernmental, and nongov-ernmental organization and cooperation.
The Program is broadly interdisciplinary—the new sci-ence of ocean management. The ocean must be seen as asystem with varied users and multiple uses that oftencompete and conflict.
Conducted in cooperation with Dalhousie University,Canada, this interdisciplinary course takes place on theHalifax Campus. Roundtable discussions, exercises, and anumber of field trips are organized in addition to lectures.
Admission Requirements. Participants should preferablybe between 25 and 40 years old, have an undergraduatedegree or equivalent experience, and be a mid-career civilservant or academic. They should be prepared to step outof their fields of specialization and be exposed to broadinterdisciplinary work. The Program is not intended toprovide specialized training. It is a foundation programin the new and very important field of development
strategy. Participants should be prepared for a heavyworkload. For preparation and presentation of theirCountry Report they should bring their own nationallegislation that relates to marine activities, and the latestdevelopment plan of their governments. The course isconducted in English and participants must have a goodworking knowledge of this language.
Scholarships. Scholarship for the Class B course is$10,000 CAD. This covers room and board for the course,air fare, teaching materials, tuition, health insurance, asmall allowance, and field trip expenses. For the provi-sion of scholarships, the following possibilities should beconsidered: (i) in the case of African, Caribbean, andPacific (ACP) countries, European Economic Community(EEC) scholarships, through the EEC Resident Representa-tive; (ii) United Nations Development Program (UNDP)scholarships through the country Resident Representa-tive; (iii) Commonwealth Secretariat, CommonwealthFund for Technical Cooperation (CFTC) Training Awardsthrough the country Point of Contact (POC); (iv) in thecase of Organization of American States (OAS) membercountries, applications for financial assistance are avail-able from the OAS office in the country of residence; (v)many national and regional science academies providescholarships for training/education abroad; (vi) in somecases the participant’s own government can provide fullscholarships; (vii) a limited number of scholarships areavailable directly through IOI. These can only be grantedto those participants who have attempted and been un-successful in securing a scholarship or funding fromother sources.
Applications. Application forms or enquiries should besent to:
Margaret J. Wood Tel: 1 902 494 6623Director, IOI Halifax Fax: 1 902 494 2034International Ocean Institute E-mail:Dalhousie University [email protected] LeMarchant StreetHalifax, Nova ScotiaCANADA B3H 3P7
All applications must be completed in full and en-dorsed by an appropriate government ministry or depart-ment or by a national or regional organization. Theyshould clearly indicate which course the candidate is be-ing nominated to attend. Copies of all funding applica-tion correspondence must accompany the applicationform to facilitate confirmation and collaboration.
Application Deadline1996 Training Program - February 29, 1996
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140 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
ANNEX 3
Venue Course Title Dates Duration Contact
Heredia, Costa Rica Satellite Imagery February 3 days Costa Rica
Colombo, Sri Lanka Advanced Alumni March 1 week India
Madras, India Coastal Zone Management April 4 weeks India
Suva, Fiji Coastal Zone Management with May - June 6 weeks Fijia Focus on Small Island States
Tianjin, China Seabed Mining June - July 5 weeks China
Madras, India Coastal Zone Management as June - July 6 weeks Indiaa Sustainable Process
Halifax, Canada The Entry into Force of the June - August 10 weeks CanadaUnited Nations Conventionon the Law of the Sea, itsImplementation and Agenda 21
Suva, Fiji Resource and Environmental Economics July - August 5 weeks Fiji
Port Moresby, Leaders Seminar September 2 days FijiPapua New Guinea
Mauritius Advanced Alumni September 1 week India
Havana, Cuba Sustainable Development of September - October 5 weeks CanadaMarine Resources and theProtection of the Marine Environment
Suva, Fiji Coastal Fisheries Management October - November 5 weeks Fiji& Development
Madras, India Coastal Zone Management October - December 6 weeks Indiaas a Sustainable Process
Suva, Fiji Corraline Workshop December 1 week Fiji
Heredia, Costa Rica Decision Makers Workshop TBA 2 days Costa Rica
Heredia, Costa Rica Sea Law and Ocean Policy TBA 2 weeks Costa Rica
Heredia, Costa Rica Ocean Management TBA 2 weeks Costa Rica
Dakar, Senegal Leadership Workshop TBA 2 weeks Senegal
Dakar, Senegal Planning and Management TBA 8 weeks Senegalof Coastal Zones
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NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS 141
NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS
PANELISTS: S. Vallejo, M. Bandara, E. Ozhan, M. WoodMODERATOR: Hilconida CalumpongRAPPORTEUR: Dianeetha Sadacharan
and go, forming to serve a useful purpose and then,once that purpose is satisfied, disappearing.
The two global networks are International Ocean In-stitute (IOI) and TRAIN-SEA-COAST. For the last 15years, the IOI has conducted short-term multidisci-plinary training courses. It has eight operational cen-ters which enable IOI activities to cover a broad geo-graphic scope. IOI has a strong network of alumni andattempts to build linkages among them. In addition tothe IOI network of operational centers, it has a largercircle of linkages via MOUs and other collaborating ar-rangements with universities, NGOs, and UN agencies.Here, too, there is no long-term commitment of funds,hence the sustainability of the IOI network may be anissue. TRAIN-SEA-COAST is a recent global network ofnine institutions with a wide geographic coverage. Itwas initiated by UNDP as part of the UN TRAIN-X fam-ily. The main objectives include facilitating training byproviding standardized training curricula and method-ology and by providing skilled trainers. It also facili-tates cooperation between nations to share informa-tion, courses, and training materials. This approachreduces costs and optimizes efforts in producing anddelivering training courses.
Max Agüero briefly described the Asian Fisheries So-cial Science Research Network (AFSSRN), whose activi-ties deal with research, training, publications, work-shops, and internships. Evaluation of its performanceindicates that the network could have been more suc-cessful had funds been available on a more sustainablebasis. There is a danger in networks becoming self-per-petuating even if they are redundant. Ed Gomez brieflydescribed a national network operating in the Philip-pines—The Philippine Association of Marine Sciences—which provides a forum for scientists to exchange in-formation, ideas, and research findings. The networkwas initiated with external funding but is now self-sufficient.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• How can a network benefit ICM and how can theycontribute to it?
• What can universities get from and give to anetwork?
• How can universities benefit and what can theycontribute to nonuniversity members?
• How can networks be used as a means to share anddevelop curriculum materials and faculty/trainers?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages ofdecentralized versus centralized approaches?
• What are the merits of national versus regionalversus international networks?
RAPPORTEUR’S REPORTThe panelist presentations provided a very good
overview of several networks relating to coastal man-agement that are currently in operation. Of the fournetworks that were presented, two are regional and twoare global. Both regional networks are fairly new (twoto three years old). The MedCoast network covers arelatively small geographic area (i.e., the Mediterraneanand Black Sea). MedCoast has a training component, aresearch component, and a conference series.MedCoast has broad-based support, including supportfrom areas outside the region. NETTLAP covers a largegeographic area, an important area where more thanhalf the world’s population lives. Initiated by UNEP asa response to UNCED, NETTLAP has the enormous taskof being the “small fish in a big pond.” In bothMedCoast and NETTLAP, a central concern is stableand long-term funding, raising major questions regard-ing sustainability. Madduma Bandara asked if networksare “birds of paradise” or, in other words, do they come
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142 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
Discussion: The first topic of discussion was that thereappear to be significant efforts in ICM training. It wassuggested that there is a need to harmonize these ef-forts to ensure that the philosophy and concepts arethe same. However, there was a divergent opinion re-garding this issue. Some participants felt competition isdesirable, as it leads to diversity of ideas and thoughts,and such diversity should be encouraged, particularlyconsidering the newness of ICM and the lack of con-sensus on core theory and approaches. Additionalviews expressed included:
• One of the purposes of universities is to promotedifferent approaches and diversity of ideas.
• There is a need now, and in the foreseeable future,for significant training in ICM. There is only oneplace where ICM education can happen—auniversity.
Recommendations and Conclusions: The followingpoints were considered crucial in considering networksand partnership arrangements:
• There is a need for global sharing of information.
• There is a need for cost-effectiveness and to assistcountries in tailoring training programs to suit eachcountry’s needs.
• Cooperation among countries within or outside thenetworks is essential.
• There is a need to increase information flow amonguniversities.
• We should try to draw lessons from the many train-ing programs, newsletters, and conferences (e.g.,what makes programs work, what program charac-teristics are more successful than others).
• The USAID/CRC Intercoast newsletter should do anannual review of training programs. (The UN is put-ting together a database on training programs.)
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NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS 143
DONOR INITIATIVES FOR BUILDING HUMAN CAPACITY FORINTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT
PANELISTS: T. Johnson, M. Hatziolos, S. VallejoMODERATOR: Madduma BandaraRAPPORTEUR: Max Agüero
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• What is the response to workshop recommendationsand the Call to Action?
• What are donors doing in ICM?
• Why has donor interest in ICM increased at thistime?
• What has been the donor experience in educationalcapacity building?
• How can the ICM short-term training initiatives ofdonors be more closely linked to long-term educa-tional capacity building?
• How can donor recipients ensure they get the mostout of donor assistance?
RAPPORTEUR’S REPORTPresentations were made by three donor representa-
tives. Marea Hatziolos from the World Bank listed sev-eral reasons why donors are interested in ICM:
• Increasing coastal population
• Urban growth in coastal area
• Declining quality of life
• Declining quality of coastal ecosystems andbiodiversity
She mentioned that the World Bank is promotingICM in several ways—through development of guide-lines and handbooks, with short-term training, andthrough integration of coastal issues in developmentplans. Most of the World Bank’s experience in ICM-capacity building, to date, has been focused on short-term training, technology transfer (i.e., GIS), support,and public awareness. At present, there are noresources provided to develop university degree
programs. World Bank assistance will be primarilyconcentrated in training and policy design. The mostlikely source of funding for educational program devel-opment would be either through trust funds or GEF,which focuses more on national and regional activities.
Stella Maris Vallejo sat in for Phil Reynolds of UNDP.UNDP has established several training networks usingthe TRAIN-X methodology. TRAIN-SEA-COAST is themost recent member of the TRAIN-X family and is thecollaborative effort of UNDP in coastal management.Training is a central human resources developmentstrategy for UNDP for several reasons. TRAIN-X pro-motes the development of training capacity in local in-stitutions and is used to develop high-quality standard-ized training materials for trainers and institutionsinvolved in the network. It has several advantages:
• Cost-effectiveness
• Promotes sustainability of efforts
• Has long-term impacts
• Builds up permanent capabilities
• Assists with long-term, sustainable policy design
• Increases training cooperation between the UN andother institutions
• Promotes cooperation between developed and devel-oping countries
• Provides common training packages used andshared among members
Funding is an increasing concern within UNDP,and the TRAIN-SEA-COAST program can make a smallamount of funds go a long way. It does not providefunding to implement the training courses, which isthe responsibility of the cooperating traininginstitutions.
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144 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
Twig Johnson from USAID indicated that interna-tional development assistance is facing serious scrutinyin the United States. USAID has very successfully coop-erated with URI in marine and coastal programs formore than two decades, along with many national gov-ernments, NGOs, and local communities. However, in-tegrated coastal management is not the first priority inmost developing countries. USAID priority areas havealways been in capacity building. Many donor agen-cies, including USAID, are facing declining budgets, sothere is very little funding available for integratedcoastal management initiatives. Institutions interestedin ICM and capacity building need to be creative in or-der to identify and mobilize resources. The recent coralreef initiative may be one marketing approach. Donorsare also interested in engaging in real partnershipswith countries and their institutions, and new projectsmust have specific and explicit outcomes. It is difficultto mobilize resources for capacity building because it ishard to understand the direct benefits. Increasing im-portance is being placed on demonstrating tangible re-sults. Where can we point to coastal resources whichare better managed because of a development project?In addition, projects must become better at telling thestory of their successes. ICM, while small in terms ofthe overall portfolio within USAID, will continue todraw attention.
Discussion: The three brief presentations were fol-lowed by discussion on methods of financing capacity-building initiatives, goals of donors and recipients, andmethods of financing. Robin South pointed out thatdonors’ priorities drive most development assistanceprograms, which may or may not be in tune with localneeds and are also subject to frequent changes. In thiscontext, it is hard to sustain long-term commitments.For instance, USAID cut off all development assistanceto countries in the South Pacific on very short noticeand with little debate. It was suggested that forums areneeded for donors where regional concerns regardingpriorities can be expressed. There was some discussionof the roles of the international research institutions(CIGARs), but donor representatives felt that they willplay a decreasing role. One opinion among the work-shop participants was that they draw off too manyfinancial resources which, if spent on developing andstrengthening local/indigenous institutions, could bestretched much further.
There was discussion about the need to present re-sults more rigorously. Donors need a set of guidingprinciples that approach decisions and their benefits interms of decades. Finally, university systems havepromising potential to highlight the need for andbenefits of ICM and are good long-term partners fordonors.
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UNIVERSITY STRATEGIES 145
SECTION 5STRATEGIES FORBUILDING UNIVERSITYCAPACITY
An Integrated Program for Educating andSustaining Coastal ManagersDavid Gitlitz 147
Roundtable DiscussionThe Changing Nature of Educating CoastalManagers—New Paradigms, Technology, andApproaches 150
Rapporteur’s ReportRecommendations for Building UniversityCapacity in ICM—Program Models andCurriculum Issues 152
Rapporteur’s ReportRecommendations for Building UniversityCapacity in ICM: Human Resources Issues,Institutional Strengthening Issues,Consultative Arrangements, and Partnerships 156
Plenary DiscussionRecommendations for Building UniversityCapacity in ICM 158
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UNIVERSITY STRATEGIES 147
AN INTEGRATED PROGRAM FOR EDUCATINGAND SUSTAINING COASTAL MANAGERS
David GitlitzUniversity of Rhode IslandDepartment of LanguagesKingston, R.I., U.S.A.
ABSTRACTThis paper proposes a structure for a master’s degree program in coastal management offered by aconsortium of international institutions. The consortium’s diverse goals should include advancingresearch in basic science and in managerial and policy areas relevant to the management of coastalzones; developing and disseminating knowledge about applications for the products of such research;educating decision makers so that they will give wise, substantial, and consistent support; educatingand training the managers at various levels; nurturing a feedback environment in which experience atall levels enriches knowledge and procedures at all levels. The degree should consist of core of material,a variety of specialized tracks, and fieldwork preferably in at least two countries or regions. The degreeshould be jointly offered by individual consortium members and to the consortium as a whole, withcourses scheduled at diverse locales and with many faculty serving as International Adjuncts, holdingfractional appointments at foreign institutions in addition to their own. One consortium institution ata time should act as the hub, responsible for overall management of the program. Practica andfieldwork at all levels, both in connection with the master’s program and in other diverse projects,should be central to the consortium’s efforts. Equally important is the dissemination of the results ofthese efforts, through conferences, workshops, training programs, and publications.
INTRODUCTIONIn this paper, I am going to sketch one possible
model for a multifaceted, well-integrated programaimed at enhancing the world’s capabilities for dealingwith coastal resource management issues. I know this ispresumptuous goal, especially for someone like myselfwho is not a coastal resources manager, nor an experi-enced field worker, nor a veteran of the NGO fundingwars, nor, for that matter, even a scientist. I am ateacher (Hispanic culture) and a former university ad-ministrator. Still, my very status as an outsider, albeitone with a couple of decades of experience in buildingand nurturing programs of a “pure” academic and ap-plied nature, may give me a valuable perspective thatan insider—necessarily caught up in the pressures ofspecific research, teaching duties, and funding impera-tives—might not have.
Let me start with some assumptions. The first is thatwisely managing the world’s coastal resources is almostunbelievably complex. Scientifically complex in thatdozens of rapidly evolving disciplines are involved, notall of which habitually talk to one another, and someof which are extremely costly to pursue. Politicallycomplex, because it involves jurisdictions that overlapand compete at all levels: this is true of the political en-tities that share responsibilities for coastlines andcoastal waters, and for the intellectual organizations—universities and research institutes—that concernthemselves with coasts. Managerially complex, becauseit will not work unless the prime ministers and bankpresidents and scientists and municipal governmentsand beach resort owners and peasants (along the water-sheds) and fishermen (in the estuaries) all cooperate.
The second assumption is that to have any chance
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148 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
of success, our efforts must be multidirectional andmust include, at a minimum, these goals:
• Conducting research in the basic sciences relevantto the management of coastal zones
• Conducting research in managerial and policy areasrelevant to the management of coastal zones
• Developing applications for the research products
• Disseminating knowledge about researchapplications
• Educating decision makers so that they will givewise, substantial, and consistent support
• Educating and training managers at the regional andlocal levels
• Nurturing a feedback environment in which experi-ence at all levels enriches knowledge and proceduresat all levels
The third assumption is that efforts must be trulyinternational. Partnerships must cross cultures at everylevel and expertise and resources must be shared withequity. Over the long term, nothing will sustain effortbetter than communal pride in shared achievements.
The fourth is that constant communication is cru-cial at all levels, and that our rapidly evolving commu-nications technology either provides, or soon will pro-vide, the tools to make that possible.
For a variety of reasons, I think that academic insti-tutions are probably best suited to sit at the center ofthe network of integrated efforts. Particularly apt isthe sort of academic entity which, in the United States,has come to be known as a Land Grant university andin other countries, goes by another name. This modelincorporates teaching and granting degrees; continuingeducation with short courses, seminars, and certificateprograms; basic and applied research; feedback mecha-nisms; and outreach activities using all sorts of media.The following outline has the Land Grant universitymodel at its intellectual core and incorporates severalcomponents. Let me say again that I think the underly-ing assumptions and goals are the most important ele-ments. What follows is one possible structure to ad-dress those goals.
THE CONSORTIUM OF UNIVERSITY PARTNERSIf I were pulling together a consortium of partners, I
would want to involve a handful of key universitiesfrom each of the world’s major coastal regions. I don’tknow what the optimum number is, but from my expe-rience with operational consortia, I would guess it ismore than five and less than a dozen. While the con-sortium might want to involve individual scholars orresearch groups from other institutions as affiliates inthe region—both academic and nonacademic—prob-
ably each region should have one principal member. Isuspect that there should be some balance among theso-called developed and developing countries.
The complex nature of this enterprise, and the veryuneven distribution of the world’s material resources,suggest to me that a single institution—initially, for thesake of argument, The University of Rhode Island (URI)—should take responsibility for coordinating the part-nership activities. The institution at the hub, a respons-ibility which might rotate on some long-term basis, willhave special duties in the areas of curriculum, outreach,fund raising, and overall program coordination.
1. Hub Institution’s Role
• Take prime responsibility for coordinatingtheoretical and intellectual development
• Act as a center and coordinate outreach activities• Coordinate curriculum with the partners or affiliates• Assume primary responsibility for seeking
international activity funding• Host international adjunct faculty• Coordinate publication programs
2. Partner Institutions’ Roles
• Coordinate field work in that region• Provide curriculum incorporating field work• Nominate international adjunct faculty• Take prime responsibility for seeking regional
activity funding• Host regional events• Coordinate regional publication programs
3. Affiliate Faculty Roles
• Participate in specific projects• Teach or team-teach in specific contexts• Coordinate specific publication projects
THE CURRICULUM—MASTER’S DEGREE ININTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT
The consortium should probably concentrate on of-fering a single degree, a master’s degree in IntegratedCoastal Management (ICM). For some people, the de-gree might be their first post-baccalaureate experience,but for many it will complement master’s or doctoraldegrees in other fields. Ideally, the degree would beoffered jointly by the hub institution and the partnerinstitutions where the field work is undertaken. Thisdegree should combine theory and practice, “pureresearch” and applied studies, with most of the appli-cations involving fieldwork.
The consortium might also offer a component, aminor, or a thematic emphasis in a variety of Ph.D.programs in fields such as oceanography, management,business, engineering, or anthropology. The Ph.D.degree might be offered by any institution within theconsortium.
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UNIVERSITY STRATEGIES 149
Organization of Curriculum
• Core theoretical curriculum at hub institution• Field work/practica at partnership sites• Field work-based curriculum at partnership sites• Final integrating exercise (field work + theory —>
formal packaging and dissemination)
Potential Sources of Faculty
• Faculty of hub institution and partner institutions(At URI: Arts and Sciences, science departments;Marine Affairs; Resource Development, theGraduate School of Oceanography; InternationalAdjuncts)
• Government agencies• NGOs
INTERNATIONAL ADJUNCT PROGRAMOngoing intellectual collaboration is essential to the
long-term success of these efforts. One way to structurethis collaboration is to incorporate faculty from thepartner institutions and other institutions, as interna-tional adjuncts (IA) at the hub institution. Ideally an IAshould be a leading figure in field(s) related to coastalmanagement. They might occupy a fractional facultyappointment (.25 or .33 full-time equivalent) at thehub institution, and might be tenurable to that frac-tion. Their involvement at the hub university might bescheduled around their nonteaching times at theirhome institutions. Similarly, faculty from the hubmight hold short- or long-term IA appointments atpartnership institutions. The IAs’ long-term relation-ship with both the hub and partner institutions shouldhelp facilitate curriculum development, funding oppor-tunities, field work placements, and joint publications.
Duties of International Adjuncts
• Teach annual course(s) at hub or partner institutions• Direct or participate in projects/theses• Participate in regional/global conferences• Take part in efforts to secure external funding• Feature their consortial affiliation on all publica-
tions and activities
RESEARCH AND DISSEMINATIONOne of the prime goals of the consortium must be to
advance research in areas affecting ICM, both in thescientific disciplines and in the applications of scien-tific knowledge. Presumably, “pure” research will con-tinue to flow best from individual researchers and re-search teams around the world. While this consortiummay choose to undertake “pure” research projects fromtime to time, as a consortium, its potential contribu-tions are probably more in the area of applied research.To this end, practica and fieldwork at all levels, both inconnection with the master’s program, and in other
projects with government agencies and NGOs, shouldbe central to the consortium’s efforts.
As important as the investigations themselves are,the results of these efforts must be disseminatedthrough conferences, workshops, training programs,and publications. Establishing an identity for the con-sortium through regular dissemination of activities anda consistently formatted publication series is crucial toattract and sustain support for the consortium’s efforts.
Here is a few of the many possible models for educa-tion of the ICM community through collaboration onand dissemination of research.
Recurring Non-degree Programs and ContinuingEducation
• Certificate programs (for practicing coastal manag-ers) in bringing science to bear on managementissues bringing management to bear on scientificissues
• Certificate programs (for teachers at various levels)on developing curricula on ecological issues
• Short courses for managers to develop skills such asaccounting; environmental accounting; specialarea management; or working with governingboards
• Short courses on focused issues such as managementof coastal erosion; management of waterquality; and resolution of use conflicts
Conferences
• Periodic, global, high-level conferences on a majorglobal issue for major scientists and/or policymakers
• Periodic regional conferences focused on the resultsof fieldwork and practica
• Sporadic topic-focused conferences for policymakers
Publication Series
• Annual conference publication series• International journal focusing on integrated coastal
management issues: open submissions, refereed• Regional publication series of fieldwork and practica
results– Published in the language(s) of the region
where the work is done; abstracts in English orother major international languages forregional libraries
– Annual compilation and publication of theabstracts for international libraries
– Annual reprinting of the most significant workprinted in an annual international volume
• Ongoing discussion groups, problem-solving groups,and bulletin boards via communications media suchas the Internet
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150 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
THE CHANGING NATURE OF EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS—NEWPARADIGMS, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPROACHES
ROUNDTABLE DISCUSSIONMODERATOR: J. WigginRAPPORTEUR: Chou Loke Ming
and not as a way to raise prestige. More important iswhat technology delivers rather than possession ofthe technology itself.
• Where support is provided to transfer technology torecipient universities, careful planning is crucial toensure that the technology is relevant and appli-cable. Thought needs to be given to:
– How prepared the university is to receive thetechnology
– Whether the institution can sustain thetechnology
– How effective the technology is in deliveringcontent to coastal managers and users
• In deciding the selection of new technology, univer-sities must consider the groups they are targeting.Community groups may not possess the necessaryfacilities to receive information transmitted bytechnology.
• In some countries, infrastructure for the technologyis available, but the expertise to support and main-tain the technology is lacking.
• In selecting the type of technology, it is necessary torelate to constantly changing innovations andimprovements.
While it is difficult in some universities or countriesto receive new technology, there is consensus that sup-port be given to provide the technology when the op-portunity arises. This will enable universities to main-tain contact with other universities for efficientinformation sharing and networking.
When providing a university with new technology,the long-term training and educational needs must beconsidered so that the full benefits of the technologycan be derived. Important lessons can be learned from
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• What are the implications of a changing ICMparadigm?
• What emerging technologies can help enhancedissemination (virtual universities)?
• What is the role of distance learning and can it beglobal in reach?
• How can training programs be linked to attainingeducational degrees through accreditation andcontinuing education?
• How is technical assistance linked to capacitybuilding?
• How can we make the process more cost effective?
RAPPORTEUR’S REPORTThere was general agreement among the group that
new technology and approaches (such as distancelearning, electronic communication, Geographic Infor-mation Systems) are important to enhance coastalmanagement education processes. This technologyhelps compress the time it takes to learn by disseminat-ing large amounts of information widely, rapidly, andat relatively low cost. Preparation of training materialscan be efficiently processed with new technology.
While it is agreed that technology can enhancecommunication and content delivery, there are severalother important considerations:
• Not all countries have the technology and not alluniversities are prepared to receive new technology.These universities need support to develop the infra-structure that will support the technology.
• In developing institutional capacity for new tech-nology, the major concern is that universitiesshould consider technology relevant to their needs
past and on-going projects (both successful andunsuccessful) that were heavily dependent ontechnology transfer.
In the next 10 to 15 years, more shorttraining courses and master's degree courses will beneeded. These are likely to be scaled down asincreasing numbers of coastal users and managersreceive training. At the same time, universities canalso enhance training capacity by entering intoarrangements with one another to involve academicstaff in exchange visits, internships, and workshops.
Regardless of the current technicalcapability, universities should promote ICM trainingto address the high demand for such information,using whatever resources are available.
The importance of training content wasemphasized repeatedly. Content must be designed toteach coastal managers to grapple with people-relatedproblems, to resolve conflicts, and to negotiateeffectively at different levels with various groups ofcoastal users and planners. Translating content intodifferent languages is necessary for widedissemination. Content meant for wide disseminationmust be sensitive to, and compliant with, cultural andsocial differences in different countries.
UNIVERSITY STRATEGIES 151
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152 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR BUILDING UNIVERSITY CAPACITY IN ICM—PROGRAM MODELS AND CURRICULUM ISSUES
MODERATOR: Robert MillerRAPPORTEUR: Mark DeMoranville
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• What are the strengths and limitations of aninterdisciplinary curriculum?
• Is there a need for firm grounding in a specificdiscipline?
• How important is it to develop interdisciplinary/broad-view thinkers?
• What lessons can be drawn from other fields andapplied to ICM curriculum?
• Is there a core curriculum?
• What are the merits of interdepartmental versusinterdisciplinary programs?
• What are the pros and cons of creating newprograms versus grafting onto existing programs?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages ofregional versus national programs?
• What is the best educational approach (adult/experi-ential learning, case method)?
• What is the duration and types or levels ofprograms?
• What are the prerequisites?
RAPPORTEUR’S REPORTThe group recognized that there is no single right
way to educate coastal managers. Many approachesand strategies may be appropriate depending on the lo-cal context and needs. The following outputs generatedby the group are intended to serve as a framework andprovide guidance to those who are developing educa-tional programs in coastal management.
A Framework Curriculum for Coastal ManagementSpecialists: The first question the group addressed was:Is there a core curriculum for the coastal managementspecialist? The group consensus was that there shouldbe a minimal framework of knowledge and skills whicha coastal management specialist should have, regard-less of region, nation, or local context.
There was much discussion concerning the differ-ence in the curriculum required for a technical special-ist as opposed to a coastal management specialist.Essentially, the technical specialist focuses on a tradi-tional discipline and degree program, such as engineer-ing, and may augment this traditional core with addi-tional courses in coastal management, particularly intheory and principles. The coastal management spe-cialist needs to have a broad range of knowledge andskills from a variety of disciplines to be effective. Thespecialist should gain a speciality in a traditional disci-pline or field, but the emphasis should be on broad-based learning and understanding theory, methods,and ICM tools. Building a specialization in a traditionaldiscipline may be useful as a graduate could markethimself as a coastal manager or a natural resourcesmanager, planner, fisheries manager, or protected areamanager. The coastal management specialist is notsuperhuman with specialized expertise in multipledisciplines. A minimum core of knowledge in variousdisciplines is needed to be able to understand, manage,coordinate, and communicate effectively with techni-cal specialists.
While many coastal management jobs require amaster’s degree, a bachelor’s degree may be appropri-ate, not only in terms of types of positions, but interms of local context. If a position in coastal manage-ment needs to be filled, and the pool of available can-didates have no more than a bachelor’s degrees, then abachelor’s level education may be all that is needed.
Considerations in Creating a CoastalManagement Educational Program: A concernexpressed by some individuals was whether a coastalmanagement education program should be named assuch. In some contexts, there may be no jobs with thetitle of coastal manager for people who get thisdegree. However, the experience of establisheddegree programs is that when a new program iscreated, it may need to intensively market it'sgraduates in the initial years of existence. Typically,as a program becomes established and develops atrack record of graduates, it can become recognizedunder the name of Coastal Management. It also hasbeen the experience of established programs thatwhile jobs may not exist under the name of CoastalManager or Marine Affairs, people with this degreewill be hired to fill a number of related positionsbecause of the knowledge and skills their program isknown to provide to its graduates.
University program developers shoulddetermine the need for a new program in terms of thejob market. (Is there a growing demand for coastalmanagers, and if so, how large and for what specifictypes of expertise?) Another approach, however, is totake the courageous step of initiating a programbased on the realization that the natural resource baseis being depleted and user conflicts are increasing.This indicates that change is needed and educationshould reflect that. In other words, some agenciesmay not be aware of their needs, and universities canbe proactive in their approach to education. Byproducing graduates who view themselves as coastalmanagers, universities can develop the humanresource engines and catalysts that governments needin order to create coastal management programs.
Conducting needs assessment prior todesigning an educational program can help todetermine the kinds and numbers of jobs whichwould be available to graduates. For instance, arepositions research or field-oriented, and what are theimplications for a certain program design?
Internships or practicums should beconsidered an integral part of a degree program.Internships should serve not only to give students abase of professional experience, but also to provideopportunities to hone methodologies, skills, andapplications of tools provided through academiccoursework.
It may be practical for a university to simplycreate new courses within a preexisting program. Forexample, a program in natural resources managementmay offer a similar set of courses which providecoastal managers with the framework of theory,methods, and skills. Hence, if courses specific tocoastal management were added to the curriculum oroffered as a specialized suite of electives, the naturalresources management degree could serve the samepurpose as a stand-alone coastal management degreeprogram. At many universities, it may be difficult toget a new program approved. New degree programs
UNIVERSITY STRATEGIES 153
cost money to develop, and the question ofdistribution of financial resources may become anissue. If new program development diverts scarceresources from preexisting programs, there are boundto be serious conflicts. Politically, it may be morefeasible to graft onto an existing program rather thanattempting to create a new degree program in and ofitself.
Regional versus National Educational ProgramModels: The size of a country, its population, andthe length of its coastline may all play a role inwhether or not new educational programdevelopment is appropriate. Large countries mayhave a need for several university programs. Mexicois an example because of its size, population, andlong coastline. Smaller countries, such as Ecuador,may not be able to justify development of a singleprogram. It may be better to develop a regionalprogram, in this case, or integrate ICM curricula intoexisting degree specializations. At certaininstitutions, because of the risks inherent in starting anew program, it may make more sense to start small,with one or two courses, and over a period of years, ifnecessary, build up to a full curriculum that issufficient to grant a degree or establish a newprogram.
There are two basic models for developing aprogram within an individual institution: aninterdepartmental or floating program, and a separateprogram within one department. A floating programis not attached to any traditional academicdepartment. The degree is conferred by a programwhich has a coordinator. Students would have theoption of selecting courses from various disciplinesand departments to fulfill the requirements of theprogram. Within this program, students would choosea specialty and take a larger number of courses.
A separate departmental program is a moretraditional structure, wherein students are granted adegree within a specific department, and are giventhe option of taking a number of courses to providethe interdisciplinary perspective from otherdisciplines and departments. The University ofMassachusetts-Boston Environmental StudiesProgram is an example of the departmental programmodel. The departmental program model, however,needs to allow the student flexibility in his or hercurriculum selection depending on the varying entrylevel backgrounds and eventual career goals of thestudent. If flexible, this type of program canessentially serve the same purpose as aninterdepartmental or floating program in offering aflexible and comprehensive interdisciplinarycurriculum.
A regional program would include severaluniversities. Curriculum could be developed jointlyand taught among the partner institutions. Initially,there should be a central "headquarters" universitywhich would be
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154 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
the degree-granting institution. Degrees could be of-fered jointly, however. This institution would have tobe fully accredited. One idea was to consider a regionalprogram as a transitional program. It could be operatedfor a period of 5 to 10 years with an explicit goal ofbuilding local capacity at various national or local uni-versities. As national and local educational institutionsdevelop capacity and establish educational programs,the regional program would phased out.
For a regional program, a mutually beneficial rela-tionship among partner universities could include ar-rangements for joint appointments. Faculty couldteach courses at other universities. This could helpwith capacity building at the smaller institutions in-volved in the regional initiative. When partnershipprograms are developed, it is important to insure thatthey are beneficial to all universities involved. Formalarrangements should be made and activities carefullyplanned. This will avoid confusion and help to buildtrust between the participating institutions. Lessonslearned from previous attempts to establish regionalprograms have shown that, although they may includea strong curriculum and draw from a talented faculty, ifthe program relies on external funding and the fund-ing ends, the program may end despite continuing de-mand. The funding may run out before the programbecomes self-sustaining. The preferable model for re-gional program development is one that originates or-ganically, through consensus among several nationaland academic institutions in the region, rather thanthrough an externally driven and funded arrangement.Donors may be more willing to support an organicmodel rather than an externally proposed model. If aregional program is created and is successful in attract-ing students from other nations, infrastructure consid-erations need to be taken into account. At many uni-versities, the majority of students commute andresidential facilities may be needed for a regional stu-dent body.
One point that was raised was that uncoordinatedefforts can lead to many programs springing up in avery short period of time. This could pose a danger inthat a limited group of talented faculty could be spreadtoo thin. Rather than having one strong program,there may be several weak programs. However, severalprograms in coastal management may be needed andcan stimulate competition.
Even if there is a perceived need for a coastal man-agement degree program at a national level in onecountry (for example, due to perceived job growth inthe coastal management field), governments of neigh-boring countries may not give coastal managementhigh priority in the foreseeable future. Consensus andsupport needs to be sought at high levels within gov-ernment as well as within the participating academic
institutions for the need to create a regional programamong nations and universities.
Types of Degree Programs and Student Prerequisites:Two types of students will be in these programs: Recentcollege graduates or mid-career professionals returningto school for an academic degree. In UniversidadAutonoma de Baja California Sur, for example, manyprofessionals from diverse fields (such as engineering)are taking night courses toward a degree in coastalmanagement. At Silliman University, many older stu-dents are enrolled part-time for degrees in marinestudies.
Table 1 lists the typical positions and job functionsgraduates of a degree program or those who have spe-cialized in coastal management might expect to findafter graduating. The group felt that the largest de-mand in most regions and countries is at the master’slevel. A master’s degree in coastal management can beviewed more as a professional degree such as those of-fered in public administration and business administra-tion. However, in some nations and areas, a bachelor’sdegree may be sufficient. Doctoral programs were con-sidered the lowest priority. It was also pointed out thatthere is a great need for in-service or certificate educa-tional programs for technical specialists working oncoastal management initiatives. Such individuals mayor may not have existing degrees and, since they areemployed, may not be able to attend traditional degreeprograms. In such circumstances, a night school or dis-tance learning program may be a more appropriate wayto deliver a program.
While the number of jobs available to graduateswith Ph.D.s are not considered substantial at the mo-ment (primarily university professorships and high-level program administrators), doctoral programs mayneed to be created to help foster the development of anew discipline of coastal management. When the disci-pline of ecology was emerging many years ago, manyacademics viewed it from an interdisciplinary/holisticapproach and felt that doctoral programs were notneeded. Initial graduates had difficulty getting their re-search published. But over time, a body of research andtheory developed which is now widely accepted, andmany doctoral programs have subsequently been estab-lished. Coastal management as a discipline may be at asimilar early stage of development, as ecology andoceanography once were. It may take a pioneeringspirit to move the paradigm forward, advancing thebody of knowledge and theory to the point wherecoastal management can be accepted in its own rightas a discipline.
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UNIVERSITY STRATEGIES 155
TABLE 1: POTENTIAL JOBS AND POSITION TITLES FOR GRADUATESOF COASTAL MANAGEMENT DEGREE PROGRAMS
Bachelor’s Master’s Doctoral
Fisheries Development Planner Policy Design Specialist ProfessorCoastal Engineer Coastal Management Planner Senior Program AdministratorPermit Review Officer Municipal/Land Use PlannerPublic Education Specialist EconomistTourism Officer Interagency CoordinatorRecreation Officer LawyerEnforcement Officer City/Urban PlannerField Biologist Policy AnalystField Engineer EIA Specialist
Program Administrator (Environmental, Natural Resource Agencies)Program Officer (Donor Programs)Conflict Management SpecialistProject Development OfficerProject ManagerEnforcement SupervisorHabitat SpecialistSAM/Protected Area SpecialistPublic Safety/Disaster Planning SpecialistPublic Health SpecialistPort Manager/Harbormaster
For some of the natural sciences and economicscourses in an interdisciplinary master’s program, someprerequisites may be required. At a bachelor’s level,typical general education requirements are necessary. Ifthe goal of an interdisciplinary program is to provide abase of knowledge in a broad range of disciplines, itmay be possible to develop special courses tailored tothe needs of these students, encompassing the knowl-edge, skills, and attitudes that they need as coastalmanagement specialists. A grounding in a specialty isimportant. This should be obtained at the bachelor’slevel for those entering a coastal management master’sprogram. An interdisciplinary master’s program shouldalso allow the student the option of concentrating on aspecialty within the framework of this program.
A Framework Curriculum: Table 2 illustrates the fiveareas key to a master’s degree in coastal management.They are Theory and Knowledge; Tools; Methods andSkills; Practicums; and Ethics. Ethics was considered tobe an important area because appropriate attitudes andmodes of behavior must be instilled throughout thecurriculum.
TABLE 2: A FRAMEWORK CURRICULUM FOR ADEGREE PROGRAM IN COASTAL MANAGEMENT
Curriculum Area Content
Theory and managementKnowledge ecology of natural resources
social/political/economic issuespolicy developmentlegal frameworks
Tools geographic information systems(used to apply remote sensinga method) global positioning systems
statistics
Methods/Skills planning and evaluationresource and ecological
assessment and valuationcommunicationbenefit/cost analysisleadership
Practicum cultural literacyapplication of methods and theory in an actual job setting
Attitudes ethics of public and communityservice
ecological ethics
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156 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR BUILDING UNIVERSITY CAPACITY IN ICM:HUMAN RESOURCES ISSUES, INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING ISSUES,CONSULTATIVE ARRANGEMENTS, AND PARTNERSHIPS
MODERATOR: J. Stanley CobbRAPPORTEUR: Stefano Belfiore
a growing need for educational programs in ICM hasalso been considered, even though a clear determina-tion of the demand - both in qualitative and quantita-tive terms - is not easy. Urgent problems or conflictsthat need to be resolved in the coastal zone (e.g., beacherosion) seem to play a significant role in promptinginstitutions to establish educational programs in ICM-building upon current ICM courses.
A typical initiating process may go through thefollowing phases:
• Perception of a critical coastal zone managementissue
• Establishment of a temporary interdisciplinaryresearch team built upon a leading group in aspecialized and qualified department
• Transformation of the temporary team into apermanent structure
• Establishment of an educational program in ICM
Other elements identified as critical in order to ini-tiate human resource development in ICM encompass:
• An ongoing process in ICM
• The existence of qualified centers of expertise indisciplines contributing to ICM
• The availability of funding
• The possibility to draw upon experienced andqualified faculty and staff
• The availability of technical equipment
• A demand for graduates in ICM
• The willingness to undertake interdisciplinaryprograms
• A vision or philosophy in ICM
• A political commitment to ICM and appropriateinstitutional arrangements
Other important components to be consideredinclude:
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
Human Resource Issues:
• What are the needs for faculty and materialsdevelopment?
• What are the relative merits of materials-based ver-sus faculty/trainer-based development approaches?
• What is the appropriate mix of knowledge, skills,and experience needed by teachers/trainers?
• What are the best strategies for faculty and trainerdevelopment?
Institutional Strengthening Issues:
• What are the preconditions for universities toestablish ICM infrastructure issues?
• What are the implications of the stages of universitydevelopment and level of ICM program develop-ment within a country?
Consultative Arrangements and Partnerships:
• What are some suggested relationships amonguniversities—should they collaborate or compete?
• What contributions can NGOs, government, andthe private sector make in teaching, research, andservice roles?
RAPPORTEUR’S REPORTThe discussion was initially conducted informally to
set the stage for a free exchange of ideas. It then pro-ceeded with a more formal analysis of the topics. Somecore issues emerged relating to the elements that ini-tiate a process that leads to establishment of an educa-tional program in coastal management. The availabilityof funding was recognized as one of the most impor-tant components of the initiation process. Particularlyin developing countries, university funding is normallyprovided by the government, although some examplesof private institutions can be found. The perception of
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UNIVERSITY STRATEGIES 157
• The role of technology in creating worldwidehomogenization
• The willingness to overcome the traditional organi-zation of universities in separate departments
• Promoting the knowledge and appreciation ofnature at a pre-university level
• The role of research groups in gathering people fromdifferent disciplines and creating an interdiscipli-nary research environment
• The importance of donors to ensure thesustainability of the program
The analysis of the discussion topics was conductedon the assumption that a context for the establishmentof an educational program in ICM had been identified.This context implies that:
• There is demand for ICM graduates
• There are not enough ICM programs in the countryor the region
• An institution is willing to establish an educationalprogram in ICM
• A consensus has been built with the government onthe need for such a program
Consensus was reached about the preliminary stepsto undertake in order to establish the program. Thefirst step would consist of a diagnosis or capabilitystatement of the university including the existing de-partments, faculty, programs, infrastructure, and fund-ing. A second step would be devoted to determiningstrengths and weaknesses. A third and final step wouldinvolve identifying externalities such as market andcompetitors, both in the country and the region. Thediscussion then turned to the analysis of the specificissues related to the three major discussion topics.
Human Resource Issues: For faculty, there is a majorneed to develop capability to match the program curricu-lum. The mix of knowledge, skills, and experience neededby the teachers was not addressed, but it was agreed thatif there is not an appropriate mix within the faculty, thefirst strategy should be to develop the expertise neededthrough in-service training, and then proceed with re-cruiting other teachers who have the required skills andknowledge, either from within the university or fromother institutions. A reward system could be establishedto provide incentives, both to students and faculty, topromote involvement in the program. Research opportu-nities and the possibility of interdisciplinary work shouldbe appealing. Study and research resources such as books,training materials, and case studies also appear to play arole in supporting a program.
Institutional Strengthening Issues: The discussionparticularly focused on the need for infrastructure,
such as equipment (field and presentation equipment,communication infrastructure, audiovisuals, transpor-tation means, data management software), facilities(libraries, offices, classrooms, laboratories), and sup-porting staff. The importance of administrative supportservices was also recognized (maintenance facilities,secretarial, and financial services) along with the capa-bility to hold workshops and other events. It wasagreed that if infrastructure was not available, prioritiesshould be set and an effort made to share resourceswith other university departments.
Consultative Arrangements: A positive attitude to-wards cooperation was considered important. Linkagesshould be sought with other universities on the basis ofpersonal contacts. Collaborative projects should be es-tablished to get the most benefit from funding sources.Working groups, faculty, staff, and student exchangesshould also be promoted. Cooperation should not belimited to universities, and linkages should be estab-lished with the government. Student internships ingovernment agencies and course lectures by professionalcoastal managers from the government are two impor-tant areas of cooperation in the educational program.Cooperation with NGOs would be very useful, especiallyin an attempt to link training and public education withformal education. Cooperation with the private sectorwas also considered very important, particularly in refer-ence to internships and the availability of training andresearch facilities. Research and management contractswere also recognized as useful instruments. An effortshould be made to ease the university’s constraints onthis type of collaboration.
Networks and Partnerships: These are considered fun-damental in strengthening communication with inter-national organizations, promoting harmony, and avoid-ing duplication. Cooperation could be sought with:
• International organizations and agencies (e.g., UNsystems, OECD), particularly for research funding
• Education networks (e.g., IOI, TRAIN-SEA-COAST,NETTLAP, IOC)
• Information exchange networks (e.g., NETTLAP,AFSSRN, CRN, TRAIN-SEA-COAST, IOI) and others
The importance of strengthening and coordinatingsuch networks, or to establish new ones, was generallyacknowledged. Recommendations were made to:
• Establish joint curricula within the context of suchnetworks
• Identify and establish appropriate linkages withexisting networks
• Explore the possibility to establish a global networkof ICM universities
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158 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR BUILDING UNIVERSITY CAPACITY IN ICM
PLENARY DISCUSSIONMODERATOR: M.A.K. NgoiliRAPPORTEUR: Stella Maris Vallejo
RAPPORTEUR’S REPORTThe first part of the discussion centered on strategies
for program models, curriculum, and human resourcesdevelopment. In this respect, in-service training washighlighted as an integral part of an educational pro-gram. In many countries, this activity is conductedoutside the university, but it was recommended to bepromoted within the university in line with continu-ing education.
Internships were also discussed as an importantcomponent of the curriculum with a potential durationof approximately 6 to 12 months. Furthermore, a paral-lel comparison was made between other professions(e.g., medicine, engineering) where internships play acrucial role in gaining practical work experience. TheMarine Affairs Program of URI places increasing impor-tance on internships (allowing up to 12 credits out of atotal of 45). As to the modalities for acquiring practicalwork experience, internships within an establishedcoastal management program (e.g., the case of Ecua-dor) can provide an opportunity for students to workside-by-side with practitioners. In other countries, suchas Sri Lanka, the Coast Conservation Department is thegovernment agency with responsibility for ICM andprovides the infrastructure for graduates to work asfield officers and to be paid as interns on a contractualbasis. The discussion also emphasized the need for theinternship to be a vehicle that provides a rigorous pro-cess to learn lessons.
Some participants voiced their concern with respectto the name given to the profession and program ofstudy. Some pointed out that “coastal management”does not have, as yet, enough leverage in the labormarket and, therefore, other names such as “resourcemanagement” are used because they apply more easilyto the demands for graduates. It was also pointed outthat the political awareness created by Chapter 17 ofAgenda 21 ensures a world-wide recognition of ICM as
a discipline and field. Nevertheless, there is a need tohave a great degree of flexibility in different countriesand cultures.
As for the curriculum, the discussion centered onthe knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to pro-duce ICM specialists and/or ICM “generalists/super-managers.” In this respect, various possibilities werediscussed. First, there is a need to reorient specialists torespond to ICM needs. One alternative suggested wasto provide sectoral specialists with similar knowledgeas provided to generalists (core curriculum, includingtheory and knowledge, tools, instruments, and practi-cal experience), but with a different degree of depth.Others suggested that in-service training may be a ve-hicle to attain this goal. Another participant suggestedthe need for the generalist to be familiar with varioustechnical/sectoral aspects in order to be able to managea team of specialists and to be able to cut across differ-ent disciplines.
The second part of the discussion centered on insti-tutional strengthening, consultative arrangements, andpartnerships with special attention given to the role ofregional programs. Advantages and disadvantages werediscussed. A positive example was illustrated by theEast African educational institutions in Tanzania,Kenya, and Uganda which, although not specificallyrelated to coastal management studies, showed how aregional cooperation strategy worked. The universitiesare bound by an agreement and a quota system that al-lows students from three countries to take courses atother universities. For students outside the host univer-sity, the level of financing for tuition and stipends isequivalent to local students and sufficient to achievetheir education. The disadvantages discussed were re-lated to the quota system applied by some donors infunding, which appears to be related to specificprojects such as coral reefs. Furthermore, constraintswere identified related to the continuity of funding for
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UNIVERSITY STRATEGIES 159
universities and a regional program.The advantages of networking (at the global, re-
gional, or local level) were highlighted, particularly interms of benefits derived from combining the relativestrengths of each participating institution. In the caseof the Philippines, a consortium of universities offers asingle degree program with a common curriculum,whereby students can move between campuses to ob-tain the coursework required. The benefits of network-ing and partnerships between universities, NGOs, andthe government were also highlighted with examplesof Ecuador and the Philippines, where the sharing ofequipment and facilities among the various parties isan attempt to address limited and often decliningfunds and resources available to individual institutions.A word of caution was given about formalizing ar-rangements between participating institutions in orderto avoid jeopardizing the continuity of projects.
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APPENDIX 161
SECTION 6APPENDICES
Appendix A: Workshop Agenda 163
Appendix B: Workshop Participants 167
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APPENDIX 163
APPENDIX A:AGENDA–INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOPON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
WHISPERING PINES CONFERENCE CENTERALTON JONES CAMPUSUNIVERSITY OF RHODE ISLANDMARCH 4–10, 1995
Saturday, March 4Participants arrive Providence(T.F. Green Airport)
Workshop Secretariat provides transporta-tion from airport to Alton Jones CampusParticipants register (Sycamore Lodge)
7 PM Dinner(Whispering Pines Lodge, dining room)
Sunday, March 58 AM Breakfast
(Whispering Pines Lodge, dining room)
9 AM Opening (R. Miller, Dean, College ofResource Development)
Welcome (M. Beverly Swan, Provost andVice President for Academic Affairs)
Introductions, Organizational andAdministrative Matters (B. Crawford)
Workshop Agenda and Expected Outputs(J.S. Cobb)
9:30 AM Address (S. Olsen)Coastal Management in the 21st Century:The Knowledge and Skills Needed ofCoastal Managers
10 AM Break
Training and Educational Needs of ICMProfessionals
10:15 AM Small Group Regional Caucuses:Analysis of Demand(B. Crawford-facilitator) (Groups: Asia,Pacific, and East Africa; Latin America;Mediterranean and Black Sea; NorthAmerica and Western Europe)
Presentation of a case study paper (10 min.)for each region and discussion:
(Case Studies: Coello-Ecuador, Munoz-Philippines, Pavasovic-Mediterranean andBlack Sea, Wiggin-United States)
Analysis of the knowledge, skills, andattitudes that make successful coastalmanagers.
Current types of positions and in what typeof institution (CRM agencies and related-sectoral units).
Changes in the quantity and type of jobsover the next decade.
Assessment of the demand for coastal man-agers both quantitatively and qualitativelyin the various regions of the world.
How do needs vary among nations in theregion?
(A rapporteur will be designated for eachregional group.)
Noon Lunch(Whispering Pines Lodge, dining room)
1 PM Small groups continue work
2 PM Plenary Reports from Regional Caucuses(L. Hale-Moderator, K. Brown-Rapporteur)
3 PM Break
3:15 PM Moderated Plenary Discussion
How do needs vary at different stages ofdevelopment in a coastal managementprogram?
Who are the clients of ICM education andtraining programs?
Who are the participants of ICM educationand training programs?
What are the critical components, given theneeds, of an ideal ICM curriculum?
5 PM Rapporteur’s Report
Summary and synthesis of status and trends
What are the commonalties and differencesamong regions and the implications?
6 PM Get acquainted socials(Whispering Pines Lodge, livingroom) (refreshments and hors d’oeuvres)
7 PM Welcome Dinner(Whispering Pines Lodge, dining room)
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164 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
Evening Rapporteurs for each regional group workon regional report
Plenary rapporteur works on summary ofplenary discussions
Workshop organizing committee meets
Current Programs, Curricula, and Approaches
Monday, March 6
8:45 AM Panel: Coastal Management Training andDegree Programs: Status and Trends(Panelists: R. South, Chou L.M., N. West,J.L. Ferman, E. Ozhan)(E. Ferrer- Moderator, B. Crawford-Rapporteur)
Existing courses and curricula for trainingand degree education in ICM
Regional differences in offerings
Trends: planned and proposed programsover the next five years
Financing issues
10 AM Break
10:15 AM Moderated DiscussionContent:
How well do current programs address theneeded skills and knowledge?
To what extent should demand drive con-tent of curricula?
What are the priorities for course/curricu-lum/program development?
Educational Approaches:
What should be the balance between aca-demic courses and practicums/internships/thesis?
What are the various merits of graduate,professional, and undergraduate degreeprograms?
Advantages and disadvantages of educa-tional methods/approaches (adult educa-tional methods, on-the-job training, intern-ships, exchanges, and distance learning).
How do training and educational programsdiffer (content, methods, clients, partici-pants), and what is the balance between thetwo?
11:40 AM Rapporteur’s Report
Noon Lunch
1 PM Panel: Experience in Capacity Building-Case Studies and Lessons Learned(Panelists: E. Gomez , S. Boromthanarat, M.Leinen, K. Brown)(S. Cobb- Moderator, S. Coello- Rapporteur)
2 PM Moderated Discussion
What are the implications of this stage ofinstitutional and national development?
What are the regional differences?
How do we assess institutional needs andcapability?
3 PM Break
3:15 PM Rapporteur’s Report
3:30 PM Address (Max Aguero)Emerging Methodological Issues inCoastal Management in DevelopingCountries
Evening Optional/Additional Slide Shows,Demonstrations, or Presentations byParticipants
Strategies for Building University Capacity
Tuesday, March 7
8:45 AM Roundtable Discussion: The ChangingNature of Educating Coastal Managers—New Paradigms, Technology, andApproaches(J. Wiggin-Moderator, Chou Loke Ming-Rapporteur)
What are the implications of a changingICM paradigm?
What emerging technologies can help en-hance dissemination (virtual universities)?
What is the role of distance learning andcan it be global in reach?
How can training programs be linked toattainment of educational degrees (accredi-tation, continuing education)?
How is technical assistance linked tocapacity building?
How can we make the process more costeffective?
10 AM Break
10:15 AM Roundtable Discussion Continued
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APPENDIX 165
11 AM Rapporteur’s Report
11:20 AM Address (D. Gitlitz, URI)An Integrated Program for Educating andSustaining Coastal Resource Managers
Noon Lunch
1 PM Address (S. Cobb)Building Capacity at Universities:Lessons Learned
1:30 PM Small Groups: Recommendations forBuilding University Capacity in ICM(B. Crawford-Facilitator)
Group 1:Program Models and Curriculum Issues
What are the strengths and limitations ofan interdisciplinary curriculum?
Is there a need for firm grounding in a spe-cific discipline?
How important is it to develop interdiscipli-nary/broad view thinkers?
What lessons can be drawn from otherfields and applied to ICM curriculum?
Is there a “core” curriculum?
Discussion about interdepartmental versusinterdisciplinary programs/new programsversus grafting onto existing programs;regional versus national programs; educa-tional approaches (adult and experientiallearning, case methods); duration and typesor levels of programs; prerequisites.
Group 2:Human Resource Issues, InstitutionalStrengthening Issues, and ConsultativeArrangements and Partnerships
Human Resource Issues
Needs for faculty and materialsdevelopment
Materials-based versus faculty/trainer-baseddevelopment approaches
The mix of knowledge, skills, and experi-ence needed by teachers/trainers
Strategies for faculty/trainer development
Institutional Strengthening Issues
Preconditions for universities to establishICM programs infrastructure issues
Implications of university development andthe level of ICM program developmentwithin a country
Consultative Arrangements andPartnerships
Relationships among universities—collaborate or compete?
Contributions and roles of NGOs, govern-ment, private sector in-service, teaching,and research.
6 PM Dinner (7 PM on all other evenings)
Evening Small Groups (continue discussions andgroup rapporteur’s work on written reports.)
Wednesday, March 8
8:45 AM Group Reports on Recommendations andModerated Discussions(M.A.K. Ngoili-Moderator, S. Vallejo-Rapporteur)
Program models and curriculum
Human resource development
Institutional strengthening
Consultative arrangements and partner-ships
10 AM Break
10:15 AM Group Reports continued
11:30 AM Rapporteur’s Report
Noon Lunch
1:15 PM Panel: Networks and Partnerships(Panelists: S. Vallejo-TRAIN-SEA-COAST,M. Bandara-NETTLAP, E. Ozhan-MEDCOAST,M. Wood-IOI) (N. Calumpong-Moderator,D. Sadacharan- Rapporteur)
2:15 PM Moderated Discussions
How can a network benefit practitionersand how can they contribute to it?
What can universities get from and give toa network?
How can universities benefit and what canthey contribute to non-university members?
Sharing and development of materials andfaculty/trainers.
Decentralized versus centralized ap-proaches.
National versus regional versus interna-tional networks.
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166 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
11:40 AM Rapportuer’s Report
Noon Lunch
1:15 PM Workshop wrap-up(Organizing Committee)
General review of outputs
Discussion of next steps and workshopfollow-up
Workshop evaluation
2:15 PM Workshop closing remarks (RobertCarothers, President, URI)
3 PM Local excursions and pack-up(JASON Project at GSO-3:45 PM)
Organizing Committee review wrap-upwork needed and proceedings production
Evening Thank-you dinner and farewell party
Friday, March 10
Morning Participants check out and leave
Secretariat packs and departs
3:15 PM Break
3:30 PM Rapporteur’s Report
4 PM Plenary: Synthesis and Discussion ofWorkshop Recommendations(Organizing Committee)
Preparation of an “Alton Jones Declara-tion”—recommendations for buildingeducational capacity.
Opportunities for Funding Capacity-Build-ing Initiatives
Thursday, March 9
8:45 AM Presentation by Workshop Participants
“The Alton Jones Declaration”-A Summaryof Workshop Findings and Recommenda-tions for Building Human Capacity for Inte-grated Coastal Management.
9:30 AM Panel: Donor Initiatives for BuildingHuman Capacity for Integrated CoastalManagement (ICM)(Panelists: Twig Johnson-USAID, MareaHatziolos-World Bank, S. Vallejo for PhilReynolds-UNDP)(M. Bandara-Moderator, M. Aguerro-Rapporteur)
What is the response to workshop recom-mendations?
What are donors doing in ICM?
Why are donors so interested in ICM?
What is the donor experience in educa-tional capacity building?
How can the ICM short-term training initia-tives of donors be more closely linked tolong-term educational capacity building?
How can donor recipients ensure that theyget the most out of donor assistance?
10:15 AM Break
10:30 AM Moderated Discussion
Financing capacity building.
The goals of donors and recipients vis a viseducational capacity building.
Methods of approach, applications, andfund raising.
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APPENDIX 167
APPENDIX B:WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS
Aguero, MaxDirectorInter-American Centre for Sustainable
Ecosystems Development (ICSED)Casilla 27004Santiago, ChileTel.: 56-2-273-2540/273-5577Fax: 56-2-273-2540
Bandara, MaddumaVice ChancellorUniversity of PeradeniyaKandy,Sri Lankatel/fax: 94-8-88151 - officeMobile Phone: 94-78-70577tel/fax: 94-8-88397 - home
Belfiore, StefanoSecretary - GeneralInternational Centre for Coastal & Ocean Policy Studiesc/o Acquario di GenovaArea Porto Antivo-Ponte Spinola16126 Genova, ItalyTel: 39-10-273 4515Fax: 39-10-2737225
Boromthanarat, SomsakDirectorCoastal Resources Institute (CORIN)Prince of Songkla UniversityPO Box 102Hat Yai, Songkhla, 90112Thailandtel.: 66-74-212800fax: 66-74-212782Internet: [email protected]
Brown, KennethHead, Department of Environment Biology and HorticultureDirector, Institute of Coastal Resources ManagementUniversity of Technology, SydneyWestbourne StreetGore Hill NSW 2065AustraliaTel.: 61-2-330-4042Fax: 61-2-330-4079Internet: [email protected]
Calumpong, HilconidaDirectorSilliman University Marine LaboratoryDumaguete City, 6200 Negros OrientalPhilippinesTel.: 6335-225-2500Fax: 6335-225-4608Internet: [email protected]
Cervantes, EduardoDirectorCentro de Recursos CosterosESPOL-MARITIMAPO Box 09-01-5863Guayaquil, EcuadorTel.: 593-4-269-454/470Fax: 593-4-854-629 or 593-4-854-587Internet: [email protected]
Chou Loke MingAssociate ProfessorZoology DepartmentNational Univesity of SingaporeLower Kent Ridge RoadSingapore 0511Tel.: 65-772-2696Fax: 65-779-6155Internet: [email protected]
Cobb, J. StanleyProfessorDepartment of ZoologyUniversity of Rhode IslandKingston, RI 02881Tel.:401-792-2683Fax: 401-792-4256Internet: [email protected]
Coello, SegundoTechnical DirectorPrograma de Manejo de Recursos CosterosEdificio del Ministerio de AgriculturaPiso 20, PO Box 09-01-5850Calles Quito y Padre SolanoGuayaquil, EcuadorTel.: 593-4-28-1144/284453Fax: 593-4-28-50-38
Crawford, BrianTraining ManagerCoastal Resources CenterUniversity of Rhode IslandKingston, RI 02881Tel.: 401-792-6224Fax: 401-792-5436Internet: [email protected]
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168 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
Demoranville, MarkTraining CoordinatorCoastal Resources CenterNarragansett Bay CampusUniversity of Rhode IslandNarragansett, RI 02882Tel.: 401-792-6224Fax: 401-792-5436Internet: [email protected]
Ferman-Almada, Jose LuisJefe del Departemento de InvestigacionBlvd. Benito Juarez s/nEdificio de Investigacion y PosgradoUnidad UniversitariaMexicali, Baja California MexicoTel.: 52-65-66-36-33Fax: 52-65-66-36-33Internet: [email protected]
Ferrer, ElmerAssociate ProfessorCollege of Social Work and Community DevelopmentUniversity of the PhilippinesDiliman, Quezon CityPhilippinesTel: 632-98 24 71 to 79 loc. 5443;
5278 or (632) 97 24 77Fax: 632-97-8438
Fuller, ElizabethIntern Coordinator/Outreach SpecialistCoastal Resources CenterNarragansett Bay CampusNarragansett, RI 02882Tel.: 401-792-6224Fax: 401-792-5436
Gitlitz, DavidProfessor LanguagesIndependence HallUniversity of Rhode IslandKingston, RI 02881Tel.: 401-792-4695Internet: [email protected]
Gomez, EdgardoProfessor and DirectorMarine Science InstituteCollege of ScienceUniversity of the PhilippinesRoces AvenueU.P.P.O. Box 1, Diliman1101 Quezon CityPhilippinesTel.: 632-922-3959 or 632-976-061 & 982-471 local 7416Fax: 632-924-7678Internet: [email protected]
Hale, Lynne ZeitlinAssociate DirectorCoastal Resources CenterNarragansett Bay CampusUniversity of Rhode IslandNarragansett, RI 02882Tel.: 401-792-6224Fax: 401-792-5436Internet: [email protected]
Hatziolos, MareaWorld BankEnvironment DepartmentENVLW: S-51411818 H Street NWWashington, DC 20433Tel.: 202-458-5779Fax: 202-477-0568 or 202-477-0565
Leinen, MargaretVice Provost, Marine AffairsDean, Graduate School of OceanographyNarragansett Bay CampusUniversity of Rhode IslandNarragansett, RI 02882Tel.: 401-792-6222Internet: [email protected]
Matuszeski,WilliamDirectorChesapeake Bay Program OfficeU.S. Environmental Protection Agency410 Severn AvenueAnnapolis, MD 21403Tel.: 410-267-5700 or (800)YOUR BAYFax: 410-267-5777
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APPENDIX 169
Miller, RobertDean, College of Resource DevelopmentDepartment of Resource DevelopmentUniversity of Rhode IslandKingston, RI 02881Tel.: 401-792-2474Fax: 401-792-4017Internet: [email protected]
Munoz, JessicaHead, Coastal Resources Management SectionBureau of Fisheries & Aquatic ResourcesArcadia Building860 Quezon AvenueQuezon CityMetro Manila 1103PhilippinesTel.: 632-96-54-44Fax: 632-922-22-31/632 98 85 17
Ngoile, M.A.K.DirectorInstitute of Marine SciencesUniversity of Dar es SalaamP.O. Box 668Zanzibar, TanzaniaTel.: 255-54-30741 / 32128Fax: 255-54-33050
Olsen, Stephen B.DirectorCoastal Resources CenterNarragansett Bay CampusUniversity of Rhode IslandNarragansett, RI 02882Tel.: 401-792-6224Fax: 401-792-5436Internet: [email protected]
Ozhan, ErdalChairman, MEDCOAST International Committee andPermanent SecretariatProfessor of Coastal Engineering ManagementMiddle East Technical UniversityDepartment of Civil Engineering06531 Ankara, TurkeyTel.: 90-312-210-1000 ext. 5435-5439Fax: 90-312-210-1412 or 90-312-210-1262Internet: [email protected]
Pavasovic, ArsenPriority Actions ProgrammeRegional Activities CenterUNEPKraj Sv. Ivana 1158000 Split, CroatiaTel.: 385-21-43499Fax: 385-21-361677Internet: [email protected]
Rhodes, Thomas E.U.S. Agency for International DevelopmentGlobal BureauEnvironment CenterWashington, DC 20523-1812Tel.: 703-875-4320Fax: 703-875-4639Internet: [email protected]
Sadacharan, DianeethaCoastal Zone Management CentreP.O. Box 209072500EX The HagueThe NetherlandsTel: 31-70-3114367Fax: 31-70-3114380
South, G. RobinDirector IOI - South Pacific and Professor of Marine StudiesMarine Studies ProgrammeThe University of the South PacificP.O. Box 1168SuvaRepublic of FijiTel.: 679-305-446/305 272Fax: 679-305-559/031-490Internet: [email protected]
Vallejo, Stella MarisOcean Affairs/Law of the Sea OfficerCoordinator, TRAIN-SEA-COAST ProgrammeDivision for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the SeaOffice of Legal AffairsUnited NationsRoom DC2-0482New York, NY 10017Tel.: 212-963-3935Fax: 212-963-5847
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170 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RHODE ISLAND WORKSHOP ON EDUCATING COASTAL MANAGERS
Veitayaki, JoeliIOI - South PacificMarine Studies ProgrammeThe University of the South PacificPO Box 1168SuvaRepublic of FijiTel.: 679-305-446Fax: 679-302-338 or 679-301-305Internet: [email protected]
West, NielsProfessorDepartment of Marine AffairsUniversity of Rhode IslandKingston, RI 02881Tel.: 401-792-4046Fax: 401-792-2156Internet: [email protected]
Wiggin, JackAssistant DirectorUrban Harbors InstituteUniversity of Massachusetts, Boston100 Morrissey Blvd.Boston, MA 02125-3393Tel. 617 287 5570Fax: 617 287 5575Internet: [email protected]
Wood, Margaret J.DirectorInternational Ocean InstituteDalhousie University1226 LeMarchant StreetHalifax, Nova ScotiaCanada B3H 3P7Tel.: 902-494-6623Fax: 902-494-2034Internet: [email protected]