edtech 504 peer review by angie kruzich

8/9/2019 EdTech 504 Peer Review by Angie Kruzich

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Applications of Constructivism in Online Learning Communities

Kimberly Hefty

Ed Tech 504

Synthesis Paper

Reviewed by: Angie Kruzich

“Education is everybody’s business – the individual, the organization, and the nation state”

(Gokool-Ramdoo, 2008, p.13)

Abstract

Using a social-constructivist approach, educators must respond to recent advancement of

technology following the invention of the Internet, using online learning along with the

promotion of online learning communities to accommodate modern students. In order to best

meet the ever changing needs of a modern, technologically savvy student educators must analyze

emerging theories such as transactional distance theory.

Keywords: constructivism, social constructivism educational technology, online learning,

learning communities, Transactional Distance Theory (TDT)

Introduction:

The history of educational technology includes all inventions in the progression of tools used to

promote learning. Though seemingly insignificant, the introduction of the pencil to classrooms

caused groundbreaking changes in education. Today, educators are faced with the task of

responding to another major shift in technology, the rise of online learning. In the past 10 years

there has been a significant increase in the use of the Internet as both a technology and an

educational tool. Since the invention of the Internet, web-literacy has continued to grow among

the general population, allowing for tremendous progress in educational technology. As the

definition of education expands to include online learning, educators must expand their pedagogy to accommodate this shift. However, it is important that educators maintain a social

support structure for students despite the transition from a physical classroom setting to a virtual

Comment [1]: Angie Kruzich: the abstracts I saw had this in Italics?

Comment [2]: Angie Kruzich: You have some spacing issues throughout thepaper. They may have been a conversionproblem...if not see comments in paper. Likehere I would tighten the space between title aparagraph like we learned in 502.

Comment [3]: Angie Kruzich: insignificant for today's standards,

Comment [4]: Angie Kruzich: comma not needed


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setting. The constructivist approach to education accommodates both the necessity of social

interaction in learning and individualist nature of modern learning. In response to the recent shift

in technology and educational pedagogical trends, educators should use Social Constructivism as

a guide to expanding student-learning possibilities while also encouraging the use of online

learning communities to foster collaboration in order to meet the modern student’s full spectrum

of needs.

Constructi vism and Social Constructivism

Constructivism is a theory of education. In Constructivist theory, knowledge is considered to be

uniquely constructed by the individual as opposed to acquired from an outside source. In order

for the individual to construct knowledge, the individual must engage in interactions the learning

environment they inhabit, as well other learners within that environment. The individual must

then filter through all of the information they acquire in order to construct new knowledge.

Constructivism is not a single or unified theory and is based on the works of Piaget, Bruner, and

Goodman (Ertmer & Newby, 1993 p.62). Constructivism was developed from the fields of

cognitive science. The constructivist pedagogy is strongly influenced by the ideas of John Dewey

and William James. The socio-historical work of Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, and Ernst von

Glasersfeld has also had a significant impact on constructivism (Yilmaz, 2008 p.165). Although

not all of these people collaborated, their ideas have been combined to develop a modern sense

of constructivism.

Constructivist theory focuses on the utilization of the scaffolding approach to learning. In

constructivism there is an emphasis on the importance of active involvement of learners in

constructing knowledge for themselves. The learner, or student, has a significant stake in their

own learning. Instructors teach basic skills and gradually build up to (scaffold) more complex

problems. Knowledge is not passively received from the world but is developed and created by

learners trying to make sense of their experiences (Yilmaz, 2008 p.162). In social constructivism

knowledge is not purely objective but is socially constructed and the teacher’s major role is that

of facilitator. In constructivism, a teacher clarifies instead of informs, guides instead of directs,

and supports a student’s effort rather than insist on their own methodology (Jonassen & Lund,

2000).Constructivism encourages a student to discover or explore within a given framework or

Comment [5]: Angie Kruzich: This section needs an intro P explaining whatyou are going to discuss. You jumped right intone of the definitions. There is a paragraph onpage 8 that would be a fantastic intro. Maybeflow your ideas from constructivism to social toa little on-line intro at the end of section to heltransition to next section. Then save most on-line ref for next section since that is part of thetitle.

Comment [6]: Angie Kruzich: tighten spacing

Comment [7]: Angie Kruzich: It is a learning theory, used in education...not educational theory per say.

Comment [8]: Angie Kruzich: should this be capitalized or not? I would sayno, because the word isn't a proper noun. I haissues with this earlier this semester about whto do.

Comment [9]: Angie Kruzich: this P is a good definition!

Comment [10]: Angie Kruzich: interactions within

Comment [11]: Angie Kruzich: extra space bar?

Comment [12]: Angie Kruzich: This feels like a new P. And it is currently youfirst mention of social constr. Then isn'tmentioned again for a while and not often. Butitle has social in it. Maybe you can clarify whewhich is which?

Comment [13]: Angie Kruzich: In social constr? Within this section it would

help to be more clear when you are discussingconstr vs social constr.

Comment [14]: Angie Kruzich: need a space...and is this social constr or not?If switching add the word whereas?


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structure. The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for

themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Learning happens

when students make personal connections to what they are studying and share this knowledge

with others.

In order to apply the pedagogy of constructivism, one must explore the key constructivist

principles. According to Williamson, “constructivism draws upon a number of philosophical and

psychological antecedents rather than being a sharply delineated construct formulated by a

specific theorist, there is no set definition for what constitutes constructivism” (Williamson, 2010

p. 7). Appleton & King claim that there are five axioms to constructivism. The axioms are:

reality and its elements, causality, unique contexts resulting in absence of generalization, the

relationship between the researcher and the phenomena under study and the impact of values on

the inquiry process. They attribute these axioms to the work done by Guba & Lincoln in 1982

and 1985 (Appleton & King, 2002). In other words, constructivism promotes learning through

experience and interaction. The more experiences and interactions a student encounters, the

more, in theory, they will learn. These postulates provide a foundation to build pedagogical

models. Assuming the axioms put forth by Appleton & King are accurate we can start to

construct a working model of constructivism that can be applied to a classroom.

If the axioms are the foundation, then the structure for a constructivist learning environment can

be built by Fox’s key principles. First Fox summarizes that through constructivism “… learning

is an active process.” Students must fully engage with new information then process this

information with previous knowledge to construct and create their own understandings. Students

must be fully engaged in order to learn. They cannot be passive in their educational experience.

Secondly, “knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or passively absorbed.” Constructivist

principle asserts that students must build their knowledge through active participation. Learning

will optimally occur when a student is fully engaged. Students can be active through solving

problems and finding solutions, optimally within a group of learners. Thirdly, “knowledge is

invented not discovered.” When students interact with each other and participate they are able

create new knowledge. Socially constructed learning situations provide the opportunity for

students to construct their own knowledge. Knowledge can then be distributed and can be shared

among the lear ners. Fourth, “all knowledge is personal and idiosyncratic” and “is socially

Comment [15]: Angie Kruzich: This is a run-on sentence, but I see it is a quoSo who proofed the original? I saw grammarissues in other quotes too! Maybe double che

your source to see if it is typed correctly.

Comment [16]: Angie Kruzich: did this space correctly? seems tighter?

Comment [17]: Angie Kruzich: The constructivist principle?

Comment [18]: Angie Kruzich: implying social constr but you started withconstructivism only.

Comment [19]: Angie Kruzich: First I am unsure where to place this commen:) There are a lot of repeating definitions ofconstructivism throughout the section. Youcould take some out and not lose ideas inpaper. And this would help cut the length a bitwould also help the reader to just intro constrthen flow to social constr. Then maybe just sti

with social thereafter as that leads to your ideathat on-line learning must maintain the socialaspect too.

Comment [20]: Angie Kruzich: able to create


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constructed.” Knowledge can be constructed after an individual reflects upon previous

knowledge then merges this new knowledge with previous knowledge. True collaboration and

communication achieved through social interaction between learners will create lasting and more

profound knowledge. Fifth, “learning is essentially a process of making sense of the world.”

Students are no longer dependent on the teacher as the main source of information. With

constructivism, the students interact with and explore the world around them. Finally, according

to Fox, “… effective learning requires meaningful, open-ended, challenging problems for the

learner to solve” (Fox, 2001 p.24). The teacher must act as a facilitator, a mentor and a guide.

The tasks put to the students must have a purpose that the students can identify with. The

problems to solve must provoke the students to expand their way of thinking and explore new

ways of thinking.

Each ideology from Fox is equally important and must be integrated for a successful educational

experience. Students must be actively engaged and invested in their own education. Multiple

students could have the same teacher, the same class, the same materials but the knowledge each

student constructs may be vastly different, based on their personal pre-experiences and their

unique interpretations of their social experience within the class. By providing students with the

opportunity to explore and examine mater ial, in a truly open-ended fashion, no two students

could possibly construct the same knowledge. The knowledge gained from a constructivist

classroom will not end with the class; but will grow as the student gains more knowledge from

the wor ld around them.

The emerging world of online learning creates an interesting challenge for constructivists. The

best synthesis of social constructivism principles applied to online learning can be summarized

by Schweizer, H., Whipp, J., & Hayslett, C. (2003). Schweizer, Whipp, and Hayslett identified

four key principles for creating online instruction based on social constructivist theory. First, the

instructor must create a“ complex environment[s] and authentic tasks.” To create a truly

authentic task, the outcome should not be predetermined. The results must be allowed to

naturally occur. Second, the instructor needs to insure “social negotiation of meaning.”

Individuals must be able to test their cognitive constructions against one another and to gain new

understandings from one another. This can occur as they reflect upon the variances among theirindividual conceptions. Third, and most importantly, teachers need to facilitate “ intentional

learning communities.” Students must be encouraged and supported to work together as a

Comment [21]: Angie Kruzich: spacing tighter?

Comment [22]: Angie Kruzich: no comma needed

Comment [23]: Angie Kruzich:

comma instead?

Comment [24]: Angie Kruzich: spacing is tighter?

Comment [25]: Angie Kruzich: needs a space


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community to achieve a shared learning objectives and individual learning objectives. Fourth,

instructors and designers of online education must provide “assistance for learners at varying

zones of proximal develo pment” (Schweizer et all, pp.145-146). The zone of proximal

development "is the distance between the actual development level as determined by

independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through

problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Vygotsky,

1978). In other words, this is the range of tasks and capabilities that an individual can accomplish

with assistance, but are unable, at this time, to perform independently.

Schweizer, Whipp, and Hayslett also identified the unique circumstances of the online learner:

distance and isolation. In order to create an optimal learning environment for the online learner

course designers and instructors must develop ways to overcome these issues. Providing

assistance and creating multiple and varied opportunities for interaction is a critical first st ep.

Within constructivism there are more specific theories that lend themselves to the application of

constructivism in education. Social constructivism is a branch of constructivist theory that asserts

that students learn from their interactions with others as well as their individual reflection on

those interactions. Social constructivism incorporates the aspects of Piaget’s theory that people

learn through the integration of experience and belief and Vygotsky’s theory that the personal

pursuit of knowledge is influenced by the context of the social situation in which they occur

(Matthews 2003). John Dewey was a major force for progressive education and social

constructivism (Matthews, 2003 p. 54). John Dewey insisted, “that philosophy and science are

always embedded in the contexts of cultural practice … a world of action and interaction …”

(Hickman, 2009). By marrying the ideas and mindsets of these contributors we create a current

understanding of constructionist theory. According to Kala Yilmaz , “[constructivism theory] is

characterized by plurality and multiple perspectives” (Yilmaz, 2008 p. 163). Incorporating

social constructivism a model can be developed to approach all types of education, especially

online education.

Educational Technology, Online learning and Social Constructi vism

Comment [26]: Angie Kruzich: did you want singular or plural?


spacing got bigger?

Comment [28]: Angie Kruzich: add comma

Comment [29]: Angie Kruzich: spacing got bigger?

Comment [30]: Angie Kruzich: This is the paragraph that I think would be gretowards the beginning. Maybe not the intro buwithin the 3rd paragraph right before youmention social for the first time.

Comment [31]: Angie Kruzich: Social constructivism can be incorporated withall types of education, especially onlineeducation.


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In the modern classroom, technology has become both a requirement and an important

instructional tool. Educational technologies are the tools used to enhance understanding and

comprehension of a subject matter. Online learning is the latest popular educational technology.

Elaine Allen and Jeff Seaman published a report in 2007 about the growth of online lear ning,

Online Nation. Five Years of Growth in Online learning. According to this report, online

learning is growing at faster rate than that of traditional higher education. In 2006 twenty

percent of all higher education students, nearly 3.5 million students, participated in at least one

online course, causing a ten percent increase over the previous year. During this time, online

learning grew at a rate of 9.7 percent compared to 1.5 percent for traditional higher education

during the same time period.

In response to the recent increase of online learning, educators must evaluate and develop

strategies to optimize and facilitate the changing educational landscape. According to William

Williamson, “online instruction is a rapidly changing field of teaching. Advancing instructional

technology and an evolving body of knowledge on the pedagogy of teaching online are

challenging instructors to continuously adapt new innovations to improve their online courses “

(Williamson, 2010 p. 1). A Constructivist approach to these shifts in educational trends can

provide a critical foundation for approaching online learning. In Constructivism, the goal of an

educator is to encourage the student’s individual learning process rather than control it (Jonassen

& Lund, 2000). Because of the already individualistic nature of Internet use and online learning,

Constructivism and online learning are especially compatible.

Educational technology is the study or practice of the use of technology to facilitate learning.

Educational technology can refer to the use of various techniques to reach students such as

"application of senses, memory, and cognition" (Garrison & Anderson, 2003). These techniques

may be administered through a variety of mediums. Educators study the theory behind

educational technology in order to "ethic[ally]" apply these teaching techniques and achieve

effective results in the classroom (Garrison & Anderson, 2003).

Constructivist principles, specifically social constructivist principles can be applied to onlinelearning by promoting the individual through supporting their motivation to create knowledge.

Considering constructivist principles, online learning is especially focused on the individual and

Comment [32]: Angie Kruzich: less space?

Comment [33]: Angie Kruzich: Intro needs to include a reference to socialconstr. and how it relates.

Comment [34]: Angie Kruzich: Online learning is one of the latest educationatechnological advancements.

Comment [35]: Angie Kruzich: ...learning in the journal (?) Online Nation calleFive...



1.5 percent growth

Comment [38]: Angie Kruzich: This paragraph doesn't flow with P before orafter. Either take out or connect to onlinelearning and add transitional wording. Or can later...see next comment.


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would therefore prove to be especially internally motivating for the student. According to Swan,

“Higher education has traditionally emphasized constructivist approaches to learning in the sense

of individual students taking responsibility for making sense of their educational experiences”

(Swan, 2002 p.3). As Fox asserted, learning is an active process where knowledge is created and

invented not absorbed or discovered. The individual learner must be even more internally

motivated when learning online. “The learner centered tenants of constructivism suggest that

learners who are intrinsically motivated should perform well in a constructivist environment

(Williamson, 2010 p. 7).

Technology can be the bridge that connects constructivism principles and the modern online

student. The constructivist principle that “all knowledge is personal and idiosyncratic” can be

achieved with the appropriate structure . Modern online curriculums have the ability to

individualize instruction and respond to diversity of learning cultures and motivations.

Student-centered learning environments are critical for constructivism and technology. They

allow for the implication and implementation of technology. In an article by Hannafin and Land

they assert that "Student-centered learning environments represent significant potential for

optimizing the capabilities of both technology and learners" (Hannafin, Land 1997 p.172). To

completely represent or define education technology we need to address and analyze our, as

educators, approaches to education. In a traditional classroom where the teacher lectures, the

ability to fully utilize technology is limited, often to what the students do on their own. But in a

student-centered environment, especially an online environment, the opportunities to utilize

technology are optimized, if not maximized.

Learning Commun ities and Social Constructivism

One critical component of constructivism is the social component and the concept of the learning

community. Dewey (1959) stated “that the educational process has two sides – one

psychological and one sociological; and that neither can be subordinated to the other or neglected

without evil results following” (p. 75). A learning community can be created within the virtu alworld to benefit the individual’s learning process by combining web -based technology in order


Educational Technology. And maybe put thatdisjointed defn here?

Comment [40]: Angie Kruzich: can be achieved with an online coursestructure.


doesn't flow...maybe take out as educators Comment [42]: Angie Kruzich: on their own outside of class.

Comment [43]: Angie Kruzich: learning

Comment [44]: Angie Kruzich: less space and/or be consistent for every title


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to distribute assignments, share learning materials, and provide a route for students to

communicate with each other.

The key principle of social constructivism that can determine success is the learning community.

Learning communities are the result of student social interaction and collaboration. “Interest in

creating a community to help facilitate and support learning has been a long-term interest for

many educators seeking ways to enhance the learning experience for their students” (Jonassen &

Land, 2012 p.268). By providing students with a way to respond to each other, the individual

student’s ability to create knowledge will improve as well. Social presence is a critical aspect of

any community, especially an online community (p.273). “Connections between members are

the building blocks for the formation and growth of a learning community (p. 273). This

presence is directly affected by social context, online communication, and interactivity (p.273).

For education, the teacher whether online or in person plays a critical role in facilitating or

creating opportunities for interaction.

Community-building also helps reduce or prevent feelings of isolation and alienation that often

contribute to distance education student attrition. According to Swan, “constructivist approaches

and community are necessary for creating and confirming meaning and are essential for

achieving effective critical thinking. Therefore, constructivist approaches and community must

be necessary parts of higher education” (Swan p.4).

Schweizer, H., Whipp, J., & Hayslett, C. specifically identified Intentional learning

communities as a key principle for creating successful online instruction based on social

constructivist theory (145-146). Online learning communities allow for online learning

technologies to meet the standards of these constructivist principles. Students participating in an

online learning experience are provided access to a space where they are given “authentic tasks”

or assignments to complete based on specific course material and are able to engage in “social

negotiation of meaning” by communicating with other students through chat o r forum response

as a part of an “intentional learning communit[y]” (145-146).

Traditional students learn in a naturally formed social setting by communicating with each other.They can share their thoughts, and pick up on both verbal and nonverbal cues from one another.

To compensate for the lack of physical proximity, teachers and facilitators in an online

Comment [45]: Angie Kruzich: chat rooms?

Comment [46]: Angie Kruzich: This would be a good intro paragraph.


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environment must redefine and redefine the communication opportunities and skills. A high

degree of interaction between student and teacher is critical to the success of instruction (Desai et

al., 1998). In a traditional classroom communication opportunities occur naturally. In an online

environment, the instructor must act as a facilitator to promote active participation and

communication. “Technology requires the teacher to remain active in communicating to

students in order to maintain attention and motivation” (Desai et al., 19 98).

Given the transition from physical classroom meeting spaces to virtual collaborative space it

is imperative that educators employ social technological tools that promote communication such

as texting, chat rooms, e-mail, and discussion areas to provide for a “Social Presence” (Desai et

al, 1998). A critical aspect to social interaction in an online learning environment is providing

opportunities for collaboration, such as group projects. Technology requires “a distinct

interaction with learners and high technology devices” that provide “a strong interaction between

the learner, learner/instructor, and the content as well as other learners” in the distance education

environment (Desai et al., 1998). Educators need to develop curriculum and content “based on

Social Constructivism where a culture is fostered by the collaboration of groups to construct

knowledge. (Desai et al., 1998)

Transactional D istance Theory

Modern technology is rapidly changing education. There are many emerging theories that are

helping to define and develop the sociological and psychological shifts in education. In the

1970’s, scholars began to define distance education (Moore, 1991). In the early 1980’s,

Transactional Distance Theory (TDT) was created (Moore, 1991). Distance education refers to

more than just geographical distance. Distance refers to the disconnection or separation of

understandings and perceptions that can be caused in part by the geographic distance. This

distance must be overcome by teachers, learners and educational organizations if effective

learning is to occur. This distance is often referred to as, “transactional distance”. TDT “…

provides a tool that helps recognize the several distinctive issues that separate distance education

from conventional education; helps us distinguish good practice from bad; and highlights the piecemeal and unplanned fashion in which many providing institutions operate” (Gokool-

Ramdoo, 2008 p.11).

Comment [47]: Angie Kruzich: twice?

Comment [48]: Angie Kruzich: need more space and should not be indented

Comment [49]: Angie Kruzich: spacing


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TDT addresses the “variables” that exist between teachers and students in a virtual classroom:

“the two sets of variables are labeled dialogue and structure” (Moore, 1991 p.4). “Dialogue

describes the interaction between the teacher and learner when one gives instruction and the

other responds” (Moore, p.4). The second set of variables that determine transactional distance

are elements in the course design; they are the ways in which the teaching program is structured

so that it can be delivered through the various methods, such as online. The issues of dialogue

and design are not unique to distance education. These are issues for all educators, in almost

every setting. Utilizing and maximizing technology to create better connections can benefit all

learners.

Conclusion

“What deter mines the success of distance teaching is the extent to which the institution and the

individual instructor are able to provide the appropriate opportunity for, and quality of,

dialogue between teacher and learner, as well as appropriately structured learning materials”

(Moore, 1991 p. 5)

By adapting and interacting multiple pedagogical models and technology educators can facilitate

and optimize learning in the modern era. When used properly, technology can offer a multitudeof options for higher-level thinking, creative problem solving, and meaningful learning. Online

education is one of the fastest areas of growth in the world of education. Educational models and

theory need to adapt to the new advances in technology, specifically of the Internet and World

Wide Web. Constructivist theories of learning usually incorporate teaching strategies that

require learners to collaborate, communicate, explore, and reflect. “Constructivist approaches

and community are necessary for creating and confirming meaning and are essential for

achieving effective critical thinking” (Swan).

The roles of both the teacher and of a student are also changing. Teachers need to construct

environments that provoke and challenge students. Students must actively seek out interactionsand reinforcement. In order to accommodate the modern student and utilize new technologies,

educators must utilize social constructivist theory of learning to promote the success of the

Comment [50]: Angie Kruzich: ok, you told me we shouldn't start with aquote...but I think this is a good way to startconcl!


Comment [52]: Angie Kruzich: take out comma

Comment [53]: Angie Kruzich: The social constru?

Comment [54]: Angie Kruzich: take out

Comment [55]: Angie Kruzich: reflect and should be applied to all onlineeducational programs.


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individual through the utilization of online learning communities. Educators must constantly be

exploring emerging theories, such as Transactional Distance Theory, to challenge both

themselves and their students.

Resources:

Allen, K. (2005). Online learning: Constructivism and conversation as an approach to learning.

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Allen, I. E., & Seaman, J. (2007). Online Nation. Five Years of Growth in Online learning.

Needham, Mass.: Sloan Consortium. Retrieved from

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Appleton, J. V., & King, L. (2002). Journeying from the philosophical contemplation of

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http://www.tandfonline.com.libproxy.boisestate.edu/doi/full/10.1080/01587910500167985http://www.tandfonline.com.libproxy.boisestate.edu/doi/full/10.1080/01587910500167985http://www.bsuc.cn:8013/bk/a18/zt1/1zy/guowai/online_nation.pdfhttp://www.bsuc.cn:8013/bk/a18/zt1/1zy/guowai/online_nation.pdfhttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.libproxy.boisestate.edu/doi/10.1002/ace.119/abstracthttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.libproxy.boisestate.edu/doi/10.1002/ace.119/abstracthttp://www.jstor.org.libproxy.boisestate.edu/stable/pdfplus/3448076.pdf?acceptTC=truehttp://www.jstor.org.libproxy.boisestate.edu/stable/pdfplus/3448076.pdf?acceptTC=truehttp://www.nhcuc.org/pdfs/CrossLC.pdfhttp://www.nhcuc.org/pdfs/CrossLC.pdfhttp://www.nhcuc.org/pdfs/CrossLC.pdfhttp://edu224spring2011.pbworks.com/f/Dewey+-+My+Pedagogic+Creed+%281929%29.pdfhttp://edu224spring2011.pbworks.com/f/Dewey+-+My+Pedagogic+Creed+%281929%29.pdfhttp://edu224spring2011.pbworks.com/f/Dewey+-+My+Pedagogic+Creed+%281929%29.pdfhttp://www.nhcuc.org/pdfs/CrossLC.pdfhttp://www.jstor.org.libproxy.boisestate.edu/stable/pdfplus/3448076.pdf?acceptTC=truehttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.libproxy.boisestate.edu/doi/10.1002/ace.119/abstracthttp://www.bsuc.cn:8013/bk/a18/zt1/1zy/guowai/online_nation.pdfhttp://www.tandfonline.com.libproxy.boisestate.edu/doi/full/10.1080/01587910500167985


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edtech 504 peer review by angie kruzich

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