edible algae from kalay and its surrounding area · edible algae from kalay and its surrounding...
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Kalay University Research Journal
Edible Algae from Kalay and its Surrounding Area
Moat War Dine Naw 1and Thein
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Abstract
Algae are useful not only for producing medicine, but also for
manufacturing fertilizer and other products. Some algae are edible. This
study focuses on the algae, which can be used as human food. In this paper
four genera of edible algae were described with photographs. The uses of
these algae also mentioned.
Introduction
Algae are a "group of plants" that dominates the aquatic environment.
The macroalgae, usually to as seaweed, have been commercially cultured for
over (300) years. Historically, records have established that people collected
seaweed for food since (2500) years ago in China (Tseng, 1981). European
people collected seaweeds for (500) years. Of these macroalgae, the most
widely consumed throughout the world is the red alga Porpyra, called "nori"
in Japan and "purple laver" in the west. There are three major commerical
groups of phyco colloids; agar-agar, algins and caregeenans produced from
macroalgae.
Microalge are generally referred to as organisms that are less than
2mm. Today, microalgae are cultivated directed for foods or other products.
The history of cultivation of these microscopic plants date back to the Aztecs.
The most important microalgeae under modern cultivation are Spirulina,
Chlorella, Dunaliella, Haematococcus, Scenedesmus etc (Pulz, 2001). These
algae are grown for several puposes; foods, medicines, feeds and chemical
compounds.
Historically, both macroalgae and microalgae have been collected from
the wild fresh water and marine. The seaweed resource of Myanmar was
reported by Soe Tun in 1998. Inland algae occurred abundantly in fresh water
environments. Some fresh water algae are used as food in upper Myanmar.
However, there is no record of beneficial algae from Kalay regions. To fulfill
this gap, this study emphasized on edible algae which are found in Kalay and
its surrounding area. In this paper four genera of edible algae are mentioned
with their description, photographs and uses in other regions.
The aim of this study is to contribute some information about
economic importance of algae.
1 Assistant lecturer, Department of Botany, Kalay University
2 Demonstrator, Department of Botany, Kalay University
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Kalay University Research Journal
Material and methods
Algae are collected from several spring, streams and river, especially
from Kyawk tha lone chaung and Zi chaung in Kalay and its surrounding area.
Results
Edible Algae Cladopora, Spirogyra, Nostoc and Nostochopsis were
abundantly occur this areas during October to February.
1. Cladophora Kuetzing
Division - Chlorophyta
Class - Chlorophyceae
Order - Cladophorales
Family - Cladophoraceae
Collection - Kyawk tha lone chaung and zi chaung
Deseripton : A repeatedly-branched filamentous thallus with basal-
distal differentiation; attached when young but in some species becoming free-
floating; forming feathery tufts on substances, especially in flowing water;
branching alternate, opposite, or sometimes di-or trichotomous, the branches
smaller than the main axis, or at least tapering slightly toward the apices; cells
cylindrical or swollen; walls thick and lamellate in most species, sometimes
thin and firm; chloroplast a parietal reticulum which sometimes becomes
fragmented and appears as numerous discs; pyrenoids present; asexual
reproduction by zoospores; sexual reproduction by isogametes produced in
apical or subapical, unspecialized cells.
Uses: Cladophora is steamed for food in Kachin State and many regions.
But in Taunggyi and Kalay-tung regions, Cladophora is made as algal sheet
and dried to eat.
2. Spirogyra Link
Division - Chlorophyta
Class - Chlorophyceae
Order - Zygnematales
Family - Zygnemataceae
Collection - Small spring near the Zalatni Hostel
Description: Filaments long at and unbranched, usually without basal-distal
differentiation but sometimes with rhizoidal branches developing laterally
where the filament comes in contact with substrate. Cells cylindrical, short
replicate, or colligate (exterior H-shaped piece) end walls. Chloroplast a
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
parietal band or ribbon which may be spirally twisted 1/2 or 3 (rarely 8) turns,
or may be nearly straight, 1-16 chloroplasts in a cell. Conjugation either lateral
or scalariform, usually by the formation of tubes, rarely by geniculation
bending of the filament so that conjugating cells are brought into juxapositon.
Zygospores formed in one of gametangial cells, which may become swollen,
depending upon the species; zygospores ovate, subglobose, ellipsoid, or
oblong, with 3-layered walled, of which the middle layer may be smooth or
decorated and colored.
Spirogyhra is the largest genus in number of species and the most
common of Zygnemataceae. It is identifiable in the field by its bright green,
cottony growths and its slippery mucilaginous texture. In hand, a mass of
filaments is easily drawn out into a long fine thread. In deep cold spring and
pools Spirogyra flourishes abundantly and vegetative, forming enormous
green 'clouds' several feet in diameter in favorable habitats. In shallow warm
water it has a tendency to form floating mats, with conjugation and subsequent
disintegration of the filaments occurring. During conjugation the plant masses
becomes dull, dirty-green or brownish.
Uses: Spirogyra is use as food in India and Indochina. In Myanmar,
especially in Shan state, fresh and dried. Spirogyra is used in soup as
ingredient.
3. Nostoc Vaucher
Division - Cyanophyta
Class - Cyanophyceae
Order - Nostocales
Family - Nostocaceae
Collection - Kalay University Campus.
Description: Membranous or globular or irregularly lobed colony of tangled,
uniseriate unbranched trichomes of globose and bead-like, barrel-shaped, or
cylindrical cells, inclosed in copious, thick mucilage which outwardly forms a
firm integument, giving the colony a fixed and definite shape; individual
sheaths of the trichome confluent with the colonial mucilage; trichomes
without basal-distal differentiation, made up of vegetative cells, frequent
heterocysts and, when mature, gonidia which are either solitary or in series.
Uses: N.commune is collected in moist hilly locations in the Philippines and
eaten as green salad. Some other Nostoc spp. is also collected in the same area.
In Thailand N. verrucosum is used for food. The marine form of N.commune
is collected for food in China, Japan and Java (Indonesia). The dried algae are
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cooked with noodles, vegetables and mushrooms and served as a vegetarian
dish or a soup by Chinese. They often serve it as New Year's dish.
Certain species of Nostoc algae are eaten in Japan (so-called Suizenji-
nori, Jusentai, and Kawatake-nori, products of nothern Kyushu). Today these
species are cultivated only on the gravel-covered bottoms of small, flowing,
clear rivers near the city of Amagi, in Fukuoka Prefecture. Some species grow
near grass roots and flourish throughout the year as perennials. They grow in
riverbeds or in marshes. But today both the algae and the custom of eating
them have died out. A Nostoc growing in fields with pork and is eaten in
Okinawa. This variety has high vitamin B1 content.
In Myanmar N. muscorum and N. commune are used as vegetable food
and traditional medicine. Consumptions of N. muscorum is known to have
been made to overcome the iodine deficiency, especially in mountain regions,
from ancient time. In Taunggyi, Loikaw, Kyaukme, Pyin-Oo-Lwin, they are
used as health-promoting food for iodine deficiency, and remedy for weakness
in chronic invalids and persons of general illness. In Magway, Mon-ywa,
Myo-tha, Shwe-bo, Kyaukse and Mandalay, Nostoc species are used for food
after boiling. It is also used as salad mixed with lemon Juice, chopped green
chili, vermicelli, meat and a pinch of salt. In some Chinese curry Nostoc
(Kyauk-pwint in Myanmar) is cooked with chicken, fish or pork. Nostoc used
in pork or chicken soup enchances its flavor and taste.
4. Nostochopsis Wood em. Geitler
Division - Cyanophyta
Class - Cyanophyceae
Order - Nostocales
Family - Nostocaceae
Collection - Small spring in Tidem Township
Description: Thallus attaches at first, later free-floating with erect filaments
with soft diffluent sheath, mucilaginous, more or less hemispherical, at first
solid, later hollow, torn and expanded; trichome a single or two rows of
branches, branches of two types, one long and many celled, the other one of
limited growth with a heterocyst at the end (pedicellate heterocysts), pedicels
made of one of three cells; heterocysts intercalarys or terminal or pedicellate
or lateral and sessile; hormogones present; spores not known.
Uses: Local people of Mawlu, Indaw called it "Kyauk pwint". The way of
eating is same as Chaetophora.
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Cladophora
Spirogyra
Cladophora, dried sheet
Spirogyra, collection
Nostochopsis Nostoc
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Table . 1 Differential characters of four collective edible Algae
Name of
Edible Algae
Thallus Branching Cell Chloroplast Reproduction Pyrenoid Uses
Cladophora
Filamentous,
basal-distal
differentiation
Alternate, opposite,
or di-or tri
chotomous
cylindrical
Parietal,
reticular
Asexual by
zoospores.
Sexual by
isogametes
Present
Food in Kachin
State, Algal sheet
& dried to eat in
Taunggyi and
Kalay –taung
regions
Spirogyra
Filamentous long,
without basal-
distal
differentiation
Unbranched
cylindrical
Parietal,
ribbon,
(contain 1-
16)
Conjugation
(lateral or
scalariform)
Present
Food in India
&Indochina,
Soup in Myanmar
Nostoc
Membranous or
globular or
irregularly lobed
colony of tangled
Uniseriate
unbranched
trichomes of
globose
Bead like
or barrel-
shaped or
cylindrical
Vegetative cells,
heterocysts
In Philippines,
eaten as green
salad
Soup by Chinese,
et as New Year‟s
dish
Nostochopsis
Attaches at first,
later free-floating
with erect
filaments
Trichome a single
or two rows of
branches
More or
less
spherical
heterocysts
Eaten as green
salad, called
“Kyauk pwint”
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Kalay University Research Journal
Discussion and conclusion
In this study, there are four genera of edible were collected and described.
Differential characters of four collective edible Algae is as shown in Table (1).
It is hoped that people will try to enjoy the traditional ways of
eating algae and will receive the preparation methods of edible algae.
It may be concluded that it should be continued to study the
algae growing in this region. And then chemical constituents of these algae
also should be analyzed to report the complete information.
References
Anagnastidis, K.R,J Komarek (1985-1998); Modern approach to the classification system
of the Cyanophytes 1 to 5.
Carole A. lembi and J.Robert Waaland. 1988, Seaweed resources of the world. Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA).
Chirstopher Hills (1980), The secrets of Spirulina, The University of the Trees Press.
Daniel F. Jackson (1964), Algae and Man, Plenum Press, New York.
Linda E. Grahn, Lee. W. Wilcox (2000): Algae. Wiscon University. Prentice-I lall, Inc.
Carr and B.A. Whitton, (1973), The Biology of Blue-green algae, Alden & Mowbray Ltd,
Great Britain.
Prescott G.W (1951): Algae of the Western Great Lakes Area, Cranbrook Inst. Sci,
Bloomfield Hills.
Raffaella Piccardi et.al, (2000), Bioactivity in free-living and symbiotic Cyanobacteria of
the genus Nostoc, Journal of Applied phycology : 12.
S. Boussiba et.al, (2000), Nitrogen-fixing Cyanobacteria as gene delivery system for
expressing mosquitocidal toxins of Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. israelensis,
Journal of Applied phycology: 12.
Tun Chun, (1982) Relative Efficiency of 10 Blue Green Algae In Pormoting the Growth
And Yield of Rice M.Sc Thesis, University of Mandalay.
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Determination and Comparison of Anti-hyperglycemic Activity
of Three Indigenous Medicinal Plants
Khaing Khaing Kyu1
Abstract
Three Indigenous medicinal plants, namely see-cho-pin, or Tha- gyar- ma-
geik(leaf1), Kyet-lae-san (leaf2) and Ma-ho-ga-ny (seed) which are
traditionally used for control of blood sugar level, have been chosen for
chemical analysis and pharmacological investigation. The preliminary
phytochemical screening and acute toxicity (in vivo model) of dry samples
have been investigated. The confidence doses of aqueous extracts of all
samples of selected plants were determined by using DDY (Dutch Denken
Yoken) mice. It was found that the median lethal dose (LD50) was more
than 20g/kg when administered orally. The anti-hyperglycemic activities of
70% ethanolic extracts were investigated in Wistar Strain Rats. Ethanolic
extract of leaf1 at dose of (4g/kg) significantly reduced blood glucose levels
at 1 hr and 2 hr was observed.
Keywords : Tha- gyar- ma-geik (leaf1), Kyet- lae-san (leaf2) and Ma-
ho-ga-ny (seed), acute toxicity, DDY, median lethal dose,
anti-hyperglycemic, Wistar Strain Rats
Chapter I
Introduction
Nowadays, even in the western countries more and more people prefer
the medicine made from natural herbs, rather than the modern drugs based on
chemical compound which have serious side effects. Today, this tradition of
using folklore medicine is still being practiced by all developing countries.
However, when specific synthetic medicinal products were produced, man has
come to rely on them mainly for their specific therapeutic, pharmaconostic and
remedial properties.
Diabetes Mellitus is one of the chronic debilitating diseases that are
regarded as incurable by Western medicine. A number of hypoglycemic
agents (substances able to lower blood sugar level of diabetes) have been
derived from plants. Many plants have long been used in different countries,
usually in the form of decoctions, as folk remedies in the treatment of
diabetes.
In Myanmar, there are many medicinal plants for the treatment of
diabetes. Some of these plants have also been pharmacologically tested and
shown to be valuable in diabetic treatment.
1.Associate Professor, Dr., Department of Chemistry, University of Kalay
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
Diabetes is a disease in which the body does not produce or properly
use insulin .Insulin is a hormone that is needed to convert sugar, starch and
other food into energy in daily life. The cause of diabetes continues to be a
mystery although both genetic and environmental factors such as obesity and
lack of exercise appear to play role .There are 23.6million children and adults
in United States or 7.8%of the population, who have diabetes. In the
developed world, diabetes is the most significant cause of adult blindness in
the non-elderly and the leading cause of non-traumatic amputation in adults
and diabetic nephropathy is the main illness requiring renal dialysis in the
United State. Diabetes mellitus is one of the six major priority diseases in
Myanmar, such as Malaria, tuberculosis, diabetes mellitus, hypertension and
dysentery are also one of the priority diseases of National Health plan.
In Myanmar, mostly rural people use some medicinal plants as folk
medicaments. Therefore, the present investigation was undertaken to evaluate
the effects of ethanol extracts for hypoglycemic properties of three indigenous
medicinal plants, namely, Tha-gya-ma-geik, Kyet-lae-san and Ma-ho-ga-ny.
Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes is a condition in the body when the pancreas does not produce
enough insulin to process glucose, or when the insulin receptor is not working
properly. Insulin is a hormone that helps to move the glucose into the cell to
produce energy. Inadequate insulin results in hyperglycemia (high blood
glucose levels) and impaired glucose tolerance.
When glucose builds up in the blood instead of going into the cells, it
results in damage and stress on the body. Immediately, the cells are starved
for energy, which leaves the person feeling lethargic and weak and over an
extended period of time, high blood sugar levels may cause irreversible
damage to eyes, kidneys, nerves and heart.
The symptoms of diabetes are increased blood sugar, increased thirst,
unexplained weight loss, weakness, decreased blood pressure and blurred
vision. Diabetes not only kills, but is also a major cause of adult blindness,
kidney failure, gangrene, heart attacks and strokes.
Diabetes mellitus is one of "the six major priority diseases in
Myanmar" such as malaria, tuberculosis (TB), diabetes mellitus, hypertension
and dysentery and also one of the priority diseases of National Health Plan.
The treatment of diabetes may include a low sugar and carbohydrate
diet accompanied with exercise for mild cases. For more severe and harder to
control glucose levels, diabetes can be treated by the administration of insulin
and/or by sulfonylurea antidiabetic drugs that stimulate the production of
insulin and therefore lower that blood glucose levels. At present, diabetes
cannot be cured, but it can be controlled. Control of diabetes mellitus includes
diet, exercise, insulin injection and oral medications. Modern oral
medications may be effective, but they may also cause side effects such as
excess accumulation of fat in the body, and the risk of getting blood sugar
level lower than normal and because of the higher costs of synthetic medicine,
some countries have restored to use folk-lore medicine. In many places
throughout the world, diabetes is kept under control by use of medicinal
plants.
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Many plants have been used throughout the world for treatment of
diabetes mellitus. Said, also pointed that herbal and plants exhibit
hypoglycemic activity when taken orally. Faransworth, stated that one of the
prerequisites for the success of primary health care is the availability and use
of suitable drugs.
In Myanmar, traditional medicine is widely used in the treatment of
diabetes mellitus since most people still believe that diabetes mellitus is
curable by traditional medicine. Nowadays, even in the western countries
more and more people prefer the medicines made from natural herbs.
Myanmar traditional medicine has stood a long history of self-sufficiency even
before the use of western medicine.
Type of Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes mellitus occurs when circulating insulin concentration decline
and/or when the target cells become resistant to the hormone. Most cases can
be divided into two types, Juvenile onset (Type-1)and maturity onset (Type-2).
Insulin-dependent Diabetes Mellitus (Type-1 or IDDM)
IDDM usually develops before 30 years of age and results from a
degeneration of the pancreatic beta cells, which produce insulin. It is the more
serious type.
Non-insulin-dependent Diabetes Mellitus (Type-2 or NIDDM)
This represents milder form of diabetes that can occur almost any ages,
but is most common after the age of 35 years and is therefore commonly
called maturity onset diabetes.
Epidemiology
Diabetes mellitus is one of the biggest world health problems with high
incidence and mortality. All over the world, diabetes is rising in distribution
and incidence of both type-1 and type-2. WHO estimated that, in the year
2000, 171 million people worldwide had diabetes, and this is expected to
double by the year 2030. This global pandemic principally involves type-2
diabetes, and is associated with several contributory factors including
increased longevity, obesity, unsatisfactory diet, sedentary life style and
increasing urbanization. However, the prevalence of both types of diabetes
varies considerably around the world, and is related to differences in genetic
and environmental factors. WHO has estimated that in Myanmar, the
prevalence of diabetes to be 2.45% in 1995 and 2.5% in 2000 and is projected
to increase to 3.2% in 2005. The projected increase of diabetes in Myanmar is
estimated by WHO to be 16.3% by the year 2025.
Management of Diabetes
Three methods of treatment are available for diabetic patients: diet
alone, insulin, and oral hypoglycemic drugs.
Dietary management
Dietary measures are required in the treatment of all diabetic patients
to achieve the overall therapeutic goal: normal metabolism. The aims of
dietary treatment are-
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- to abolish symptoms of hyperglycemia
- to reduce overall blood glucose and minimize fluctuations
- to achieve weight reduction in obese patients to reduce insulin
resistance and hyperglycemia
- to avoid hypoglycemia associated with therapeutic agents (insulin,
sulphonylureas)
- to avoid weight gain associated with therapeutic agents (insulin,
sulphonylureas, thiazolidinediones)
- to avoid atherogenic diets or those which may aggravate diabetic
complications (eg. high protein intake in nephropathy).
Pharmacological management
Insulin increases glucose transport as well as its utilization, especially by
muscle and adipose tissues. Its effects include:
(i) Reduction in blood glucose
"Reduction in blood glucose" due to increased glucose uptake in the
peripheral tissues (which convert it into glycogen or fat), and reduction of
hepatic output of glucose (diminished breakdown of glycogen and diminished
gluconeogenesis). When the blood glucose concentration falls below the renal
threshold (10 mmol/1 or 180 mg/100 ml) glucosuria ceases. As the blood
glucose falls, appetite is stimulated.
(ii) Other metabolic effects
In addition to enabling glucose to pass across cell membranes, the
transit of amino acids and potassium into the cells is enhanced. Insulin
regulates glucose utilization and energy production. It enhances protein
synthesis. It inhibits breakdown of fats (lipolysis).
Oral hypoglycemic agents
"Sulphonylureas" block the ATP-sensitive potassium channels on the
beta-islets cell plasma membrane. These results in the release of stored insulin
respond to glucose. They do not increase insulin formation. Sulphonylureas
appear to enhance insulin action on liver, muscle and adipose tissues by
increasing insulin receptor number. They are ineffective in totally insulin-
deficient patients and for successful therapy probably require about 30% of
normal beta-cell function to be present. Their main adverse effects are
hypoglycemia and weight gain. (eg-glibenclamide, tolbutamide).
"Biguanides" - Metformin is the only biguanide in current use, and is a
major agent in the management of type-2 diabetes. Biguanides are ineffective
in absent of insulin. "Thiazolidinediones" – Pioglitazone and rosiglitazone
reduce peripheral insulin resistance, leading to a reduction of blood glucose
concentration. They should be initiated only by a physician experienced in
treating type-2 diabetes and should always be used in combination with
metformin or with a sulphonylurea.
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Drug diabetes: Adrenaline Induced Hyperglycemia
Adrenaline (C9H13NO3) is a catecholamine and belongs to the family
of biogenic amines. It forms colorless to white crystals. Adrenaline is air and
light sensitive and forms dark products during decomposition. Adrenaline can
produce hyperglycemia by three mechanisms by inhibition of the release of
insulin from pancreas, by reducing the peripheral utilization of glucose and by
causing glycogenolytic effect in liver.
Botanical description
1. Family name - Lamiaceae
Botanical name - Orthosiphon aristatus Bl.
Local name - Tha-gya-ma-geik
English name - Java-tea
Part used - leaves
Medicinal uses - Diabetes,Kidney,bladder disease,diuretic
2. Family name - Verbenaceae
Botanical name - Vitex glanbrata R. Br
Local name - Htauk-sha or Kyet-lae-san
Part used - leaves
Medicinal uses - Diabetes,urinary disease, masticatories
3. Family name - Meliaceae
Botanical name - Swietenia macrophylla King
Local name - Ma-ho-ga-ny
English name - Mahogany
Part used - seeds
Medicinal uses - Diabetes mellitus, anemia, hypertension,
skin allergy, malaria, asthma
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Chapter II
Experimental
2.1 Materials and methods
-seed, leaves
-95%Etanol local
-Glucometer XL and Glucocard test strip II
-Both sexes of albino mice body weight 25-30g
-Both sexes of ratswister strain body weight 150-200g
2.2 Sample collection
The leaves of Tha-gya-ma-geik were collected from traditional
nursery, Mandalay. And also, the leaves of Kyet-lae-san were purchased from
Market of Loikaw ,Kayah state. Moreover, seeds of ma-haw-ga-ny were taken
from Myae-pa-dae-tha-kyun, Yangon. They were cut into small pieces and air-
dried. They were stored in stoperred bottles.
2.3 Preparation of Plant Extracts for Acute Toxicity and
Hypoglycemic Activity Tests
2.3.1 Preparation of Ethanolic Extracts of Leaf1, Leaf2 and Seed
About each 55 g of air dried samples were stored in a stoppered bottle
and percolated with 0.8 L of 95% ethanol. After 10 days, it was filtered with
filter paper and the filtrate was evaporated at room temperature. Then
95%ethanol (0.7 L) was added to the residue for about 5 days. And then, it
was also filtered and the filtrate was concentrated at room temperature. The
entire residue was discarded. Totally 6 g of ethanolic extract was obtained.
The dried extract obtained was stored in the desiccator.
For testing the effects of samples on experimental animals, required
amount of extract was taken and mixed with distilled water to get the required
dosage of extract.
2.3.2 Preparation of Aqueous Extracts of Leaf1, Leaf2 and Seed
Each about 60 g of air dried samples was extracted with 1L of distilled
water by using continuous hot extraction at 60ºC. After 6 hours of extraction,
it was cooled at room temperature and then the mixture was filtered using
filter paper. The entire residue was discarded. The filtrate was concentrated
at 50ºC to get the constant weight in a evaporating basin. For bioactivity test,
the extract was redissolved in distilled water and used in the investigation.
2.4 Acute Toxicity Study
A total of 40 DDY mice of both sexes (body weight 20-25 gm) used in
these studies were randomly divided into four groups with 10 animals in each.
Three were tested groups and one was control group. 10 albino mice in each
group were fasted overnight before administration of the aqueous extracts of
samples.
The acute toxicity studies were carried out with an oral administration
of aqueous extract of samples at increasing doses of 12g/kg, 16g/kg and
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20g/kg on the three test groups and 10ml/kg of distilled water on control
group. After administering the extract orally, each group containing mice was
kept in individual cage with free access to food and water and was observed
toxic effects daily for two weeks. The median lethal dose (LD50) was
determined from the number of animals surviving at the end of two weeks
period.
2.6 Determination of blood glucose levels in adrenaline induced
hyperglycemic rat model
Three healthy albino rats weighing 300g were used in this study. Food
was withheld for the period of 12 hours. The animals were kept in air
conditioned room at animal science Division of Medical Research
Department. They were kept without food for 18hrs before the experiment but
water was allowed orally.
Administration of drug vehicle
During the experiment, the control group was administered by
subcutaneous injection with diluted adrenaline 10ml/kg.The drug vehicle was
injected to each rat model by plastic syringe containing calculated volume of
distilled water.
Collection of blood sample
Before the drug vehicle administration, blood of each albino rat was
collected from marginal ear vein as the base line blood sample. After injection
of drug, the blood samples were also collected from hyperglycemic rat model
of 1 hr, 2 hr, 3hr,4 hr intervals. After base line control study, albino rats were
given rest for one week with normal food and water.
Administration of the ethanol extract of sample
After resting of one week, the dosage of ethanol extract of each sample
was collected on body weight basis for each animal. Then, the same rested
animal was treated with the dosage of 1g/10ml/kg body weight of ethanol of
each sample orally. Their blood glucose levels were measured at zero hour.
After that, adrenaline was immediately administered subcutaneously to all rats
and its glucose levels were determined at 1hr, 2 hr, 3hr, and 4hr intervals.
Figure (2.1): Dutch Denken
Yoken Mice of Both
Sexes
Figure (2.2): Administration of Drug
Solution to the Experimental Mice
Figure (2.1): Dutch Denken
Yoken Mice of Both Sexes
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
Determination of blood glucose level mg/dl
The blood collected from rat models was dropped on the glucometer
test strip determined by glucometer.
Figure (2.1) Wister Strain Rats of
Both Sexes
Figure(2.3)Induction of Blood Glucose
Level by Subcutaneous Injection
ofAdrenaline to the Experimental
Rats
Figure (2.2) Administration of Drug
Solution to the Experimental Rats
Figure (2.4)Collection of Blood Samples at 1,
2, 3, and 4 hrs after Administration of
Drug Extract for Determination of
Blood Glucose Levels
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Chapter III
Esults and discussion
3.1 Acute Toxicity of Three Selected Samples
The mice administered with 12g/kg, 16g/kg and 20g/kg doses of
aqueous extracts of L1, L2 and seed were kept under observation for two
weeks. After two weeks, all the mice were alive and did not show any toxic
symptoms such as body weight loss and restlessness. So, it was found that
20g/kg dose of aqueous extracts of L1, L2 and seed showed confidence dose
and considered as safe.
Table (3.1) Acute toxicity test of 70% EtOH extract of plant samples
Group
Number
of
mice/
group
Diet
Dosage of
extract
(g/kg)
Final volume
given ml/kg
observed
period
Ratio of
dead
and tested
Percent
age
of death
I
(control) 10
stock
diet
and
distilled
water
Distilled 10 ml Two
weeks 0/10 0
II
(L1, L2, S) 10 12 10 ml
Two
weeks 0/10 0
III
(L1, L2, S) 10 16 10 ml
Two
weeks 0/10 0
IV
(L1, L2, S) 10 20 10 ml
Two
weeks 0/10 0
L1, L2- Leaves, S – Seeds
3.2 Effect of 70% Ethanolic Extracts of (L1, L2, S) on Blood Glucose
Levels in Adrenaline Induced Hyperglycemic Rats
The mean blood glucose levels of adrenaline induced hyperglycemic
rats in control group, ethanolic extract treated groups and standard drug treated
group are shown in Table (3.2, 3.3 and 3.4).
Table (3.2) Effect of 70% EtOH extract of leaves-1 of Tha-gya-ma-geik
(4g/kg) on glucose levels (Mean + SE) in adrenaline induced
hyperglycemic rat.
Test sample Blood glucose (mg/100 ml)
0 hr 1 hr 2 hr 3 hr 4 hr
Control
(n - 7) 61.8+3.4 163.7+3.7 173.5+13.5 169.5+14.3 137.0+13.6
70% EtOH extract of
leaves-1 (n - 7) 62.3+3.5 155.5+10.6 137.2+7.8 125.5+8.2 112.0+11.1
Glibenclamide
(n - 7) 61.3+3.3 129.2+7.3 140+7.9 104.0+16.8 84.3+17.5
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0
50
100
150
200
250
0 1 2 3 4
Time (hour)
Blo
od
glu
cose
co
nc.
(m
g/1
00
ml)
control 70% EtOH extract (S) Glibenclamide
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
0 1 2 3 4
Time (hour)
Blo
od
glu
co
se l
ev
el
(mg
/10
0 m
l)
control 70% EtOH (L1) Glibenclamide
Table (3.3) Effect of 70% EtOH extract of leaves-2 of Kyet-lae-san
(4g/kg) on glucose levels (Mean + SE) in adrenaline induced
hyperglycemic rat.
Test sample Blood glucose (mg/100 ml)
0 hr 1 hr 2 hr 3 hr 4 hr
Control
(n - 7) 62.0+3.3 186.3+21.9 201.5+7.0 194.5+10.3 147.8+12.9
70% EtOH extract
of leaves-2 (n - 7) 62.5+4.6 135+11.12 158.3+10.9 153.8+18.2 131.0+11.6
Glibencla mide
(n - 7) 61.3+3.3 129.2+7.3 140+7.9 104.0+16.8 84.3+17.5
Table (3.4) Effect of 70% EtOH extract of seeds of Mahogany (4g/kg)
on glucose seeds (Mean + SE) in adrenaline induced hyperglycemic rat.
Test sample Blood glucose (mg/100 ml)
0 hr 1 hr 2 hr 3 hr 4 hr
Control
(n - 7) 68.3+1.9 206.7+3.8 193.3+12.9 184+8.4 120+9.8
70% EtOH extract
of seeds (n - 7) 62.3+2.7 147.5+13.4 183.8+11.9 208.8+18.8 187.2+14.7
Glibencla mide
(n - 7) 61.3+3.3 129.2+7.3 140+7.9 104.0+16.8 84.3+17.5
Figure (3.1) Times course of the effect of 70% EtOH extract of seeds of Ma-
ho-ga-ny on Adrenaline induced hyperglycemic rat mode
Figure (3.2) Times course of the effect of 70% EtOH extract of leaves-1 of
Tha-gya-ma-geik leave on adrenaline induced hyperglycemic rat model
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0
50
100
150
200
250
0 1 2 3 4
Time (hour)
Blo
od
glu
co
se c
on
c.
(mg
/10
0m
l)
control 70% EtOH extract (L-2) Gibendclamide
Figure (3.3) Times course of the effect of 70% EtOH extract of leaves-2 of
Kyet-lae-san leaves on adrenaline induced hyperglycemic rat model
According to these tables, the animals treated with the 70% EtOH
extracts of Leaf1 and Leaf2 showed decrease in blood glucose levels at
1hr,2hr,3hrand 4 hr when compared with control group.
The hypoglycemic effect of the 70% EtOH extracts (4 g/kg), are shown
in Figure (3.1), (3.2) and (3.3). For comparison purpose, the blood glucose
level of control group and glibenclamide treated group are also presented.
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Conclusion
Tha-gyar-ma-giek, kyat-lae-san and Ma-ho-ga-ny have efficiency were
recorded in this study. The present work had proven that the significant
hypoglycemic effect of these plants extracts have been observed when tested
on rat model. The leaves of Tha-gyar-ma-giek was more potent than leave, L2
of Kyat-le-san and seed, S of Ma-ho-gany. Thus, Tha-gyar-ma-giek leave
should be used to reduce the blood glucose level. Tha-gyar-ma-giek will be
selected for isolation of hypoglycemic active compounds from secondary
metabolite fraction in near future.
So it can be concluded that Tha-gyar-ma-giek possesses the more
hypoglycemic affect and can be expected to become a useful drug in the
management of Type II diabetes mellitus in future.
Acknowledgements
First, I would like to express my appreciation to U Yin Win Maung, Acting Rector,
and Dr Tint Tint, Pro-Rector, Sagaing Institute of Education, for their permission and
encouragement to do this research paper. I express my continued deep appreciation to Dr San
San Htay, Professor, Head of Department of Chemistry, Sagaing Institute of Education, for
her encouragement and good advices to do this research.
I am also cordially grateful to U Myint Swe, Acting Rector, University of Kalay, for
his allowance to carry on the research paper. I am also greatly acknowledge to Dr Aung Kyaw
Win, Professor, Head of Department of Chemistry, University of Kalay, for his kindness and
permission to carry on this paper.
I especially thank to Daw Swe Swe, Daw Ei Ei Htwe and all staffs, Department of
Pharmacology, Medical Research Center, Upper Myanmar, for their aid to measure
antihyperglycemic activity of these three indigenous medicinal plants.
Finally, I am deeply indebted to my colleagues for helping me to do this research
paper.
References
1. Medicinal plants in Vietnam, WHO Regional Publications. Western Pacific series
No.3. World Health Organization, Regional office for the western pacific, Manila
and Institute of Materia Medica, Hanoi, 1990; 270, 271.
2. Myanmar Health Science Research Journal. Department of Medical Research (Tower
Myanmar) , Ministry of Health, Yangon, Myanmar. Vol.14, No.1-3, 2002.
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Kalay University Research Journal
Comparative Study of Chin (Northern & Southern) Language
and English Language
Leng Ceu1, Aung Ling Om
2, Khin Myo Myo
3
Abstract
This Pet Research is the study of Comparative Study of two Chin Languages
[Northern (Hakha/Lai) & Southern (Mindat/K'cho)] and English language. Although Chin
writing was created by an Englishman, there are many similarities and differences between the
two languages (Chin and English), especially in grammatical rules, phonetics, order of words
and sentence construction. (Therefore, the main purpose of this Research paper is to explain
some differences between Chin (Lai & K'Cho) and English as clear as possible.)
Introduction
The purpose of this project paper is to highlight some differences
between English and Chin (Lai&K'cho), languages not only for Chin Students
but also for other Myanmar Students (foreign students) who study Chin
language as their target language.
If there are advantages for the readers in this project paper, this is
our greatest wish and if there are some mistakes, we are always ready to admit
for my weakness.
1. The Definition of a language
Speech is so familiar a feature of daily life that we rarely pause to
define it. It seems as natural to man as walking, and only less so than
breathing. yet, it needs but a moment's reflection to convince us that this
naturalness of speech is but an illusory feeling. The process of acquiring
speech is, in sober fact, an utterly different sort of thing from the process of
learning to walk. In the case of the latter function, culture, in other words, the
traditional body of social usage is not seriously brought into play. The child is
individually equipped, by the complex set of factors that we term biological
heredity, to make all the needed muscular and nervous adjustments that result
in walking. Indeed, the very conformation of these muscles and of the
appropriate parts of the nervous system may be said to be primarily adapted to
the movements made in walking and in similar activities. In a very real sense
the normal human being is predestined to walk, not because his elders will
assist him to learn the art, but because his organism is prepared from birth, or
even from the moment of conception, to take on all those expenditures of
1 Tutor, Department of English, Kalay University
2 Tutor, Department of English, Kalay University
3 Tutor, Department of English, Kalay University
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nervous energy and all those muscular adoptions that result in walking. To put
it concisely, walking is an inherent, biological function of man.
Not so language, it is of course true that in a certain sense the
individual is predestined to talk, out that is due entirely to the circumstance
that he is born not merely in nature, but in the lap of a society that is certain,
reasonably certain, to lead him to its traditions. Eliminate society and there is
every reason to believe that he will learn to walk, if indeed, he survives at all.
But it as just as certain that he will never learn to talk, that is, to communicate
ideas according to the traditional system of a particular society. Or again,
remove the new born individual from the social environment into which he has
come and transplant him to an utterly alien one. He will develop the art of
walking in his new environment very much as he would have developed it in
the old. But his speech will be completely at variance with the speech of his
native environment. Speech is a human activity that varies without assignable
limit as we pass from social group to social group, because it is a purely
historical heritage of the group, the product of long-continued social usage. It
varies as all creative effort various not consciously, perhaps, but none the less
as truly as do the religion, the beliefs, the customs, and the arts of different
people. Walking is an organic, an instinctive function (not, of course, itself an
instinct); speech is a non-instinctive, acquired 'Cultural' functions.
Language, like all other skills, does not come naturally and we have to
be taught how to use it. We realized its importance only when we find that we
have to find a cure of some help to alleviate a child with a speech defect, or
when we have to learn a new language, e.g. English. If our mother tongue is
learned naturally, but accompanied by much difficulty, we can imagine how
complex a foreign language will be when we have to learn it.
Language is the most frequently used and most highly developed form
of human communication. This statement has many implications. An act of
communication involves the transmission of some kind a message form a
source to a receiver. In this kind of language, both the source and receiver are
human beings. Of course, human can communicate not only vocally, but by
making on a surface, i.e. they communicate graphically. What the linguist
means by language is that it is a human behavior. He goes further when he
restricts the term language to a vocal system of human communication.
Another way of communicating confined only to human beings by writing.
But, if we think deeply, writing is a system of turning sounds into symbols,
thereby making our message more permanent.
In studying language, we have to consider its cultural and social
functions too. A society is actually a community communicating with each
other to co-exist. Language is the most important and essential tool used by
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the community's (society's) members. It is Hyms (1971) who restated
language's culture and social aspects. Hyms has pointed out the inadequacy of
a linguistic theory, which leaves out these aspects of language. A society
cannot exist without language.
2. Alphabets
The chin language has no Alphabet of its own. It is written by means
of the Roman alphabet. Attempts to write it down with the Myanmar
characters have also failed. The method, officially in use, was evolved in the
years 1930-1935 by some state school. Teachers of the southern Chin Hills; it
is an adaptation of the previously elaborated method of writing the Northern
Chin language.
Northern Chin Alphabets
In Northern (Hakha/Lai) language, we use (27) alphabets as shown
below;
Small letters
a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,t,u,v,w,x,y,z.
Capital letters
A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,T,T,U,V,W,X,Y,Z.
Kind of Alphabets
There are two kinds of Alphabets. They are-
(1) Vowels (cafangaw) or (awfang)
(2) Consonants (cafangtung) (or) (awtung)
Vowel is classified into three groups again, such as
(a) Single vowel (awpaak) a,e,i,o,u, and "aw".
(b) Double vowel (Dipthong) ai,ao,au,ei,eo,eu,ia,io,iu,ua,oi,ui and awi
(Aw khuah)
(c) Triple vowel (Awthumthlak) iai,uai, iei, ian, uao, uau,
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Consonant is classified into three groups, viz.
(a) Single consonant (tungpaak)
e.g. b,c,d,f,g,h,j,k,l,m,n,ng,p,q,r,s,t,t,v,x,y and z.
(b) Double consonant (Tungkhuah)
e.g. ch, hl, hm, hn, hng, hr, k, kh, ph, th, th, tl.
(c) Triple consonant (Tungthumthlak)
Triple consonant (Tungthumthlak) e.g "thl"
The consonants are divided into two groups such as.
(a) The initial consonants of the word and
(b) The final consonants of the word.
The initial consonants are as belows;
b-, c, ch-, d-, f-, h-, hl-, hm-, hn-, hng-, hr-, k-, kh-, l-, m-, n-, ng-, p-,
ph-, r-, s-, t-, th-, tl-, thl-, t-, th-, v- and z-.
In the above symbols the dashes indicates that any vowels may folow
after these single consonants and double consonants. No only vowels but also
consonants may come after these vowels. For example,
h- = ha, (teeth) holh (language)
d- = din (drink) doh = (attack)
hng = hngalh (understand, know)
hungawng (neck)
ph- = phuan (confess) philh (forget)
p = peh (join)
r = raal (enemy) rawl (meal)
reel (count)
k = kal (go, walk) kaa (mouth)
hm = hma (wound)
hmai (face)
hmih (put off, fire)
s = sak (build) sawh (show)
ser (invent)
s = Sawi (criticize)
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th = thi (blood) theih (hear)
tl = tlau (lose) e.g. I lose my pen, also "thlau"=(lose)
thl = thlan (grave) thli (air, wind)
v = vom (bear)(n), vui (elephant)
volh (swear)(v)
velh = (flight) (v)
vih (make a hole), (bore a hole)
ng = ngeih (own sth) nganh (miss target)
ngal (boar) ngol (stop doing sth.)
t = tut (to sit down)
tah (crying), tial (write)
tamh (decorated, beautify sth.)
ten (departed) tawl (wash sth.)
u = Uico (dog) uah (proud)
z = zoh (look) zulh (follow) zumh (believe)
zuan (fly)(v), zuar (sell)
c = Cal (forehead), Cuar (skin)
Cuap (lung)
e = ei (eat) etc.
The final consonants are as below:-
-h, -k, -l, -lh, -m, -mh, -n, -nh, ng, -ngh, -p, -r, -rh, -t and -t.
e.g.
-h = kah (shot) seh = (bite) tah (crying)
-k = lak (take) pek (given) thluak (brain)
khuk = (knee) tawk (buttocks, hips)
-l = kal (go, walk) Cal (forehead)
Cil (spit) kedil = heels
-m = naam (knife) lam = (road, street)
-n = den (strike) ban = (hands)
leen (visit) etc.
inn (house) thin (liver) ihkhun (bed)
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-nh = tenh (give as present)
thanh (make louder radio, TV etc)
tanh (Encourages)
-ng = rang (horse) Zawng (monkey)
chantling (pillow), thing (fire wood)
Thingkuang = box
Cawleng (bullock cart)
-ngh = thongh (knock down)
tongh (touch)
-p = Cehrep (scissors) cuap (lung)
dawp (absorb)
thlawp = (cure), hnap (snot)
-r = ar (fowl) cuar (skin) hmur (lips)
hnar (nose) faar = pine (n)
sur = (net)
tikhor = well (n)
-rh = tlirh (threaten), thirh (shiver with cold)
derh (begin to build house, but etc)
-t = pakhat (one) taat = (sharpen)
dawt (love) (v) (affectionate)
Among the Chin alphabets Q,J,W and Y are not used in writing. Only
"W" is used with the vowel "a" and when they are combined, it becomes
vowel sound aw/ :/ in phonetic symbol.
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"Southern Chin Alphabet"
In southern (mindat/kcho) language, the chin Alphabet uses (20)
Roman characters only. But, by means of the Tream( º º)on several vowels,
and digraphs of several consonants: the total number of letter is actually 35.
Here is the list, in the special alphabetical order which must be followed:
a b c ch d e ei g gh
h i k kh
l hl m hm n hn ng hng o(aw) p
ph s (sh) t th ht u v w
z
Vowels
Here are the 5 genuine vowels together with their
pronunciation.
a is always pronounced as in English 'art', 'car', 'ask'; Pa = father
e is always pronounced as in English 'bet', 'get', 'met'; Me = goat
i is always pronounced as in English 'bit', 'fit', 'his'; Ki = horn
O is always pronounced as in English 'go', 'obey', 'stone'; Lo = field
u is always pronounced as in English 'put', 'full', 'rule'; nu = mother.
NB The sound "o" is often written "aw" (but never 'au' nor 'eau').
The Chin writing comprises also 5 quasi-vowels: is pronounced like
"O" in "come”, (or) "u" in "run"; p = silk
is pronounced like "queue"; k = body
aw (alternative writing of "o") as in English 'claw': Law = to come
ei is always pronounced like English "ey", ay; ei = to eat
is pronounced like French "u" in "mur", "dur", m = night
NB The very seldom found "au" has the tone of a long and low "a", as in
English "mat", or "ow" in "fowl": "nau" = na = younger/brother/sister
The consonants
The chin writing uses (15) Roman consonants only: b c d g h k l m n p
s t y w z. But it requires also 11 more quasi-consonants (10 of which at least
are unknown to English); they are formed by means of digraphs and even one
trigraph of other consonants; they are: ch gh kh hl hm hn ng hng ph (sh) th ht
.... It will be easier to understand all that if one bears in mind that the chin
writing method was elaborated by men who knew first the Myanmar alphabet.
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Set in this context, here are again the consonants according to the usual
Myanmar alphabetical order:
Gutturals: ka kha ga gha nga
Palatals : ca cha sa (sha) (nia)
Dentals : ta tha da (dha) na
Labials : Pa Pha ba (bha) ma
"za" (ra) va wa hta
ha chla hma hna hnga
From the second column here above, anyone can see why chins write
"th" the hard / aspirated T (coming as it does after "kh" and "ch" and before
'ph";) and consequently why they write "ht" the soft T (the sibilant S in pli)
which English writes "th" instead; one must get used to it.
The "za" here above stands for "ya', as will be explained under; "ra" is
not genuine chin writing, although the consonant "r" is often heard in some
provinces of the southern Chin Hills; it is then usually replaced by "i", "krap"
= "kiap" (to weep). Chins do not use either as a rule "sh", "dh" "bh" (and that
is why those consonants have been put between brackets in the table above);
they would however help towards a more accurate transliteration.
Finally for the sake of simplification, the correspondent of the
Myanmar "ha-tho", that is the aspiration of the consonants; l m n ng, has been
set apart as different consonants: hl hm hn hng ......... No doubt it would have
been wiser to put the mark of aspiration after-not before the chapter it affects,
(as: lh mh nh ngh); and this method would have save ground the normal
alphabetical order; but one cannot change at with the established method.
3. " Pronunciation"
Most of Chin Pronunciation are similar that in English
Pronunciation of (Hakha/ lai) Language
Pronunciation of each alphabet in (Hakah/ lai) is explained below.
alphabet Chin English Phonetic Symbol
a = / a a / / a: /
b = / bi / same as in English / bi:/
c = / Si / / Si:/
d = / di / / di:/
e = / ee / / ei: /
f = / ef / / ef: /
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g = / zi / / dзi:/
h = / ei (chi) / / eitl /
i = / ii / / i: /
j = / ze / / dзei /
k = / ke / / kel /
l = / el / / el /
m = / em / / em /
n = / en / / en /
o = / oo / / /
p = / pi / / pi: /
q = / khio / / kju: /
r = / ar / / a: r /
s = / es / / es /
t = / ti / / / as in thank / nk /
t. = / t. i / / tr / as tree in English
u = / uu / / ju: /
v = / vi / / vi: /
w = / dabalio / / d^blju: /
x = ek (s) / eks /
y = / vuai / / Wai /
z = / zet / / zed / zi: /
Phonetics of each vowel in (Hakha/ Lai)
a = aa tm in Burmese
e = ee at? t,f in Burmese
i = ii tD in Burmese
o = oo (tdk) in Burmese
u = uu (tl) in Burmese
aw = aw (atmf) in Burmese
Phonetics of each consonant in (Hakha/ Lai)
b = bah
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c = cah not sah
d = dah
f = fah
h = hah
k = kah
l = lah
m = mah
n = nah
ng = ngah
p = pah
r = rah
s = sah
t = tah
t. = t.ah (trah)
v = vah
z = zah
There are no specific phonetics sound in j = ze, Q = khio, w = dabalio
(dabalzu) x = ek(s) and y = Vuai in (Hakha/ Lai). Therefore, many Chin
students make errors in pronunciation and phonetics in English words. For
example, they can not pronounce the sound (y), (j) and (z) clearly. So, they do
not know the differences between the sound (j) and z,s and S, G and Z, J.
Pronunciation of (Mindat/ KChQ) Language
B Like in English; but it can also be pronounced and written V instead, as in
''M'' bakhaw=''M" va khaw (Myanmar Land)
C is the pronounced " ts" , the palatal "s" remaining the most important ;
some what like in " cent" " cell " . It is never pronounced " k" , as in " cat "
" cocoa ".
CH is pronounced " ksh " or " tsh " ; in front of : e ei i, it is rather like " khy"
or "kky.." and then becomes interchangeable with " kh " .
D like in English.
G always like the hard English " g " , as in "gang" " go' " gun " ; it can be
pronounced like " r " in some places, or like French " j " in others. Note
also that the chin "g" is the normal rendering of the softer Myanmar " y ";
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(B) " yawk " = " gawk " in chin (= to reach ) ; " ya " " gah " (to get, obtain)
GH is a very special chin consonant ; it has nothing in common with the
English "gh", as in " Ghost " ; it is rather pronounced like a hard French
"ch" or "sch" . It can be heard and is at times transliterated into Myanmar
as a strong aspiration; " ghawng" (to lose) " schawng" or " hhawng".
H at the beginning of a word always marks the aspiration; at the end of a
word it marks its short light accent or checked tone;
K is always pronounced as in English "kill" "keep" "Korea" ; but it can be
softened into "g " in some location "im ung-ka" = "im ung-ga " = from the
house.
KH is the hard of aspirated K, or "kk"; in front of: e ei i , it can have a "wet"
pronunciation : "khet ci"=it is hard/ difficult.
L , M , N are pronounced like in English.
NG is a guttural constant pertaining to both N & G .
P like in English.
PH is th easpirated P or double PP.
S is pronounced rather "wet" , somewhat between " S " and " sh" ; or even "
sz ".
T like in Latin and French; less accented than in English.
TH is the aspirated T, C and thus the opposite of the English " th " as said.
HT is about the correspondent of the soft English " th ", as in " thin " ; in some
provinces of the Chin Hills, as in lower Myanmar as a rule, it is
pronounced " sz" hmagumi- hta" = hugumi - sza (girl).
V like in English; but, at the beginning of words, it is often pronounced "w".
W is only used in composition with, and often " a ", " aw " , "awh" , "awi"
,"awng".
Z is pronounced "y" ("zu" = "yu")
HL is aspirated (just as HM is of M, HN of N, HNG of NG); but in many parts
of the chin " hl" is pronounced "sh" " hla" (jungle animal) may be
pronounced "sha"; and indeed in the Central and Northern Chin, it is
pronounced and written that way.
The Roman consonants; f q r y, are not used in writing the southern chin.
Study of the dipthongs
The writing of chin uses seven dipthongs: ai awi awi lu i ui i.
ai is pronounced as - "y" in "sky" , " by" ; ai = fowl
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
awi is pronounced as about the first part of " wave" ; awi = afternoon
wi is pronounced as about the first part of "world"; wi = to say yes
ju is pronounced as " u" in " fuse" , "use" ; piu = hut
i is pronounced as " yeut in French" il y eut ...., ng" zi = sterile
ui is pronounced as " oui" in French " louis "; ui = dog
i is pronounced as " ui " in French Lui, nuire; cih = swamp.
Since "alphabets" are the foundation of every language, it is very
important to understand the basic knowledge of alphabets in learning a
particular language. Therefore, these comparison of Northern ( Hakha / Lai)
and Southern (Mindat/ k'cho) and English alphabets pronunciation would be
helpful for anyone who wants to study (Hakha/ Lai) language and (Mindat/
k'cho) language.
4. Nouns (Hakha)
A noun is a word used as the name of a person, place, or thing.
e.g Tom, Calcutta, book, dog. etc.
Note; The word thing includes (i) all objects that we can see, hear, taste, touch,
or smell, and (ii) something that we can think of , but cannot perceive by the
senses.
Nouns are of five different kinds;-
(1) proper nouns (Pum pak min)
(2) common nouns (Zapi bawmmi min)
(3) collective nouns (A buin a ummi kawhnak min)
(4) material nouns ( Nunnak ngeilomi min)
(5) abstract nouns (Mit hmuhlo le kut tongh khawhlomi min)
Abstract noun in English grammar is not easy to clarify in chin language.
So many Lai students find it difficult to understand the exact meaning of
English abstract noun. In chin language, abstract nouns can be described by
adding (nak) after the original word, as a suffix. In other words, in Lai
grammar, the abstract nouns can be expressed, written by affixing (nak) to the
original words.
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For examples
English Chin
Goodness thatnak
Wisdom fimnak
Honesty dinnak
Kindness zangfahnak
e.g English = Lai English = Lai
die (v) = thih, a thi death(n) = thihnak
dark (adj) = a muimi darkness(n) = muihnak
sick (adj) = a zawmi sickness = zawtnak
Proper nouns, common nouns, collective nouns and material
nouns are quite familiar and understood in the Lai language and grammar.
4.1 The Noun Number
In English grammar, a noun that denotes one person or thing is said to
be in the singular number.
e.g. Boy, girl, cow, bird, book, pen etc.
A noun that denotes more than one person or thing is said to be in the
plural number.
e.g. boys, girls, cows, trees, books, pens etc.
In English, the plural of nouns is generally formed by adding –„s‟ to
singular and some nouns ending in “-s, -sh, -ch, or –x” form the plural by
adding (es) to the singular e.g.
Singular plural
Class classes
Bus buses
Brushes brushes
Match matches
Tax taxes
Box boxes
Although there are many rules, about how plural are formed in English
grammar, the Lai grammar used numeral adjective such as one, two, three etc
to describe singular and plural nouns. In chin grammar, plural nouns are
formed by affixing numeral adjectives before singular nouns.
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
For example
Singular Plural
Cow two
three
Cow +
Four
Many
When a plural noun is formed it is not necessary to add s, es, ies, en,
and other change of middle vowels as man, men foot, feet, goose, geese, louse,
lice, mouse, mice etc. Instead numeral adjective such as one, two, three, four
five etc, are used to form plural nouns without adding any letters to the
original words or singular noun.
e.g. (E) there are three cows in the field.
(L) in the field cow three there are.
Therefore, many Lai students have faced difficulties in singular and
plural forms of English because there are many rules in English grammar.
In English, some nouns have the singular and plural alike, as sheep,
deer, cod, dozen, pair, trout, salmon.
On the other hand, some nouns are used only in the plural.
For example
Bellows, scissors, tongs, pincers, spectacles, trousers, etc.
In English, some nouns originally singular are now generally used in plural;
as,
Alms, riches, eaves
Riches do many things.
The following plural forms are commonly used in singular.
Mathematics, physics, politics, news, innings
For second language learners, English is so complicated and many
students are confused about how to use singular and plural nouns in speaking
as well as in writing. So, the best way to learn English grammar is to read as
many books as one could and to remember different rules.
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4.2 The Noun Gender
In English, a noun that denotes a male animal is said to be of the
masculine Gender.
e.g. boy, husband, he-goat, tiger, ram
A noun that denotes a female animal is said to be of the feminine
Gender.
Girl, wife, she-goat, tigress, ewe
But, in Lai language, although there are masculine and feminine,
original word is never change but add the words, Pa (or) tum for masculine
Gender and “pi or nu” for feminine gender.
e.g. ram = tuu pa, tu kawng ewe = tuu pi, tuu a nu.
Tiger = cakei a pa tigress = cakei a nu
Lion = chiandeih tum/a pa lioness = chian deih pi/ a nu
He-goat = meheh tum she-goat = meheh pi / nu
Cock = ar hlikhong / pa hen = ar pi
In English grammar, objects without life are often personified, that is
spoken of as if they were living beings and they are regarded as males or
females.
The masculine gender is often applied to objects remarkable for
strength, violence, toughness and superiority.
e.g. the sun, summer, winter, time, death
storm, ocean, war, thunder,
the sun sheds his beams on rich and poor alike.
Death lays his icy-fingers on every man.
The feminine gender is often applied to objects remarkable for beauty,
gentleness, and gracefulness.
e.g. the moon, the earth, spring, autumn
mercy, peace.
The moon has hidden her face behind a cloud.
Spring has spread her mantle of green over the earth.
Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war.
In Lai language, it is never used lifeless thing as having masculine or
feminine gender.
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This is one of the obvious differences between English and Lai
language and grammar.
4.3 Nouns(Mindat)
Nouns are divided into concrete and abstract.
1. Concrete Nouns
Concrete nouns are: proper, common and collective.
(a) Proper Nouns
They are the names of persons, races and countries, places and some
animals and things most precious to the Chins.
Persons‟ Names
Each person has a name, simple or complex. Here are a few men‟s
names:
“Om”, “Tam”, “Khui-Shing”
And women‟s names:
“Awi”, “Thung”, “Cum”.
Each personal name is normally mentioned after the one of his/her
father, and when more precision is needed, the name of the grand father is put
a head still, thus,-
“Aung Ling Om” means that the man concerned is called “Om”, that
he is son of “Ling” and grandson of “Aung”, his sister may be called; “Aung
Ling Thung”.
Men‟s names are different from women‟s, but there are a few
exceptions.
“Thung”, “Hlu”…may be used for either sex.
Names of Races and Countries
The southern chins mostly call themselves; Cho (or) K‟Cho‟ and the
chin land (Cho-khaw). But more and more do they use the Myanmar given
name of “Chin” (Kshin) to designate all members of their race-group.
The Myanmar (the main ethnic group of central Myanmar) are called,
M‟ba (M‟va) by the Chins, and the Burmese land: (M‟ba-khaw).
Names of Places
Every important place of land has been given a proper name, usually
derived from local geography as (m‟ htung) the hill named Pughi (grand
father). Also the streams, as lawng (or the river).
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(b) Common Nouns
There are the names of given in common to every person, place or
thing of the same kind; chins not seldom have the choice between nouns of
different origin/languages to designate the same object; the result apparently
of their mixed origin and long immigration from the North (china, Mongolia).
(c) Collective Nouns They are the names of groups of individuals (or)
individual considered as a whole; such are „ng‟ bum “(crowd/assembly), „ng‟
nawng” (herd/flock) in this class of collective nouns, one should enter terms
such as , “tu” and “mi” for human beings,
“sing” and “m‟ghaw” for trees and “hla” for jungle animals.
Where English suppressed the article “the” and has the nouns put in the plural
to express collection and in determination; chin simply states the
correspondents in the singular; example, “stones are plenty” = “lung da ci”.
2. Abstract Nouns
Abstract Nouns are produced by the mind. In chin, there are nearly all
formed out of verbal roots, they are therefore known as verbal nouns (or)
gerunds. There are various possible ways to turn a verb into an abstract noun,
but each way has its special nuance and employ. Here they are-
(a) the first way consists in stating the verbal-roof alone, a case-post
position may be joined to it.
Examples, “phui” = load / carrying loads.
(b) another way consists of prefixing “a” to the verbal root, as in “a
hliing” = height, „a sah‟ = thickness.
(c) A third and most common way consists in suffixing “nak” to the
verbal root. But here more distinctions are needed, as this „nak‟ may
have different uses „nak‟ meaning the reality of some intellectual
operation (or) inner feelings: “Zum nak” faith / believing.
If „nak‟ after a verbal turns is in some abstract noun, „nak‟ after a noun
turns it into a verbal ( a transitive verb) thus;
Pa nau = to have as father (to be the child of)
Chu nak = to have as one‟s wife (to be the husband of)
Hta nak = to have as one‟s child (to be father / mother of).
(d) a fourth way (of turning a verb into an abstract noun) consists in
suffixing „vai‟ to the verbal root, it appears to be the best way to mark the
infinitive mood too. To speak = khi vai; to cook = sawn vai, ei vai = food
(what is to be eaten).
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Conclustion
We hope that this Research paper, some explanations of comparative
study of Chin (Northern & Southern) language and English is meant to help
the learners need for their studies in English. If a student understand some
differences between his mother tongue and the target language, it is easier for
him to study the target language. Therefore, we strongly believe that this short
Research paper may help the learners, (Chin Students) who study English as
their target language.
Bibliography
1. Jordan, Father Marc, M.E.P. 1969. Chin Dictionary and Grammar.
Southern Chin Hills People‟s Language, Mindat District, Burma. Paris,
mimeo. Chin Cho(HKo).
2. Anen. 1935. Reader No.3 (for third standard). Chin Book dialect of
Chin for use in the schools of the Chin Hills District. Rangoon: Govt;
printing and stationary.
3. Bawi Hu, Pu-The Source and Development of the Chin writings-A
Thesis submitted to the Chin Christian College in partial fulfillment of
the requirement of the degree of Bachelor of Religious Education-
February, 1998.
4. Hornby, A.S. The Teaching of Structural Words and sentence patterns,
stages 3 and 4, the English language Book Society and Oxford
University press, 1966.
5. Johnson, Robert G: History of the American Baptist Chin Mission,
Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, U.S.A 1988.
6. New Land, A.G.E; A practical Hand-book of the language of the Lais
as spoken by the Hakhas and other tribes of Chin Hills. Printed in
Burma, 1897.
7. Van Bik, David, English-Chin(Hakha) Dictionary, 1987, Hakha.
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Physical Bases of Kalay Township
Win Myint1
PHYSICAL BASES
Location, Areal Extent, Shape and Boundary.
Kalay Township is situated in the western part of Sagaing Division,
Myanmar. The Township falls within the north latitudes 22° - 28' and 23˚ 15'
between east longitudes 93° - 58' and 94° - 16'. The Township adjoining with
Ton Zaung Township, Tamu Township and Mawleik Township on the north,
Kalawa Township and Minkin Township on the east, Gangaw Township on
the south and Hakha Township, Falam Township, and Tiddim Township on
the west.
Kalay Township is about 12.5 miles wide in the west-east direction and
72 miles long in the north-south direction. It covers an area of 902.6 square
miles or 5,777,674 acres. Kalay Township is constituted of 5 wards and 41
village Tract. Kalay Township
1 Professor, Department of Geography, University of Kalay
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Topography and Drainage
Topography and Drainage conditions affect the development of
agriculture and economic activities of any region. In Myanmar the flat lowland
areas, river valleys and alluvial plain areas used for agriculture.
Generally, Kalay Township as a nearly of the whole lies at an average
elevation between 250' and 500' above sea level. The highest peak of the
North eastern most is high, Nagamauk with 2,406 feet. In south eastern
portion Mauk lauk (2,178' and Nwa Hill 1,287') are also found. But this region
is also called 'Kalay plain'.
The main flowing rivers of Kalay Township are Myitthar river,
Neyinzayar river and Manipura river.
Myitthar river flows from south and north in middle portion of Kalay
Township. This river annually floods its neighbouring areas and deposits new
alluviums. These alluviums area very fertile and are useful for agriculture of
Kalay Township. Various le and Kaing Kyun crops are cultivated on these
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alluviums. Then after passing Pyinthar village, Myitthar river changes its
course in east-west direction.
Neyinzayar river is flowing from north-south in northern portion of
Kalay Township. Then it joins with the Myitthar river near Pyinthar village of
Kalay Township.
Manipura river takes its source from Manipura Highland and flows
through the southern portion of Kalay Township. It joins with the Myitthar
river near Ashize village.
The main Streams are Zi chaung, Bon chaung, Kyaukka chaung and
Nwa chaung. These Streams are swift and rapid. (See Map .2).
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Climate
Temperature
On studying the temperature records for 20 years period from 1988 to
2007, January is the coldest month with the average mean temperature of
64.13˚F and May is the hottest month with the average mean temperature of
85.13˚F. As the average mean temperature Kalay Township are 64.13°F and
85.13°F respectively, the annual range of temperature is found to be 21°-00°F.
Rainfall
On studying the 20 years rainfall records from (1988-2007) of Kalay
Township August is the month receiving the largest rainfall to 15.42 inches.
January is the month receiving the smallest rainfall of 0.09 inches. The
average annual rainfall of the Kalay Township is 68.59 inches.
Climate is the most important environmental factor that influences
upon the agriculture of Kalay Township. According to its location, Kalay
Township receives a hot, wet climate. The temperature conditions of the
Kalay Township is high enough for crop cultivation. However, the rainfall
cannot be expected with certainty and due to uneven distribution of seasonal
rainfall, crop failures are found in almost every year.
Relative Humidity
Relative Humidity of Kalay Township is very low in the pre-monsoon
period of April and May. In April, the relative humidity is 55.68 percent in
the morning and 46.49 percent in the evening. August is the month having the
maximum relatively humidity of 88.22 percent in the morning and 84.08
percent in the evening. The variation in the relatively humidity between
morning and evening is great throughout the rainy season period. In winter,
relatively humidity decrease due to decrease of temperature and the amount of
rainfall According to Koppen's climatic classification, the study area has (Aw)
type of climate.
Geology
Geologically, Kalay Township is situated in the north western part of
the central Cenozoic Belt of Myanmar which contains almost exclusively of
sedimentary rocks which range in age from Cretaceous to Quaternary.
The sedimentary rock units exposed in the Kalay Township are
arranged in the order of superposition as follows.
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Table 1. Geologic Age of Kalay Township
Rock Units Symbols Geologic Age
Alluvium Q1 al Halocene
Mingin Gravels Q2 m Pleistocene
Pondaung Formation T ep Upper Eocene
Kabaw Formation Kk Cretaceous
Alluviums (Q2 al) Alluvium is found in low-lying areal along the
Myittha river and other major streams which are subjected to seasonal flood
depositing silt and sand. The fertile cultivated soil along the Myittha-Kabaw
valley are covered with alluvium which yearly added during the Monsoon
floods. The age of the formation in recent or Holocene.
Mingin Gravels (Q2 m). This formation is exposed in the synclinal
trough of the Mingin Syncline which is situated in the north-east part of Kalay
Township.
The age of this formation has been assigned to Pleistocene epoch.
Pondaung Formation (T ep). This formation is exposed along the
ponnyadaung range in the east of Myittha-Kabaw valley. This formation has
been assigned to upper Eocene in age.
Kabaw Formation: Kabaw Formation is typically exposed along the
eastern margin of the Kabaw Myittha vally. Kabaw formation has been
marked as Cretaceous age.
Kalay Township has one major syncline known as Mingin Syncline in
the eastern part of township. Wantebin fault is located along the
Ponnyadaung. It is north-south running normal fault. Near Minkin is a cross-
fault. (See Map 4).
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Soil
The development of soil depends upon the nature of topography,
Climatic conditions, underlying parent rock and natural vegetation. Due to
varying conditions of these factors, the following types of soil are recognized
in Kalay Township.
(1) Alluvial Soil
(2) Turfy Primitive Soil & Red-Brown Upland Soil
(3) Red brown forest soil, mountain red-brown forest soil.
(4) Yellow-brown forest soil & Mountain Yellow-brown forest
Alluviums are found along the rivers flooded plain. These soils are
well distributed in the village tracts near the river and its flood plain area
especially in Tinthar, Silt dominates over sand and clay in the textural
composition of alluvial soils. These soil are most suitable for the cultivation
and well distributed in the village tracts mean the river and streams, which
flood plain areas. All these are annually deposited with never alluvials, there
are very fertile and can be cultivated under a variety of crops.
Of these soil types, Turfy primitive soil or Primitive crushed stone
soil are mainly found in Western portion of the Kalay Township. These are
natural soil with well developed soil horizons. Red brown forest soil or red
brown mountainous forest soil are found along the middle portion of Kalay
Township. Mountainous yellow brown forest soil or Yellow brown forest
soils are found in the eastern mountainous region of Kalay Township.
Soil can change types of land use and land cover. It is very important
for the contruction, roads and bridges, mining , agricultural production and
natural vegetation, thus it is one of the influence factor for the agricultural land
use. Based on the usage of human. It will be able to decreasing of production,
long term equilibrium production and increasing capabilities.
Natural Vegetation
Depending upon the physical features, climate and soil, Indaing forest,
deciduous and mix deciduous forests are found in Kalay Township.
Especially, along the eastern-portion of Kalay Township, reserved forests are
found.
The natural vegetation found in the Kalay Township is divided as
follows;
(1) Evergreen Forest,
(2) Mixed Deciduous Forest,
(3) Indaing Forest
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(1) Evergreen Forest
Evergreen forests consist of two main types. Tropical Wet Evergreen
and Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forest.
The common species in this forests are Teak, Pyinkado, Kanyin, Sagat
and Taukkyan. There forests are found at middle portion and eastern portion
of Kalay Township.
(2) Mixed Deciduous Forest
The most valuable timbers are extracted from these forests. Thus, these
resources are the most important in Myanmar. These forests consist of three
main types. Moist Upper Mixed Forest, Low Mixed Forest and Dry Upper
Mixed Forest.
The common species in this forests are Teak, Pyinkado, Kanyin, Sagat,
Thitsein, Myankchaw, Padauk, Yemane and Taukkyan. There forests are
found at northern portion and eastern portion of Kalay Township.
(3) Indaing Forest
Although, it occurs on sandy and gravelly soils, the finest development
occurs on recent sandy alluvium in the valley of the main river. The habitat
has the rainfall of about 50 inches and upward. Species are Ingyin, Thitya,
Thitsin and Thitni. Middle portion, western portion and southern portion of
Kalay Township, where Indaing forests are found.
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GEOLOGY OF THE TAGAUNG – TWINNGE AREA,
THABEIKKYIN TOWNSHIP
Teza Kyaw1
Abastract
The study area lies between latitude 23˚ 15' N and 23˚ 45' N, and
longitude 96˚ 03' E and 96˚ 15' E and falls in 93-A/2 and 93-A/3, one-inch
topographic maps. The rock units are generally extended roughly N-S to
NNE-SSW. The Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation is a mixed rock
assemblage that contains pillow basalt, volcanic breccias, basaltic tuffs,
volcaniclastic sandstone (turbidites), chertified mudstone (hemipelagic
sediments), bedded chert (pelagic sediments) and thinly bedded limestones.
This pillow structure indicates a submarine origin. It is now known that
pillows are mostly formed under the Pressure Compensation Level (PCL)
(500 to 1000 m depth). Moreover, over 75% radiolarian indicat the pelagic
sediments and they were deposited under Carbonate Compensation depth.
The Twegauk Schist consists of chlorite-epidote-actinolite-quartz schist,
biotite-graphite schist and metagreywacke. The metamorphic rocks in the
study area are interpreted to have been derived from the Ngapyawdaw
Chaung Formation. The Thaungpwet Taung Formation can be subdivided
into the lower Ku Taung Limestone Member and the upper Nanpan Chaung
Shale Member, former is a sequence of generally bluish grey, bioclastic
wackestone, packstone and floatstone. The lower member conformably
underlies the upper member which consists of bluish grey, thinly laminate
shale. They constitute mainly Orbitolina sp. foram and indicate aerobic,
light penetrated, low energy quiet water, restricted continental shelf. The
basal unit of the Tertiary succession in the study area is the Baingbin
Conglomerate which consists of well-indurated, poorly sorted polymictic
conglomerates. The Male Formation is a unit of loosely cemented gritty to
pebbly, massive, cross-stratified sandstones with occassional coal seams and
variegated shale. The Khuntu Chaung Fanglomerate occupies the foothill of
the Tagaung Taung Ultrabasic body, and composed of clasts that are derived
from the underlying older rock units. The lithostratigraphic characters and
occurrences of coal seams insinuate that the association may be deposited
under the influence of terrigenous influx during Tertiary age Tagaung Taung
Ultrabasic unit mainly contains dunite, harzburgite, lherzolite, and wehrlite
that are partly serpentinized along the marginal zone. Basal harzburgite is
the residual mantle material from which oceanic basaltic magma was bled.
I. INTRODUCTION
The study area is situated between latitude 23˚ 15' N and 23˚ 45' N, and
longitude 96˚ 03' E and 96˚ 15' E. It falls in 93-A/2 and 93-A/3, one-inch
topographic maps. The area is situated in the southern part of the Tagaung-
Myitkyina Belt of Upper Ayeyarwady Province (Mitchell et al., 1993).
According to Hutchison (1989), the area falls within the Mandalay-Jade Mines
1 Demonstrator, Dr. , Department of Geology, University of Kalay
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ophiolite belt. The Eastern Ophiolite Belt is considered as the dismembered
incomplete ophiolite (Hla Htay, 2004).
The study area comprises a folded sequence of basic volcanic rocks
(basalt), sandstone, bedded chert, limestones and greenschist that contacts an
ultramafic complex. The rock units are generally extended roughly N-S to
NNE-SSW. The stratigraphic sequences of the study area are established by
La Ja (1984), Thura Oo (1993), Aung Kyaw Thin (2006) and Than Than Oo
(2006). The combined geological map of the study area is shown in Fig. (1).
The stratigraphic successions in the study area in ascending order are,
- Khuntu Chaung Fanglomerate (Pleistocene?)
- Male Formation (Early Eocene)
- Baingbin Conglomerate (Paleocene)
- Thaungpwet Taung Formation (Early - Middle Cretaceous)
- Twegauk Schist (Cretaceous)
- Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation (Late Jurassic – Early Cretaceous)
- Ultrabasic Rocks (pre-Early Jurassic?)
II. STRATIGRAPHY
Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation
Myint Thein et al.(1983) gave the name Ngapyawdaw Chaung
Formation which is a group of rocks composed of dark clay-slate and dark-
grey greywacke with ophiolitic rocks and occasional lenses of dark micrites,
forming the core of the Minwun range southwest of Tigyaing.
This formation is exposed in the eastern part of the Tagaung Taung and
southern and eastern part of the Thaungpwet Taung. It is well exposed along
the That-tu Chaung (Ngalinga Chaung), Mayin Chaung, Kyauk-O Chaung,
Dah Chaung, Taukta Chaung, Kyigyi Chaung, Nampan Chaung and Nansein
Chaung. The lower contact of this formation is not exposed.
This formation is a mixed assemblage of rocks consisting of pillow
basalt, volcanic breccias, basaltic conglomerate, basaltic tuffs, volcaniclastic
sandstone, siliceous shale, black shale with manganese nodules (Hemipelagic
sequence) chertified mudstone, greywacke, bedded chert, chert breccias,
siliciclastic sediments and thinly bedded limestone.
Basalt
This is the lowermost unit of the Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation
inwhich two types of basalt are recognized namely pillow basalts (Fig. 2) and
massive basalts (Fig. 3). Among them pillow basalts are more common and
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are most closely packed and distorted ellipsoidal to elongated globular forms.
Individual pillows may range in diameter from 30 to 200 cm. The inter-
pillows are filled with quartz and basaltic fragments. The weathering surface
shows shrinking-cracks which indicate the submarine origin.
The massive basalts show homogenous appearance with no distinct
internal structures. They range in thickness from 90 to 500 cm. Some basalts
show columnar joints due to cooling of lava.
Volcaniclastic Sediments
Volcanic breccias lie on the pillow basalts. They are mainly composed
of angular fragments embedded in finer matrix. The sizes of the fragments
range in diameter from 7 – 30 cm. These volcanic breccias show massive
nature and normally lack the internal stratification and fabrics.
Volcanic breccias grade upward to the volcaniclastic sandstones. These
sandstones are mainly composed of pyroclastic flow deposits and some may
be debris flow deposits. They are transported by gravity flows and are
deposited from suspension and reworking processes. The sandstones are olive-
green to dark green, poorly sorted and fine- to coarse-grained. These
sandstones display internal structures of Bouma's classic turbidites such as
graded nature, parallel lamination of sandstones and mudstones. Mostly the
lower part of the sandstones typically show graded layer showing Ta-b
sequence. The sandstone beds are 10 to 100 cm in thickness and exhibit sharp
boundaries of lower and upper parts and bedding regularity. Moreover, some
of the individual beds show the complete sequence of the Bouma's turbidites
within 10 cm in thickness. Deformational structures such as slump structures
and convolute laminations are found in some thicker beds.
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Fig. (1) Geological Map of the Tagaung-Twinnge area, Thabeikkyin Township
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Age Khin Maung
Shwe(1974)
Garson et.al
(1976)
Myint Thein (1983,
2009) La Ja (1984) Thura Oo (1993) Present study
Locality Sedaw-Taunggaung
Area Pan Laung Area
Sagaing-Tigyaing Area
(west of Sagaing Fault) Tagaung Taung Thaungpwet Taung Tagaung-Twinnge
Pleistocene
Nickel laterite soil, Khuntu
Chaung Fanglomerate
Khuntu Chaung
Fanglomerate
Miocene Dolarited Dykes and sills
Olivine-augite
Basalt Oligocene
Eocene
Late
Male Formation Male Formation Male Formation Male Formation Middle
Early
Paleocene Tonkyauk Chaung
Conglomerate Baingbin Conglomerate
Baingbin
Conglomerate
Baingbin
Conglomerate
Cretaceo
us
Late
That-tu Bedded Chert,
Twegauk Schist
Thaungpwet Taung
Formation
Thaungpw
et Taung
Formation
Twegauk
Schist
Early
Panlaung Fm.
Ngapyawtaw Chaung
Fm.
Kywethe Chaung Fm.
Jurassic
Late Wutnetaung purple
siltstone
Ngapyawdaw Chaung
Formation
Middle Kyunbin mudstone
Ma-U-bin Fm.
Ultrabasic Rocks
Early Kyaukpyataung
conglomerate
Ngapyawdaw
Chaung Formation Triassic
Late
Halobia bearing Displaced
Triassic Blocks
Middle
Early
Upper Paleozoic Plateau Limestone Plateau
Limestone Permian Limestone Unit
Rhyolite
and
Rhyolite
tuff
Table (1) Stratigraphic correlation of Tagaung-Twinnge Area of previous works and its environs
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Bedded Chert (Pelagic Sediments)
Although the bedded cherts are well exposed along the That-tu Chaung
in the northern part of the study area, they are poorly exposed in southern part.
These chert beds occupy the core zone of the Ngalinga anticline. Bedded
Cherts are thinly bedded, and rhythmically layered with thin argillite band
(Fig. 4). They are hard and brittle, highly contorted, fractured and highly
jointed. Among the variegated in colours, thin-brick red bedded chert is the
dominant type. The individual chert layers are 3 to 6 cm thick and interbedded
with thin argillite layer (1-3 mm). The beds are generally traceable for a few
tens of feet laterally in the stream section. The thickness of the bedded cherts
is estimated at about 650 m.
The interbedded argillite layer is thin and dark grey to reddish brown
in color. The argillite layers are hard and crushed and are intercalated with
chert beds in the lower part and with greywacke in the upper part. In some
places, argillite layers are cherty. Due to fairly high content of organic matter,
some argillites are black in color.
Chert Breccia
Chert breccias are commonly observed at the That-tu Chaung in the
southeastern portion of the Tagaung Taung (Fig. 5). This rock unit is
composed of homogenous detrital angular chert clasts that are recemented
with the silica cements. The evidence of the occurrence of slump structures
and intraformational breccias within the chert units indicates the nontectonic
deformation essentially contemporaneous with sedimentation. Because
deposits of siliceous organisms cannot be lithified so rapidly, the initial solid
was a silica gel (Blatt et al., 1980).
Thinly laminated limestone
These limestone units lie within the volcaniclastic sediments. In
Nampan Chaung, they are laterally consistent and millimeter to centimeter
thick and rhythmatic bedding, and1.8 m in thickness. In some places, thinly
laminated limestone with algae intercalated with black shale. These limestone
beds show probable convolute structures and have scarce or no fossils.
Fauna and Age
La Ja (1984) considered the age of this formation to be Cretaceous on
the basis of Orbitolina kurdita. Thura Oo (1993) reported few mollusc shells
and corals that were collected from the Kyauk-O Chaung near 'Sub-pya-Kyin'.
He interpreted the age of the Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation as Middle
Triassic to Lower Jurassic. Maung Maung et al. (2006, 2009) mentioned the
age on the basis of radiolarians from the bedded chert is Late Jurassic to Early
Cretaceous at Myitsone and Tagaung Taung area. The present study
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determined the age of the formation on the basis of megafossils and
microfossils. The present study yielded fossils are
Megafossils - Exogyra ? (Fig. 6)
Radiolarians - Archaeodictyomitra mitra, Archaeodictyomitra cf sixi,
Archaeodictyomitra sp., ?Pseudodictyomitra sp., and ?
mold of Tetracapsa, Dictyocephalus cf. chinzeii ,
Parahsuum aff. Simplum, Archaeodictyomitra sp.,
Sphaerostylus sp., Cenosphaera sp. , Cenosphaera
clathrata (Fig. 7 and 8)
Sponges - Rhax type sponge spicules
The above mentioned fossils indicate that the age of the Ngapyawdaw
Chaung Formation may be assigned as Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous age.
Among them, mold of Tetracapsa indicates the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary.
Fig. (2) Pillow basalts in the lower part of the
Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation at Kyauk-O
Chaung.
Fig. (4) Overturned fold in red shale and
bedded chert in Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation
at That-tu Chaung
Fig. (3) Jointed columnar basalts in the
Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation at
Nwachangya Chaung.
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Fig. (5) Chert Breccia of the Ngapyawdaw
Chaung Formation exposed at the That-tu
Chaung.
Fig. (6) Exogyra sp. in greywacke
of Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation
Fig. (7) Scanning electron micrographs of radiolarians from bedded chert of the
Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation (Thaungpwet Taung , southern part of the study area).
Archaeodictyomitra mitra Archaeodictyomitra sp.
?? Pseudodictyomitra sp.
Archaeodictyomitra sp.
Archaeodictyomitra cf sixi ? mold of Tetracapsa (J-K
boundary)
Rhax type sponge spicules
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Thaungpwet Taung Formation
Thura Oo (1993) firstly described the sequence of limestone and shale
that overlie the Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation in the Thaungpwet Taung
area. In the norhtern Myanmar, this limestone unit is recognized as the
Orbitolina limestone by Clegg (1941).
Thaungpwet Taung Formation is chiefly exposed in the southern part
of the study area, especially Thaungpwet Taung. The overall structure of this
formation is NNE plunging anticline that exposed in the limb of this anticline.
The contact with the underlying Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation is sharp and
unconformable that is clearly observed in the Kyauk-O Chaung.
This formation is lithologically subdivided into two members, namely
the Ku Taung Limestone Member and the Nampan Chaung Shale Member.
The Ku Taung limestone member forms in the lower part of this
formation. The limestones are bluish grey to brownish-grey and thick-to very
thick-bedded (Fig. 9). The well-bedded character is found at the lower part and
the uppermost part of the limestone where shaly limestones are intercalated.
The limestones are bioclasitc wackestone/ packstone/ floatstone.
The overlying Nampan Chaung Shale conformably overlies the
limestone unit. This is dark bluish grey, fissile, and thinly laminated
calcareous shale (Fig. 10). This shale unit contains a few Orbitolina species
fauna.
Dictyocephalus cf. chinzeii Parahsuum aff. implum Archaeodictyomitra sp.
Cenosphaera clathrata Sphaerostylus sp. Cenosphaera
sp. Fig. (8) Scanning electron micrographs of radiolarians from bedded chert of the
Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation (Tagaung Taung , northern part of the study area).
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Fauna and Age
Thura Oo (1993) dated the age of this formation on the basis of the
gastropod, corals, bryozoa, foraminifera, and algae. The present study yielded
the following fossils:
Palorbitolina lenticularis (Fig. 11)
Oribitolina concave (Fig. 12)
Due to the occurrences of the genus Orbitolina fauna, this formation is
also dated as Early to Middle Cretaceous in age.
Fig. (11) Palorbitolina lenticularis (axial section)
microfossil in the Ku Taung Limestone Member
of the Thaungpwet Taung Formation (40x).
Fig. (12) Oribitolina concava microfossil in
the Ku Taung Limestone Member of the
Thaungpwet Taung Formation (40x).
Fig. (9) Thick-bedded and jointed limestone
in the Ku Taung Limestone Member of
Thaungpwet Taung Formation exposed
at the Ku Taung.
Fig. (10) Thinly laminated Orbitolina-
bearing calcareous shale in the Nampan
Chaung Shale Member of Thaungpwet
Taung Formation exposed at Nampan.
Chaung
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nglomerate
La Ja (1984) firstly described the Baingbin Conglomerate as a
formation rank that is a unit of polymict cobble-size conglomerate with some
interbedded sandstone in the Tagaung Taung.
Baingbin Conglomerate is exposed in the eastern part of the study area.
This unit rests unconformably not only on Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation in
Tagaung Taung area but also on the Thaungpwet Taung Formation in
Thaungpwet Taung area.
This conglomerate is a well-indurated, poorly sorted polymict
conglomerate (Fig. 13). It consists of the pebbles and cobbles of quartz,
quartzite, chert, greywacke, schist, argillite, basalt and ultrabasic rocks. All
clasts are probably derived from underlying units such as Ngapyawdaw
Chaung Formaiton, Thaungpwet Taung Formation, and others. In the lower
part, rounded to subrounded cobbles (4 – 20 cm) are dominant. The rock clasts
become finer upward with an increase in sandstone and shale layers. On the
basis of the composition of the conglomerate, this unit was probably formed
by rapid deposition of material denudated from the nearby rapidly uplifted
region.
Fauna and Age
There is no fossil in the Baingbin Conglomerate so that it‟s the
probable age should be considered on the basis of stratigraphic relationship.
This formation unconformably overlies on the Ngapyawdaw Chaung
Formation but is conformably overlain by the Male Formation. So the age of
this formation may be relatively younger than Cretaceous, and be older than
Eocene. Moreover, Thura Oo (1993) compared the Baingbin Conglomerate
petrographically with the Tonkyauk Chaung Conglomerate of the Katha-
Tigyaing area (Myint Thein et al., 1983) and with the Paungyi Formation of
the Western Outcrops (Aung Khin & Kyaw Win, 1969).
It may be regarded as a basal conglomerate, being at the basal part of
the Tertiary rocks. It can also be assigned to Paleocene in age (La Ja, 1983 and
Thura Oo, 1993).
Male Formation
Myint Thein et al. (1982) firstly described the interbedded sequence of
loosely cemented gritty and pebbly sandstone and variegated shale that was
deposited in non-marine condition. Due to lithologic similarity with the Male
Formation in the Miwun range, the sandstones may probably be correlated
with those of Male Formation (La Ja, 1984; Thura Oo, 1993).
This formation overlies conformably the Baingbin Conglomerate. It is
well exposed along the Ondalin Chaung, Shwedaung Chaung, Ngalinga
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
Chaung, Thandwin Chaung, Kanni Chaung in the Tagaung Taung area and the
Hinyabu Chaung, and Nwachagya Chaung in the Thaungpwet Taung area.
This unit consists mainly of yellowish brown to buff colour, medium-
grained, massive, gritty and pebbly, loosely cemented sandstone (Fig. 14),
with variegated shales (Fig. 15) and frequent conglomerate lenses. The
pebbles are mostly quartz, cherts, greywacke, argillite schist, serpentinite and
igneous rock fragments. Locally, convolute structures (Fig.16) and large-scale
trough-cross stratifications, and coalified woods (Fig. 17) are also observed in
this formation.
Fauna and Age
There are no fossils in the formation of the study area. It lies
conformably above the Baingbin Congloemerate and their clasts were mainly
derived from underlying Mesozoic units. Based on the similar lithology,
textural characteristics and stratigraphic position, this formation may be
correlated with the Male Formation of Minwun range and the age of this
formation should be regarded as Early to Middle Eocene.
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Kalay University Research Journal
Fig. (14) Massive gritty sandstone in the
lower part of the Male Formation
at Nwachangya Chaung
Fig. (16) Convolute structures in the Male
Formation at Mandalay-Bhamo car road.
Fig. (13) Polymict conglomerate with older
clasts in the Baingbin Conglomerate
at Shwedaung Chaung
Fig. (17) Coalified wood in the Male
Formation exposed at That-tu Chaung.
Fig. (15) Thinly laminated and variegated
Shale of the Male Formation exposed
at the Nwachangya Chaung.
Fig. (18) Serpentinite body exposed at
the Shwedaung Chaung
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Khuntu Chaung Fanglomerates
La Ja (1984) firstly described the distinct fan-shaped bodies of pebbles
and cobble conglomerates in the Tagaung Taung area. This formation is well
exposed along the banks of Khuntu Chaung and hence the name 'Khuntu
Chaung Fanglomerate' is proposed.
This formation occurs as fan-shaped body in low-lying area in the
south and southeastern part of the main ultrabasic body. This unit is well
exposed along the Khuntu Chaung, Kyauklaung Chaung, Twegauk Chaung,
Shwedaung Chaung, Ngalinga Chaung, Thandwin Chaung and Kanni Chaung.
It consists of poorly sorted pebbles of dunite, harzburgite, pyroxenite,
and serpentinite which are common.Subordinate amounts of pebbles such as
dolerite, coloured cherts, sandstone, and schist clasts are subangular to
subrounded. The clasts size range generally from 5 to 10 cm in diameter.
Fauna and Age
This fanglomerates are found to be overlain by alluvium deposits and
to be underlain unconformably by Male Formation.Due to its stratigraphic
position and the occurrence of the pebbles of older units, the age of this
formation is regarded as Pleistocene.
Twegauk Schist
La Ja (1984) described the sequence of metasedimentary rocks,
consisting of chlorite-epidote-actinolite-quartz schist, biotite-graphite schist
and metagreywacke that are exposed west of the That-tu Bedded Chert. He
proposed the gradational stages of metamorphism can be followed from the
unmetamorphosed rocks through slightly metamorphosed metagreywacke to
finally greenschist.
This formation is widely exposed in the central part of the Tagaung
Taung in the northern part of the study area. This rock unit thrust over the
chert units. The contact of bedded chert and chlorite schist can be found at the
junction between That-tu Chaung and Ngalinga Chaung and may be
lithologically graditional.
This formation can be subdivided into three members, namely
metagreywacke, chlorite-epidote-actinolite-quartz schist and biotite-graphite
schist. The lowermost member is metagreywacke and can be found in the
That-tu Chaung. It is hard and compact, and thick-to medium-bedded. Beyond
the metagreywacke unit is the contorted green schists that are mainly
composed of chlorite, epidote, actinolite and quartz. They are dark, fine-to
medium-grained rocks. The upper member is the biotite-graphite schist that
has biotite-rich layer and biotite-poor layer forming schistocity.
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Probable Age
On the basis of lithology and contact nature, this Twegauk Schist was
probably transformed from the Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation. The
metamorphic grades are prograded from the unmetamorphosed Ngapyawdaw
Chaung Formation, through metagreywacke, and finally to the schist. The age
of the Twegauk Schist must be younger than the Ngapyawdaw Chaung
Formation and may be assumed to be Cretaceous age.
Tagaung Taung Ultrabasic Rocks
La Ja (1984) firstly described Tagaung Taung Ultrabasic Rocks that
include dunite, harzburgite, lherzolite, wehrlite and serpentinite.
This rock unit is mainly exposed at the Tagaung Taung in the northern
part of the study area. This ultrabasic rock body is a large circular mass with
two smaller bodies. The ultrabasic rocks are mainly found at the Tagaung
Taung, Nattalin Taung, Innet Taung, Godaung Taung and Leiktalone Taung.
The ultrabasic rock units consist of dunite, harzburgite, lherzolite,
wehrlite and serpentinite that are not differentiated on the map. The igneous
rocks such as pillow basaltic lava, gabbro and dolerite porphyry are less
abundant. Most of these rocks are partly serpentinized; the degree of
serpentinization being highest along the marginal zone of the ultrabasic body
(Fig. 18). Economically important mineralization in chromite and nickel
occurs in this unit. The contact of ultrabasic rocks with the Twegauk Schist is
sharp and generally discordant. Moreover the lithologic contact with the
radiolarian-bearing bedded chert is found in the Ngalinga Chaung.
Probable Age
The rocks of the That-tu Bedded Chert are chaotically mixed with
other igneous rocks. A probable mode of origin for the Tagaung Taung
ultrabasic body is as a segment of oceanic mantle thrust up onto or into a
continental plate (La Ja, 1984; Aung Kyaw Thin, 2006).The age of these
ultrabasic rocks may be assumed as pre-Early Jurassic.
III. DISCUSSION
The lowermost lithologic unit of the Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation
is pillow basalt and massive basalt. Moreover, pillow basalts are more
common under the Pressure Compensation Level (PCL) that may be 500 to
1000 m in depth depending on the composition and volatile content of the
lava. The basalts with the pillow structures indicate that the basaltic lava is
extruded beneath seawater. Successive pillows flow over earlier pillows, and
while still soft conform to the shape of the earlier flow surface. As a result,
pillows commonly have a rounded top and a pointed bottom in cross section
(Pluijm and Marshak, 1997).
Interbedded sequence of
greywacke-siliceous mudstone
and/or – chert in the
Ngapyawdaw Chaung
Formation at Kyauk-O Chaung
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The sedimentary units graditationally contact with these metamorphic
units. The chlorite schist and metagreywacke are mostly associated with
serpentinized ultramafic bodies. Comparative observation between intimately
mixed nature of basalt, greywacke and siliceous mudstone on one side, and
chlorite schist-metagreywacke association on the other side leads to conclude
that metamorphic rocks are probably derivatives of this igneous-sedimentary
(may be ophiolite rock suite) association.
According to Reading (1996), pelagic sediment is chiefly composed of
biogenic material diluted by a proportion (< 25 %) of non-biogenic
components. On the basis of the percentage of radiolarian from the bedded
chert, this chert may be pelagic sediments.
Abundance of Orbitolina and fragments of bivalves and gastropods
indicate the aerobic and light penetrated condition. Abundance of whole-
fossils (Orbitolina) suggested a low energy quiet water condition. On the basis
of Orbitolinids, these limestones and shales may be more likely deposited
under restricted marine to inner shelf than under open ocean (Reickmann and
Friedman, 1981). Moreover, the probable wackestone would be interpreted as
a low-energy deposit, whereas in fact periodically it was subjected to high
current velocities. (Tucker, 2001) On the basis of above mention, the Ku
Taung Limestone is deposited in shallow water restricted continental shelf.
Calcareous shales (Nanpan Chaung Shale), overlying the limestones are the
evidence of terrigenous influx in the study area.
The contact of the Baingbin Conglomerate with the lower unit is
angular unconformity. There are no fossils found from these three Tertirary
formations in the studied area. All these formations contain abundant clasts of
the underlying Mesozoic Formations. The lithologic and stratigraphic
characters are very similar with the Male Formation of the Minwun range.
According to Myint Thein et al. (1982), the lower member of the Male
Formation is more likely deposited under estuarine environment and upper
member is essentially deposited in non-marine conditions.
The ultrabasic rocks (harzburgite, lherzolite and serpentinite)
are exposed linearly along this belt and are associated with basalt, chert, and
schist (Twegauk Schist). Basal harzburgite is usually considered as residual
mantle material from which oceanic basaltic magma was bled (Dickinson,
1972 in Hutchison, 1975).
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank to Rector U Myint Swe, Kalay University for his
kind permission to summit this paper. I would like to deeply acknowledge to
Professor Dr. That Naing, head of Department of Geology, Kalay University
for his critical reading, valuable advice and discussions throughout this
manuscript and presentation. Finally, I want to express special thanks to all my
colleagues in the geological field for their helpful advice and encouragement
in this preparation.
References
Aung Kyaw Thin, 2006. Petrogenetic Study on Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks of the
Tagaung-Twinnge Area, Thabeikkyin Township, Ph. D Thesis, M. U., unpub.
Clegg, E. L. G., 1941. The Cretaceous and Associated Rocks of Burma, Memoir Geological
Survey of India, Vol. 74, 1. p.1 - 101.
Garson, M. S., Amos, B. J. and Mitchell, A. H. G., 1976. The Geology of the area around
Neyaungga and Ye-ngan, S. S., Burma, Overseas Memoir 2.
Hla Htay, 2004. The Ophiolite Belt of Myanmar, Journal of the Geological Society of
Thailand, No.1, May 2004, pp.97-113
Hutchison, C.S., 1975. Ophiolite in Southeast Asia, Geological Society of America Bulletin,
V.86, p.797-806.
Hutchison, C. S., 1989. The Palaeo-Tethyan Realm and Indosinian Orogenic System of
Southeast Asia in Tectonic Evolution of the Tethyan Region, p. 585-643, Kluwer
Academic Publisher.
Khin Maung Shwe, 1974. Geology of the Sedaw-Taunggaung Area, Mandalay District, M. Sc.
Thesis, M. U., unpub.
La Ja, 1984. Geology and Mineral Resources of Tagaung Taung Area, Thabeikkyin Township,
M. Sc. Thesis, M. U., unpub.
Maung Maung, Suzuki, H. and Aung Kyaw Thin, 2006. Early Cretaceous radiolarian fauna
from the Tagaung Taung area, central Myanmar, Poster Show.
Maung Maung, Aung Naing Thu and Suzuki, H., 2009. Latest Jurassic radiolarian fauna from
the Chyinghkran area, Myitkyina Township, Kachin State, northern Myanmar, Poster
Show in Paleontological Society of Japan.
Mitchell, A. H. G., 1993. Cretaceous-Cenozoic tectonic events in the western Myanmar
(Burma) – Assam region in Journal of the Geological Society of London, vol. 150, p.
1089-1102.
Myint Thein, Maung Maung, Khin Maung Myint, Aye Ko Aung and Khin Aung Than, 1982.
Geology of the area between Tigyaing and Katha, unpub report.
Myint Thein, Kyaw Tint and Kan Saw, 1983. Geology of the part of the Eastern Margin of the
Central Burma Belt between Sagaing and Tagaung, unpub. report.
Myint Thein, 2009. Age, Petrography and Deformation of the Laminate Limestone Unit on the
west of Sagaing Fault in the Sagaing Division, paper read at 11th Myanmar
Geoscience Research Paper Session.
65
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Pluijm, B.A.V. and Marshak, S. 1997. Earth Structure, McGraw-Hill Companies.
Reading, H.G., 1996. Sedimentary Environments, 3rd
Edition Blackwell Science Ltd.
Than Than Oo, 2006. Economic Geology of the Chromitites of the Tagaung Taung Area,
Thabeikkyin Township, Mandalay Division, Ph. D. Thesis, Y. U., unpub.
Thura Oo, 1993. Geology of the Thaungpwet Taung Area in Thabeikkyin, Momeik Township,
M. Sc Thesis, M. U., unpub.
Tucker, M.E., 2001. Sedimentary Petrology, 3rd
Edition, Blackwell Science Ltd.
66
Kalay University Research Journal
Administrative Service Women in Bagan Society
Tin Maung Htwe*
Abstract
The first Myanmar Empire came into existence with Bagan city as
its capital during the 11th
Century AD. The Bagan administration can be
studied in three different branches; civil administration, local administration
and general administration. Women in the Bagan period were found not to
inferior to men in the administrative sectors.
Key word: Bagan society, Women, Civil Administration, Local
Administration, General Administration.
The first Myanmar Empire came into existence with Bagan city
as its capital (administrative centre or political centre) during the 11th
Century
AD. Myanmar chronicles claim that a king known as Samuddaraj, organizing,
19 disintegrated villages in AD 667, founded a city at a place, called
Yonhlukyun and started the Bagan dynasty1. On the basis of historical
evidences, Dr. Than Tun suggested that, before 11th
Century AD, there were
region wise rulers, or Man22
(kings). But the city then was only at the level of
Kharuin and tuik (Division). In the 11th
Century AD., Myanmar people,
centering Bagan as the seat of administration, occupied the surrounding
regions, established a "nui³³am"(country) thus in history, the First Myanmar
nui³³am emerged. The first king of First Myanmar was its founder Aniruddha(AD 1044-1077) and Bagan, the capital, was the centre of administration3. The name "Bagan"4 was first seen in Myanmar language in AD 1196. In stone inscription, Bagan is used to be inscribed as "Arimaddhanapþra", meaning the capital crushing its enemies. Shya³
Disæpræmuk who went to China in AD 1285, referred to Bagan as 'Tampratik',
meaning Copper Country5.
According to evidence of inscription, the boundary of Bagan expended
by Aniruddha and the successive kings was Konican6 from the north to
* Assistant Lecturer, Department of History, University of Kalay 1 Hunanan Yazawintawgyi (Glass Palace Chronicle) Vol. I, Yangon, New light of
Myanmar in Guardian Press, 1992, pp. 186-187. 2 PL 143/a
16 (143/a
16 means Plate No. 143/a in Five Portfolios of Inscriptions of Burma,
line 16) 3 Than Tun, Dr. Khithaungyazawin (The Old History of Myanmar) Yangon, Mahadagon
Press 1969, p. 118(Henceforth Than Tun, 1969). 4 In Old Mon, Pukam is witten Pokam and Possibly Bukam. Bagan in Myanmar is correct
rendering of Pukam 5 Luce Luce, G.H, "Note of the peoples of Burma in the 12
th – 13
th Century AD", JBRS,
XLII, i, 1959, P. 37, 39. 6 Konican was on the left bank of the river, near the later Kaungton, (Luce, G.H,
"Grography of Burma under the Pagan Dynasty", JBRS, XLII, i, 1959, p. 49 (Henceforth
Luce 1959).
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
tolui³sare and Tawai1 to the south
2. In accordance with the inscription of AD
1196, the territory of Bagan Kingdom during the reign of the Cañsþ II (AD
1174-1211) was Takon and Næchonkhyam3 in the north; Sala³kre in the sourth, Macchakiri (Chin Hills) in the west and the Salwan in the east4. Dr.Than Tun remarked, with regard to the boundary of Bagan, that if wherever votive tablets containing the Aniruddha stamp was found was considered as Aniruddha's authority – extended area, it could be said that Momeik from the north to Tainatharyi coastal region to the south included in the boundary of the Bagan Kingdom5. Under absolute monarchical system, the king was the most important person in a country. But an administrative machinery could not be carried out be a king single – handedly. As the state became wider, officials had to be appointed to assist the king.
The Bagan administration can be studied in three different branches; civil administration, local administration and general administration. Women in the Bagan period were found not to be inferior to men in the administrative sectors. The study of inscriptions show that hierarchy of official positions below ma³krø (rifBuD), the king, were amatyæ6(trmus)( or) amat (trwf)(The
king's counselors of high officials of the Myanmar royal court), sampya³7(oHysif) and kalan8 (uvef) (high servicemen to the crown9). In
inscriptions of later Bagan period, sampya³ and amat were found to be used as equal official ranks10. Kalan, howere, seemed to be inferior to sampya³ in rank. 'Sampya³' was defined as official administering a number of villages11 and as the term denoting from Mahasenapati – Army General, to king's counselors and officials12.
Apart from them, there were many servicemen inside the court. They were (udkifrI) kuiwmhu13 who were likely to be referred to officers commanding
bodyguards who were responsible for the king's security at the palace, 1 Tainatharyi coastal region.
2 PL 276/a
2
3 Nachonkhyam was on the site of modern Bhamo. (Luce 1959, p. 50)
4 Pl 19/a
5 Than Tun, Dr. Athimyin Bamathamaing(New Outlook on Myanmar History), Mandalay,
Thukhawadi Press, 1975, pp.503-504. 6 PL 96
6, PL 194
3
7 PL 24
5, PL 78
10
8 PL 11
6, PL 89
3
9 Khin Khin Sein, Daw,"Bagankhit Amyothamimyar(Women in Bagan Period)" Research
in Burmese History No.1, Yangon, Sarpay Beikman Press, 1977, p. 6 (Henceforth Khin
Khin Sein, 1977) 10
Than Tun, 1969, p. 142. 11
(a) Pe Maung Tin, U. Some Old Words in the Inscription, JBRS, XX, i, 1930, p. 20.
(b) Myanmar Abidanakyinchoke (Outline of Myanmar Dictionary), Vol. V, Yangon,
Sarpay Beikman Press, 1980, p. 203. 12
Than Shwe, Daw. Myanmar Bartharsakar, Myanmar Kyauksar Sarthan Saungparmyar
(Myanmar Language, Articles from Myanmar Stone Inscriptions), Yangon, Department
of Higher Education, 1980 13
Than Tun, 1969, p. 142.
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Kalay University Research Journal
ma³khya³1 (rifcsif) who were companions of the king, ma³ciy2 (rifpd,f) who
were servants of the king, ma³lua³3 (rifvkvif) who were yong men had to
always attend on the king and royal princes concerned. They could be assumed to serving as the present – day personal assistants and secretaries4. Besides there were also su³ait (sþ³ayto)5 (oli,fwyf). Sþ³ayto seemed to be
the kings favorites who grew up with him6. Moreover there were also Atwa³ruy7 (twGiff½k,f), cæmro³8 (pmajrmif) cækhyøpiuw9 (pmcdydkpf) cækhø10 (pmcD) at
at the royal court. It seems they had to note and write down the king's orders and had to send them to those concerned. Mra³ ci (jrifpD), horsemen, controlled
by mra³sþkrø (jrifolBuD;), leder of horsemen, were charged with the duty of
sending the king's to distant territories11.
Apart from the alearly mentioned service men relating to civil administration, there were also servicemen relating to local administration. In that period, for the security of the northern part of the country, there was separate Northern Administrative Headquarters. The official incharge of that Headquarters was called Ko³ca³ Mahæsaman12. His official position seemed to be equal to the present-day post of the Governor ruling a state; and in the provincial administration he might be highest official. The remaining administrative servicemen were kliy sþkrø13 (ud’,folBuD;) to administer the
remote areas of the capital; tuiksþkrø14 (wkdufolBuD) to rule the areas included in
the boundary of tuik, mruiw sþkrø15 (NrdifolBuD) to rule a town (or) fortress16, rwæ
sþkrø17 (&GmolBuD) to rule villages18, and like rwæ sþkrø, there were other sþkrø19
who had to take responsibility of managing and carrying out administrative and social affairs in villages. Of the above mentioned administrative service personnel, the post of kily sþkrø and muri sþkrø were held by the royal relative and queens20. It may, therefore, be expected that those posts in the civil
1 PL 257
13, PL 268
10-11
2 PL 215/b
6-7
3 PL 290/b
3
4 Khin Khin Sein, 1977, p.6.
5 PL 272
19
6 Than Tun, 1969, p. 143.
7 PL 207
13,16
8 PL 235
45
9 PL 232
2, 18
10 PL 268
13
11 Than Tun, 1969, pp. 159-160.
12 PL 258
13 PL 196
5
14 PL 12
5
15 PL 370
23 , PL 392
16
16 Khin Khin Sein, Daw, Bagan Khit Yinkyaehmu (The Civilization of Bagan), Yangon
Sarpay Beikman Press, 1986, p. 41. (Henceforth Khin Khin Sein, 1986) 17
PL 28/a 19
, PL 55/a 3
18 Khin Khin Sein, 1986, p. 42.
19 PL 40
15
20 PL 196
5, PL 392
16
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
administration would be high-ranking ones. But they would be inferior to the post of mahæsaman. The post of sþkrø relating to village and the remaining posts might be guessed as inferior ranks.
In the general administration sector, there were also separate crown
service men who were vitally important as they were charged with the duty of
collecting customs and revenue and managing the customs and revenues so
collected. Of them, kumtham (ukHxrf) and bhumma (bkr®) were servicemen
responsible for collecting various taxes and revenues, according to royal orders1. Kø sþkrø 2(uDolBuD;), headman of granary, and kø sañ (uDonf) and kø
co³3(uDapmif) under his supervision were those responsible for looking after
and safeguarding the Royal Granary where paddy and rice offered by people were stored.
From the above-mentioned facts, it is learnt that, among those who
assisted the king in his executive affairs, the amattræ (or) amat, high official of
the royal court, was the highest in rank. Amat meant an advisor to the king4. In
In Myanmar royal court, there were not only man amat, but also woman amat.
In an inscription in inscribed in AD 1209, which lay inside the wall of the Lay
Myet Hna Pagoda of Bagan, the name of a woman amat, high officials, was
found as follows: -"ma³ mat Nagapuir Mi Phawæ5 ". It can be inferred that Mi
Mi Phwæ, was an amat, holding Nagapuir village in fief.
Again in the Theindaw Pagoda inscription inscribed in AD 1231 was
seen "ma³ (a) matyæ Acalapijañ si purhæ a thþ so"6. Donated to the pagoda by
by amat Acalapijan. It is also discovered that the woman amat in this case was the "Acalapijañ" meant a person who tired to free him or herself from being obsessed by agadilepæ , bias of four kinds, namely doing wrong because of love, doing wrong because of anger, doing wrong because of fear, and doing wrong because of ignorance; and who could carry out a task steadfastly to achieve success7. Such a qualified woman amat would have been a distinguished person in the administrative system of Bagan. As an amat was the highest official in rank below the king, the amat (s) were the most influential and powerful crown service personal. Therefore those woman amat would have been influential over various grades of service men, and would have won respect of people.
1 Khin Khin Sein, 1986, p. 44.
2 PL 162
25
3 PL 40
18, PL 148 /b
3
4 Myanmar Abidanakyinchoke (Outline of Myanmar Dictionary), Vol. IV, Yangon, Sarpay
Beikman Press, 1980, p. 102. 5 PL 84
3
6 PL 134/a
2-3
7 Than Shwe, 1980, p. 67.
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Below amat in the hierarchy of administration were 'sampya³ and
'kalan'. In the study of inscriptions made so far, no woman sampya³ has ever
been found. This might be because the duties of a sampya³ included military
service, which was appropriate for men only; and women were thus probably,
by their nature, not given these post.
Evidences of inscriptions inscribed during the Bagan period, however,
show that there had been women serving in the kalan post in that period. The
description, "kalæ³ Ai, Phuh Ton1" was found in the Acolat inscription dated
AD 1165; the word, "Kha³ Pa kalan"2 was found in an inscription inscribed in
AD 1224; and in an inscription, the word, 'Apwækala³sikha³ '3 was
discovered. It is on the basis of these evidences that it can be firmly said that
there had been woman as kalans in the Bagan period. Accordingly, in that
period, qualified women had been exalted by being conferred upon higher
posts, and they took part in the administrative sector actively like men.
No service women were found in security and military service sectors
requiring martial prowess. However there were service women in the crown
service units, such as royal script writers, amhætore, amanuensis of the royal
court, atwa³re, secretary, cæmro³, cækhøpuil and cækhø all clerical staff who needed to be qualified educationally.
At this juncture, the term "atwa³uy " (atwa³re), might be regarded as referring to a trusted person (confidant) who had to discharge the king's service in the court. In an inscription inscribed in AD 1311, the name of a woman atwa³re, confidant was found as a proof of donation of slaves, like this, "Ui Lac Cway San, atwa³re"4. From this inscriptions, it is learnt that there there were women atwa³re, trusted persons, who were literates. " Caw Rahan Sima inscription", dated AD 1212, in which described "Ui Pan U Sa³ cækhøpil "5 and the "Bhui Kalun Gubhuræ " hollow Pagoda (or) Ma Rhak Sañ Gubhuræ inscription inscribed in AD 1243, which mentioned, "sakha³ cætawkhø Ui Khi Rhæ Sa³ "6 it is learnt that there had been woman cækhøpuil and cætawkhø, clerks. The group of words, "ma³myæ cæhøpuir" 7of an inscription in AD 1271 shows that a concubine of King Narathihapate (AD 1254-87) had served as cækhøpuil. It is learnt, therefore, from such studies, that during the Bagan period, maids of honour of lesser – queen who were addressed as sakha³ in honour had served as 'cækhøpuil ' and cætawkhø , clerical staff.
1 PL 4
5
2 PL 53
15
3 PL 199
2,3,10
4 PL 207
13
5 PL 36
2
6 PL 150
10
7 PL 232
2
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
Apart from these service women in civil administration, there were also women serving as kliy sþ krø, in the remote areas of the capital; 'mrui sþkrø ruling a town, and rwæ sþkrø responsible for village administration. The
words, "amipurhæc le kliy sþkri phlac rakæ 1", found in Maharac ceti
inscription, inscribed in AD 1260 shows that the post of kliy sþkrø was
assigned to a queen. From such descriptions as "sukrø I Cwæy Sa³2 " found in
the "sa³lya³ Ui Kap Sa³ Khya³ " inscription, inscribed in AD 1213, and "rwæ
sþkriy May E3" found in an inscription dated AD 1217. It can be learnt that
there had been woman sþkrø who were regarded to take responsibility of and
supervising administrative and social affairs in a ward of village.
There had also been female "kyø sañ" – service woman at a royal
granry, and female "kyø co³" – watch woman of the royal granry, serving
under a "kyø sþkrø – headman of royal granry, who had to look after it. The fact
was illustrated by such descriptions as "kø sañ Ui Cawy Sa³ 4" found also in
the above-mentioned "sa³lya³ Ui Kap Sa³ Khya³ " inscription. and "Uiw
Plañ kic³5 "found in the "Rajama³galamahæpatiy " inscription inscribed in
AD 1233. Thus it can be deduced that women of Bagan period participated,
equally with men, in the service of financial sector of administration.
Chiefs of the group of association were known as "sa³krø " and
"sa³lya³ ". Besides male sa³krøor male sa³lya³, it was found that there were
female sa³krø or sa³lya³ as well. In this regard, the honorary title, "sa³krø "
was also found associated with the title (name) of monks6. With respect to this
this fact, Dr. Than Tun explained in his work Khithaung Myanmar Rajawin-
Ancient Myanmar History, that
…If the term "sa³krø " is applied to Rahan-monk only, "sa³ " means
sa³ghæ , and it may be said to assume that it implies "sa³ghæthaera ".
As it is not so, however, it renders very difficult to interpret the
meaning. So far as it is known now, a "sa³krø " is a respectable person
whether he is a lay man or monk. It is to be considered that a lay man
sa³krø is responsible for administration.7"
According to Daw Than Swe's article, entitled: "Myanmar Language,
Myanmar inscription", the interpretation was:-
1 PL 196
1
2 PL 40
16-17
3 Nyein Maung, U, Shayhaung Myanmar Kyauksarmyar (Ancient Myanmar Stone
Inscriptions), Vol. I, Yangon, Govt Press, 1972.
4 PL 40
19
5 PL 68
19
6 PL 6
9
7 Than Tun, 1969, p. 145.
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Sa³ikrø- Chief of a group, society of an association; leader of Rahan-
Monks.
Sa³lya³ -Assistant chief of a group, society or an association1.
U Thein Hlaing's Dictionary of Ancient Myanmar Historical Research defines
the terms as follows:-
"Sa³krø "– (inscription) means
(1) A senior Sa³ghæ – monks; Mahathe – Buddhist priest of twenty or
more years of monkhood.
(2) Chief of leader of a group, society or an association2.
According to these descriptions, with regard to the usage of words
"sa³krø and sa³lya³ " the latter may be interpreted as an assistant chief of a
group, society of an association. The word "sa³krø" must consequently be
taken to mean "sa³ghæthera " only when it is found associated with titles of
sa³ghæ, but if it is used in combination with names of lay men, it should be
interpreted as a group's or society's chief who is responsible for administrative
affairs.
The study of inscriptions of the Bagan period show that there had been
female sa³krø – chief of groups or societies, who were responsible for
executive affairs. The following inscription were cases in point:
"Sa³krø Uiw, Khyam, sæ³ 3" was found in the 'Ca Khi Phu Næ'
inscription, inscribed in AD 1168. "Sa³krø Ui Chum Sa³4 " was described in
the "sa³krø Ui Chum Sa³" inscription inscribed in AD 1217. The name,
"sa³kriy Uiw, Myak Ra Sa³ 5" was found in the number three inscription, in
the Han Lin Inscription Hall, inscribed in AD 1217. The name, "sa³krø Uiw,
Lhok Sa³ 6" was found in the No-33 inscription, inscribed in AD 1224, and
kept in the Mandalay Place Inscription Hall. In the same way, the name,
"sa³krø Uiw, Si Sa³"7 was found to be written in the "Uiw, Si Sa³" inscription
inscribed in AD 1224. And the word, "Sa³krø Uin Cim Sa³ 8" was found in the the 'kamkun cakhø samø" inscription inscribed in AD 1229. From these inscriptions, it can firmly be deduced that in the administration of the Bagan period there had been service women serving in sa³krø ranks.
1 Than Shwe, 1980, p. 93
2 Thein Hlaing, U. Khithaung Myanmar Thamaing Thuthethana Abidan (Acient
Myanmar History Dictionary), Yangon, Universities' Press, 2000. 3 Nyein Maung, 1972, p. 34
9
4 Lbid, p. 119
2
5 Nyein Maung, 1972, p. 123
9
6 PL 53
9
7 PL 124/a
3
8 PL 60/9
11
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
Regarding the position of sa³lya³ - Assisstant chief of a group or a society, the following evidences were discovered:
"sa³lyæ³ Ui Kap San Khyæ³"1 was inscribed in AD 1213 in an inscription which was placed inside the wall of the Shinpin Bodi Pagoda in Bagan. The name "sa³lya³ Ui Chu Sa³ 2" was seen in the Bhui ka Lan cave-pagoda inscription inscribed in AD 1243. The word "sa³lya³ Ma Pyat Sa³ "3 was found in the couple of sukrway Ui Kram Khya³ Sa³ inscription inscribed in AD 1245.
Thus, taking into consideration that women had served in different executive ranks from the high ranking officials such as amat, sampya³ and kalan, below the post of ma³krø, to those of sa³krø and sa³lya³, conclusion may be drawn that women shared equal opportunities with men in the administration of the Bagan period.
1 PL 39
2-3
2 PL 151
4-5
3 PL 157
13
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Kalay University Research Journal
Reference
(1) Hunanan Yazawintawgyi (Glass Palace Chronicle) Vol. I, Yangon, New light of Myanmar in Guardian Press, 1992.
(2) Khin Khin Sein, Daw,"Bagankhit Amyothamimyar(Women in Bagan Period)"
Research in Burmese History No.1, Yangon, Sarpay Beikman Press, 1977.
(3) Khin Khin Sein, Daw, Bagan Khit Yinkyaehmu (The Civilization of Bagan),
Yangon Sarpay Beikman Press, 1986.
(4) Luce, G.H, "Grography of Burma under the Pagan Dynasty", JBRS, XLII, i, 1959.
(5) Luce, G.H, "Note of the peoples of Burma in the 12th
– 13th
Century AD", JBRS,
XLII, i, 1959.
(6) Luce, G.H, and Pe Maung Tin, Protfolio, I, Inscriptions of Burma I, Britian, Oxford
University Press, 1933.
(7) Luce, G.H, and Pe Maung Tin, Protfolio, II, Inscriptions of Burma II, Britian,
Oxford University Press, 1933.
(8) Luce, G.H, and Pe Maung Tin, Protfolio, III, Inscriptions of Burma III, Britian,
Oxford University Press, 1939.
(9) Luce, G.H, and Pe Maung Tin, Protfolio, IV, Inscriptions of Burma IV, Britian,
Oxford University Press, 1956.
(10) Luce, G.H, and Pe Maung Tin, Protfolio, V, Inscriptions of Burma V, Britian,
Oxford University Press, 1958.
(11) Myanmar Abidanakyinchoke (Outline of Myanmar Dictionary), Vol. IV, Yangon,
Sarpay Beikman Press, 1980.
(12) Myanmar Abidanakyinchoke (Outline of Myanmar Dictionary), Vol. V, Yangon,
Sarpay Beikman Press, 1980.
(13) Nyein Maung, U, Shayhaung Myanmar Kyauksarmyar (Ancient Myanmar Stone
Inscriptions), Vol. I, Yangon, Govt Press, 1972.
(14) Pe Maung Tin, U. Some Old Words in the Inscription, JBRS, XX, i, 1930.
(15) Than Shwe, Daw. Myanmar Bartharsakar, Myanmar Kyauksar Sarthan
Saungparmyar (Myanmar Language, Articles from Myanmar Stone Inscriptions),
Yangon, Department of Higher Education, 1980.
(16) Than Tun, Dr. Athimyin Bamathamaing(New Outlook on Myanmar History),
Mandalay, Thukhawadi Press, 1975.
(17) Than Tun, Dr. Khithaungyazawin (The Old History of Myanmar) Yangon,
Mahadagon Press 1969.
(18) Thein Hlaing, U. Khithaung Myanmar Thamaing Thuthethana Abidan (Acient
Myanmar History Dictionary), Yangon, Universities' Press, 2000.
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
The Domination Number and the Covering Numbers
,Independence Numbers of a Graph
Moe Thu1
Abstract
We define a dominating set of a graph G and the domination number
of G, which is denoted by )G( .And then also define the degree of G, the
vertex, edge independence numbers, vertex, edge covering numbers. So we
see they relates each other and the number of vertices of G.
Definition
The order of a graph G is the number of vertices in G; it is denoted
by G . The size of a graph G is the number of edges in G. G( n , m )
denotes an arbitrary graph of order n and size m.
If U is a nonempty subset of the vertex set V(G) of a graph G, then-the
subgraph U of G induced by U is the graph having vertex set U and whose
edge set consists of those edges of G incident with two elements of U.
The degree of a vertex v in a graph G is the number of edges of G
incident with v. The degree of v is also the number of vertices in G that are
adjacent to v.
A vertex of degree 0 is also called an isolated vertex; while a vertex
of degree 1 is also referred to as an end-vertex of G.
The minimum degree of G is the minimum degree among the vertices
of G and is denoted by (G) .
The maximum degree is defined similarly and is denoted by (G) .
Suppose that the vertex-set of a graph G can be divided into two
disjoint sets V1 and V2, in such a way that every edge of G joins a vertex of V1
to a vertex of V2; G is then said to be a bipartite graph (sometimes denoted
by G (V1,V2)).
In a bipartite graph G (V1,V2), it is not necessarily true that every
vertex of V1 is joined to every vertex of V2; if however this does happen, and
if G is simple, then G is called a complete bipartite graph, usually denoted
by Kr,s where r and s are the number of vertices in V1 and V2 respectively.
1. Professor, Department of Mathematics, Kalay University
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Kalay University Research Journal
Note that Kr,s has r + s vertices and rs edges.
A complete bipartite graph of the form K1,s is called a star graph.
For a graph G and vV(G), define the neighborhood of v to be the set
N(v) y V(G) : vy E(G) .
A vertex v in a graph G is said to dominate itself and each of its
neighbors, that is, v dominates the vertices in its closed neighborhood N[v].
A set S of vertices of G is a dominating set of G if every vertex of
G is dominated by at least one vertex of S. Equivalently, a set S of vertices of
G is a dominating set if every vertex in V(G) – S is adjacent to at least one
vertex in S.
The minimum cardinality among the dominating sets of G is called
the domination number of G and is denoted by (G).
A dominating set of cardinality (G) is then referred to as a minimum
dominating set.
A minimal dominating set in a graph G is a dominating set that
contains no dominating set as a proper subset. A minimal dominating set of
minimum cardinality is, of course, a minimum dominating set and consists of
(G) vertices.
Example
The sets S1 = { v1, v2, y1, y2 } and S2 = { w1, w2, x } are both
dominating sets in the graph G of Figure 1.1 , indicated by solid circles .
Since S2 is a dominating set of minimum cardinality, γ (G) = 3. The set
S1= {v1,v2,v3,v4}is a minimal dominating set that is not a minimum
dominating set .
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
Theorem
A dominating set S of a graph G is a minimal dominating set of G if
and only if every vertex v in S satisfies at least one of the following two
properties:
(i) there exists a vertex w in V(G) – S such that N(w) S = {v}
(ii) v is adjacent to no vertex of S .
Proof.
Suppose that each vertex v in S satisfies at least one of the properties (i)
and (ii).
If (i) holds, then there exists w V(G) – S which is not adjacent to
any vertex in S – {v}. Then S – {v} is not a dominating set of G.
If (ii) holds, then v is not adjacent to any vertex of S – {v}. Thus
S – {v} is not a dominating set of G. Therefore, S is a minimal dominating
set of G.
Conversely, assume that S is a minimal dominating set of G. Let v be
arbitrary element in S .Then S – {v} is not a dominating set of G. Hence there
is a vertex w in V(G) – (S –{v}) which is adjacent to no vertex of S – {v}.
So
N(w) S – {v} = . If w = v , then v is adjacent to no vertex of S.
If w v , then w is adjacent to at least one vertex of S because S
is a dominating set of G and w S . So w must be adjacent to v.
Hence N(w) S = {v} .
Theorem
If S is a minimal dominating set of a graph G without isolated vertices,
then V(G) – S is a dominating set of G.
Proof.
Let v S. Then v has at least one of the two properties (i) and (ii)
described in the statement of Theorem. Suppose first that there exists a vertex
w in V(G) – S such that N(w) S = {v}. Hence v is adjacent to some vertex
in V(G) – S. Suppose next that v is adjacent to no vertex in S. Then v is an
isolated vertex of the sub graph S .
Since v is not isolated in G, the vertex v is adjacent to some vertex of
V(G) – S . Thus V(G) – S is a dominating set of G.
For graphs G without isolated vertices, we now have an upper bound
for (G) in terms of the order of G.
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Kalay University Research Journal
Corollary
If G is a graph of order n without isolated vertices , then (G) n2
.
Proof.
Let S be a minimal dominating set of G .By Theorem, V(G) – S is a
dominating set of G . Thus
(G) min { S)G(V,S } n2
.
Theorem
Let G be a graph of order n with = (G) > 1.
Then n (1 ln ( 1) )
(G)1
.
Proof.
From a random vertex subset S V(G) by including each vertex
independently with probability p = ln ( +1 ) / ( +1). Given S, let T be the
set of vertices outside S having no neighbor in S; adding T to S yields a
dominating set.The experiment gives us both S and T, so we seek the expected
size of the union. Since each vertex appears in S with probability p, E( S ) =
np. The random variable T is the sum of n indicator variables for whether
individual vertices belong to T. We have v T if and only if v and its
neighbors all fail to be in S, the probability of which is bounded by ( 1 – p
) +1
, since v has degree at least . Since )1(p1 e)p1( , we have
E ( S + T ) np + n )1(pe
= np + n)1(
1
)1(ln
e
= np + n 1)1(lne
= n [ 1ln ( 1)( 1)
1
]
= n [ ln ( 1) 1
1 1
]
= n ( 1 ln ( 1 ) )
1
.
We have a dominating set S T of G whose cardinality is
at most n ( 1 ln ( 1 ) )
1
.
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
So, n (1 ln ( 1) )
(G)1
.
Theorem
Every graph G without isolated vertices contains a minimum
dominating set S such that for every vertex v of S, there exists a vertex w of
G – S such that N ( w ) S ={ v } .
Proof .
Let S be one of the minimum dominating sets such that S has
maximum size. Suppose, to the contrary, that S contains a vertex v that does
not have the desired property. Then by Theorem 1.3, v is an isolated vertex in
S . Moreover, every vertex of V(G) – S that is adjacent to v is adjacent to
some other vertex of S as well. Since G contains no isolated vertices, v is
adjacent to a vertex w in V(G) – S. Consequently, ( S – {v}) {w} is a
minimum dominating set of G whose induced sub graph contains at least one
edge incident with w and hence has a greater size than S . This produces a
contradiction.
Theorem
If G is a graph of order n, then n1 (G)
.)G(n)G(
Proof.
Let S be a minimum dominating set of G. Every vertex w V(G) – S
is adjacent to at least one of the vertex of S. So w N(v) for some v S. If
the vertices of S are isolated, then V(G) – S v S
N(v)
. If S has no isolated
vertices, then V(G) – S v S
N(v)
. So V(G) – S v S
N(v)
.
Hence SS)G(V )G( . Therefore, n – )G()G()G( and so
n(G)1 (G)
.
Next we establish the upper bound. Let v be a vertex of G with
deg v = )G( . Then V(G) – N(v) is a dominating set of cardinality
n )G( ; so )G(n)G(
Definition
If G is connected, we define the vertex-connectivity )G( of G to
be the size of the smallest separating set in G; in other words, )G( is the
smallest number of vertices we can delete in order to disconnect G.
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Kalay University Research Journal
Two vertices that are not adjacent in a graph G are said to be
independent. A set S of vertices is independent if every two vertices of S are
independent.
The vertex independence number or simply the independence
number (G) of a graph G is the maximum cardinality among the
independent sets of vertices of G.
An independent set of edges in a graph G is a set of edges, each two
of which are independent ( nonadjacent ). The edge independence number
1 (G) of G is the maximum cardinality among the independent sets of edges
of G.
A vertex and an edge are said to cover each other in a graph G if they
are incident in G. A vertex cover in G is a set of vertices that covers all the
edges of G.
An edge cover in a graph G without isolated vertices is a set of edges that
covers all vertices of G.
The minimum cardinality of a vertex cover in a graph G is called the
vertex covering number of G and is denoted by )G( . The edge covering
number 1 (G) of a graph G ( without isolated vertices ) is the minimum
cardinality of an edge cover in G . For s t, we have )K( t,s = s and
)K( t,s1 = t. As another illustration of these four parameters, we note that
for n 1)K(,2 n , )K( n1 = n2
, )K( n = n – 1 and )K( n1 =
n2
. In Figure 1.2 , we see that )K( 5 = 1, )K( 51 = 2 , )K( 5 = 4 ,
)K( 51 = 3 .
Figure 1.2
Theorem
For every graph G , (G) )G( (G) .
Theorem
If G is a graph of order n, then (G)κ-n)G(γ ≤ .
1
5
3 4
2
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
Proof.
From Theorem , )G(κ-n≤)G(γ since )G()G( .
Theorem
If G is a graph of order n having no isolated vertices , then
n)G(β)G(αandn)G(β)G(α 11 =+=+ .
Proof.
Let U be an independent set of vertices of G with )G(U .
Clearly, the set V(G) – U is a vertex cover in G . Therefore,
)G(n)G( . If, however, W is a set of (G) vertices that covers all
edges of G , then V(G) – W is independent; thus (G) )G(n . So
(G) (G) n .
Let E1 be an independent set of edges of G with )G(E 11 .
Obviously, E1 covers 2 1 (G)-vertices of G. For each vertex of G not covered
by E1, select an incident edge and define E2 to be the union of this set of edges
and E1. Necessarily, E2 is an edge cover in G so that )G(E 12 . Also we
note that ;nEE 21 hence n)G()G( 11 . Now suppose that E
is an edge cover in G with E = )G(1 . The minimality of E implies
that each component of E is a tree. Select from each component of E
one edge, denoting the resulting set of edges by E . We observe that E
)G(1 and that E + E = n . These two facts imply that
n)G()G( 11 . So 1 1(G) (G) n .
References
[ 1 ] Bollobas .,B., “ Modern Graph Theory ”. Springer - Verlag; NewYork Inc, 1998 .
[ 2 ] Bondy , J . A . and Murty U.S.R. “ Graph Theory with Applications ”;
The Macmillan Press Ltd ; London ; 1976 .
[ 3 ] Chartrand ,G,& Lesniak ,L; “ Graphs & Digraphs ”, Chapman & Hall / CRC,
NewYork, 2005 .
[ 4 ] Douglas ,B.W, “ Introduction to Graph Theory ”, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi,
1999 .
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Study on the Contents of Common Toxic Elements in Various
Water Samples Collected from Kalay University Campus by
Using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
Ko Ko Naing1, San Hlay
2 and Min Min Thein
3
Abstract
The drinking water samples were collected in Kalay University Campus and
analysed by Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (FAAS) for the
determination of toxic elements; Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, As, Pb, Cd, Hg and Cr. It
was performed with intent to determine the concentrations of common toxic
elements for human‟s health. Some toxic elements such as, As, Pb and Cd
were found, especially in Dam water samples, not to be satisfactory with the
guideline values of WHO International Standards for drinking water.
Intorduction
Water is the most essential for all living things on earth. Especially it is
important to get pure water in daily life. In this work, two natural water
samples and one purified drinking water sample were analysed by Flame
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy method. The two natural water samples were
obtained from Kyauktalone Dam, water supplier of Kalay University Campus.
The remaining one is the purified drinking water sample mostly used in
Campus.
Experimentals
Clean, dry and tight cap glass bottles of about 100ml were used as containers
for samples. They were transported to Universities‟ Research Centre, Yangon
in two weeks. The analysis was performed by AAnalyst 800 spectrometer.
Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy is an analytical technique based on
the absorption of radiant energy by atoms. This spectroscopy is free from
interference and absorption wavelength region. Since it can be used for the
quantitative determination of most of the metals in the periodic table, it
compares very favourably with other methods of elements analysis, such as X-
ray fluorescence and emission spectroscopy. Many elements can be
determined at the parts per million concentration level and some, parts per
billion. In the AAS method, only one element can be detected at a time.
However, much lower levels of concentration of the toxic elements can be
detected.
1. Associate Professor, Dr., Physics Department, Kalay University
2. Assistant Lecturer. Dr., Physics Department, Kalay University
1. Demonstrator, Physics Department, Kalay University
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Fig (1) Block diagram of the Atomic Absorption Spectrometer
The source of radiation is a hollow cathode lamp, whose cathode is made of
the element to be investigated. This lamp emits the line spectrum of the
element. The sample is sprayed into the flame and the atoms of the element
are dispersed in the gaseous phase. The atoms absorb the radiation only at a
particular line called the resonance line. The resonance line gets diminished
after passing through the flame containing the sample vapour, while all other
lines remain unaffected. The other lines are removed by a monochromator.
A photodetector measures the remaining light intensities form the source
beam. The unknown concentration of the element in the sample may be
determined by comparing with the absorbance reading with a calibrated curve
showing the relationship of absorbance versus concentration made form data
of known concentration of the element.
Result and Discussion
In the present work, some common toxic elements contents were analysed and
the results were shown in Table(1 ). The results indicate that the trace amounts
of toxic elements are observed in all water samples. In the sample DW.1 and
DW.2, Mn has a high degree content. It is one of the most abundant metals in
the Earth‟s crust, usually occurring with iron. Although manganese is an
essential element for human and other animals, adverse effect can result from
both deficiency and over exposure. Manganese is known to cause neurological
effects (e.g tremor, gait disorder) following extended exposure to very high
levels in drinking-water.
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Table-1 Quantitative Results of Water Samples
DW-1 = Natural drinking water sample with sediment
DW-2 = Natural drinking water sample free from sediment
MNPW = Purified drinking water mostly used in campus
Table 2. Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality (WHO International
Standard)
Iron, one of most abundant metal, was also found in the present samples. The
contents of iron lie within the Guidelines values of 1-3 mg L-1
and are
acceptable for drinking water.
Copper is both an essential nutrient and a drinking-water contaminant. In all
samples, copper contents lies below the guidelines value.
Mn
ppm
Fe
ppm
Cu
ppm
Zn
ppm
As
ppm
Pb
ppm
Cd
ppm
Hg
ppm
Cr
ppm
DW-1
3.341
±0.015
3.575
±0.036
0.182
±0.001
0.071
±0.001
0.551
±0.009
0.113
±0.001
0.126
±0.002
ND
ND
DW-2
0.416
±0.012
2.381
±0.039
0.169
±0.009
0.035
±0.001
0.433
±0.004
0.024
±0.002
0.123
±0.009
ND
ND
MNPW
0
0.417
±0.047
0.143
±0.00
2
0.044
±0.00
1
ND ND 0.121
±0.001
ND ND
Sr No Element Concentration (ppm or mg L-1
)
1 As 0.01
2 Cd 0.003
3 Cr 0.05
4 Cu 2
5 Fe 1-3
6 Pb 0.01
7 Mn 0.1-0.5
8 Hg 0.001
9 Zn 3
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
Fig 2 The comparison of concentrations in all samples
Fig 3 Comparison of concentration of important toxic elements between
analysed samples and WHO Guidlines
Zinc is an essential trace element for human beings. However, drinking
water containing zinc at levels above 3 mg L-1
may not be acceptable to
consumers. Zinc contents of the present water samples are in acceptable range.
Arsenic was found in sample DW-1 and DW-2 which are natural
waters. Arsenic (As) is widely distributed throughout the earth‟s crust, most
often as arsenic sulfide or as metal arsenates and arsenides.Arsenic is
introduced into drinking water sources primarily through the dissolution of
naturally occurring minerals and ores. It is considered to be a high-priority
substance for screening in drinking-water sources. In the present work, arsenic
concentration is about 50 times larger than the guide line value of WHO
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Kalay University Research Journal
international standard. It is an important drinking-water contaminant, as it is
one of the few substances shown to cause cancer at several sites, particularly
skin, bladder and lung.
Lead was also found in sample DW-1 and DW-2 and the concentration
is higher than the guide line value of WHO international standard. Lead is
rarely present in tap water as a result of its dissolution from natural sources,
rather, its presence is primarily from household plumbing systems containing
lead in pipes, solder, fittings or the service connections to homes. Infants,
children up to 6 years of age and pregnant women are most susceptible to its
adverse health effects.
Cadmium was found at great amounts in all water samples
unfortunately. Cadmium is released to the environment in waste water, and
diffuse pollution is caused by contamination from fertilizers and local air
pollution. Contamination in drinking-water may also be caused by impurities
in the Zinc of galvanized pipes and solders and some metal fittings.
Absorption of cadmium compounds is dependent on the solubility of the
compounds. Cadmium accumulates primarily in the kidneys and has a long
biological half-life in humans of 10-35 years.
Fortunately, cromium and mercury were not detected in present water
samples. In DW-1 and DW-2, the concentrations of As, Pb and Cd are higher
than the guidelines of WHO international standard distinctly. They should not
be used as the drinking-water. Although, in many areas, the guidelines values
may not be attainable. Environment security and monitoring of standard water
is an urgent problem. Thus, where this is the case, every effort should be made
up to keep the concentrations of toxic elements as low as possible.
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Professor Dr Khin Myint Htun, PhD(MU), Head of Department of
Physics, University of Kalay for allowing me to present this paper.
I am greatly indebted to Pro-Rector Dr Pho Kaung, DSc (Hokkaido) MinstP (London), Head
of Universities‟ Research Centre (URC) and Director of Asia Research Centre (ARC) for his
valuable guidance.
References
[1]Blames JR 1990 “Environmental Health Effects”
[2]Bernhard W 1976 “Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy”. (New York)
[3]Perkin Elmer Instrument Manual, 2001 “AAnalyst 800 Spectrometer”
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
Systematic Study On Some Moths Of Kalay Environs
Htay Htay Kyi1 , Tin Ko Ko
2, Soe Soe
2
Abstract
Taxonomic descriptions of the total number of 10 species of Lepidoptera moths
belonging to 3 Super families, 4 families, 2 Sub family and 10 genera have been collected
from Kalay area. The study period lasted from January, 2007 to December, 2007. The
recorded species are tabulated and present with digital colored photograph. Keys to the Super
families down to species level are constructed based on the diagnostic characters. Diagnostic
features of each species are given supported by scaled photographs. The findings of this
research are comparatively discussed.
( keywords: systematic study of Lepidoptera )
Introduction
Moths are members of the insect order Lepidoptera, the literal meaning
of which is “scale-winged”.They are most readily recognized by the scales on
the wings, most of the body and leg, are also covered with scales. This order is
a large one with about 11,000 species occurring in the United States and
Canada, its member are to be found almost everywhere often in considerable
members. They feed on various fabrics and a few feed in stored grain or meal.
The larvae of most species are phytophagous and many are serious pest of
cultivated plants. The adults of many species are beautiful and much sought
after by collectors, and many serve as the basis of art and design. Natural silk
as the product of a member of this order. The modern method of classification
recognizes, three sub-orders namely, Zeugloptera, Monotrysia and Ditrysia.
The last two sub-order include moths exclusively the structure of the adult
moth resembles in many respects that of the butterfly. The moths are common
insects and well known to every one. The modern method of classification
recognizes, three sub-orders namely, Zeugloptera, Monotrysia and Ditrysia.
The last two sub-order include moths exclusively the structure of the adult
moth resembles in many respects that of the butterfly. The moths are common
insects and well known to every one.
1 Assistant Lecturer,
2 Demonstrators, Zoology Department, Kalay University.
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Kalay University Research Journal
The adults bear two pairs of membranous wings, usually clothed and on both
surfaces with overlapping scales. The mouthparts of the adults are frequently
modified into a long coiled proboscis, which occurs in no other order.
Lepidoptera pass through a complex metamorphosis of egg, larva and pupa to
adult. In family Saturniidae (Giant silkworm moths or royal moths), moths are
the largest moths. Many species fly mostly during the daylight hours or at
dusk. In family Eupterotidae, moths are the large-sized moths. The palpi hairy;
antennae pectinated in both sexes, mid tibia with one pair of spurs, hind tibia
with two pairs. Frenulum present. In family Notodontidae (prominents moths),
moths are rarely encountered in their natural state, being night fliers. In South
East Asia, they are found in hilly localities than on the plants. In family
Sphingidae (Sphinx or Hawk moths), moths are strong fliers and fly with a
very rapid wing beat. Some are day fliers but most of them are active at dusk
or twilight.
Materials and methods
Study period
The present investigation was carried out from January to December,
2007. Moth collection was conducted three days per month to record the
seasonal species occurrence.
They were collected from different localities of Kalay University
Campus. The species Psilogramma menophron and Leucophlebia lineata are
diurnal in habit were collected at day time, the rest of the species are
nocturnal. Therefore the collections were made at nights, some around lamp-
posts, walls of buildings and other light sources. The collection materials
included an insect collection hand net, a collection jar and a killing bottle.
These specimens were collected in killing bottle containing chloroform. They
were mounted in insect boxes. Insect boxes are applied with creosote or
naphthalene balls to repel ants and fungus infection. The antennae, legs and
wings venations of recorded species were studied and classified under
microscope. All the specimens were recorded with illustrated photographs.
Preservation
Lepidopterans are generally fairly easily to collect, but are more
different to mount and preserve in good condition than insect of other groups.
Specimens must always be handled with great care due to the delicate nature
of the scales and wings which can be easily torn or broken. In the present
study, only a light trap was used for collecting specimens. The specimens
collected in the fields were put into the bottle of appropriate size. Pieces of
cotton soaked in chloroform are put into the bottles. Then forewings of the
specimens were spread out on the boards. They were mounted in insect boxes.
Insect boxes are applied with creosote naphthalene . Identification key and
morphological characteristics were applied according to Hampson (1892); Bell
and Scott (1937); and Barlow (1982).
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Observations and results
Order Lepidoptera
These are moths and butterflies, characterized by having two pair of
membranous wings, usually large in size, cross veins are few in number. The
body wings and appendages are clothed in broad scales. Mandibles are almost
always vestigial or absent. The mouth parts are generally represented by a
suctorial proboscis formed by the maxillae. The larvae are caterpillars, with
three pairs of thoracic legs and usually four pairs of prolegs on the abdomen
and a terminal pair of claspers.
Super family Bombycoidea
Moths in this Super family are medium to large in size, and include the
largest moth in the world. The antennae in the male are always bipectinate.
The proboscis is reduced or absent and the moths lack tympanal organs. The
bodies are short, stout and hairy, and the wings are large in relation to body
size.
Family Saturniidae (Royal Moths)
This family, which contains some of the largest moths in the world, is
well represented in the Oriental region. The antennae are short and bipectinate
or quadripectinate to the tips in both sexes. The head is retracted and small
with large eyes. The proboscis is vestigial or absent. The broad wings,
frequently falcate, lack the frenulum and retinaculum and are often marked
with prominent eye-spots or hyaline patches. The adults have stout hairy
bodies with the abdomen short in proportion to the enormous wings. They
often fly late at night, with an irregular flight, and are readily attracted to light.
Genus Actias, Leach (1815)
Fore wing with the apex produced and acute. Hind wing with the anal
angle produced into a long tail, veins 2, 3, 4 being curved and running to the
tip of the tail.
Species Actias selene, Hiibn. (1818)
Head, thorax, and abdomen white; Palpi pink, prothorax with a dark
pink band; legs pink. Fore wing very pale green, white at base; a dark pink
costal fascia, darkest along subcostal nervure; an outwardly-oblique pale
yellow antemedial line; two inwardly-oblique slightly curved sub marginal
lines; a pale yellow marginal band; a dark red-brown lunule at end of cell,
with a grey line on it, bounding inwardly a round ochreous spot with pinkish
centre. Hind wing similar to the fore wing; the central position of the tail
pinkish.
Genus Attacus
Fore wing with the apex produced and rounded; the outer margin
excised. Hind wing rounded. Cell of both wings open.
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Species Attacus atlas Linn. 1766
Head, thorax and abdomen red-brown; the basal segment and abdomen
pale and each segment with a pale fringe; legs brown and with the costa
brown; the basal area brown and red-brown edged by red, pale and black lines.
Genus Loepa
Fore wing with the costa evenly arched; the apex rounded; the outer
margin but slightly excised hind wind rounded. Tarsi thickly clothed with hair.
Species Loepa newara, Moore, 1872
Head, thorax and abdomen bright yellow; collar grey; patagia bordered
by reddish lines. Fore wing yellow, irrorated with grey, fuscous, and pink
scales, except at centre of inner margin and outer area; some pink hairs at
base, a grey and fuscous antemedial line, angled at median nervure; a large
sub triangular hyaline spot at end of cell. Hind wing yellow; a pink and dark
antemedial line; a hyaline spot at end of cell edged with fuscous; a postmedial
line, beyond which the area is suffused with pink and fuscous, with a waved
outer edge.
Family Eupterotidae
This family is based for the most part in Asia, large moths, with
antennae
bipectinate to the apex in both sexes, the pectinations being longer in the
males. The coloration is generally grey, yellow, brown or black, often with
considerable variation in the species. The palpi are short and hairy and the
proboscis weak or absent. They generally have the frenulum on the hind wing.
Genus Gangarides, Moore, 1865
Palpi upturned and very thickly fringed with hair. The antennae with
the branches stiff, decreasing rapidly to apex and saturniform. Legs very
thickly clothed with hairs. Fore wing with the apex produced, the outer margin
excised and crenulate; the discocellular nearly straight.
Species Gangarides rosea Wlker, 1865.
Palpi black, fringed with ochreous hairs; antennae, head and thorax
ochreous, the latter with a crimson tinge; abdomen crimson above. Fore wing
pinkish ochreous, irrorated with brown scales, a curved and waved subbasal
dark line; an antemedial slightly waved line; a black dot ringed with white at
end of cell, three indinstinct waved postmedial lines; a grey and brown curved
oblique line from apex; a submarginal lunulate line. Hind wing crimsom , the
cilia ochreous.
Genus Pandala, Walker (1855)
Palpi upturned and but slightly fringed with hair. Antennae with the
branches long and bipectinate. Head, thorax and abdomen yellowish brown.
Legs with the spur long. Fore wing short, broad and rounded, the discocellular
oblique, vein 7,8,9 stalked and give of before the end of the cell. Hind wing
with the discocellulars slightly angled below vein 5, 6 and 7 from angle of
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
cell. Hind wing slightly rounded. The fore and hind wings have 3 brown
wavely streaks.
Species Pandala dolosa, Walker. 1855
Dark purplish grey; fore wing crossed by three antemedial indistinct
waved lines, three postmedial and one straight submarginal line. Hind wing by
four waved postmedial lines and a curved submarginal line.
Super family Notodontoidea
Head is large and often covered with woolly hair. The proboscis is
functionless and frequently obsolescent. The antennae in the males are
typically bipectinate at base, and filiform towards the tip. In the female they
tend to be pectinate or filiform. The legs are short and strong and the tibiae
usually markedly hairy, the forelegs typically being strectched forward in front
of the head when the insect is at rest.
Family Notodontidae
A family of moths superficially resembling the Noctuidae. Mid tibia
with one pair of spurs; hind tibia with two pairs; tarsi short and hairy. Fore
wing with vein 1 a forming a fork with 1b at the base; 1c absent; vein 5 from
the middle of discocelluar, or rarely from just below upper angle of cell, Hind
wing with two internal veins.
Genus Somera Wlker (1855)
Palpi upturned, reaching vertex of head; the first two joints fringed
with hair. Antennae with the branches long and reaching the apex. Legs hairy.
Fore wing broad, the subcostal nervure and cell clothed with long hairs on
underside.
Species Somera viridifusca, Walker (1855)
Palpi brown; vertex of head and thorax green; abdomen fuscous, with
the extremity green. Fore wing bright green, with a brown patch below and
beyond the end of cell; the brown patch on the fore wing is often absent; two
subbasal waved dark lines; two antemedial; four post medial and one
submarginal, the last with brownish blotches on it. Hind wing fuscous brown.
Super family Sphinogoidea
Hawk moths are normally readily recognizable by their triangular-
shaped fore wings and powerful but streamlined build. Often they are
extremely fast fliers. The forewing is between twice and four times as long as
it is wide, the hind wing shorter and triangular. The frenulum and retinaculum
are sometimes reduced or absent. The antennae are filiform or setiform in
many species, often thickening slightly towards the end, before a thin pointed
hook. The eyes are large and prominent, as usually are the palpi.
Family Sphingidae (Sphinx or Hawk moths)
Diurnal or crepuscular Lepidoptera. The antennae being gradually
thickened into a club, which is pointed at the tip, and nearly always hooked,
with a small tuff of hair at the extremity. Palpi very thickly scaled, the third
joint minuted. Legs strong, with well-developed spurs and spined tarsi.Fore
wing elongated and narrow; the subcostals very close to the costa; vein 1
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Kalay University Research Journal
forked at base. Hind wing small; costal nervure arising free, with a bar
between it and subcostals; two internal veins.
Subfamily Acherontiinae
In all species the wings are sombre in hue, the marking mostly
transverse, fore wing never falcate of truncate, a “skull-mark” sometimes
presents on the dorsum of thorax, and there may abdominal side-bands or
patches. Frenulum and retinaculum wanting in a few species.
Genus – Herse Oken, 1815
Tongue very long, strongly attenuate apicad. Palpus without cavity in
the scaling at the end of the first segment externally, second segment about a
quarter shorter than the first; inner surface of first longitudinally impressed;
cavity of second deep, covered by a conspicuous roof of scales. Antenna
almost equal in width from near base to near hook in male, slightly clubbed in
female.
Species - Herse convolvuli (Linn, 1903)
Upper side grey, abdomen with a narrow brown dorsal stripe, a brood
grey strip on each side of it, and with narrow white and broader pink and black
side-patches.
Genus Psilogramma Roths and Jord. 1903
Antenna shorter, hook shorter, labrum very little raised in middle, first
segment tarsus. Somewhat longer than segment 2 to 4 together, comb of mid-
tarsus well developed, long spur of mid-tibia about half, the long apical one of
hind tarsus nearly two-thirds, the length of the respective first tarsal segment.
Pulvillus and paronychium present.
Species Psilogramma menephron (Cram) 1903
Head, thorax, abdomen and fore wing gray; dark brown bands along
sides of palpi and thorax meeting on metathorax, where there are a few blue
and yellow scales, abdomen with a blackish dorsal stripe and brown subdorsal,
segmental patches. Fore wing with dark oblique lines from costa, two black
streaks from cell, one under R, and one under M, a black streak under Sc5
apical, continued as a dentate streak to apex of wing and obliquely to costa at
the proximal end and sharply defining a pale apical patch, a series of whitish
sub marginal lunules, cilia chaquered black and white. Hind wing brown, with
a black patch at anal angle, limited inwardly by a pale submarginal line, and
more or less suffused with grey.
Sub family Ambulicinae
A few genera with prolonged end-segment may be recognized by the
apex of the fore wing being sinuate or the distal margin more or less angulate
below the middle, or by the long tarsi being without a mid-tarsal comb.
Genus Leucophlebia Westwood. 1848
The moths can be distinguished from other of the family in India by
the fore wing upper side being pink with a maize-yellow longitudinal streak.
Tongue short and weak, naked or scaled. Pilifer with bristle. Antenna strongly
compressed in male, deeply grooved, dilated above the grooves, two pairs of
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
spurs to hind tibia; pulvillus and paronychium present; Distal margin of wings
entire, apex of fore wing pointed, but not produced; hinder angle completely
rounded.
Species Leucophlebia lineate West wood 1848
Palpus and frons brown; antenna ochreous; vertex of head and sides of
thorax and abdomen pale pink; a brownish-ochreous stripe on vertex of thorax
and abdomen. Fore wing bright pink; a yellow strip from the base of the cell to
apex; widest beyond the cell; a short narrow yellow streak in the interno-
median interspace from the base; veins M2, M1and R' white, with some
diffused fuscous below them. Hind wing tawny,cilia yellowish-white.
Genus- Dilephila Laspepres,1809
Large handsome moths, upper side green or brown, marked with
curved bands and triangles of different colours. Genal process triangular,
obtuse, shorter than pilifer. Head broad, somewhat crested transversely on
occiput. Eye large, not lashed. Palpus obtuse, large.
Species- Dilephila hypothous Cram. ,1903
The head and collar of thorax being uniformly dark purplish-brown;
thorax and first two segments of abdomen dark olive- green, with a white
fringe to the first segment; the other segments dark olive-brown with stripes
and spots. Fore wings bright green; a basal white patch with a black spot on it;
some median whitish, conjoined bands, rosy towards hind margin Hind wing
fuscous with a pale, curved, submarginal line.
Discussion
The recent research work a total of ten species under four families of
ten genera were recorded. In the family Eupterotidae, the species Pandala
dalosa is recorded by
Group VI. M.Sc. Term paper of Mandalay University (2004).The Hawk moth,
Psilogramma menephron was recorded by Group III M.Sc. Term paper of
Monywa University (2004). They were also found in this area. The rest of the
eight species such as Actias selene, Attacus atlas, Loepa newara, Gangarides
rosea, Somera viridifusca, Herse convolvuli, Leucophlebia lineate and
Deilephila hypothous have not been recorded by any previous local workers.
Most of the species found in Kalay environs were included in the family of
Saturniidae, Eupterotidae, Notodontidae and Sphingidae.In the superfamilies
Bombycoidea; the family Saturniidae, there is no frenulum, although family
Eupterotidae have frenulum. All species are generally plant-feeder. The moths
are of great economic importance to living and non living compounds of the
world. Several species of family Saturniidae, those produced Tussur silks of
commerce Loepa newara was collected during the study period and this
species falls under this family and is known to produce silk. Systematic
positions of moth species are described. The comparison study of dorsal and
ventral surface of collected moth species were also described in plate 1 and 2.
Therefore, these moth species of Kalay environs should be research work is to
add further information to the moth fauna of Myanmar.
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Kalay University Research Journal
Acknowledgement
We are greatly indebted to Rector, U Maung Maung , Prorectors, U Myint Swe and
Dr. Khaing San for their permition to do this research work. We also would like to express
acknowledgement to Daw Kyi Kyi Soe (Professor, head), Dr. Htwe Htwe (Professor) and Dr.
Myint Myint Kyi (Associate Professor) for their suggestions and for providing available
facilities in the Zoology Department.
References
Bell, T. R. D and F. B . Scott, (1937) . The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and
Burma. Vol.V. Taylar and Frances. Red lion Court. Fleet Streets. London.
Borror , D. J and D. M. Delong (1954). An introduction to the study of Insects. Revised
Edition, Holt Rinchart and Winston. N. Y.
Carter. D. (1992) . Butterflies and Moths. First published in Great Britain by Darling
Kindersley limited, 9 Henictta street. London.
Hampson, G. F ( 1892) . The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Vol. I .
London, Tayler and Francis.
Khin Mar Win et al. (2004). Some Sphingidae of Myonywa. District Myonywa
University. M. Sc Term paper.
Maw Maw Nwe et al. (2004) . Taxonomic study of some moths in Mandalay Environs.
M. Sc Term paper.
May Thu Aung (2006) . Taxonomic study on Some moth species in the environs of
Pathein, M. Res . Thesis Pathein University .
Myint Myint Than (1984). The Taxonomy of Some Sphingidae of Upper Burma, M.Sc.
Thesis, Mandalay University.
Nathan (1973). The Taxonomy of Some moths of Burma . M.Sc. Thesis, Mandalay University.
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Kalay University Research Journal 2010
Plate. 1 Collected moth species in Kalay environs
Upper side Under side
Actias selene, Hiibn. (1818)
Attacus atlas Linn. 1766
Loepa newara, Moore, 1872
Gangarides rosea, Wlker, 1865
Pandala dolosa, Walker. 1855