ed 393 634 rc 020 529 author andrade de herrara, victoria ... · author andrade de herrara,...
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DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 393 634 RC 020 529
AUTHOR Andrade de Herrara, Victoria
TITLE Education in Mexico: Historical and ContemporaryEducational Systems.
PUB DATE 96
NOTE 37p.; Translated by Judith LeBlanc Flores. Chapter 3in: Children of La Frontera: Binational Efforts ToServe Mexican Migrant and Immigrant Students; see RC
020 526.
PUB TYPE Historical Materials (060) Reports Descriptive
(141) Translations (170)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS Adult Education; *Decentralization; *Early ChildhoodEducation; *Educational Change; *EducationalDevelopment; Educational History; *ElementarySecondary Education; Foreign Countries; *HigherEducation; Latin American History; TeacherEducation
IDENTIFIERS *Mexico
ABSTRACTThis chapter traces the development of education in
Mexico and describes recent reforms and current organization of the
Mexican educational system. During the colonial period, Catholicreligious orders created numerous educational institutions andestablished the first university (1551). Following independence,education was taken over by the Mexican government (1833), but
educational development was disrupted by subsequent struggles betweenConservatives and Liberals, war with the United States, and invasion
by France. Following expulsion of the French (1867), Benito Juarez'
government established the nonreligious, free, and obligatory aspects
of education. During the era of Porfirio Diaz (1876-1910), notable
ministers of education expanded primary and secondary schooling,supported women's education and higher education, established dozensof normal schools, and effected progressive federalization ofinstruction. After the Revolution (1910), increased attention wasgiven to illiteracy, rural education, and the education and social
integration of indigenous peoples. The present structure of theMexican educational system is based on: (1) Articles 30 and 31 of the
Constitution; (2) the National Agreement for the Modernization ofBasic Education, 1992, a massive reform that decentralized thesystem, restructured and modernized curricula and educationalpractices, and increased teacher salaries and support forprofessional development; and (3) the General Law of Education, 1993.Detailed descriptions are provided for each level of education:initial education for children aged 45 days to 3 years and theirmothers; preschool education, including kindergarten; primaryeducation (grades 1-6); secondarY education (grades 7-9); mediasuperior (preparatory) education (2-3 years); higher education,technological education, and postgraduate study in public and privateuniversities and technological institutes. Teacher education andadult education in literacy and job skills are also described.
Contains 26 references. (SV)
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ived
Irom
the
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onor
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aniz
atio
n
orig
inat
ing
II
0 M
inor
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nges
hav
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nts
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iew
or
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nion
sst
ated
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is
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men
t do
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ssar
ily r
epre
sent
offic
ial O
ER
I pos
ition
or p
olic
y
2B
EST
CO
PY A
VA
ILA
BL
E
CH
APT
ER
3
Edu
catio
n in
Mex
ico:
His
toric
al a
nd C
onte
mpo
rary
Edu
catio
nal S
yste
ms
V I
CT
OR
IA A
ND
RA
DE
DE
HE
RR
AR
A
ED
ITO
RIA
L T
RIL
LAS
, ME
XIC
O,
D.F
.(T
RA
NS
LAT
ED
BY
JU
DIT
H L
EB
LAN
C F
LOR
ES
)
To
mee
t the
cha
lleng
e of
edu
catin
g ch
ildre
n w
hoha
ve r
ecen
tly a
rriv
edfr
om M
exic
o or
who
are
invo
lved
ina
seas
onal
rot
atio
n be
twee
n th
e U
nite
dSt
ates
and
Mex
ico,
it is
impo
rtan
t for
U.S
. edu
cato
rsto
hav
e a
curr
ent a
ndhi
stor
ical
per
spec
tive
on th
e ed
ucat
ion
syst
em o
f M
exic
o. T
he f
irst
hal
f of
this
cha
pter
des
crib
es th
e hi
stor
y an
dco
nditi
ons
of d
iffe
rent
per
iods
in th
eev
olut
ion
of M
exic
o's
educ
atio
n sy
stem
, beg
inni
ngin
col
onia
l tim
es a
ndco
ntin
uing
up
to th
e pr
esen
t tim
e. E
duca
tion
inM
exic
o, li
ke e
duca
tion
ever
ywhe
re, h
as u
nder
gone
var
ious
ref
orm
mov
emen
ts a
s di
ffer
ent f
actio
nsha
ve g
aine
d po
litic
al p
ower
. Rea
ders
will
see,
how
ever
, tha
t Mex
ico'
ssy
stem
has
gro
wn
stea
dily
to in
clud
e ev
er g
reat
er n
umbe
rsof
chi
ldre
n an
dad
ults
, edu
catin
g th
em to
eve
r hi
gher
leve
ls.
The
sec
ond
half
of
this
cha
pter
des
crib
es th
ecu
rren
t org
aniz
atio
n of
Mex
ican
sch
ools
, whi
ch h
as u
nder
gone
a m
assi
ve r
estr
uctu
ring
sin
ce 1
992.
It is
a c
ompl
ex a
nd c
ompr
ehen
sive
syst
em. T
he c
hapt
er is
org
aniz
ed to
desc
ribe
its
scop
e, b
egin
ning
with
pre
scho
olup
thro
ugh
post
grad
uate
univ
ersi
ty e
duca
tion.
3
26E
DU
CA
TIO
N IN
ME
XIC
O: H
IST
OR
ICA
L A
ND
CO
NT
EM
PO
RA
RY
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
SY
ST
EM
S
His
toric
al B
ackg
roun
d
Col
onia
l Tim
es
The
dev
elop
men
t of
educ
atio
n in
Mex
ico
duri
ng c
olon
ial t
imes
has
refl
ecte
d th
e co
untr
y's
polit
ical
dev
elop
men
t.T
he S
pani
sh c
onqu
est
of 1
521
mar
kedl
y in
flue
nced
Nat
ive
educ
atio
nal
inst
itutio
ns; d
urin
g
colo
niza
tion,
edu
catio
n w
as u
sed
by S
pain
as
anin
stru
men
t of
do.n
inat
icn
to n
urtu
re p
oliti
cal d
epen
denc
y am
ong
Nat
ives
. Thr
ough
out t
his
peri
od,
Mex
ico'
s ed
ucat
iona
l sys
tem
was
in th
e ha
nds
of th
e C
atho
lic c
lerg
y.
Edu
catio
n de
velo
ped
amon
g th
e N
ativ
es a
ndM
estiz
os w
ithin
som
e of
the
relig
ious
ord
ers,
incl
udin
g th
e D
omin
ican
s,Fr
anci
scan
s, A
ugus
tines
, and
Jesu
its. T
hese
rel
igio
us o
rder
s ac
quir
ed g
reat
asce
ndan
cy o
f in
flue
nce
in
the
mid
dle
and
uppe
r cl
asse
s of
the
New
Spa
inso
ciet
y (S
alva
t, 19
74, V
ol.
5; p
p. 1
66, 1
67, &
174
; Sol
ana,
Car
dill
Rey
es,
& B
olan
os M
artin
ez, 1
982,
p. 1
3).
The
rel
igio
us o
rder
s, e
spec
ially
the
Jesu
its a
ndD
omin
ican
s, c
reat
ed
num
erou
s ed
ucat
iona
l ins
titut
ions
. The
Jesu
its w
ere
dedi
cate
d pa
rtic
ular
ly
to th
e st
udy
of th
e hu
man
ities
; the
Dom
inic
ans,
to th
e ar
ts a
nd th
eolo
gy
(Sal
vat,
1974
, Vol
. 5 p
p. 1
66-1
67).
Edu
catio
nal a
dvan
ces
quic
kly
dem
ande
d th
e fo
unda
tion
of a
uni
vers
ity
and,
beg
inni
ng in
152
6, e
ffor
ts w
ere
initi
ated
to o
btai
nau
thor
izat
ion
from
the
Span
ish
mon
arch
y. I
n 15
51, w
ith th
e ap
prop
riat
e ap
prov
-.1,
the
Uni
ver-
sity
of
Mex
ico
beca
me
the
firs
t uni
vers
ity o
f th
eA
mer
icas
.In
157
0, it
acqu
ired
the
title
of
Roy
al U
nive
rsity
and
was
giv
enth
e ri
ght t
o us
e th
e
shie
ld o
f th
e gu
ns o
f C
astil
le a
nd L
eon,
and
, in
1579
, Pop
e C
lem
ente
VII
issu
ed a
Bul
l (a
sole
mn
papa
l let
ter)
that
coa
nged
its n
amc
to R
oyal
and
Pont
ific
al U
nive
rsity
(Sa
lvat
, 197
4, V
ol. 5
, p. 1
78).
Inde
pend
ence
Mex
ico'
s po
st-i
ndep
ende
nce
hist
ory
is c
hara
cter
ized
by th
e st
rugg
le o
f
two
oppo
sing
pol
itica
l gro
upst
heC
entr
alis
ts a
nd th
e Fe
dera
lists
, lat
er
know
n as
the
Con
serv
ativ
e an
d L
iber
al p
artie
s.T
he L
iber
als
soug
ht to
take
aw
ay C
atho
lic c
leri
cal
cont
rol o
f th
e ed
uca-
tiona
l sys
tcm
and
pla
ce it
in th
e ha
nds
of th
e go
vern
men
t.W
ith th
is in
min
d, L
iber
al V
ice
Pres
iden
t Góm
ez F
aria
s fo
unde
din
183
3 th
e Pu
blic
Gui
danc
e fo
r th
e Fe
dera
l Dis
tric
t and
Fed
eral
Ter
rito
ries
.Fo
r th
e fi
rst t
ime
in M
exic
o, p
ublic
edu
catio
n w
as c
ontr
olle
d by
the
gove
rnm
ent,
with
ad-
min
istr
atio
n of
mun
icip
al s
choo
ls c
entr
aliz
ed in
Mex
ico
City
.T
his
ar-
rang
emen
t pre
cede
d th
e su
bseq
uent
esta
blis
hmen
t of
the
Edu
catio
n M
inis
-
try
(Bar
bosa
, 197
2, p
. 27;
Lar
royo
, 198
6, p
.253
; Sol
ana
et a
l., 1
982,
p. 2
2).
The
se m
easu
res
caus
ed th
e re
belli
on o
f C
onse
rvat
ive
forc
es,
whi
ch,
head
ed b
y A
nton
io d
e Sa
nta
Ann
a, d
ism
isse
d G
Om
ezFa
rlas
in 1
834
and
impe
ded
impl
emen
tatio
n of
his
pro
ject
. Aft
er th
at, t
hcst
rugg
le b
etw
een
4
VIC
TO
RIA
AN
DR
AD
E D
E H
ER
RA
RA
27
Lib
eral
s an
d C
onse
rvat
ives
con
tinue
d, f
urth
er c
ompl
icat
ed b
y th
e se
para
-tio
n of
Tex
as in
183
6 an
d th
e w
ar w
ith th
e U
nite
d St
ates
in 1
847
(Lar
royo
,19
86, p
. 253
: Sal
vat,
1974
, Vol
. 7, p
. 251
; Sol
ana
et a
l., 1
982,
p. 2
2).
The
Ref
orm
(R
efor
mo)
Mov
emen
tA
nton
io d
e Sa
nta
Ann
a, a
pic
ture
sque
cha
ract
er in
Mex
ican
his
tory
,m
anip
ulat
ed th
e pr
oble
ms
betw
een
the
Con
serv
ativ
e an
d L
iber
al p
artie
s fo
rhi
s ow
n ga
in, a
nd a
scen
ded
to th
e pr
esid
ency
on
seve
n se
para
te o
ccas
ions
.In
184
4, d
urin
g on
e of
his
pre
side
ncie
s, h
e na
med
edu
cato
r M
anue
l Bar
anda
Min
iste
r of
Jus
tice
and
Publ
ic I
nstr
uctio
n. B
aran
da a
utho
red
the
Gen
eral
Plan
of
Stud
ies
and,
for
the
firs
t tim
e, te
achi
ng m
etho
ds a
nd s
choo
l org
ani-
zatio
nal s
truc
ture
s w
cre
cons
igne
d to
legi
slat
ive
norm
s (L
arro
yo, 1
986,
p.
251)
.O
nce
agai
n, a
com
preh
ensi
ve e
duca
tiona
l pro
ject
was
for
gotte
n w
hen
agr
oup
of y
oung
Lib
eral
pol
itici
ansa
mon
g th
em B
enito
Jua
rezr
ebel
led
and
purs
ued
a to
tal r
efor
m o
f th
e co
untr
y. I
n 18
56, t
his
grou
p w
as a
ble
tore
unite
the
legi
slat
ors,
who
pro
clai
med
a n
ew c
onst
itutio
n in
185
7. A
mon
gth
e ri
ghts
pro
clai
med
in th
is c
onst
itutio
n w
as th
e ri
ght t
o le
arn.
In
Oct
ober
of th
e sa
me
year
, the
Lib
eral
pre
side
nt, C
omon
fort
, inf
orm
ed C
ongr
ess
that
the
Nor
mal
Sch
ool f
or T
each
ers
had
been
est
ablis
hed
(Bar
bosa
, 197
2, p
.27
; Sol
ana
et a
l., 1
982,
p. 2
3).
New
con
flic
ts im
pede
d th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
educ
atio
nal i
nstit
utio
ns. T
hefi
rst o
f th
ese
conf
licts
was
the
War
of
Thr
ee Y
ears
(18
58-1
860)
bet
wee
nL
iber
als
and
Con
serv
ativ
es. D
urin
g th
is s
trug
gle,
Mex
ico
had
two
pres
i-de
nts:
Zul
oaga
, a C
onse
rvat
ive,
and
Jua
rez,
a L
iber
al. D
urin
g th
e th
ree
year
s th
at th
e w
ar la
sted
, Jua
rez
and
his
colla
bora
tors
put
toge
ther
the
Ref
orm
(R
efor
ma)
Law
s, o
ne o
f w
hich
est
ablis
hed
the
sepa
ratio
n of
chu
rch
and
stat
e, e
limin
atin
g re
ligio
us in
stru
ctio
n fr
om p
ublic
edu
catio
n (S
olan
a et
al.,
1982
, p. 2
6).
Alth
ough
the
Lib
eral
s tr
ium
phed
, the
cou
ntry
enj
oyed
onl
y a
shor
tpe
riod
of
tran
quili
ty, a
s M
exic
o w
as in
vade
d by
Fra
nce
in 1
864.
Fra
nce
wan
ted
to c
reat
e an
em
pire
to o
ppos
e th
e gr
owin
g po
wer
of
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es, a
nd im
pose
d an
em
pero
r on
Mex
ico:
the
Aus
tria
n M
axim
ilian
of
Hap
sbur
g. T
he F
renc
h in
terv
entio
n an
d th
e re
ign
of M
axim
ilian
(18
64-
1867
) co
nstit
uted
a p
aren
thet
ical
per
iod
in th
e hi
stor
y of
Mex
ican
edu
ca-
tion.
Alth
ough
the
empe
ror
deve
lope
d hi
s L
aw o
f Pu
blic
Ins
truc
tion,
the
brev
ity o
f hi
s go
vern
men
t did
not
allo
w h
im to
car
ry it
out
(So
lana
et a
l.,19
82, p
p. 2
6-27
).W
hen
Max
imili
an w
as d
efea
ted
in 1
867,
the
gove
rnm
ent o
f B
enito
Juar
ez o
nce
agai
n to
ok o
ver
the
educ
atio
n of
the
coun
try,
est
ablis
hing
thre
eed
ucat
ion
char
acte
rist
ics
that
con
tinue
to th
is d
ay: E
duca
tion
in M
exic
o is
nonr
elig
ious
, fre
e, a
nd o
blig
ator
y (B
arbo
sa, 1
972,
p. 2
9; L
arro
yo, 1
986,
pp.
274-
275;
Sol
ana
et a
l., 1
982,
p. 3
2).
5
28E
DU
CA
TIO
N IN
ME
XIC
O: H
IST
OR
ICA
L A
ND
CO
NT
EM
PO
RA
RY
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
SY
ST
EM
S
One
of
the
firs
t ste
ps ta
ken
by J
uire
z w
as to
pro
clai
m in
Dec
embe
rof
1867
, the
Org
anic
I..a
w o
f Pu
blic
Ins
truc
tion
in th
e Fe
eera
l Dis
tric
t, el
abo-
rate
d by
Mar
tinez
de
Cas
tro,
Min
iste
r of
Ins
truc
tion;
and
Gab
ino
Bar
reda
, adi
stin
guis
hed
posi
tivis
t. T
his
law
est
ablis
hed
the
unity
of
the
coun
try
inin
stru
ctio
n an
d de
clar
ed p
rim
ary
educ
atio
n fr
ee a
nd o
blig
ator
y. T
hat s
ame
year
, the
Sec
onda
ry S
choo
l for
You
ngL
adie
s, T
he N
atio
nal P
repa
rato
rySc
hool
, and
the
Aca
dem
y of
Sci
ence
s an
d L
itera
ture
wer
e fo
unde
d. P
rovi
-si
ons
also
wer
e m
ade
for
stud
ies
such
as
med
icin
e, la
w, a
gric
ultu
re,e
ngi-
neer
ing,
and
fin
e ar
ts in
oth
er s
choo
ls. T
his
proj
ect c
ulm
inat
ed w
ith th
eL
aw o
f th
e Pu
blic
Ins
truc
tion
of th
e Fe
dera
l Dis
tric
t, pu
blis
hed
in 1
867
and
mod
ifie
d in
187
5 (B
arbo
sa, 1
972,
p. 2
8; L
arro
yo, 1
986,
pp.
273
-274
; 276
-27
7; S
alva
t, 19
74, V
ol. 8
, p. 2
2).
Tra
nsiti
on o
f the
Edu
catio
nal R
efor
m to
Por
firio
lsm
Beg
inni
ng in
186
7, a
nd c
ontin
uing
thro
ugh
the
firs
t pre
side
ntia
l per
iod
of P
orfi
rio
Dia
z (1
876-
1880
), M
exic
an le
ader
ship
was
hea
vily
infl
uenc
edby
the
doct
rine
of
posi
tivis
m.
Lea
ders
wor
ked
to a
pply
the
met
hods
empl
oyed
in th
e na
tura
l sci
ence
s, e
spec
ially
the
tech
niqu
es o
f ex
peri
men
ta-
tion.
Ign
acio
Ram
irez
, des
igna
ted
in 1
876
to w
ork
out t
he c
ompl
icat
edqu
estio
n of
edu
catio
n of
the
coun
try,
impr
esse
d on
his
wor
k a
sens
ible
mix
ture
of
his
liber
al id
eals
and
thos
e of
the
posi
tivis
t doc
trin
e (L
arro
yo,
1986
, pp.
302
-303
; Sol
ana
et a
l., 1
982,
Vol
. 8, p
. 122
).W
ith R
amir
ez, e
duca
tion
rece
ived
a g
reat
boo
st: t
he s
prea
d of
pri
mar
yan
d se
cond
ary
inst
ruct
ion
was
bro
aden
ed; t
he im
port
ance
of
the
prep
ara-
tion
of w
omen
and
of
high
er e
duca
tion
wer
e co
nfir
med
; and
, for
the
firs
ttim
e, o
ffic
ial a
ttent
ion
was
giv
en to
indi
geno
us in
stru
ctio
n. T
he w
ork
ofR
amir
ez e
xten
ded
into
oth
er f
ield
s of
edu
catio
n: h
e fo
unde
d lib
rari
es a
ndsc
hola
rshi
ps, f
omen
ted
popu
lar
educ
atio
n, p
rote
cted
the
fine
art
s, a
ndfo
ught
to in
corp
orat
e th
e in
dige
nous
pop
ulat
ion
into
the
life
of th
e na
tion
(Bar
bosa
, 197
2, p
. 75;
Lar
royo
, 198
6, p
p. 3
02-3
03; S
olan
a et
al.,
198
2, p
.
46).
The
Por
firia
to (
Dia
z's
Gov
ernm
ent)
Ram
irez
col
labo
rate
d w
ith P
resi
dent
Por
firi
o D
iaz
until
an
illne
ss r
etir
edR
amir
ez f
rom
pub
lic li
fe in
187
7. T
he w
ork
that
he
initi
ated
was
con
tinue
d,du
ring
"Po
rfir
iois
m,"
with
a b
rilli
ant g
ener
atio
n of
edu
cato
rs. A
mon
g th
em
ost o
utst
andi
ng a
re tw
o m
inis
ters
of
publ
ic in
stru
ctio
n, J
oaqu
inB
aran
da
and
Just
o Si
erra
.D
urin
g th
e ea
rly
year
s of
this
per
iod,
edu
catio
n in
Mex
ico
was
enr
iche
dby
the
cont
ribu
tions
of
two
prom
inen
t edu
cato
rs: E
nriq
ue C
. Rth
sam
enan
d E
nriq
ue L
aubs
cher
. In
the
stat
e of
Ver
acru
z, th
ese
two
prod
uced
the
firs
t im
port
ant e
ssay
s on
the
theo
ry a
nd p
ract
ice
of e
duca
tion.
To
dem
on-
stra
te th
eir
theo
ries
, the
y fo
unde
d in
188
3 th
e M
odel
Sch
ool o
f O
riza
ba, a
nd
VIC
TO
RIA
AN
DR
AD
E D
E H
ER
RA
RA
29
som
e ye
ars
late
r, th
e V
erac
ruza
na N
orm
al S
choo
l of
Jala
pa.
The
se in
stitu
-tio
ns m
ade
Ver
acru
z th
e or
igin
al s
ite o
f on
e of
the
mos
t im
port
ant e
duca
-tio
n re
form
s in
Mex
ico
duri
ng th
e n'
nete
enth
cen
tury
(B
arbo
sa, 1
972,
pp.
92-9
3; L
arro
yo, 1
986,
pp.
313
,319
-326
; Sol
ana
et a
l., 1
982,
pp.
55-
56).
R6b
sam
en a
nd h
is s
tude
nts
dire
ctly
infl
uenc
ed th
e or
gani
zatio
n of
edu
ca-
tion
in 1
0 st
ates
, but
with
in a
few
yea
rs, t
heir
"R
efor
ma"
ext
ende
d ov
er th
egr
eate
r pa
rt o
f th
e co
untr
y. I
n 19
01, R
thsa
men
was
cal
led
to th
e ca
pito
l,w
here
he
fille
d th
e po
sitio
ns o
f th
e D
irec
tor
of N
orm
al I
nstr
uctio
n an
d th
eD
irec
tor
of th
e N
orm
al S
choo
l unt
il 19
04, t
he y
ear
of h
is d
eath
(L
arro
yo,
1986
, p. 3
26).
At t
hc n
atio
nal l
evel
, "Po
rfir
iois
m"
was
car
ried
out
by
Joaq
uin
Bar
anda
,m
inis
ter
of e
duca
tion.
Dur
ing
Bar
anda
's te
nure
, nor
mal
edu
catio
n m
ade
nota
ble
adva
nces
. He
esta
blis
hed
norm
al s
choo
ls to
trai
n pr
ofes
sors
inG
uada
laja
ra, M
onte
rrey
, Pue
bla,
San
Lui
s Po
tosi
, and
Col
ima.
To
furt
her
incr
ease
the
supp
ly o
f pr
ofes
sors
, oth
er n
orm
al s
choo
ls w
ere
foun
ded
inV
icto
ria,
Tam
aulip
as (
1889
); th
e ca
pita
l of
the
coun
try
(188
9); O
axac
a(1
890)
; and
Sal
tillo
, Coa
huila
(18
94).
At t
he e
nd o
f th
e ce
ntur
y, th
ere
exis
ted
45 n
orm
al s
choo
ls in
the
Rep
ublic
(B
arbo
sa, 1
972,
p. 9
2; L
arro
yo,
1986
, pp.
347
-348
).B
aran
da w
as a
ided
in h
is la
bors
by
Just
o Si
erra
, an
outs
tand
ing
hist
oria
n,ph
iloso
pher
, and
teac
her
who
, in
1901
, bec
ame
the
Subs
ccre
tary
of
Publ
icIn
stru
ctio
n. S
ierr
a w
as a
ble
to g
ain
both
the
coop
erat
ion
of e
duca
tors
fro
mdi
vers
e ba
ckgr
ound
s an
d th
e ba
ckin
g of
all
mem
bers
of
Con
gres
s.In
Janu
ary
1904
, he
care
fully
pla
nned
and
est
ablis
hed
the
firs
t tw
o ki
nder
gar-
tens
in th
e Fe
dera
l Dis
tric
t (B
arbo
sa, 1
972,
p. 9
8; L
arro
yo, 1
986,
pp.
359
-
360)
.A
fter
a b
rilli
ant c
olla
bora
tion
with
Bar
anda
, Sie
rra
fille
d va
riou
s of
fice
san
d, in
190
5, in
itiat
ed th
e cr
eatio
n of
the
Off
ice
of th
e Se
cret
aria
of
Publ
icIn
stru
ctio
n an
d Fi
ne A
rts,
a p
ositi
on h
e w
as th
e fi
rst t
o fi
ll.A
fter
his
appo
intm
ent,
he to
ok c
harg
e of
Pri
mar
y an
d N
orm
al, P
repa
rato
ry, a
ndPr
ofes
sion
al I
nstr
uctio
n in
the
Fede
ral D
istr
ict a
nd te
rrito
ries
; the
Fin
e A
rts
Scho
ol o
f M
usic
and
Dec
lam
atio
n; th
e Sc
hool
s of
Art
s an
d T
rade
s, A
gric
ul-
ture
, Com
mer
ce, a
nd A
dmin
istr
atio
n.H
e ca
rrie
d ou
t the
pro
gres
sive
fede
raliz
atio
n of
inst
ruct
ion
with
out a
ffec
ting
the
sove
reig
nty
of th
e st
ates
,an
d he
insi
sted
on
thc
cons
tant
rev
isio
n of
pro
gram
s an
d pl
ans
of s
tudy
(Bar
bosa
, 197
2, p
p. 1
01-1
03; L
arro
yo, 1
986,
pp.
361
-362
).T
he c
reat
ion
of th
is S
ecre
tari
a of
fice
con
ferr
ed g
reat
pow
cr o
n Si
erra
,w
ho, i
n tu
rn, p
ropo
sed
two
mai
n ob
ject
ives
. Fir
st, h
e w
orke
d to
tran
sfor
mpr
imar
y ed
ucat
ion
from
inst
ruct
ion
that
sim
ply
disp
ense
s kn
owle
dge
to a
syst
em f
or d
evel
opin
g in
the
child
new
for
ms
of th
inki
ng (
Bar
bosa
, 197
2, p
.10
8; L
arro
yo, 1
986,
p 3
66).
Sec
ond,
he
aim
ed to
est
ablis
h co
ntin
uity
in th
eM
exic
an e
duca
tiona
l sys
tem
, inc
ludi
ng h
ighe
r ed
ucat
ion.
To
this
end
, he
7
30E
DU
CA
TIO
N IN
ME
XIC
O: H
IST
OR
ICA
L A
ND
CO
NT
EM
PO
RA
RY
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
SY
ST
EM
S
obta
ined
the
supp
ort o
f Pr
esid
ent D
iaz
and
Con
gres
s an
dfo
unde
d, in
191
0,
the
Nat
iona
l Sch
ool o
f H
ighe
r E
duca
tion
to tr
ain
prof
esso
rsin
sec
onda
ry
and
prof
essi
onal
edu
catio
n.Ia
the
sam
e ye
ar, h
e al
so le
d th
e ef
fort
tore
orga
nize
the
Nat
iona
l Uni
vers
ity o
f M
exic
o as
a la
y un
iver
sity
,an
d
char
ged
the
scho
ol w
ith p
urpo
ses
diff
eren
t fro
m th
ose
carr
ied
out
duri
ng it
s
time
as a
Pon
tific
ate
Uni
vers
ity (
Bar
bosa
, 197
2, p
. 107
; Lar
royo
,198
6, p
p.
370-
371)
.T
he u
nifi
catio
n of
the
natio
nal e
duca
tiona
l sys
tem
was
adv
ance
dth
roug
h
a se
ries
of
natio
nal a
ssem
blie
s de
sign
ed to
brin
g ed
ucat
ors
up to
dat
e.Si
erra
act
ivel
y pa
rtic
ipat
ed in
all
of th
ese
activ
ities
, and
the
last
of
the
asse
mbl
ies
took
pla
ce in
Sep
tem
ber
1910
(B
arbo
sa, 1
971,
p. 1
07; L
arro
yo,
1986
, p. 3
70).
The
fol
low
ing
mon
th, t
he R
evol
utio
n ex
plod
ed, l
ed b
y Fr
anci
sco
Mad
ero
agai
nst t
he d
icta
tor
Porf
irio
Dia
z. I
n a
last
atte
mpt
to p
rolo
ng h
is p
ower
,th
e
Porf
iria
to (
Dia
z's
gove
rnm
ent)
pro
duce
d in
that
sam
e ye
ar la
ws
that
est
ab-
lishe
d Sc
hool
s of
Rud
imen
tary
Ins
truc
tion,
ant
eced
ents
of
rura
lsc
hool
s
thro
ugho
ut th
e M
exic
an R
epub
lic. B
y de
cree
, the
se in
stitu
tions
wer
e to
teac
h N
ativ
e pe
ople
to s
peak
, rea
d, a
nd w
rite
Spa
nish
and
to d
oba
sic
arith
met
ic. W
hen
the
decr
ee w
as a
ppro
ved
by th
e C
ham
bers
(si
mila
r to
Con
gres
s), P
orfi
rio
Dia
z an
d hi
s ca
bine
t pre
sent
ed th
eir
resi
gnat
ions
.In
June
191
1, th
e la
w w
as p
ut in
pla
ce b
y th
e in
teri
m p
resi
dent
, Leo
nde
la
Bar
ra (
Bar
bosa
, 197
2, p
. 115
; Lar
royo
, 198
6, P
. 401
; Sol
ana
etal
., 19
82, p
.
113)
.
The
Pos
t Rev
olut
iona
ry P
erio
dO
ne o
f th
e fi
rst w
orri
es o
f Pr
esid
ent M
ader
o, w
hen
he c
ame
into
pow
er,
was
the
real
izat
ion
of th
e R
ural
Sch
ools
Pro
ject
. How
ever
,he
con
side
red
it
nece
ssar
y to
stu
dy th
e si
tuat
ion
befo
re la
unch
ing
apr
ojec
t tha
t wou
ld h
ave
such
a p
rofo
und
impa
ct o
n th
e in
dige
nous
pop
ulat
ion
Bef
ore
the
proj
ect e
ven
got u
nder
way
, how
ever
, pol
itica
l uph
eava
l onc
eag
ain
chan
ged
the
dire
ctio
n of
the
repu
blic
: on
Febr
uary
22,
191
3, M
ader
ow
as a
ssas
sina
ted.
In th
e ch
aos
follo
win
g th
e Pr
esid
ent's
dea
th, v
ario
ucfa
ctio
ns tr
ied
to c
ome
into
pow
er a
nd, c
onse
quen
tly, p
rogr
ess
in e
duca
tion
was
aba
ndon
ed o
ver
a lo
ng p
erio
d. B
etw
een
May
1911
and
Feb
ruar
y 19
17,
ther
e w
ere
15 d
iffe
rent
min
iste
rs o
f Pu
blic
Ins
truc
tion
and
Fine
Art
s(B
arbo
sa, 1
972,
p. 1
16).
In 1
916,
Ven
ustia
no C
arra
nza,
lead
er o
f th
e gr
oup
that
obt
aine
d po
wer
,co
nven
ed C
ongr
ess
in th
e ci
ty o
f Q
ueré
taro
to p
rodu
ce a
new
Con
stitu
tion.
Thi
s C
onst
itutio
n w
as a
dopt
ed o
n Fe
brua
ry 5
, 191
7. A
rtic
le 3
, ded
icat
ed to
educ
atio
n, d
ecla
red
that
edu
catio
n w
as to
be
free
and
non
relig
ious
.T
his
sam
e st
ipul
atio
n th
at e
duca
tion
be n
onre
ligio
usap
plie
d ev
en to
pri
vate
,pr
imar
y, s
econ
dary
, and
hig
her
educ
atio
n. N
o re
ligio
u.; c
orpo
ratio
n, o
r
VIC
TO
RIA
AN
DR
AD
E D
E H
ER
RA
RA
31
min
iste
r of
any
cul
t, w
ould
be
allo
wed
to e
stab
lish
or a
dmin
iste
r se
ool
s of
prim
ary
inst
ruct
ion
(Bar
bosa
, 197
2, p
p. 1
44-1
45; L
arro
yo, 1
986,
p. 1
47).
Und
er th
e ne
w C
onst
itutio
n, e
duca
tion
was
dec
entr
aliz
ed, a
nd th
e N
a-tio
nal O
ffic
e of
the
Secr
etar
ia w
as e
limin
ated
. The
mun
icip
aliti
es w
ere
give
n re
spon
sibi
lity
for
thc
cont
rol a
nd o
rgan
izat
ion
of k
inde
rgar
ten
and
prim
ary
educ
atio
n. T
he m
iddl
e sc
hool
s, n
orm
al s
choo
ls, p
repa
rato
ry, a
ndco
mm
erci
al s
choo
ls (
amon
g ot
hers
) w
ere
plac
ed u
nder
the
cont
rol o
f th
ego
vern
men
ts o
f di
stin
ct e
ntiti
es (
incl
uded
in th
ese,
the
Fede
ral D
istr
ict)
,w
hile
con
trol
of
the
Nat
iona
l Uni
vers
ity o
f M
exic
o w
as tr
ansf
erre
d to
ane
wly
cre
ated
Uni
vers
ity D
epar
tmen
t (So
lana
et a
l., 1
982,
pp.
149
-150
).It
soo
n be
cam
e ap
pare
nt th
at th
e de
cent
raliz
ed g
over
nanc
e pl
an w
as n
otfu
nctio
nal.
The
mun
icip
aliti
es la
cked
res
ourc
es to
bui
ld s
choo
ls, p
rovi
defu
rnis
hing
s, a
nd p
ay te
ache
rs' s
alar
ies.
Als
o, th
ey h
ad d
iffi
culty
loca
ting
pers
ons
with
the
scho
larl
y or
ped
agog
ical
pre
para
tion
nece
ssar
y to
car
ryou
t the
task
(So
lana
et a
l., 1
982,
pp.
151
-152
).In
192
0, th
e na
tion
was
sha
ken
by a
noth
er a
ssas
sina
tion:
Car
ranz
a's.
Inte
rim
pre
side
nt A
dolf
o de
la H
uert
a na
med
Jos
é V
asco
ncel
os a
s re
ctor
of
the
Nat
iona
l Uni
vers
ity, a
nd th
e ap
poin
tmen
t was
con
firm
ed b
y th
e ne
wpr
esid
ent,
Alv
aro
Obr
egO
n (1
920-
1924
). V
asco
ncel
os, a
pre
stig
ious
inte
l-le
ctua
l, w
as g
iven
bro
ad a
utho
rity
to c
arry
out
a c
ompr
ehen
sive
nat
iona
led
ucat
ion
prog
ram
. To
achi
eve
this
goa
l, he
cre
ated
a n
ew S
ecre
tari
a an
dsu
ccee
ded
in g
ettin
g it
appr
oved
by
the
Con
grcs
s in
Sep
tem
ber
1921
. The
offi
ce w
as c
alle
d th
e ne
w S
ecre
tari
a of
Pub
lic E
duca
tion,
not
Ins
truc
tion
(as
the
old
offi
ce w
as d
esig
nate
d), t
o si
gnif
y th
at th
e ne
w S
ecre
tari
a w
ould
wor
k to
war
d m
ore
than
mer
e in
stru
ctio
n, b
ut in
stea
d w
ould
wor
k to
de-
velo
p st
uden
ts' f
ull p
oten
tial (
Bar
bosa
, 197
2, p
. 31,
160
-161
; Sol
ana
et a
l.,19
82, p
. 158
). D
urin
g V
asco
ncel
os' t
enur
e in
the
Secr
etar
ia, h
e re
ceiv
edPr
esid
ent O
breg
rin'
s fu
ll po
litic
al a
nd e
cono
mic
sup
port
.in
the
brie
f pe
riod
bet
wee
n 19
21 to
192
4, g
reat
em
phas
is w
as g
iven
toth
e fi
ght a
gain
st il
liter
acy,
the
grow
th o
f ru
ral s
choo
ls, t
he c
reat
ion
cflib
rari
es, s
uppo
rt o
f ar
ts a
nd c
raft
s, a
nd a
rtis
tic a
nd s
cien
tific
inte
rcha
nge
with
for
eign
inst
itute
s. F
or V
asco
nccl
os, t
he e
duca
tiona
l pro
cess
sho
uld
not o
nly
deve
lop
the
full
pote
ntia
l of
the
indi
vidu
al, b
ut s
houl
d fi
nd a
way
tojo
in th
e in
dige
nous
wor
ld w
ith th
at o
f th
e H
ispa
nic.
Suc
h a
fusi
on w
ould
give
bir
th to
the
Mex
ican
iden
tity
and
to o
ther
nat
iona
l ide
ntiti
es o
f L
atin
Am
eric
a. B
elie
ving
that
Ind
ians
sho
uld
not c
onst
itute
a g
roup
apa
rt, h
eth
ough
t the
y ne
eded
to m
ix in
and
par
ticip
ate,
thus
cre
atin
g an
inte
grat
edM
exic
an s
ocie
ty. T
o co
mba
t illi
tera
cy, n
ot o
nly
of th
e in
dige
nous
pop
ula-
tion
but o
f al
l Mcx
ican
s, in
tens
e ca
mpa
igns
wer
e in
itiat
ed in
whi
ch s
peci
al-
ized
per
sonn
el a
nd n
umer
ous
volu
ntee
rs p
artic
ipat
ed (
Lar
royo
, 198
6, p
.48
2; S
olan
a et
al.,
198
2, p
p. 1
59, 1
74-1
75).
In h
is s
uppo
rt f
or th
c fo
rmat
ion
of th
e es
sent
ial M
exic
an id
entit
y,
32E
DU
CA
TIO
N IN
ME
XIC
O: H
IST
OR
ICA
L A
ND
CO
NT
EM
PO
RA
RY
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
SY
ST
EM
S
Vas
conc
elos
pat
roni
zed
dive
rse
aspe
cts
of th
e ar
ts. A
rtis
ts o
fthe
sta
ture
of
Mon
tene
gro,
Riv
era,
Oro
zco,
Cha
riot
, and
Xav
ier
Gue
rrer
opa
inte
d m
ural
s
on p
ublic
bui
ldin
gs.
He
also
arr
ange
d fo
r su
ppor
t to
reha
bilit
ate
The
Nat
iona
l Sym
phon
y so
that
it c
ould
off
er c
once
rts
to te
ache
rs in
the
capi
tal
and
the
prov
ince
s. V
isits
by
prom
inen
t Lat
in A
mer
ican
inte
llect
uals
als
o
wer
e pr
omot
ed.
All
of th
is a
ctiv
ity to
ok p
lace
with
out n
egle
ctin
g th
ebu
ildin
g of
new
sch
ools
, esp
ecia
lly te
chni
cal s
choo
ls f
or m
en a
nd w
omen
(Sal
vat,
1974
, Vol
. 9, p
. 256
; Sol
ana
et a
L, 1
982,
pp.
176
-177
).T
o st
imul
ate
read
ing,
a b
asic
ele
men
t in
peop
lebe
com
ing
self
-tau
ght,
clas
sic
liter
atur
e of
eve
ry e
ra w
as p
ublis
hed,
alo
ng w
ith te
ache
rgu
ides
.
The
se w
orks
, sol
d at
ver
y lo
w p
rice
s so
the
peop
le c
ould
buy
them
, wer
e in
grea
t dem
and.
Dur
ing
his
man
agem
ent,
Vas
conc
elos
foun
ded
671
perm
a-
nent
libr
arie
s an
d 21
cir
cula
ting
libra
ries
, thu
s in
crea
sing
acc
ess
tobo
oks
for
peop
le in
the
prov
ince
s (S
olan
a et
al.,
198
2, p
p. 1
79-1
80).
Rur
al e
duca
tion,
too,
rec
eive
d at
tent
ion
and
supp
ort f
rom
a D
epar
tmen
tof
Ind
igen
ous
Cul
ture
, whi
ch h
ad th
e au
thor
ity to
impl
emen
tits
pla
ns. B
y19
23, b
asic
org
aniz
atio
nal s
truc
ture
s fo
r th
e es
tabl
ishm
ent a
ndfu
nctio
ning
of r
ural
sch
ools
wer
e in
pla
ce, a
nd m
issi
onar
y te
ache
rs w
ere
sele
cted
and
char
ged
with
equ
ippi
ng lo
cal p
rim
ary
scho
ols
and
deliv
erin
g pr
imar
yin
stru
ctio
n in
are
as w
ith s
mal
l or
rem
ote
popu
latio
ns. T
hese
sch
ools
beg
anpr
ovid
ing
Span
ish
lang
uage
inst
ruct
ion
and
advi
sing
, sup
port
ing,
and
ori-
entin
g th
e ru
ral p
opul
atio
ns o
n so
cial
and
eco
nom
ic q
uest
ions
. Stu
dent
sco
oper
ated
in b
uild
ing
scho
ol f
urni
ture
, bui
ldin
gs, a
nd a
nnex
es f
or th
ele
arni
ng o
f tr
ades
and
upd
ated
agr
icul
tura
l pra
ctic
es a
nd f
or th
e pr
actic
e of
spor
ts. T
hese
sch
ools
, apa
rt f
rom
bci
ng e
duca
tiona
l cen
ters
, soo
nbe
cam
e
plac
es o
f co
nsul
tatio
n fo
r ev
eryo
ne in
the
com
mun
ity, a
nd th
e sc
hool
s w
ere
rena
med
Vill
age
Hou
ses.
In
1924
, aft
er a
trem
endo
us o
utpu
t, V
asco
ncel
osle
ft th
e Se
cret
aria
. At t
hat t
ime,
mor
e th
at 1
,000
Vill
age
Hou
ses
wer
efu
nctio
ning
(A
guila
r, 1
988;
Bar
bosa
, 197
2, p
p. 1
64-1
66; L
arro
yo, 1
986,
pp. 4
04-4
05; S
olan
a et
al.,
p. 4
82).
The
tran
sfer
of
pow
er f
rom
Pre
side
nt O
breg
ón to
Pre
side
nt C
a Il
es w
aspe
acef
ul. C
a Il
es h
ad w
orke
d as
a te
ache
r an
d fa
vore
d th
e sp
ring
ing
up o
fdi
vers
e ed
ucat
iona
l ins
titut
ions
to b
enef
it va
riou
s po
pula
r gr
oups
. In
1925
,th
e D
epar
tmen
t of
Indi
geno
us C
ultu
re c
hang
ed it
s na
me
to th
e D
epar
tmen
tof
Rur
al S
choo
ls, O
utsi
de P
rim
ary
Scho
ols,
and
Ind
igen
ous
Cul
tura
l Inc
or-
pora
tion.
The
Vill
age
Hou
ses
wer
e on
ce a
gain
cal
led
rura
l sch
ools
. Am
ong
the
purp
oses
of
this
Dep
artm
ent w
as to
dev
elop
indi
vidu
als'
abi
litie
s to
bette
r th
e co
nditi
ons
of th
eir
own
lives
. The
refo
re, o
ffic
ials
rec
omm
ende
dth
at te
ache
rs in
stru
ct m
ore
thro
ugh
expe
rien
ce th
an th
roug
h cl
assr
oom
lect
ures
. Ca
lles
also
con
side
red
it a
nece
ssity
that
eac
h re
gion
hav
e its
ow
nsp
ecia
l pro
gram
to m
eet i
ts o
wn
need
s. A
s a
basi
s fo
r th
e pa
rtic
ipat
ion
ofth
e in
dige
nous
pop
ulat
ion,
thc
cont
inui
ng im
port
ance
of
inst
ruct
ion
in
10
VIC
TO
RIA
AN
DR
AD
E D
E H
ER
RA
RA
33
Span
ish
was
con
cede
d bu
t with
the
stip
ulat
ion
that
all
grad
es b
e pa
rt o
f :h
ein
stru
ctio
n (L
arro
yo, 1
986,
p. 4
00).
It is
not
able
that
, NI
hile
the
purp
oses
of
educ
atio
n re
mai
ned
the
sam
e as
that
sta
ted
by p
rece
ding
gov
ernm
ents
, Cal
les
incr
ease
d th
e bu
dget
for
rur
aled
ucat
ion
and
initi
ated
the
cons
truc
tion
of a
ppro
pria
te b
uild
ings
. For
thes
ene
w s
choo
ls, h
e pr
ovid
ed f
urni
shin
gs a
nd la
rge
parc
els
of la
nd f
or r
egio
nal
crop
s, h
en h
ouse
s, r
abbi
t hut
ches
, and
bee
hiv
es (
Lar
royo
, 198
6, p
p. 4
05-
406,
408
).C
alle
s' p
res;
denc
y (1
924-
1928
) w
as c
hara
cter
ized
by
his
dete
rmin
atio
nto
hav
e ed
ucat
ion
reac
h al
l the
gre
at 'p
opul
atio
n ce
nter
s, b
oth
urba
n an
dru
ral.
In 1
926,
cul
tura
l mis
sion
s w
ere
initi
ated
and
cha
rged
with
dis
sem
i-na
ting
hygi
ene
prac
tices
, giv
ing
vacc
inat
ions
, ins
truc
ting
teac
hers
in r
ural
hom
e m
e&ci
ne a
nd f
irst
aid
, org
aniz
ing
cotta
ge a
nd r
egio
nal i
ndus
trie
s,an
d gi
ving
cla
sses
in h
ortic
t:itu
re, z
oolo
gy, a
nd r
ural
con
stru
ctio
n (B
arbo
sa,
1972
, p. 1
81; L
arro
yo, 1
986,
pp.
407
-409
). B
y 19
28, t
here
wer
e m
ore
than
5,00
0 ru
ral s
choo
ls, 2
06 u
rban
sch
ools
, and
38
kind
erga
rten
s. D
urin
g th
esa
me
peri
od, n
orm
al s
choo
l ins
truc
tion
was
inte
nsif
ied.
The
Nat
iona
lSc
hool
for
Tea
cher
s, f
ound
ed in
192
4, g
aine
d pr
estig
e w
hen
reno
wne
dte
ache
rs w
ere
invi
ted
to te
ach
ther
e (L
arro
yo, 1
986,
484
-485
).H
owev
er, d
urin
g C
alle
s' p
resi
denc
y, th
ere
wer
e co
nsta
nt c
onfl
icts
inM
exic
o's
capi
tol b
etw
een
the
Nat
iona
l Uni
vers
ity a
nd th
e Se
cret
aria
of
Edu
catio
n. T
he S
ccre
tari
a of
Edu
catio
n st
rugg
led
for
lay
inst
ruct
ion;
the
U.a
i..er
s:ty
pus
hed
to a
llow
for
rel
igio
us c
ontr
ol o
f in
stru
ctio
n. T
o re
duce
thU
nive
l:ity
's s
tren
gth,
sin
ce it
con
trol
led
the
5 ye
ars
of p
repa
rato
rysc
hoc!
, Sub
secr
etar
y M
oisd
s Sá
enz
sepa
rate
d ou
t fro
m th
e U
nive
rsity
resp
onsi
bilit
y fo
r th
e fi
rst 3
yea
rs o
f pr
cpar
ator
y sc
hool
and
with
thcs
efo
rmed
sec
onda
ry (
mid
dle
scho
ol)
educ
atio
n, d
epen
dent
on
the
Secr
etar
iaof
Edu
catio
n (B
arbo
sa, 1
972,
pp.
17,
177
).B
efor
e th
e en
d of
Cal
les'
term
, Obr
egón
trie
d to
get
him
self
ree
lect
edbu
t was
ass
assi
nate
d in
192
8. A
pro
visi
onal
pre
side
nt, F
orte
s G
il, a
nd tw
oot
hers
fill
ed th
e pe
riod
.C
onfl
icts
inte
nsif
ied
betw
een
the
auth
oriti
es o
fed
ucat
ion
and
thos
e of
the
univ
ersi
ties
and,
aft
er a
stu
dent
str
ike,
sup
port
edby
var
ious
sec
tors
of
the
popu
latio
n, th
e N
atio
nal U
nive
rsity
obt
aine
d its
auto
nom
y on
Jul
y 10
, 192
9 (L
arro
yo, 1
986,
p. 4
38; S
olan
a et
al.,
198
2, p
.25
7). In D
ecem
ber
1933
, dur
ing
the
Reg
ular
Con
vent
ion
of th
e N
atio
nal
Rev
olut
iona
ry P
arty
(PN
R),
del
egat
es F
royl
án C
. Man
jarr
ez a
nd A
lber
toB
rem
aunt
z pr
opos
ed a
mod
ific
atio
n to
Art
icle
3, r
epla
cing
the
wor
d la
yw
ith th
e w
ord
soci
alis
t.A
t thi
s tim
e, th
e Se
cret
ary
of E
duca
tion
and
mem
ber
of th
e PN
R, N
arci
so B
asso
ls, d
rew
up
tht.
new
Art
icle
that
, upo
nbe
ing
publ
iciz
ed, p
rovo
ked
a co
ntro
vers
y th
at o
blig
attd
Bas
sols
to r
esig
n in
May
193
4 (S
olan
a ct
al.,
198
2, p
p. 2
67-2
69).
11
34E
DU
CA
TIO
N IN
ME
XIC
O: H
IST
OR
ICA
L A
ND
CO
NT
EM
PO
RA
RY
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
SY
ST
EM
S
Not
with
stan
ding
str
ong
oppo
sitio
n, th
e ne
war
ticle
was
app
rove
d by
the
Hou
se C
ham
ber
and
cam
e in
to e
ffec
t on
Dec
embe
r 1
of th
at s
ame
year
, the
date
that
Láz
aro
Cár
dena
s oc
cupi
ed th
epr
esid
ency
. The
text
of
the
Art
icle
was
as
follo
ws:
Art
icle
3. T
he e
duca
tion
that
the
Stat
e im
part
s w
ill b
e so
cial
ist a
nd
furt
herm
ore
will
exc
lude
all
relig
ious
doct
rine
, will
com
bat f
anat
icis
m
and
prej
udic
e, f
or w
hich
the
scho
olw
ill o
rgan
ize
its in
stru
ctio
n an
d
activ
ities
in a
way
that
per
mits
the
crea
tion
of a
rat
iona
l and
an
accu
rate
con
cept
of
the
univ
erse
and
a s
ocia
l lif
e w
ithin
its
yout
h.
Onl
y th
e go
vern
men
tFed
erat
ion,
Stat
e, M
unic
ipal
ityw
ill g
ive
prim
ary,
sec
onda
ry, a
nd n
orm
aled
ucat
ion.
Aut
hori
zatio
n to
pri
vate
scho
ols
who
wis
h to
giv
e in
stru
ctio
nin
any
of
the
thre
e pr
evio
usly
men
tione
d m
ust b
e in
acc
ord
with
the
follo
win
g no
rms:
...In
eac
h
virt
ue, t
he r
elig
ious
cor
pora
tions
,th
e m
inis
ters
of
the
cults
,...w
ill n
ot
inte
rven
e in
any
for
m in
pri
mar
y,se
cond
ary
or n
orm
al s
choo
ls, n
or
will
they
be
supp
orte
d ec
onom
ical
ly(B
arbo
sa, 1
972,
p. 2
13);
Lar
royo
,
1986
, pp,
492
-493
; Sol
ana
et a
l.,19
82, p
p. 2
74-2
75).
To
plan
the
new
edu
catio
nal
curr
icul
um, t
he I
nstit
ute
of S
ocia
listO
rien
-
tatio
n w
as c
reat
ed in
193
5 an
d pu
tin
cha
rge
of c
arry
ing
out t
he n
ewpl
ans,
prog
ram
s, a
nd te
xts
from
the
pres
choo
l lev
el to
the
prof
essi
onal
leve
l.
Oth
er r
espo
nsib
ilitie
s of
this
Ins
titut
ein
clud
ed s
prea
ding
soc
ialis
t ori
enta
-
tion
amon
g th
e m
agis
trat
es, d
oing
aw
ayw
ith f
anat
icis
m, e
limin
atin
gill
it-
erac
y, a
nd p
repa
ring
teac
hers
tosp
read
cul
ture
in in
dige
nous
cen
ters
(Sol
ana
et a
l., 1
982,
p. 2
76).
To
impr
ove
agri
cultu
ral m
etho
dsan
d or
gani
ze c
olle
ctiv
e pr
oduc
tion
syst
ems,
the
Inst
itute
des
igne
dsp
ecia
l cou
rses
to li
ft w
orke
rs a
ndth
e ru
ral
popu
latio
n fr
om th
e pr
imar
y le
vel o
fin
stru
ctio
n up
thro
ugh
the
high
est
leve
ls o
f pr
ofes
sion
al a
nd c
ultu
ral
tech
nolo
gy. A
ssim
ilatio
n br
igad
es a
nd
cent
ers
for
indi
geno
us e
duca
tion
wer
ecr
eate
d. T
he n
umbe
r of
rur
alsc
hool
s
was
incr
ease
d by
2,2
00(S
olan
a et
al,,
198
2, p
p. 2
76-2
77).
The
par
t of
the
plan
that
cal
led
for
prep
arat
ion
of te
ache
rs to
spre
ad
cultu
re f
aile
d. T
each
ers
prot
este
d th
ebu
rden
of
deve
lopi
ng m
ultip
le s
ocia
l
activ
ities
suc
h as
org
aniz
ing
asse
mbl
ies,
club
s, c
omm
ittee
org
aniz
atio
ns,
and
com
mis
sion
s to
sol
icit
publ
icse
rvic
es in
add
ition
to d
evel
opin
gw
ork-
shop
s to
gui
de c
oope
rativ
epr
oduc
tion.
Add
to th
is li
st f
ulfi
lling
the
acad
emic
sub
ject
pro
gram
s, a
nd it
is e
asy
tode
duce
that
teac
hing
bec
ame
an u
npop
ular
pro
fess
ion,
incr
easi
ngly
so
afte
r nu
mer
ous
rura
lte
ache
rs
wer
e at
tack
ed p
hysi
cally
by th
ose
oppo
sed
to th
is ty
pe o
fedu
catio
n (S
olan
a
et a
l., 1
982,
pp.
281
, 287
).O
ne o
f th
e po
sitiv
e in
itiat
ives
oft
he C
árde
nas
peri
od w
as th
ecr
eatio
n in
1935
of
the
Nat
iona
l Pol
ytec
hnic
Inst
itute
(IP
N),
one
of
the
mos
tim
port
ant
12
VIC
TO
RIA
AN
DR
AD
E D
E H
ER
RA
RA
35
educ
atio
nal i
nstit
utio
ns in
the
coun
try.
Ini
tially
gea
red
to a
gric
ultu
ral a
ndin
dust
rial
pre
para
tion,
toda
y it
embr
aces
all
disc
iplin
es (
Coo
ms,
199
1, p
.91
). In 1
936,
the
Dep
artm
ent o
f In
dige
nous
Mat
ters
, the
Uni
vers
ity o
f th
eL
abor
er, a
nd th
e In
stitu
te f
or th
e Pr
epar
atio
n of
Adm
inis
trat
ion
of S
econ
d-ar
y (M
iddl
e Sc
hool
) In
stru
ctio
n w
ere
crea
ted;
in 1
942,
thes
e w
ere
tran
s-fo
rmed
into
the
Nor
mal
Sup
erio
r Sc
hool
. The
Dep
artm
ent o
f A
rtis
tic a
ndH
isto
ric
Mon
umen
ts w
as c
onve
rted
into
the
Inst
itute
of
Ant
hrop
olog
y an
dH
isto
ry. D
istin
guis
hed
Span
ish
inte
llect
ual r
efug
ees
in M
exic
o w
ere
re-
tain
ed, d
ue to
the
inte
rnal
str
uggl
e in
Spa
in (
1936
-193
9). F
or th
e or
phan
edch
ildre
n of
the
Span
ish
war
, the
Boa
rdin
g Sc
hool
of
Spai
n-M
exic
o w
asfo
unde
d in
Mic
hoac
án (
Bar
bosa
, 197
2, p
p. 2
24-2
25; L
arro
yo, 1
986
p. 4
94;
Sola
na e
t al.,
pp.
323
-324
).A
fter
the
Cár
dena
s pe
riod
, sub
sequ
ent g
over
nmen
ts m
odif
ied
plan
s an
dpr
ogra
ms
until
, gra
dual
ly, t
he s
ocia
list f
eatu
res
disa
ppea
red.
Cár
dena
s'su
cces
sor,
Pre
side
nt A
vila
Cam
acho
, app
oint
ed T
orre
s B
odet
, adi
stin
-
guis
hed
inte
llect
ual,
to th
e po
sitio
n of
Min
iste
r of
Edu
catio
n.B
odet
prep
ared
, with
out a
ny p
ublic
ity, a
mod
ific
atio
n of
Art
icle
3.
Pres
iden
t
Cam
acho
sen
t the
mod
ific
atio
n to
Con
gres
s in
Dec
embe
r 19
45.
It w
asap
prov
ed b
y th
e tw
o C
ham
bers
and
by
the
legi
slat
ors
of th
e M
exic
an s
tate
san
d w
as p
ublis
hed
in th
e O
ffic
ial D
iary
, Dec
embe
r 30
, 194
6 (B
arbo
sa,
1972
, pp.
236
-237
; Sol
ana
et a
l., 1
982,
pp.
323
-324
).T
he te
xt o
f th
e A
rtic
le, -
',er
the
refo
rm o
f 19
46, r
ead
as f
ollo
ws:
The
edu
catio
n gi
ven
by th
e st
ate-
fede
ratio
n, s
tate
s, o
r m
unic
ipal
ities
,w
ill d
evel
op h
arm
onio
usly
all
the
facu
lties
of
the
hum
an b
eing
and
will
nur
ture
in th
is b
eing
at t
he s
ame
time
the
love
of
Cou
ntry
and
the
cons
ciou
snes
s of
inte
rnat
iona
l sol
idar
ity, i
n in
depe
nden
ce a
nd in
just
ice.
I. G
uara
ntee
d by
Art
icle
24,
the
free
dom
of
belie
fs is
the
crite
rion
that
will
gui
de e
duca
tion,
whi
ch w
ill m
aint
ain
itsel
f co
mpl
etel
y ap
art f
rom
any
relig
ious
doc
trin
e an
d ba
se it
self
on
the
resu
lts o
fsc
ient
ific
prog
ress
, thu
s fi
ghtin
g ag
ains
t ign
oran
ce a
nd it
s ef
fect
s, f
anat
icis
man
d pr
ejud
ice
(Pol
itica
l Con
stitu
tion
of th
e U
nite
d St
ates
of
Mex
ico
with
Ref
orm
s an
d A
dditi
ons,
196
9).
In e
ach
of th
e fo
llow
ing
pres
iden
tial p
erio
ds, e
duca
tion
unde
rwen
tm
odif
icat
ions
som
e of
littl
e co
nseq
uenc
e; o
ther
s, o
f gr
eat s
cope
. Dur
ing
the
peri
od o
f Pr
esid
ent A
lem
án (
1946
-195
2), t
he f
ollo
win
g in
stitu
tions
wer
e cr
eate
d: th
e N
atio
nal I
nstit
ute
of F
ine
Art
s (1
946)
, the
Indi
geno
usIn
stitu
te (
1948
), th
e N
atio
nal I
nstit
ute
of Y
outh
(19
50),
and
the
Nat
iona
lA
uton
omou
s U
nive
rsity
of
Mex
ico
City
was
con
stru
cted
(19
52),
with
vari
ous
bran
ches
thro
ugho
ut M
exic
o C
ity. T
hese
bra
nche
s in
clud
ed th
e
13
36E
DU
CA
TIO
N IN
ME
XIC
O: H
IST
OR
ICA
L A
ND
CO
NT
EM
PO
RA
RY
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
SY
ST
EM
S
Tea
chin
g In
stitu
te a
nd A
dmin
istr
ativ
e R
esea
rch
and
Serv
ices
; Phy
sica
l
Edu
catio
n; S
pect
acle
Spo
rts;
and
Res
iden
tial,
Park
s,an
d H
ortic
ultu
ral
Nur
seri
es. A
s of
199
5, th
is U
nive
rsity
enr
olls
mor
e th
at10
0,00
0 st
uden
ts.
(Lar
royo
, 198
6, p
p. 5
34-5
35, 5
48; S
olan
a et
al.,
198
2, p
p.34
4-34
6).
Ale
mán
was
suc
ceed
ed b
y R
uiz
Cor
tines
(19
42-1
958)
,w
ho w
as s
uc-
ceed
ed b
y L
Ope
z M
ateo
s (1
958-
1964
), w
ho a
gain
app
oint
edT
orre
s B
odet
as M
inis
ter
of E
duca
tion.
Bod
et to
ok th
epo
sitio
n w
ith r
eser
ved
grat
itude
,
reco
untin
g hi
s ac
com
plis
hmen
ts d
urin
g th
e C
amac
ho a
dmin
istr
atio
n.In
196
0, T
orre
s B
odet
pre
sent
ed h
is P
lan
of E
leve
n Y
ears
,whi
ch h
ad a
s
its p
rinc
ipal
end
the
solu
tion
to th
e gr
owin
g de
man
d fo
rnat
iona
l qua
lity
prim
ary
educ
taio
n. M
eetin
g th
e de
man
d re
quir
ed th
eco
nstr
uctio
n of
new
clas
sroo
ms,
reh
abili
tatio
n of
the
exis
ting
ones
, and
teac
her
prep
arat
ion.
Alth
ough
Bod
et's
wor
k w
as d
iffi
cult,
upo
n ha
ndin
g ov
er th
eSe
cret
aria
to
his
succ
esso
r, in
196
4, h
e co
nsid
ered
that
his
pla
n ha
d be
en83
per
cent
com
plet
ed in
the
urba
n ar
eas
and
62 p
erce
nt c
ompl
eted
in r
ural
are
as(L
arro
yo, 1
986,
pp.
546
-547
; Sol
ana
et a
l., 1
982,
pp.
369-
371)
.
In r
espe
ct to
sec
onda
ry e
duca
tion,
the
Nat
iona
l Tec
hnic
alC
ounc
il of
Edu
catio
n (r
efor
med
in 1
958)
rev
ised
and
org
aniz
ed th
e pl
ans
and
pro-
gram
s of
stu
dy. T
he C
ounc
il re
duce
d th
enu
mbe
r of
aca
dem
ic h
ours
to 2
2
wee
ks a
nd a
dded
14
hour
s of
tech
nolo
gica
l act
iviti
es w
eekl
y so
that
stu
-de
nts
who
fel
t obl
igat
ed to
aba
ndon
thei
r st
udie
s (a
fre
quen
t situ
atio
nin
the
coun
try)
cou
ld c
ount
on
a ba
sic
prep
arat
ion
for
a lif
e of
wor
k (B
arbo
sa,
1972
, p. 3
6; L
arro
yo, 1
986,
p. 3
80).
A m
easu
re r
ecei
ved
with
ent
husi
asm
by
pers
ons
of s
carc
eec
onom
ic
reso
urce
s w
as th
e 19
58 c
reat
ion
of th
e N
atio
nalC
omm
issi
on o
f Fr
ee T
ext
Boo
ks f
or E
lem
enta
ry S
choo
ls.
From
196
0 to
196
4, th
e C
omm
issi
ondi
stri
bute
d 10
7,15
5,75
5 bo
oks
and
wor
kboo
ks a
nd 4
94,2
55 te
ache
rs' m
anu-
als.
Thi
s m
easu
re s
ough
t to
mak
e a
prim
ary
educ
atio
n tr
uly
free
by
mak
ing
both
inst
ruct
ion
and
book
s av
aila
ble
at n
o co
st to
fam
ilies
. Fro
m 1
964
on,
the
Secr
etar
y of
Edu
catio
n co
ntin
ued
prod
ucin
g an
d di
stri
butin
g fr
ee te
xts
in p
rim
ary
scho
ols
acro
ss th
e co
untr
y (L
arro
yo, 1
986,
pp.
547
-548
;Sol
ana
et a
l., 1
982,
p. 3
67).
In 1
973,
dur
ing
the
pres
iden
cy o
f L
uis
Ech
ever
ria,
a la
rge
sele
ct g
roup
of
teac
hers
and
spe
cial
ists
fro
m d
iver
se f
ield
s ga
ther
ed in
Che
tum
alan
d
appr
oved
a p
lan
of s
tudi
es f
or b
asic
sec
onda
ry e
duca
tion,
bas
ed o
n A
rtic
le25
, Sec
tion
II o
f th
e Fe
dera
l Law
of
Edu
catio
n. T
he n
ew p
lan
calle
d fo
r tw
o
basi
c ar
eas
of s
tudy
: (1)
Soc
ial S
cien
ces
(inc
ludi
ng h
isto
ry,
econ
omic
s,
soci
al g
eogr
aphy
, and
civ
ics)
and
(2)
Nat
ural
Sci
ence
s (i
nclu
ding
phys
ics,
chem
istr
y, b
iolo
gy, a
nd p
hysi
cal g
eogr
aphy
) (A
gree
men
t 16
363
of
Che
tum
al, A
ugus
t 31,
197
4).
Seve
ral s
ecto
rs w
ho f
avor
ed th
e st
udy
of in
divi
dual
aca
dem
ic d
isci
-pl
ines
pro
test
ed e
nerg
etic
ally
. Aft
er m
any
mee
tings
of
teac
hers
and
par
-en
ts, i
t was
agr
eed
that
the
dire
ctor
of
each
sch
ool
wou
ld d
ecid
e if
the
14
VIC
TO
RIA
AN
DR
AD
E D
E H
ER
RA
RA
37
curr
icul
um w
ould
be
pres
ente
d by
con
tent
are
as o
r by
aca
dem
ic d
isci
plin
es.
In th
e en
d, a
bout
hal
f of
all
seco
ndar
y sc
hool
s w
orke
d w
ith c
onte
nt a
reas
and
the
othe
r ha
lf w
ith a
cade
mic
dis
cipl
ines
. The
se a
rran
gem
ents
rem
aine
din
pla
ce u
ntil
1992
, the
yea
r th
at th
e pr
esen
t ref
orm
cam
e in
to e
ffec
t as
prop
osed
by
ex-p
resi
dent
Sal
inas
de
Gor
tari
(19
88-1
994)
.In
Jan
uary
199
1, th
e Se
cret
ary
of E
duca
tion,
Man
uel B
artle
tt-D
faz,
inst
alle
d a
Nat
iona
l Com
mis
sion
for
Con
sulta
tion
on th
e M
oder
niza
tion
ofE
duca
tion.
Com
mun
ity, l
ocal
, reg
iona
l, st
ate,
and
nat
iona
l mee
tings
wer
ehe
ld o
ver
3 m
onth
s in
whi
ch te
ache
rs, p
aren
ts, r
esea
rche
rs, e
xper
ts, r
epre
-se
ntat
ives
of
soci
al s
ecto
rs, a
nd a
utho
ritie
s pa
rtic
ipat
ed. M
ore
than
65,
000
pape
rs w
ere
give
n.T
he P
rogr
am f
or E
duca
tiona
l Mod
erni
zatic
a w
asde
rive
d fr
om th
is s
tudy
.It
is th
e fo
unda
tion
docu
men
t for
initi
atin
g a
com
preh
ensi
ve c
hang
e of
pla
ns a
nd p
rogr
ams
of b
asic
edu
catio
n of
the
coun
try
(Pro
gram
for
the
Edu
catio
nal M
oder
niza
tion
1989
-199
4).
In 1
990
the
Prog
ram
was
fie
ld te
sted
in a
lim
ited
num
ber
of p
resc
hool
educ
atio
n, p
rim
ary,
and
sec
onda
ry (
juni
or h
igh)
sch
ools
. The
ana
lysi
s of
the
obta
ined
res
ults
and
the
idea
s co
ntri
bute
d by
teac
hers
and
edu
catio
nal
auth
oriti
es g
uide
d th
e el
abor
atio
n of
a d
ocum
ent t
itled
Nat
iona
l Agr
eem
ent
for
the
Mod
erni
zatio
n of
Bas
ic E
duca
tion
(AN
ME
B),
sig
ned
May
18,
199
2.T
o ca
rry
out t
his
com
preh
ensi
ve p
lan
to m
oder
nize
Mex
ico'
s sc
hool
s,th
e C
ongr
ess
mod
ifie
d tw
o C
onst
itutio
nal A
rtic
lest
he 3
0th
and
31st
and
appr
oved
a G
ener
al L
aw o
f E
duca
tion,
ena
cted
in J
uly
1993
(he
reaf
ter
refe
rred
to a
s th
e A
rtic
les
and
the
Law
). W
ith th
e N
atio
nal A
gree
men
t, th
ela
st s
tage
of
the
reor
gani
zatio
n of
pla
ns a
nd p
rogr
ams
of s
tudy
was
initi
ated
(Pol
itica
l Con
stitu
tion
of th
e U
nite
d St
ates
of
Mex
ico,
Edi
tori
al T
rilla
s,19
94 E
ditio
n; F
eder
al L
aw o
f E
duca
tion,
Dai
ly O
ffic
e of
the
Fede
ratio
n,Ju
ly 1
3, 1
993)
.
Aft
er p
ublic
atio
n of
the
firs
t pla
ns a
nd p
rogr
ams
in 1
993,
the
Cou
ncil
proc
eede
d to
dev
elop
its
firs
t ser
ies
of f
ree
text
book
s fo
r pr
esch
ool a
ndpr
imar
y in
stru
ctio
n, d
idac
tic g
uide
s, a
nd s
uppl
emen
tary
mat
eria
ls f
or te
ach-
ers.
Leqa
l Bas
is o
f the
Pre
sent
Edu
catio
nal S
yste
m
The
pre
sent
str
uctu
re o
f th
e M
exic
an E
duca
tiona
l Sys
tem
is b
ased
on
(1)
Art
icle
s 30
and
31
of th
e C
onst
itutio
n, (
2) th
e N
atio
nal A
gree
men
t for
the
Mod
erni
zatio
n of
Bas
ic E
duca
tion
(AN
ME
B),
and
(3)
the
Gen
eral
Law
of
Edu
catio
n. E
ach
of th
ese
com
pone
nts
is d
escr
ibed
in th
is u
ctio
n.
Con
stitu
tiona
l Art
icle
s 30
and
31
Art
icle
30.
Eve
ry in
divi
dual
has
the
righ
t to
rece
ive
an e
duca
tion.
The
gove
rnm
entF
eder
atio
n, S
tate
s, a
nd M
unic
ipal
ities
will
impa
rt
15
38E
DU
CA
TIO
N IN
ME
XIC
O: H
IST
OR
ICA
L A
ND
CO
NT
EM
PO
RA
RY
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
SY
ST
EM
S
pres
choo
l, pr
imar
y, a
nd s
econ
dary
edu
catio
n. P
rim
ary
and
seco
ndar
yed
ucat
ion
are
oblig
ator
y.
1. G
uara
ntee
d by
Art
icle24
on li
bert
y of
thou
ght,
said
edu
catio
n w
illbe
lay
and,
bec
ause
of
that
, it w
ill r
emai
n co
mpl
etel
y ap
art f
rom
any
relig
ious
doc
trin
e.
III.
... [
t]he
Fed
eral
Exe
cutiv
e w
ill d
eter
min
e th
e pl
ans
and
prog
ram
sof
stu
dy f
or p
rim
ary,
sec
onda
ry, a
nd n
orm
al e
duca
tion
for
the
entir
eR
epub
lic...
.
IV. A
ll th
e ed
ucat
ion
that
the
stat
e im
part
s w
ill b
e fr
ee.
VI.
Pri
vate
sch
ools
will
be
able
to im
part
edu
catio
n in
all
of it
s ty
pes
and
mod
aliti
es.
..
.[t]
he S
tate
will
gra
nt a
nd d
eclin
e re
cogn
ition
of
offi
cial
val
ue o
n th
e st
udie
s ca
rrie
d ou
t in
priv
ate
scho
ols.
VII
. The
Uni
vers
ities
and
the
othe
r in
stitu
tions
of
high
er e
duca
tion
upon
whi
ch th
e la
w b
esto
ws
auto
nom
y, w
ill h
ave
the
auth
ority
and
the
resp
onsi
bilit
y of
gov
erni
ng th
emse
lves
, and
will
rea
lize
thei
r pu
rpos
esto
edu
cate
, inv
estig
ate,
and
dif
fuse
cul
ture
in a
ccor
danc
e w
ith th
epr
inci
ples
of
this
art
icle
, res
pect
ing
the
liber
ty o
f pr
ofes
sori
alap
poin
tmen
ts, r
esea
rch,
and
the
free
exa
min
atio
n an
d di
scus
sion
of
idea
s....
Plea
se n
ote
that
this
Art
icle
guar
ante
es th
e ri
ght o
f al
l ind
ivid
uals
rega
rdle
ss o
f ag
e, n
atio
nalit
y, o
rso
cial
con
ditio
nto
a fr
ee e
duca
tion,
pro
vide
d by
the
stat
e;es
tabl
ishe
s bo
th p
rim
aryand
seco
ndar
y (j
unio
r hi
gh)
as p
arts
of
basi
cin
stru
ctio
n; u
nlik
e pr
evio
us la
w, w
hich
stip
ulat
ed o
nly
pres
choo
l and
prim
ary
leve
ls (
Off
icia
l Dia
ry o
f th
e Fe
dera
tion,
Mar
ch5, 1993;
Polit
i-ca
l Con
stitu
tion
of th
e U
nite
d St
ates
of
Mex
ico,
Edi
tori
al T
rilla
s, 1
0th
Edi
tion,
1994,
page
s 10
and
11)
;as
sign
s to
the
Fede
ral E
xecu
tive
(thr
ough
the
Secr
etar
ia o
f E
duca
tion)
the
auth
ority
to d
eter
min
e th
e pr
ogra
m o
f st
udy
for
basi
c an
d no
rmal
educ
atio
n w
hile
allo
win
g st
ates
som
e la
titud
e, a
s lo
ng a
s th
eir
plan
sco
nfor
m to
the
basi
c cr
iteri
on e
stab
lishe
d by
the
Fede
ratio
n; a
ndal
low
s pr
ivat
e sc
hool
s to
car
ry o
ut e
duca
tion,
the
only
req
uire
men
tbe
ing
that
they
obt
ain
the
nece
ssar
y au
thor
izat
ion
from
the
Stat
e.
Ano
ther
con
stitu
tiona
l art
icle
mod
ifie
d by
the
Uni
on C
ongr
ess
was
the
31st
, rep
rodu
ced
in p
art b
elow
.
Art
icle
31.
Obl
igat
ions
of
all M
exic
an c
itize
ns to
ass
ure
that
thei
rch
ildre
n or
dup
ils a
ttend
pub
lic o
r pr
ivat
e sc
hool
s, in
ord
er to
obt
ain
16
VIC
TO
RIA
AN
DR
AD
E D
E H
ER
RA
RA
39
prim
ary
and
seco
ndar
y ed
ucat
ion
and
to ta
ke a
n ac
tive
part
in th
em
ilita
ry, a
ccor
ding
to th
e te
rms
esta
blis
hed
by la
w.
Art
icle
31
inst
itute
s th
e re
spon
sibi
lity
of p
aren
ts to
end
eavo
r to
get
for
thei
r ch
ildre
n ba
sic
educ
atio
n to
suc
h an
ext
ent t
hat t
heir
obl
igat
ion
does
not s
top
until
the
pupi
l fin
ishe
s se
cond
ary
educ
atio
n. T
his
requ
irem
ent i
sim
port
ant i
n M
exic
6, b
ecau
se n
umer
ous
pare
nts
of s
carc
e ec
onom
ic r
e-so
urce
s ab
stai
n fr
om s
endi
ng th
eir
child
ren
to s
choo
l and
obl
igat
e th
em to
wor
k. A
t pre
sent
, the
se p
aren
ts a
re o
utsi
de th
e la
w (
Polit
ical
Con
stitu
tion
of th
e U
nite
d St
ates
of
Mex
ico,
Tri
llas
Edi
tori
al, T
enth
Edi
tion,
199
4, p
.55
).
Nat
iona
l Agr
eem
ent f
or th
e M
oder
niza
tion
of B
asic
Edu
catio
n(A
NM
EB
)T
he A
NM
EB
was
sig
ned
on M
ay 1
8, 1
992,
by
Ern
esto
Zed
illo,
then
Min
iste
r of
Edu
catio
n (n
ow P
resi
dent
of
the
coun
try)
.It
rep
rese
nts
the
agre
emen
t of
vari
ous
inte
rest
gro
ups
with
in th
e co
untr
y to
rea
ch c
omm
onob
ject
ives
thro
ugh
fede
ral e
duca
tion
and
to s
hare
am
ong
the
fede
ratio
n an
dth
c st
ates
the
tech
nica
l, ad
min
istr
ativ
e, a
nd f
inan
cial
res
pons
ibili
ties.
It i
s,fu
rthe
rmor
e, a
n in
stru
men
t of
plan
ning
that
req
uire
s a
rest
ruct
urin
g of
the
educ
atio
nal s
yste
m a
nd d
iver
se r
efor
ms
in th
e or
gani
zatio
n of
the
offi
ce o
fSe
cret
aria
of
Publ
ic E
duca
tion
(SE
P, N
atio
nal A
gree
men
t for
the
Mod
ern-
izat
ion
of B
asic
Edu
catio
n, 1
992)
.T
his
Agr
eem
ent c
onta
inF
thre
e w
ater
shed
cha
nges
:1.
dec
entr
aliz
atio
n of
the
educ
atio
nal s
yste
m,
2. r
efbr
mul
atio
n of
con
tent
and
edu
catio
nal m
ater
ials
, and
3.
reev
alua
tion
of th
e te
achi
ng f
unct
ion.
Eac
h of
thes
e ch
ange
s is
dis
cuss
ed b
elow
.
Dec
entr
aliz
atio
n of
the
educ
atio
nal s
yste
m. A
s a
firs
t ste
p to
war
dde
cent
raliz
atio
n of
the
fede
ral e
duca
tiona
l sys
tem
, Zed
illo
tran
sfer
red
toth
e st
ate
gove
rnm
ents
the
adm
inis
trat
ion
of p
resc
hool
edu
catio
n an
d pr
i-m
ary
(inc
ludi
ng in
dige
nous
edu
catio
n), s
econ
dary
(ju
nior
hig
h) s
choo
l,no
rmal
, and
spe
cial
inst
itutio
ns. T
his
incl
udes
the
man
agem
ent o
f ar
ound
100,
000
real
est
ate
prop
ertie
s w
ith f
urni
shin
gs,513,000
teac
hing
pos
ts,
115,
000
adm
inis
trat
ive
post
s, 2
.9 m
illio
n cl
ass
hour
s, a
nd 1
3.5
mill
ion
stud
ents
(SE
P, G
ener
al M
anag
emen
t of
Info
rmat
ion,
Exe
cutiv
e R
cpor
t19
92, p
. 131
).T
his
dece
ntra
lizat
ion,
acc
ompl
ishe
d w
ith g
reat
eff
ort,
cam
e up
aga
inst
ala
ck o
f un
ders
tand
ing
and
the
resi
stan
ce o
f so
me
loca
l edu
catio
nal a
utho
ri-
ties.
The
se p
robl
ems,
for
tuna
tely
, wer
e ov
erco
me.
The
agr
eem
ent e
stab
-lis
hed
seve
ral s
ets
of o
blig
atio
ns:
17
40C
OU
CA
TIO
N IN
ME
XIC
O: H
IST
OR
ICA
L A
ND
(..;
ON
TE
MP
OR
AR
Y t
DU
CA
UO
NA
L S
YS
TE
MS
Obl
igat
ions
of
the
Fede
ratio
nto
car
ry o
ut A
rtic
le 3
0 of
the
Con
stitu
tion,
to e
xped
ite g
ener
al s
tand
ards
of
educ
atio
n,to
for
mul
ate
plan
s an
d pr
ogra
ms,
and
to e
valu
ate
the
educ
atio
nal s
yste
m.
Obl
igat
ions
of
the
Stat
esto
dir
ect s
tate
sch
ools
;to
ass
ume
resp
onsi
bilit
y fo
r th
e te
chni
cal,
adm
inis
trat
ive,
and
fin
anci
alas
pect
s;to
for
m c
olle
giat
e/pr
ofes
sion
al c
ounc
ils; a
ndto
pro
pose
reg
iona
l cri
teri
a.
Obl
igat
ions
of
the
Mun
icip
aliti
esto
cre
ate
mun
icip
al e
duca
tion
coun
cils
, and
to m
aint
ain
and
equi
p sc
hool
s.
Obl
igat
ions
of
the
fede
ratio
n an
d st
ate
team
sto
rec
ogni
ze th
e N
atio
nal S
yndi
cate
of
Edu
catio
nal L
abor
ers
(SN
TE
) as
offi
cial
s of
labo
r re
latio
ns f
or th
e te
ache
rs a
ssoc
iatio
n;to
stim
ulat
e so
cial
par
ticip
atio
n;to
ass
ign
grea
ter
reso
urce
s to
tik:
mos
t nee
dy e
ntiti
es a
nd r
egio
ns;
to s
tren
gthe
n th
e ca
paci
ty o
f th
e te
ache
r, p
aren
t, an
d st
uden
t org
aniz
a-tio
ns; a
ndto
cre
ate
scho
ol e
duca
tiona
l cou
ncils
.
Ref
orm
ulat
ion
of e
duca
tiona
l con
tent
and
mat
eria
ls. T
o ca
rry
out
the
seco
nd w
ater
shed
cha
nge
of th
eN
atio
nal A
gree
men
t,co
nsul
tatio
n an
dde
bate
for
ums
wer
e co
nduc
ted
duri
ng th
e 19
92-9
3 sc
hool
yea
r.T
hepu
rpos
e of
the
foru
ms
was
to s
olic
it in
put t
o op
timiz
e pl
anni
ng f
or n
ewpr
ogra
ms
of s
tudy
and
for
text
book
s.A
djus
tmen
ts w
ere
mad
e to
the
requ
irem
ents
at t
he p
rim
ary
and
seco
ndar
y le
vels
for
inst
ruct
ion
by c
onte
ntar
eas
vers
us in
stru
ctio
n by
aca
dem
ic d
isci
plin
es (
SEP,
Gen
eral
Man
age-
men
t of
Info
rmat
ion,
Exe
cutiv
e R
epor
t 199
3, p
. 134
).A
mon
g th
ese
chan
ges,
the
mos
t sig
nifi
cant
incl
ude
refo
rm o
f ed
ucat
iona
l con
tent
and
cur
ricu
lum
thro
ugh
the
tota
l ren
ova-
tion
of p
lans
and
pro
gram
s of
stu
dy a
nd te
xtbo
oks;
appl
icat
ion
of a
new
pre
scho
ol e
duca
tiona
l pro
gram
;ap
plic
atio
n of
a n
ew e
mer
gent
pri
mar
y ed
ucat
ion
prog
ram
;in
crea
se in
inst
ruct
iona
l hou
rs in
mat
hem
atic
s an
d Sp
anis
h at
bot
hpr
imar
y an
d se
cond
ary
leve
ls;
disc
ontin
uatio
n of
the
cont
ent a
reas
of
inst
ruct
ion
appr
oach
in s
ocia
lsc
ienc
es, a
nd a
dopt
ion
of th
e st
udy
of g
eogr
aphy
, his
tory
, civ
ics,
and
rela
ted
but i
ndep
ende
nt d
isci
plin
es a
t the
pri
mar
y an
d se
cond
ary
(jun
ior
high
) sc
hool
leve
ls;
cont
inua
tion
of th
e co
nten
t are
a of
nat
ural
sci
ence
s at
the
prim
ary
leve
l
18
VIC
TO
RIA
AN
DR
AD
E D
E H
ER
RA
RA
41
but a
dopt
ion
of th
e di
scip
line
appr
oach
to p
hysi
cs, c
hem
istr
y, a
ndbi
olog
y at
the
seco
ndar
y (j
unio
r hi
gh)
leve
l.de
sign
of
a ne
w s
choo
l cal
enda
r th
at g
uara
ntee
s 20
0 da
ys o
f cl
asse
sdu
ring
the
scho
ol y
ear;
reno
vatio
n of
met
hods
and
pro
cess
es o
f in
stru
ctio
n;ar
ticul
atio
n of
the
dist
inct
edu
catio
nal l
evel
s;up
datin
g of
edu
catio
nal p
roce
sses
in a
ccor
danc
e w
ith s
cien
tific
and
tech
nolo
gica
l adv
ance
s; a
ndre
achi
ng a
gree
men
t with
the
Secr
etar
y of
Com
mun
icat
ions
and
Tra
ns-
port
and
est
ablis
hing
an
impe
tus
for
long
-dis
tanc
e, te
levi
sed
lear
ning
thro
ugh
the
use
of s
atel
lite
com
mun
icat
ion
and
para
bolic
al a
nten
nas
(SE
P, E
xecu
tive
Rep
ort,
1993
).
Ree
valu
atio
n of
the
teac
hing
fun
ctio
n. T
he e
cono
mic
situ
atio
n of
teac
hers
had
det
erio
rate
d ov
er th
e ye
ars
to th
e po
int t
hat,
in s
ome
mun
ici-
palit
ies,
thei
r sa
lari
es w
ere
only
a li
ttle
abov
e m
inim
um w
age.
Thi
ssi
tuat
ion
freq
uent
ly o
blig
ated
teac
hers
to m
eet t
heir
fin
anci
al n
eeds
by
taki
ng o
ther
jobs
and
neg
lect
ing
thei
r st
uden
ts.
Oth
er te
ache
rs s
impl
yab
ando
ned
the
teac
hing
pro
fess
ion
(SE
P, E
xecu
tive
Rep
ort,
1993
, p. 1
34).
To
alle
viat
e te
ache
rs' f
inan
cial
dis
tres
s an
d to
res
pond
to th
eir
requ
ests
for
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t, se
vera
l act
ions
wer
e ta
ken:
(A
dvan
ces
inE
duca
tiona
l Mod
erni
zatio
n, M
ay, 1
994,
p. 1
6; E
xecu
tive
Rep
ort,
1993
, p.
134)
. impl
emen
tatio
n of
a s
yste
m f
or te
ache
r tr
aini
ng in
eac
h st
ate;
refo
rm o
f en
tran
ce r
evir
emen
ts to
a n
orm
al s
choo
l pro
gram
, suc
h th
atth
e ce
rtif
icat
e of
pre
paca
tory
(eq
uiva
lent
to a
[U
.S.]
hig
h sc
hool
di-
plom
a) is
req
uire
d;ap
plic
atio
n of
a m
oder
nize
d ed
ucat
iona
l pro
gram
;im
prov
emen
t in
teac
hers
' sal
arie
s, a
s of
May
199
3, to
the
tune
of
a 70
perc
ent i
ncre
ase;
initi
atio
n of
a T
each
er T
rain
ing
Car
eer
prog
ram
to s
timul
ate
teac
her
acad
emic
impr
ovem
ent,
orga
nize
d as
a c
aree
r la
dder
that
per
mits
teac
h-er
s to
incr
ease
thei
r le
vel o
f in
com
e ac
cord
ing
to e
valu
atio
n cr
iteri
a su
chas
leng
th o
f se
rvic
e, a
cade
mic
leve
l, up
grad
ed tr
aini
ng, p
repa
ratio
n, a
ndpr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent (
80 p
erce
nt o
f al
l tea
cher
s ha
ve p
artic
ipat
ed);
endo
wm
ents
to s
choo
l boo
k co
llect
ions
to s
uppo
rt th
e pe
rfor
man
ce o
fth
e st
aff;
and
impl
emen
tatio
n of
a s
peci
al p
rogr
am to
pro
mot
e th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
hous
ing
for
teac
hers
.
The
Gen
eral
Law
of
Edu
catio
n. T
he G
ener
al L
aw o
f E
duca
tion
cam
ein
to e
ffec
t Jul
y 14
, 199
3, r
epla
cing
the
old
Fede
ral L
aw o
f E
duca
tion.
The
new
law
cle
arly
spe
cifi
es th
e ri
ghts
and
obl
igat
ions
of
all e
duca
tiona
lag
enci
es (
Off
icia
l Dia
ry o
f th
e Fe
dera
tion
of J
uly
13, 1
993)
.So
me
of th
e ri
ghts
and
obl
igat
ions
it c
onta
ins
are
outli
ned
belo
w.
19
42E
DLI
C!`
.110
N IN
ME
XIC
O: H
IST
OR
ICA
L A
ND
CO
NT
EM
PO
RA
RY
ED
LC
AT
ION
AL
SY
ST
EM
S
The
new
law
pro
vide
s su
ppor
t for
Art
icle
30's
gua
rant
ee o
f a
free
,se
cula
r, b
asic
edu
catio
n fo
r al
l Mex
ican
s as
an
oblig
atio
n of
the
gove
rn-
men
t.W
ith r
egar
d to
the
fede
raliz
atio
n of
edu
catio
n,th
e la
w e
stab
lishe
s th
e
norm
s fo
r re
latio
ns b
etw
een
the
fede
ratio
n an
d th
e st
ates
and
mun
icip
ali-
ties.
It c
onfe
rs o
n th
e st
ates
the
resp
onsi
bilit
yfo
r th
e te
chni
cal,
adm
inis
-tr
ativ
e, a
nd f
inan
cial
asp
ects
of
its e
duca
tiona
lin
stitu
tions
, with
out
losi
ng s
ight
of
the
obje
ctiv
es o
f fe
dera
l edu
catio
n.T
his
mea
sure
per
mits
stre
ngth
enin
g of
nat
ion]
uni
ty w
ithou
t wea
keni
ngre
gion
al d
evel
op-
men
ts. T
o su
ppor
t reg
iona
l dev
elop
men
t,ed
ucat
iona
l ser
vice
s ar
e se
t up
that
are
res
pons
ive
to th
e ne
eds
and
char
acte
rist
ics
of e
ach
regi
on.
In v
iew
of
the
fact
that
the
qual
ity o
f th
e ed
ucat
iona
l pro
cess
is o
ne o
f th
e
prin
cipa
l pur
pose
s, th
e sc
hool
cal
enda
r is
ext
ende
d to
200
scho
ol d
ays.
The
Law
als
o co
nfir
ms
the
righ
t of
pare
nts
to b
ein
form
ed p
erio
dica
lly
abou
t the
leve
l of
prog
ress
of
thei
r ch
ildre
n.T
he la
w r
ecog
nize
s th
e ex
peri
ence
of
som
e pe
rson
s on
the
basi
s of
thei
rkn
owle
dge,
abi
litie
s, a
nd s
kills
, thu
s gi
ving
off
icia
l cer
tific
atio
nif
they
mee
t the
eva
luat
ion
stan
dard
s.T
he la
w b
road
ens
the
soci
al p
artic
ipat
ion
in e
duca
tion
bysu
ppor
ting
the
role
of
pare
nts
in th
e ed
ucat
iona
l pro
cess
, cre
atin
g sc
hool
advi
sory
boar
ds, s
eeki
ng m
ore
invo
lvem
ent o
f va
riou
s co
mm
unic
atio
nm
ediu
ms,
and
invi
ting
soci
ety
to p
artic
ipat
e in
the
prod
uctio
n of
fre
ete
xtbo
oks.
Pre
sent
Str
uctu
re o
f the
Edu
catio
nal S
yste
m
Edt
,.:at
ion
in M
exic
o co
mpr
ises
the
follo
win
g ed
ucat
iona
l sta
ges:
bas
icpr
esch
ool,
prim
ary,
sec
onda
ry (
juni
or h
igh)
, pre
p sc
hool
, hig
her
educ
atio
n,an
d po
stgr
adua
te (
Fede
ral L
aw o
f E
duca
tion,
Off
icia
l Dia
ry o
f th
e Fe
dera
-tio
n of
Jul
y 13
, 199
3; S
EP,
Mex
ico,
Adv
ance
s of
the
Edu
catio
nalM
oder
n-
izat
ion,
May
, 199
4). E
ach
leve
l is
desc
ribe
d in
this
sec
tion.
Bas
ic E
duca
tion
Bas
ic E
duca
tion
com
pris
es in
itial
, pre
scho
ol, p
rim
ary,
scc
onda
ry, a
nd
spec
ial e
duca
tion.
In a
dditi
on, i
t inc
lude
s ph
ysic
al, a
rtis
tic, a
nd c
ultu
ral
educ
atio
n.
Initi
al E
duca
tion
The
nee
ds o
f ap
prox
imat
ely
9 m
illio
n ch
ildre
n un
der
the
age
of 4
and
thei
r m
othe
rs (
incr
easi
ng n
umbe
rs o
f w
hom
are
em
ploy
ed)
in u
rban
,ru
ral,
and
indi
geno
us c
omm
uniti
es s
paw
ned
the
crea
tion
of a
new
type
of
info
r-
mal
sch
oolin
g. T
hese
new
"sc
hool
s" p
ursu
e tw
o ob
ject
ives
: to
empo
wer
mot
hers
in th
e ca
re a
nd a
ttent
ion
of th
eir
child
ren
and
to h
elp
mot
hers
ada
ptne
w p
aren
ting
met
hods
to th
eir
hom
e en
viro
nmen
tsth
roug
h di
vers
e ac
tivi-
ties.
20
VIC
TO
RIA
AN
DR
AD
E D
E H
ER
RA
RA
43
Thi
s in
itial
edu
catio
n is
ded
icat
ed to
chi
ldre
n ag
e 45
day
s to
3 y
ears
. It
is im
part
ed in
the
Cen
ters
of
Infa
ntile
Dev
elop
men
t (C
EN
DI)
(cr
eate
dth
roug
h a
cons
titut
iona
l man
date
) in
fed
eral
, sta
te, d
epen
denc
y, a
nd p
riva
te
inst
itutio
ns.
In 1
992,
142
,000
infa
nts
atte
nded
; how
ever
, the
eno
rmou
sde
man
d w
ould
hav
e re
quir
ed a
sup
ply
of u
p to
216
,000
mor
e sl
ots.
The
pro
gram
s, s
uppo
rt m
ater
ials
, and
edu
catio
nal r
esou
rces
for
infa
nts
and
thei
r pa
rent
s ar
e de
sign
ed to
pre
pare
chi
ldre
n fo
r pr
esch
ool e
duca
tion.
To
this
end
, the
cur
ricu
lum
has
bee
n in
fuse
d w
ith c
onte
nt a
bout
eco
logy
,hy
gien
e ha
bits
, and
nut
ritio
n, o
f gr
eat i
mpo
rtan
ce e
spec
ially
in th
e ru
ral a
ndin
dige
nous
com
mun
ities
. Tak
ing
into
acc
ount
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f pa
rent
alpa
rtic
ipat
ion,
con
tent
that
enc
oura
ges
atte
ntiv
enes
s to
infa
nts
has
been
incl
udet
. in
the
adul
t edu
catio
n pr
ogra
ms.
In a
dditi
on to
stim
ulat
ing
child
ren'
s di
stin
ct a
bilit
ies,
the
sugg
este
dm
etho
ds n
urtu
re e
xpre
ssiv
enes
s, c
reat
ivity
, and
art
istic
sen
sibi
lity.
For
olde
r in
fant
s, d
idac
tic p
acka
ges
tied
to p
resc
hool
edu
catio
n ha
ve b
een
prod
uced
.A
t pre
sent
, to
broa
den
part
icip
atio
n, e
ffor
ts a
re u
nder
way
to s
olic
itpa
rtic
ipat
ion
of v
ario
us c
omm
unic
atio
ns m
edia
to h
elp
prom
ote
publ
icaw
aren
ess.
Oth
er e
ffor
ts a
re u
nder
way
to o
btai
n th
e co
oper
atio
n of
thos
ein
tern
atio
nal o
rgan
izat
ions
inte
rest
ed in
the
wel
l-be
ing
of in
fant
s (S
EP,
Perf
orm
ance
Rep
ort,
1993
).
Pre
scho
ol E
duca
tion
In M
exic
o, p
ublic
pre
scho
ol e
duca
tion
cons
ists
of
2 ye
ars
of in
stru
ctio
nan
d co
nstit
utes
the
firs
t con
tact
of
the
child
with
for
mal
edu
catio
n. T
o en
ter
kind
erga
rten
, a c
hild
mus
t hav
e re
ache
d hi
s or
her
fou
rth
birt
hday
. In
man
ypr
ivat
e ki
nder
gart
ens,
whe
re a
for
eign
lang
uage
is ta
ught
alo
ng w
ith th
ena
tive
lang
uage
, pre
scho
ol e
duca
tion
take
s 3
year
s. D
urin
g th
e la
st y
ear,
calle
d pr
e-pr
imar
y, c
hild
ren
alte
rnat
e be
twee
n la
ngua
ges
and
lear
n el
e-m
ents
of
read
ing
and
wri
ting
in b
oth.
In th
e 19
93-9
4 sc
hool
yea
r, 2
.9m
illio
n ch
ildre
n w
ere
enro
lled
in M
exic
o's
pres
choo
l edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m.
The
y w
ere
taug
ht b
y ov
er 1
16,0
00 te
ache
rs in
ove
r 52
,000
sch
ools
.T
he c
onte
nt o
f th
e ne
w p
resc
hool
pro
gram
of
stud
ies
is ta
ught
in r
elat
ion
to th
e ch
ild's
nat
ural
and
soc
ial e
nvir
onm
ent a
nd s
eeks
to ti
e th
is e
duca
-tio
nal s
tage
to w
hat c
omes
late
r. W
ith th
is o
bjec
tive,
the
prop
osed
act
iviti
esem
phas
ize
mat
hem
atic
s, o
ral a
nd w
ritte
n la
ngua
ge, a
rtis
tic s
ensi
bilit
y,na
ture
stu
dy, a
nd d
evel
opm
ent o
f ps
ycho
-mot
or a
bilit
ies
(SE
P. F
unda
men
-ta
ls o
f th
e T
heor
etic
al-M
etho
dolo
gy o
f th
e Pr
esch
ool E
duca
tiona
l Pro
gram
,19
92, p
p. 1
1-23
).Fo
llow
ing
the
firs
t yca
r of
impl
emen
tatio
n, a
n ev
alua
tion
was
car
ried
out i
n 19
sta
tes
of th
e R
epub
lic. T
he r
esul
ts p
rovi
ded
usef
ul in
form
atio
n in
revi
sing
the
cont
ent o
f th
e pe
dago
gica
l gui
des
used
dur
ing
the
1992
-93
21
44E
DU
CA
TIO
N IN
ME
XIC
O: H
IST
OR
ICA
L A
ND
CO
NT
EM
PO
RA
RY
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
SY
ST
EM
S
scho
ol y
ear.
App
roxi
mat
ely
687,
000
copi
es o
f th
e pr
ogra
m w
ere
dist
rib-
uted
to te
ache
rs (
SEP,
Per
form
ance
Rep
ort,
1993
).E
xam
ples
of
prog
ram
mat
eria
ls in
clud
e a
book
for
chi
ldre
n, M
y W
ork
Not
eboo
k (M
i Cua
dern
o de
Tra
bajo
); d
idac
tic p
acka
ges
inte
grat
ed w
ithga
mes
of
prim
ary
grap
hics
; mod
ules
abo
ut m
usic
al in
stru
men
ts; c
asse
tteta
pes;
a m
usic
boo
k; a
nd o
ther
mat
eria
l tha
t stim
ulat
es c
reat
ivity
thro
ugh
sim
ple
craf
ts. T
oget
her,
the
mat
eria
l is
desi
gned
to s
uppo
rt th
e ph
ysic
al,
affe
ctiv
e, in
telle
ctua
l, an
d so
cial
dev
elop
men
t of
stud
ents
(SE
P, P
erfo
r-m
ance
Rep
ort,
1993
, 287
).In
199
2, a
n in
nova
tive
info
rmat
ion
data
base
and
com
pute
r lit
erac
ypr
ogra
m w
as e
stab
lishe
d in
141
kin
derg
arte
ns in
the
Fede
ral D
istr
ict.
Aft
er2
year
s of
exp
erie
nce,
this
eff
ort t
o ad
dres
s an
asp
ect o
f ed
ucat
ion
that
had
lagg
ed b
ehin
d w
as c
onsi
dere
d su
cces
sful
; in
1994
, 178
Mic
ro-S
EP
com
put-
ers
wer
e in
stal
led
and
soft
war
e m
anua
ls d
istr
ibut
ed,w
hich
wou
ld b
enef
it
mor
e th
an 3
2,00
0 st
uden
ts. (
SEP,
Off
ice
of G
ener
alIn
form
atio
n, P
erfo
r-
man
ce R
epor
t, 19
93, 2
88).
One
of
the
conc
erns
of
the
Secr
etar
ia o
f Pu
blic
Edu
catio
n ha
s be
en th
ein
tegr
atio
n of
isol
ated
indi
geno
us g
roup
s, s
ome
of w
hom
hav
e re
sist
edab
ando
ning
thei
r tr
aditi
onal
way
s of
life
.T
he S
ecre
tari
a in
itiat
ed th
ete
achi
ng o
f Sp
anis
h as
a n
atio
nal l
angu
age
in th
e pr
esch
ool g
roup
s w
ithou
tdi
spla
cing
the
dist
inct
Nat
ive
lang
uage
s an
d tr
aditi
onal
cus
tom
s. T
he b
asic
elem
ents
of
Span
ish
are
easi
ly a
ssim
ilate
d by
chi
ldre
n of
this
age
(SE
P,Pe
rfor
man
ce R
epor
t, 19
93, 2
87).
For
this
task
, bili
ngua
l tea
cher
s w
ere
coun
ted
on, m
ost o
f w
hom
wer
eN
ativ
es o
f th
e in
dige
nous
com
mun
ities
. The
se m
ento
rs r
ecei
ved
a M
anua
lfo
r th
e In
dige
nous
Tea
cher
and
wer
e pr
epar
ed th
roug
h sp
ecia
l cou
rses
. The
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
the
Man
ual w
as e
valu
ated
in th
e st
ates
ofJ
alis
co, M
icho
fica
n,an
d Pu
ebla
(T
he O
ffic
e of
Gen
eral
Inf
orm
atio
n, P
erfo
rman
ce R
epor
t, 19
93,
288)
. Rur
al a
reas
als
o re
ceiv
ed s
peci
al m
ater
ials
.In
add
ition
to p
revi
ous
prep
arat
ion,
teac
hers
rec
eive
d 5,
876
wor
k gu
ides
and
did
actic
pac
kage
s fo
r59
,114
stu
dent
s (T
he O
ffic
e of
Gen
eral
Inf
orm
atio
n. P
erfo
rman
ce R
epor
t,19
93, p
. 288
).O
ne o
f th
e co
mm
itmen
ts o
f th
e Se
cret
aria
of
Publ
ic E
duca
tion
in th
isna
tiona
l edu
catio
n re
form
eff
ort i
s to
sup
port
the
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
tof
teac
hers
. In
1993
, 126
,911
teac
hers
atte
nded
trai
ning
wor
ksho
ps, s
emi-
nars
, and
a c
ours
e on
Pre
scho
ol T
each
ing-
Lea
rnin
g m
etho
dolo
gyca
rrie
d
out t
hrou
gh th
e G
ener
al P
roje
ct o
f T
each
ing
Em
pow
erm
ent (
Off
ice
ofG
ener
al I
nfor
mat
ion,
Per
form
ance
Rep
ort,
pp. 2
88-2
90).
The
mes
cov
ered
in th
e pr
esch
ool c
ours
e in
clud
ed f
unda
men
tals
of
tech
niqu
e an
d m
ctho
ds in
pre
scho
ol e
duca
tion;
ear
ly c
hild
hood
dev
elop
-m
ent i
n th
e af
fect
ive,
soc
ial,
inte
llect
ual,
and
phys
ical
dom
ains
; pro
gram
orga
niza
tion;
and
the
soci
al f
unct
ion
of th
e sc
hool
.
22
VIC
TO
RIA
AN
DR
AD
E D
E H
ER
RA
RA
45
Prim
ary
Edu
catio
nU
ntil
rece
ntly
, bas
ic a
nd p
rim
ary
educ
atio
n w
ere
syno
nym
ous
in M
exic
o.Pr
imar
y sc
hool
, div
ided
into
low
er (
firs
t, se
cond
, and
thir
d ye
ars)
and
high
er (
fift
h an
d si
xth)
gra
des
cons
titut
ed th
e ba
se o
f th
e ed
ucat
iona
lsy
stem
. In
man
y co
mm
uniti
es a
cros
s th
e co
untr
y, it
was
the
only
edu
catio
nto
whi
ch in
habi
tant
s ha
d ac
cess
.T
oday
, pri
mar
y sc
hool
con
tinue
s to
car
ry o
ut it
s im
port
ant r
ole
as th
ebr
idge
bet
wee
n pr
esch
ool a
nd s
econ
dary
. Dur
ing
the
1993
-94
scho
ol y
ear,
near
ly 1
4.5
mill
ion
stud
ents
wer
e ta
ught
by
over
488
,000
teac
hers
in m
ore
than
85,
000
Mex
ican
pri
mar
y sc
hool
s.A
mon
g m
ain
goal
s of
the
plan
of
stud
ies
for
prim
ary
stud
ents
are
to s
tren
gthe
n re
adin
g, w
ritin
g, a
nd o
ral e
xpre
ssio
nint
elle
ctua
l abi
li-tie
s co
nsid
ered
bas
ic to
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f pe
rman
ent l
earn
ing
and
com
mun
icat
ion
capa
citie
s;to
lear
n m
athe
mat
ical
con
cept
s an
d ap
ply
them
to p
robl
ems
of e
very
day
life;
to o
btai
n ba
sic
know
ledg
e ne
eded
to c
ompr
ehen
d na
tura
l phe
nom
ena,
espe
cial
ly th
e re
latio
nshi
p of
hyg
iene
and
hea
lth c
are,
pro
tect
ion
of th
een
viro
nmen
t, an
d ra
tiona
l use
of
natu
ral r
esou
rces
;to
acq
uire
fun
dam
enta
l kno
wle
dge
of h
isto
ry a
nd g
eogr
aphy
, thu
sg
ain-
ing
an u
nder
stan
ding
of
othe
r co
untr
ies
and
of M
exic
o in
par
ticul
ar;
to a
cqui
re a
n ap
prec
iatio
n of
the
stud
ents
' rig
hts
and
resp
onsi
bilit
ies
and
to p
ract
ice
thes
e va
lues
in th
eir
rela
tions
with
oth
ers;
to a
ppre
ciat
e an
d en
joy
mus
ic, p
aint
ing,
dan
ce, l
itera
ture
, and
oth
erar
tistic
ach
ieve
men
ts o
f hu
man
ity; a
ndto
enj
oy p
hysi
cal e
xerc
ise
and
spor
ts.
The
con
tent
s ou
tline
d ab
ove
are
cons
ider
ed f
unda
men
tal t
o th
e de
velo
p-m
ent o
f th
e w
hole
stu
dent
. Tea
cher
s ar
e en
cour
aged
to m
ake
sure
that
,al
ong
with
thes
e ne
cess
ary
abili
ties
for
perm
anen
t lea
rnin
g, th
e ac
quis
ition
of k
now
ledg
e is
ass
ocia
ted
with
the
exer
cise
of
inte
llect
ual a
bilit
ies
and
med
itatio
n (S
EP,
Pla
n an
d Pr
ogra
ms
of S
tudy
199
3, E
lem
enta
ry, p
. 14)
.Fo
r th
e 19
93-9
4 sc
hool
yea
r, n
ew p
lans
and
pro
gram
s of
stu
dy w
ere
desi
gned
and
impl
emen
ted
in f
irst
, thi
rd, a
nd f
ifth
gra
des.
The
se c
hang
esne
cess
itate
d th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
new
mat
eria
ls a
nd f
ree
text
book
s. S
peci
al-
ists
wer
e in
vite
d to
com
pete
to r
ewri
te tc
xtbo
oks.
New
cur
ricu
lum
has
now
been
impl
emen
ted
in a
ll si
x gr
ades
.T
he d
evel
opm
ent o
f th
e ne
w p
lan
requ
ires
an
annu
al c
alen
dar
of 2
00w
orki
ng d
ays
and
4-ho
ur c
lass
day
s, w
hich
tran
slat
es in
to 8
00 a
nnua
lho
urs-
150
hour
s m
ore
than
pre
viou
s cy
cles
. The
dis
trib
utio
n of
inst
ruc-
tiona
l tim
e is
sho
wn
in T
able
1 (
SEP,
Pla
n an
d Pr
ogra
ms
of S
tudy
199
3, p
.14
). Not
ice
that
beg
inni
ng in
the
firs
t gra
de, s
peci
al a
ttent
ion
is g
iven
toSp
anis
h (4
5 pe
rcen
t of
clas
s tim
e), a
nd m
athe
mat
ics
(30
perc
ent)
. In
thes
e
23
46E
DU
CA
TIO
N IN
ME
XIC
O: H
IST
OR
ICA
L A
ND
CO
NT
EM
PO
RA
RY
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
SY
ST
EM
S
Tab
le 1
Dis
trib
utio
n of
Wor
k T
ime
(199
3 P
lan)
Firs
t and
Sec
ond
Gra
des
Subj
ect
Wee
kly
hour
sA
nnua
lho
urs
Span
ish
936
0
Mat
hem
atic
s6
240
Kno
wle
dge
of th
e E
nvir
onm
ent
(Nat
ural
Sci
ence
s, H
isto
ry,
Geo
grap
hy, C
ivic
Edu
catio
n)3
120
Art
istic
Edu
catio
n1
40Ph
ysic
al E
duca
tion
140
Tot
als
2080
0
Sour
ce: S
EP
Plan
and
pro
gram
s of
stu
dy 1
993,
p. 1
4
two
grad
es, u
nder
the
rubr
ic o
f K
now
ledg
e of
the
Env
iron
men
t, th
e na
tura
l
scie
nces
, his
tory
, geo
grap
hy, a
nd c
ivic
edu
catio
n ar
c in
tegr
ated
.T
he la
st
thre
e su
bjec
ts a
re a
n in
tegr
ated
stu
dy o
f th
e co
mm
unity
, mun
icip
ality
,an
d
polit
ical
ent
ity w
here
the
stud
ents
live
.In
thir
d, f
ourt
h, f
ifth
, and
six
th g
rade
s, S
pani
sh a
nd m
athe
mat
ics
con-
tinue
to r
ecei
ve th
e m
ost a
ttent
ion,
as
show
n in
Tab
le 2
. The
foc
us o
fear
lier
Span
ish
prog
ram
s w
as th
e st
udy
of g
ram
mat
ical
str
uctu
re a
ndlin
guis
tic
form
s. T
he c
entr
al p
urpo
se o
f th
e ne
w p
rogr
ams
is th
e de
velo
pmen
tof
the
com
mun
icat
ion
capa
city
in s
peak
ing
and
wri
ting
(SE
P. P
lan
and
Prog
ram
s
of S
tudy
199
3, E
lem
enta
ry, p
p. 1
4 an
d 15
).T
he m
athe
mat
ics
prog
ram
dev
elop
s th
e ca
paci
ty to
rec
ogni
ze, p
lan,
and
solv
e pr
oble
ms;
ant
icip
ate
and
veri
fy r
esul
ts; e
stim
ate
resu
lts o
f co
mpu
ta-
tion,
and
mea
sure
and
use
mea
sure
men
t des
ign
and
com
puta
tiona
lin
stru
-
men
ts (
SEP,
Pla
n an
d pr
ogra
ms
of s
tudy
199
3, E
lem
enta
ry, p
.52
).
The
con
tent
s of
the
natu
ral s
cien
ces
are
grou
ped
in f
ive
them
atic
axe
s:liv
ing
bein
gs; t
he h
uman
bod
y an
d he
alth
; the
env
iron
men
t and
its
prot
ec-
tion;
mat
ter,
ene
rgy
and
chan
ge; a
nd s
cien
ce, t
echn
olog
y, a
ndso
ciet
y.
From
thir
d gr
ade
on, 3
hou
rs a
wee
k ar
e se
t asi
de f
or th
e na
tura
lsc
ienc
es
beca
use
of th
eir
impo
rtan
ce in
the
pres
erva
tion
of h
ealth
and
the
prot
ectio
n
of n
atur
al r
esou
rces
and
the
envi
ronm
ent (
SEP.
Pla
n an
d Pr
ogra
ms
ofSt
udy
1993
, Ele
men
tary
, p. 7
4).
An
impo
rtan
t mod
ific
atio
n w
as th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
an in
tegr
ated
soci
al
scie
nces
uni
t, w
hich
rep
lace
d fr
agm
ente
d ge
ogra
phy,
his
tory
, and
civi
cs
24
VIC
TO
RIA
AN
DR
AD
E D
E H
ER
RA
RA
47
Tab
le 2
Dis
trib
utio
n of
Wor
k T
ime
(199
3 P
lan)
Thi
rd to
Six
th G
rade
s
Wee
kly
Ann
ual
Subj
ect
hour
sho
urs
Span
ish
624
0M
athe
mat
ics
520
0N
atur
al S
cien
ces
312
0H
isto
ry1.
560
Geo
grap
hy1.
560
Civ
ic E
duca
tion
140
Art
istic
Edu
catio
n1
40Ph
ysic
al E
duca
tion
140
Tot
als
2080
0
Sour
ce: S
EP
Plan
and
pro
gram
s of
stu
dy 1
993
less
ons
taug
ht p
revi
ousl
y (S
EP.
Pla
n an
d pr
ogra
ms
of s
tudy
199
3, E
lem
en-
tary
, pp.
91-
140)
.Fo
r th
e 19
93-9
4 ac
adem
ic y
ear,
the
new
Pro
gram
for
Upd
atin
g T
each
ers
cons
iste
d of
fou
r co
urse
s ad
dres
sing
pro
blem
s in
teac
hing
Spa
nish
, mat
h-em
atic
s, z
nd h
isto
ry, a
nd th
ree
cour
ses
abou
t cla
ssro
om p
lann
ing
(SE
P.O
ffic
e of
Gen
eral
Inf
orm
atio
n, C
hapt
er o
n E
duca
tion,
p. 1
33).
In th
e sc
hool
per
iod
that
beg
an in
Svt
embe
r 19
93, p
rim
ary
scho
olst
uden
ts a
nd te
ache
rs r
ecei
ved
mor
e th
an 1
13 m
illio
n bo
oks,
sta
te m
ono-
grap
hs, a
nd te
ache
r gu
ides
. Of
thes
e, n
earl
y 46
mill
ion
wer
e fr
ee te
xtbo
oks.
A P
rogr
am o
f E
nvir
onm
enta
l Pro
tect
ion
was
dev
elop
ed in
the
1993
-94
scho
ol y
ear
in M
exic
o C
ity a
s an
ext
racu
rric
ular
act
ivity
. Its
pur
pose
was
tocr
eate
an
awar
enes
s in
stu
dent
s of
the
impo
rtan
t rol
e th
ey c
ould
pla
y in
redu
cing
con
tam
inat
ion
in v
ario
us c
ities
of
the
coun
try,
esp
ecia
lly in
Mex
ico
City
, Gua
dala
jara
, and
Mon
terr
ey.
The
lite
racy
ser
vice
s in
the
indi
geno
us c
omm
uniti
es f
ocus
on
read
ing
and
wri
ting
in S
pani
sh, a
rith
met
ic e
lem
ents
, and
bas
ic M
exic
an h
isto
ry a
ndge
ogra
phy.
The
se s
ervi
ces
are
offe
red
to c
hild
ren
and
adul
ts w
ho r
eque
stth
em. O
utst
andi
ng s
tude
nts
who
wis
h to
con
tinue
thei
r st
udie
s ar
e gi
ven
econ
omic
hel
p. T
he li
tera
cy c
ampa
igns
hav
e he
lped
low
er il
liter
acy,
whi
chcu
rren
tly s
tand
s at
abo
ut 8
per
cent
of
the
popu
latio
n (S
EP.
Off
ice
ofG
ener
al I
nfor
mat
ion,
Cha
ptcr
on
Edu
catio
n, p
. 138
).In
coo
rdin
atio
n w
ith s
peci
alis
ts in
20
indi
geno
us la
ngua
ges
and
dial
ects
,r
4
48E
DU
CA
TIO
N IN
ME
XIC
O: H
IST
OR
ICA
L A
ND
CO
NT
EM
PO
RA
RY
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
SY
ST
EM
S
book
s w
ere
prep
ared
for
fir
st-
and
seco
nd-g
rade
inst
ruct
ion
in r
eadi
ng a
nd
wri
ting
in in
dige
nous
lang
uage
s. C
onte
nt w
asta
ilore
d to
mat
ch s
peci
fic
regi
onal
con
ditio
ns. A
t the
sam
e tim
e, a
sup
port
man
ual o
n th
e ed
ucat
iona
l
proc
ess
of in
dige
nous
pri
mar
ysc
hool
ing
was
dis
trib
uted
to te
ache
rs. T
his
man
ual w
as b
ased
on
test
pro
gram
s co
nduc
ted
in th
e st
ates
of
Chi
apas
,
Chi
huah
ua, H
idal
go, a
nd M
orel
os. A
ppro
xim
atel
y15
2,00
0 co
pies
wer
e
used
for
inst
ruct
ion
in S
pani
sh; 1
01,0
00in
indi
geno
us la
ngua
ges
(SE
P,
Off
ice
of G
ener
al I
nfor
mat
ion,
Per
form
ance
Rep
ort,
p. 2
89).
To
serv
e po
pula
tions
with
spe
cial
nee
ds,
the
Prim
ary
Prog
ram
for
Mig
rant
Chi
ldre
n w
as d
evel
oped
to b
enef
it10
,000
chi
ldre
n of
mig
rant
agri
cultu
ral l
abor
ers.
The
se s
tude
nts
mig
rate
with
in 1
4 st
ates
of
the
Rep
ub-
lic. [
See
chap
ters
6 a
nd 8
for
mor
e in
form
atio
nab
out p
rogr
ams
spon
sore
dby
the
Mex
ican
Sec
reta
ria
of P
ublic
Edu
catio
n th
at s
erve
mig
rant
stu
dent
s
who
trav
el in
to th
e U
nite
d St
ates
.]
Sec
onda
ry (
Juni
or H
igh)
Edu
catio
nIn
con
tras
t to
prim
ary,
the
seco
ndar
y (m
iddl
esc
hool
) le
vel o
ccup
ied
a
plac
e of
littl
e im
port
ance
in e
arlie
r er
as.
Alth
ough
the
1865
Law
of
Inst
ruct
ion
incl
udes
lang
uage
abo
ut s
econ
dary
edu
catio
n, o
rgan
ized
on
the
styl
e of
the
Fren
ch ly
ceum
s of
that
era
(co
vere
d in
7 o
r 8
year
s), i
t was
not
until
192
5, a
fter
two
pres
iden
tial d
ecre
es, t
hat t
he s
econ
dary
sch
ool i
nM
exic
o w
as b
orn
(Lar
royo
, 198
6, 4
61-4
62).
The
199
3 re
form
res
ultin
g fr
om A
rtic
le 3
0 of
the
Con
stitu
tion
conf
erre
dgr
eat i
mpo
rtan
ce o
n se
cond
ary
educ
atio
n by
incl
udin
g it
as a
n ob
ligat
ory
com
pone
nt in
a b
asic
edu
catio
n in
Mex
ico.
Tha
t ref
orm
cre
ated
for
the
gove
rnm
ent a
n ob
ligat
ion
to in
crea
se th
e nu
mbe
r of
sec
onda
ry s
choo
lsav
aila
ble
to s
erve
thos
e st
uden
ts w
ho, u
pon
fini
shin
g pr
imar
y sc
hool
,ac
quir
e th
e ri
ght a
nd o
blig
atio
n to
go
on to
sec
onda
ry e
duca
tion
thro
ugh
the
nint
h gr
ade
(SE
P, P
rogr
am f
or E
duca
tiona
l Mod
erni
zatio
n 19
89-1
994,
p.
46). T
he d
ecen
tral
izat
ion
of th
e ed
ucat
iona
l sys
tem
mea
nt th
at th
e st
ates
prov
ided
for
81.
2 pe
rcen
t of
the
dem
and
for
seco
ndar
y ed
ucat
ion;
the
Fede
ratio
n, 1
0.5
perc
ent;
and
priv
ate
scho
ols,
8.2
per
cent
(SE
P, E
duca
tion,
p. 1
33).
Dur
ing
the
1993
-94
scho
ol y
ear,
stu
dent
enr
ollm
ent s
tood
at 4
,311
,800
,in
dica
ting
that
man
y st
uden
ts p
assi
ng o
ut o
f pr
imar
y sc
hool
did
not
ent
erm
iddl
e sc
hool
. Eve
n th
ough
the
enro
llmen
t in
mid
dle
scho
ol r
egis
tere
d a
grow
th o
f 1
perc
ent t
hat y
ear,
edu
catio
nal a
utho
ritie
s ar
e ad
optin
g m
easu
res
to b
ette
r pu
blic
ize
this
ser
vice
. Am
ong
othe
r st
rate
gies
, gro
ups
ofte
ache
rsvi
sit p
rim
ary
scho
ols
to in
form
six
th-g
rade
stu
dent
s an
d th
eir
pare
nts
abou
tth
e im
port
ance
and
obl
igat
ion
of c
ontin
uing
thei
r st
udie
s (S
EP,
Edu
catio
n,
pp. 1
33-1
34).
26
VIC
TO
RIA
AN
DR
AD
E D
E H
ER
RA
RA
49
As
in p
rim
ary
scho
ol, t
he p
rogr
am o
f st
udy
emph
asiz
es S
pani
sh in
stru
c-tio
n, w
hich
rec
eive
s 5
clas
s ho
urs
wee
kly
at a
ll th
ree
grad
e le
vels
. The
prog
ram
con
sist
s of
fou
r ax
es: s
poke
n la
ngua
ge, w
ritte
nla
ngua
ge, l
itera
ryre
crea
tion,
and
ref
lect
ion
on th
e la
ngua
ge (
SEP,
Pla
n an
d Pr
ogra
ms
ofSt
udy
1993
, Sec
onda
ry p
. 20)
.M
athe
mat
ics,
too,
rec
eive
s 5
wee
kly
clas
s ho
urs.
The
them
es o
f th
epr
ogra
m a
re g
roup
ed in
fiv
e ar
eas:
ari
thm
etic
; alg
ebra
; geo
met
ry;p
roba
bil-
ity; a
nd, i
n ni
nth
grad
e, tr
igon
omet
ry (
SEP,
Pla
n an
d Pr
ogra
ms
of S
tudy
1993
, Sec
onda
ry, p
. 37)
.
Ske
tch
of th
e S
ubje
cts
of th
e T
hree
Gra
des
of S
econ
dary
Edu
catio
n an
d N
umbe
r of
Wee
kly
Hou
rs
Subj
ects
Span
ish
Mat
hem
atic
sW
orld
His
tory
His
tory
of
Mex
ico
Gen
eral
Geo
grap
hyG
eogr
aphy
of
Mex
ico
Edu
c. O
rien
tatio
nC
ivic
sE
lect
ive
Subj
ect
Bio
logy
Intr
o to
Phy
sics
& C
hem
istr
yPh
ysic
sC
hem
istr
yFo
reig
n L
angu
age
firs
tse
cond
thir
d(7
th g
rade
) (8
th g
rade
) (9
th g
rade
)
5 ho
urs
5 ho
urs
5 ho
urs
5 ho
urs
5 ho
urs
5 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
2 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
2 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
2 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
Dev
elop
men
tal A
ctiv
ities
Art
istic
Exp
ress
ion
& A
ppre
ciat
ion
Phys
ical
Edu
catio
nT
echn
olog
ical
Edu
catio
n
2 ho
urs
2 ho
urs
2 ho
urs
2 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
2 ho
urs
2 ho
urs
3 ho
urs
Sour
ce: S
EP,
Pla
n an
d Pr
ogra
ms
of S
tudy
199
3, S
econ
dary
, p. 1
6
In p
revi
ous
year
s, th
e na
tura
l sci
ence
s co
urse
con
sist
ed o
f th
e ru
dim
ents
of b
iolo
gy, p
hysi
cs, c
hem
istr
y, a
nd p
hysi
cal g
eogr
aphy
. Tw
o co
urse
s no
w
27
50E
DU
CA
TIO
N IN
ME
XIC
O: H
IST
OR
ICA
L A
ND
CO
NT
EM
PO
RA
RY
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
SY
ST
EM
S
have
bee
n es
tabl
ishe
d fo
r ea
ch o
f th
ose
disc
iplin
es. I
ntro
duct
ory
phys
ics
and
chem
istr
y co
urse
s tie
in th
e na
tura
l sci
ence
s of
the
firs
t yea
rof
seco
ndar
y (7
th g
rade
) w
ith p
hysi
cs a
nd c
hem
istr
y co
urse
s in
the
seco
nd
(8th
gra
de)
and
thir
d (9
th g
rade
) ye
ars
(SE
P, P
lan
and
Prog
ram
sof
Stu
dy
1993
, Sec
onda
ry [
Mid
dle
Scho
ol],
p. 1
3).
Und
er th
e ol
d pr
ogra
m, s
ocia
l sci
ence
s in
tegr
ated
his
tory
, geo
grap
hy,
and
civi
cs.
In th
e cu
rren
t pla
n, th
ese
disc
iplin
es a
re s
tudi
ed s
epar
atel
y.(S
EP,
Pla
n an
d Pr
ogra
ms
of S
tudy
, , 1
993,
Sec
onda
ry, p
. 14)
.W
ith r
egar
d to
for
eign
lang
uage
stu
dies
, onl
y tw
o ar
e of
fere
d at
the
seco
ndar
y le
vel:
Eng
lish,
pre
ferr
ed b
y th
e m
ajor
ity o
f sc
hool
s fo
rob
viou
s
reas
ons,
and
Fre
nch.
Thr
ee h
ours
wee
kly
are
dedi
cate
d to
thes
e la
ngua
ges
in p
ublic
sch
ools
. Som
e of
the
purp
oses
for
stu
dyin
g a
fore
ign
lang
uage
incl
ude
deve
lopm
ent o
f an
atti
tude
of
resp
ect f
or th
e id
eas
of o
ther
s,ap
prec
iatio
n fo
r on
e's
own
cultu
re, a
ndth
e ac
quis
ition
of
lingu
istic
bas
ics
that
allo
w s
tude
nts
who
go
on to
high
er e
duca
tion
the
choi
ce o
f ad
vanc
ing
in th
eir
know
ledg
ean
d co
m-
man
d an
othe
r la
ngua
ge (
SEP,
Pla
n an
d Pr
ogra
ms
of S
tudy
199
3, p
.13
3).
Dev
elop
men
tal a
ctiv
ities
in th
e se
cond
ary
prog
ram
con
sist
of
artis
ticex
pres
sion
and
app
reci
atio
n (m
usic
, dra
win
g, a
nd p
aint
ing)
, phy
sica
l edu
-ca
tion
(spo
rts
and
gym
nasi
um),
and
tech
nolo
gica
l edu
catio
n. T
he la
tter
cons
ists
of
dive
rse
activ
ities
fro
m w
hich
eac
h sc
hool
may
sel
ect i
n ac
cor-
danc
e w
ith th
e re
gion
in w
hich
it is
loca
ted
(SE
P, P
lan
and
Prog
ram
s of
Stud
y 19
93, S
econ
dary
[M
iddl
e Sc
hool
], p
. 14.
)A
s in
the
low
er le
vels
of
scho
olin
g, th
e m
odif
icat
ion
of th
e se
cond
ary
educ
atio
n pr
ogra
m c
alle
d fo
r th
e de
velo
pmen
t and
pub
licat
ion
of n
ew te
xts.
One
dif
fere
nce
from
the
prim
ary
prog
ram
is th
at th
e se
cond
ary
text
s ar
e no
tfr
ee. T
hese
text
s ar
e pr
oduc
ed b
y pr
ivat
e pu
blis
hing
hou
ses.
The
aut
hors
wri
te th
eir
wor
ks a
ccor
ding
to th
e pr
ogra
ms
put f
orth
by
the
Secr
etar
ia o
fPu
blic
Edu
catio
n (S
EP)
. The
text
s ar
e th
en r
evis
ed b
y a
Find
ings
Com
mis
-
sion
that
take
s in
to c
onsi
dera
tion
accu
racy
, cur
rent
ness
, and
the
effi
cacy
of
the
teac
hing
-lea
rnin
g pr
oces
ses
empl
oyed
.T
he a
ppro
ved
book
s ap
pear
in th
e SE
P ca
talo
g. T
he te
ache
rs s
elec
t one
or m
ore
text
s. T
o ac
quai
nt e
duca
tors
with
the
new
text
s, S
EP
acqu
ired
800,
000
book
s of
eac
h su
bjec
t fro
m p
ublis
hers
and
gav
e th
em to
the
teac
hers
of
seve
nth
and
eigh
th g
rade
s. I
n ad
ditio
n, e
ach
teac
herr
ecei
ved
a
dida
ctic
gui
de to
the
mat
eria
ls in
his
or
her
spec
ialty
(SE
P, E
duca
tion,
p. 1
34).
In th
e 19
93-9
4 sc
hool
yea
r, th
e In
trod
uctio
n to
Com
pute
rs in
Bas
icE
duca
tion
prog
ram
was
initi
ated
.Fi
ve c
ompu
ter
cent
ers
wer
e se
t up
in
seco
ndar
y sc
hool
s (S
EP,
Edu
catio
n, p
. 134
).O
ther
new
mea
sure
s re
cent
ly im
plem
ente
d in
clud
e re
med
ial s
umm
er
28
VIC
TO
RIA
AN
DR
AD
E D
E H
ER
RA
RA
51
cour
ses;
sta
ndar
dize
d ex
ams
for
stud
ents
who
fai
led
one
to th
ree
subj
ects
;an
d sc
hola
rshi
ps f
or s
tude
nts
in r
ural
com
mun
ities
.
Spe
cial
and
Priv
ate
Sch
ools
The
maj
ority
of
priv
ate
Mex
ican
sch
ools
mus
t com
ply
with
the
sam
ees
tabl
ishe
d pr
ogra
ms
as th
e pu
blic
one
s do
. Tho
se th
at te
ach
with
a f
orei
gnla
ngua
ge m
ust d
edic
ate
extr
a ho
urs
to th
at la
ngua
ge a
part
fro
m th
e ob
liga.
tory
hou
rs o
f th
e of
fici
al s
choo
l pro
gram
. Som
e so
lve
the
prob
lem
with
addi
tiona
l aft
erno
on h
ours
; oth
ers,
with
in th
e re
gula
r ho
urs,
teac
h so
me
clas
sroo
m s
ubje
cts
in th
e fo
reig
n la
ngua
ge a
nd o
ther
s in
Spa
nish
(In
form
a-tio
n su
pplie
d by
Pro
fess
or H
omer
o Sa
nche
z N
ajer
a, I
nspe
ctor
Gen
eral
of
Seco
ndar
y E
duca
tion
of th
e SE
P).
Oth
er p
riva
te s
choo
ls, s
uch
as e
l Col
egio
Am
eric
ano
(The
Am
eric
anSc
hool
), L
iceo
Fra
nces
(th
e Fr
ench
Lyc
eum
), C
oleg
io A
lem
in (
Ger
man
Scho
ol),
Col
egio
Sui
zo (
Swis
s Sc
hool
), C
oleg
io I
rlan
des
(Iri
sh S
choo
l),
Col
egio
Jap
onés
(Ja
pane
se S
choo
l), a
nd m
any
othe
rs a
re g
over
ned
bybi
cultu
ral a
gree
men
ts th
at a
llow
thes
e sc
hool
s to
del
iver
inst
ruct
ion
inac
cord
ance
with
the
educ
atio
nal p
rogr
ams
of th
e sp
onso
ring
cou
ntry
. Mex
i-ca
n st
uden
ts w
ho p
lan
to c
ontin
ue th
eir
stud
ies
in o
ther
cou
ntri
es c
an a
ttend
thes
e sc
hool
s. T
he c
ertif
icat
es is
sued
by
thes
e sc
hool
s ar
e va
lid in
Mex
ico
(inf
orm
atio
n su
pplie
d by
pro
fess
or H
omer
o Sa
nche
z N
ijera
, Ins
pect
orG
ener
al o
f Se
cond
ary
Edu
catio
n, S
EP)
.St
uden
ts w
ho d
ivid
e th
eir
time
betw
een
Mex
ico
and
anot
her
coun
try
are
advi
sed
to c
ontin
ue th
eir
stud
ies
in o
ne o
f th
e af
orem
entio
ned
scho
ols,
beca
use
the
offi
cial
Mex
ican
sch
ools
acc
ept s
tude
nts
from
oth
er c
ount
ries
only
whe
n th
e co
urse
s ta
ken
are
reco
gniz
ed a
nd th
e st
uden
ts ta
ke th
e ex
ams
that
oth
erw
ise
corr
espo
nd to
thes
e co
urse
s.
Med
ia S
uper
ior
(Pre
para
tory
) E
duca
tion
Stud
ents
who
com
plet
e th
eir
seco
ndar
y ed
ucat
ion
may
con
tinue
thei
rst
udie
s in
one
of
num
erou
s pr
epar
ator
y sc
hool
s in
Mex
ico.
Som
e of
thes
ear
e un
der
the
dire
ctio
n of
the
SEP,
and
oth
ers
are
dire
cted
by
the
Uni
vers
idad
Nac
iona
l Aut
emom
a de
Mex
ico
(UN
AM
) [T
he N
atio
nal A
uton
omou
s U
ni-
vers
ity o
f M
exic
o]. T
he I
nstit
uto
Polit
icni
co N
acio
nal (
IPN
) [T
he N
atio
nal
Poly
tech
nica
l Ins
titut
e] r
elie
s on
Tec
hnic
al S
choo
ls, e
quiv
alen
t to
the
mid
dle
scho
ols,
and
alo
ng w
ith C
entr
os d
e E
stud
ios
Cie
ntIf
icos
, Tec
noló
gico
se
Indu
stri
ales
de
Serv
icio
(C
ET
IS)
[Cen
ters
of
Scie
ntif
ic S
tudi
es, T
ech-
nolo
gies
and
Man
ufac
turi
ng S
ervi
ce],
equ
ival
ent t
o th
e pr
epar
ator
ies.
The
IPN
stu
dies
are
inco
rpor
ated
to S
EP.
In th
e co
llege
pre
para
tory
sch
ool,
prog
ram
s va
ry b
etw
een
2 an
d 3
year
sin
dur
atio
n. I
n al
mos
t all
inst
itutio
ns o
f th
is ty
pe th
at f
unct
ion
in M
exic
oC
ity, c
ours
es ta
ken
duri
ng th
e fi
rst 2
yca
rs a
re th
e sa
me
for
all s
tude
nts.
In
29
52E
DU
CA
TIO
N IN
ME
XIC
O: H
IST
OR
ICA
L A
ND
CO
NT
EM
PO
RA
RY
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
SY
ST
EM
S
the
thir
d ye
ar, s
tude
nte
mus
t dec
ide
if th
ey w
ish
toco
ntin
ue w
ith u
nive
rsity
stud
ies
or te
chni
cal s
tudi
es, a
nd in
acc
orda
nce
with
the
choi
ce m
ade,
they
rece
ive
a lis
t of
requ
ired
sub
ject
s an
d el
ectiv
es(U
NA
M, P
lan
of S
tudi
es,
1989
).In
the
maj
ority
of
prep
arat
ory
scho
ols,
stu
dent
sse
lect
fro
m th
e fo
llow
-
ing
four
are
as:
phys
ical
-mat
hem
atic
s, c
hem
ical
-bio
logi
cal,
econ
omic
-ad
min
istr
ativ
e, a
nd h
uman
ities
. Eac
h ar
ea p
repa
res
stud
ents
for
a n
umbe
r
of p
rofe
ssio
ns a
nd s
peci
altie
s. F
or e
xam
ple,
corr
espo
ndin
g to
the
area
of
Phys
ical
-Mat
hem
atic
s ar
e pr
ofes
sion
s su
ch a
s ph
ysic
ist,
astr
onom
er,m
ath-
emat
icia
n, e
ngin
eer,
and
act
uary
.SE
P's
regi
stri
es r
epor
t tha
t in
the
1992
-93
scho
ol y
ear,
1.77
mill
ion
stud
ents
wer
e ta
ught
by
115,
343
teac
hers
in 4
,812
pre
para
tory
scho
ols.
The
follo
win
g ye
ar s
aw a
n in
crea
se in
enr
ollm
ent o
f60
,000
stu
dent
s (S
EP,
Edu
catio
n, p
p. 1
34-1
35).
The
gro
wth
in e
nrol
lmen
t was
due
, in
part
, to
the
crea
tion
of 1
28 n
ew
scho
ols,
esp
ecia
lly in
the
scie
nce-
rela
ted
fiel
ds.
Sixt
een
new
voc
atio
nal
prog
ram
s ha
ve b
een
star
ted
in th
e ar
eas
of b
road
cast
ing,
land
and
cat
tle
man
agem
ent,
adm
inis
trat
ion,
rur
al a
ccou
ntin
g,de
velo
pmen
t of
lives
tock
farm
ing,
hor
ticul
ture
, hos
pita
l mai
nten
ance
, hot
el m
anag
emen
t,re
stau
-
rant
s, a
nd to
uris
m. T
his
grow
th is
als
odu
e to
targ
eted
eff
orts
to b
ette
r
info
rr.:c
onda
ry s
choo
l gra
duat
es in
clud
ing
prom
otio
nal
cam
paig
ns c
on-
duct
ed th
roug
h va
riou
s co
mm
unic
atio
n m
edia
and
orie
ntat
ion
prog
ram
s
carr
ied
out b
y th
e N
atio
nal S
yste
m o
f E
duca
tiona
lOri
enta
tion
(SE
P, E
du-
catio
n, p
. 135
).T
he e
xpan
sion
sys
tem
, whi
ch a
llow
s w
orke
rs to
fini
sh th
eir
stud
ies
in a
prof
essi
on, s
erve
d 19
.7 p
erce
nt m
ore
stud
ents
in19
93-9
4 th
an in
the
prec
edin
g cy
cle.
Thi
s gr
owth
may
be
due
to th
e re
stru
ctur
ing
of th
e
Nat
iona
l Com
mis
sion
for
Pla
nnin
g an
d Pr
ogra
mm
ing
of P
repa
rato
ry E
du-
catio
n. T
his
rest
ruct
urin
g w
as d
one
to in
tegr
ate
thes
e pr
ogra
ms
with
the
Nat
iona
l Com
mis
sion
for
the
Plan
ning
of
Hig
her
Edu
catio
n.Pl
ans
and
prog
ram
s of
stu
dy w
ere
mod
ifie
dth
roug
h co
nsul
tatio
n w
ith d
iffe
rent
soc
ial
sect
ors,
and
incl
ude
the
cont
ribu
tions
of
spec
ialis
ts f
rom
div
erse
fie
lds
of
know
ledg
e.D
urin
g th
e 19
92-9
3 sc
hool
yea
r, b
y m
eans
of
am
odul
ar
syst
em o
f cu
rric
ulum
dev
elop
men
t, 11
9 pl
ans
and
1,49
9 pr
ogra
ms
of s
tudy
wer
e de
velo
ped;
of
thos
e, 6
9 pl
ans
and
the
entir
e nu
mbe
r of
pro
gram
s of
stud
y ar
e fu
nctio
ning
(SE
P, E
duca
tion,
p. 1
35).
Hig
her
Edu
catio
nIn
the
high
er e
duca
tion
syst
em (
SES)
, the
reex
ists
maj
or d
iffe
renc
es
amon
g th
e pu
blic
uni
vers
ities
of
the
capi
tal a
nd th
ose
of th
e st
ates
, and
betw
een
the
lead
ing
and
priv
ate
univ
ersi
ties.
The
se d
iffe
renc
es r
elat
e to
mea
ns, q
ualit
y of
fac
ilitie
s an
dfa
culti
es, a
nd p
rosp
ects
for
dev
elop
men
t
and
expa
nsio
n.
30
VIC
TO
RIA
AN
DR
AD
E D
E H
ER
RA
RA
Hig
her
educ
atio
n is
div
ided
into
thre
e pr
inci
pal s
ubsy
stem
s:
36 p
ublic
uni
vers
ities
with
64
perc
ent o
f th
e to
tal e
nrol
lmen
t at t
heof
bac
cala
urea
te d
egre
e (1
989
figu
res)
(m
ost e
njoy
adm
inis
trat
hto
nom
y);
a na
tiona
l net
wor
k of
87
regi
onal
tech
nolo
gica
l ins
titut
es, w
ipe
rcen
t of
the
tota
l enr
ollm
ent (
mos
t ope
rate
und
er S
EP
cont
rols
)35
pri
vate
uni
vers
ities
of
dive
rse
mea
ns a
nd q
ualit
y, a
s w
ell a
s ap
im
atel
y 12
0 sm
all i
nstit
utio
ns w
ith p
rogr
ams
of r
emed
ial s
tudi
es.
last
gro
up r
epre
sent
s 16
per
cent
of
the
tota
l ehr
ollm
ent.
Som
e un
itie
s ar
e au
tono
mou
s, w
hile
oth
ers
depe
nd o
n SE
P (C
oom
s in
SE
Foun
datio
n fo
r E
cono
mic
Cul
ture
, 199
1 p.
25)
.
Aft
er th
e se
vent
ies,
the
high
er e
duca
tion
syst
em b
egan
dec
entr
aun
til, p
rese
ntly
, alm
ost a
ll M
exic
an s
tate
s ha
ve s
tate
uni
vers
ities
and
have
tech
nolo
gica
l ins
titut
es.
Thi
s de
cent
raliz
atio
n ha
s re
sulte
din
crea
sed
SES
enro
llmen
t out
side
of
Mex
ico
City
. Pre
viou
sly,
70
pof
the
stud
ents
enr
olle
d in
uni
vers
ities
in M
exic
o C
ity. R
ecen
t sta
show
that
, alth
ough
the
num
ber
of s
tude
nts
has
grow
n in
Mex
ico
Ch
prop
ortio
n in
rel
atio
n to
the
rest
of
the
coun
try
has
dim
inis
hed
by a
bipe
rcen
t (C
oom
s, 1
991,
pp.
25-
26).
Som
e of
the
univ
ersi
ties
and
tech
nolo
gica
l ins
titut
es h
ave
ac(
cons
ider
able
pre
stig
e. T
he U
nive
rsiti
es o
f G
uada
laja
ra, J
alis
co, a
tT
echn
olog
ical
Ins
titut
e of
Mon
terr
ey in
Nue
vo L
eon
attr
act e
ver-
incr
(nu
mbe
rs o
f st
uden
ts f
rom
the
rest
of
Mex
ico
and
from
var
ious
U.
Cen
tral
Am
eric
an lo
catio
ns.
SEP
has
juri
sdic
tion
over
all
othe
r le
vels
of
educ
atio
n, in
clud
ing
ning
and
bud
getin
g. T
he S
ubse
cret
ary
of H
ighe
r E
duca
tion
and
Scil
Inve
stig
atio
n an
d th
e G
ener
al D
irec
tor
of H
ighe
r E
duca
tion
hand
htio
ns w
ith th
e un
iver
sitie
s. T
he S
ubse
cret
ary
of R
esea
rch
and
Tec
hnca
l Edu
catio
n co
ntro
ls th
e sy
stem
of
publ
ic te
chno
logi
cal i
nstit
(Coo
ms,
199
1, p
. 27)
.Si
nce
1929
, The
Nat
iona
l Aut
onom
ous
Uni
vers
ity o
f M
exic
o (U
1ha
s be
en in
depe
nden
t in
deve
lopi
ng it
s pl
ans
and
prog
ram
s of
stu
dy,
deci
ding
its
budg
et d
istr
ibut
ion.
The
ann
ual s
tude
nt f
ees
arc
sym
bol
Mex
ican
pes
os)
and,
des
pite
var
ious
atte
mpt
s to
incr
ease
them
, spr
otes
ts s
uppo
rted
by
som
e po
litic
al g
roup
s ha
ve s
topp
ed th
e ad
opt
incr
ease
s, m
ore
need
ed a
s ea
ch y
ear
pass
es.
The
gov
ernm
ent s
tre
pres
ents
a m
ajor
por
tion
of th
e m
onie
s co
min
g in
to U
NA
M. T
his
stis
incr
ease
d by
pri
vate
don
atio
ns. M
any
univ
ersi
ties
thro
ugho
ut N
follo
w U
NA
M's
mod
el; o
ther
s ha
ve c
reat
ed th
eir
own
syst
ems.
Am
ong
the
publ
ic u
nive
rsiti
es, t
he U
nive
rsid
ad A
utO
nom
a M
etro
p(U
AM
) [T
he A
uton
omou
s M
etro
polit
an U
nive
rsity
] lo
cate
d in
NC
ity h
as a
spe
cial
pla
ce. T
hc U
AM
is o
rgan
ized
aca
dem
ical
ly b
y c
31
54E
DU
CA
TIO
N IN
ME
XIC
O: H
IST
OR
ICA
L A
ND
CO
NT
EM
PO
RA
RY
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
SY
ST
EM
S
men
ts, d
iffe
rent
fro
m th
e U
NA
M,o
rgan
ized
by
scho
ols
in th
e Sp
anis
h an
d
Fren
ch s
tyle
. The
UA
M w
as p
lann
ed b
y a
grou
pof
the
mos
t sev
ere
criti
cs
of th
e U
NA
M, w
ho p
ropo
sed
to c
reat
e an
inst
itutio
n in
spir
ed b
y th
e
orga
niza
tion
of th
e un
iver
sitie
s of
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es a
nd th
e U
nite
d K
ing-
dom
. The
UA
M e
nrol
ls a
bout
50,
000
stud
ents
,an
d ha
s a
larg
e, f
ull-
time
facu
lty w
ho te
ach
and
cond
uct r
esea
rch
activ
ities
in u
nder
grad
uate
and
grad
uate
pro
gram
s (C
oom
s, 1
991,
p. 2
8).
Mex
ico
also
has
num
erou
s pr
ivat
e an
dte
chno
logi
cal u
nive
rsiti
es. S
ome
univ
ersi
ties
follo
w th
e m
odel
of
the
UN
AM
;ot
hers
, tha
t of
the
UA
M.
Var
ious
uni
vers
ities
sta
nd o
ut f
or th
e qu
ality
oft
heir
teac
hing
, inc
ludi
ng th
e
Iber
oam
eric
ana,
Pan
amer
ican
a, A
nShu
ac, a
ndL
aSal
le, a
mon
g ot
hers
. El
Inst
ituto
Tec
noló
gico
Aut
ónom
o de
Mex
ico
(11A
M)
[The
Aut
onom
ous
Tec
hnol
ogic
al I
nstit
ute
of M
exic
o], o
ne o
f th
e m
ost
pres
tigio
us in
the
coun
try,
is f
inan
ced
by th
e st
uden
ts' c
olle
gefe
es a
nd b
y pr
ivat
e co
ntri
bu-
tions
. Nev
erth
eles
s, in
Mex
ico,
ther
e do
es n
otex
ist a
n ef
fect
ive
syst
em o
f
scie
ntif
ic r
esea
rch
at th
e un
iver
sity
leve
l.O
f th
e 40
0 un
iver
sitie
s in
exis
tenc
e, o
nly
40 c
arry
out
inve
stig
ativ
e re
sear
ch.
To
ente
r in
to th
e un
iver
sity
, stu
dent
s m
ust
have
fin
ishe
d pr
epar
ator
y
scho
ol w
ith a
bac
hille
rato
(pr
epar
ator
y or
hig
hsc
hool
dip
lom
a). M
any
of
the
priv
ate
univ
ersi
ties
have
thei
r ow
n pr
epar
ator
ysc
hool
s; s
tude
nts
in
thes
e sc
hool
s do
not
hav
e to
pas
s en
tran
ce e
xam
sif
they
con
tinue
thei
r
stud
ies
in th
e sa
me
univ
ersi
ty. D
ue to
a s
tude
ntst
rike
, the
stu
dent
s of
the
publ
ic p
repa
rato
ries
no
long
er p
rese
nt e
xam
s of
adm
issi
on to
the
UN
AM
.
On
the
othe
r ha
nd, t
he e
ntra
nce
exam
is r
equi
red
in th
e pr
ivat
e un
iver
sitie
s
that
do
not h
ave
prep
arat
ory
prog
ram
s (C
oom
s,19
91, p
. 29)
.
In c
ontr
ast t
o th
e U
AM
, whe
re a
larg
e nu
mbe
rof
teac
hers
wor
k fu
ll-
time,
onl
y 25
per
cent
of
tcac
hers
em
ploy
ed b
y th
eU
NA
M d
evot
e al
l the
ir
time
to te
achi
ng. T
his
is b
ecau
se m
any
of th
e te
ache
rs a
rehi
ghly
acc
om-
plis
hed
scho
lars
who
dev
ote
a gr
eat p
art o
f th
eir
time
toth
eir
prof
essi
ons.
In p
riva
te u
nive
rsiti
es, t
he m
ajor
ity o
f th
e pr
ofes
sors
wor
ks o
n an
hou
rly
basi
s (C
oom
s, 1
991,
p. 2
9).
Tec
hnol
ogic
al E
duca
tion
In 1
958,
whe
n th
e Su
bsec
reta
ry o
f H
ighe
rTec
hnic
al E
duca
tion
was
put
in c
harg
e of
the
coor
dina
tion
and
deve
lopm
ent o
ftec
hnol
ogic
al e
duca
tion
in M
exic
o, tw
o ar
eas
of a
ctiv
ities
wer
e de
sign
ated
:(1
) to
dir
ect t
heIn
stitu
to P
olité
cnic
o N
acio
nal (
IPN
) [T
he N
atio
nalP
olyt
echn
ic I
nstit
utio
n]
as a
n in
stitu
tion
of a
hig
her
acad
emic
leve
l and
(2)
to d
irec
t oth
er te
chno
-
logi
cal i
nstit
utio
ns, a
mon
g th
em th
e te
chni
cal s
econ
dary
scho
ols,
the
Cen
-
ters
of
Scie
ntif
ic a
nd T
echn
olog
ical
Stu
dies
,and
the
Reg
iona
l Tec
hnol
ogi-
, cal
Inst
itute
s. T
his
subs
ecre
tary
has
cha
nged
nam
es w
ithea
ch p
resi
dent
ial
adm
inis
trat
ion;
cur
rent
ly th
e of
fice
is c
alle
d th
e Su
bsec
reta
ryof
Tec
hnic
al
Stud
ies,
und
er th
e Se
cret
ary
of P
ublic
Edu
catio
n(S
EP,
199
5).
32
VIC
TO
RIA
AN
DR
AD
E D
E H
ER
RA
RA
55
The
IPN
end
eavo
rs to
for
m p
rofe
ssio
nals
in te
chni
cal c
aree
rs th
at a
rene
eded
for
Mex
ico'
s de
velo
pmen
t. D
ivid
ed in
to c
ycle
s, th
ese
cons
ist o
fco
mpl
ete
teac
hing
of
the
care
ers
that
they
atte
mpt
, fro
m p
rep
scho
ol to
prof
essi
onal
to p
ostg
radu
ate
wor
k (S
olan
a et
al.,
198
2, p
. 480
).T
he u
niqu
e fo
ur-l
evel
Mex
ican
sys
tem
of
tech
nolo
gica
l edu
catio
n co
n-si
sts
of s
choo
ls th
at h
ave
vary
ing
leve
ls o
f pr
epar
ator
y an
d hi
gher
edu
ca-
tion,
asc
endi
ng to
the
Nat
iona
l Pol
ytec
hnic
Ins
titut
e (I
PN),
whi
ch ta
kes
in a
net o
f 87
sm
alle
r te
chno
logi
cal i
nstit
utes
(C
oom
s, 1
991,
p. 9
1).
As
men
tione
d ea
rlie
r, th
e IP
N w
as f
ound
ed b
y Pr
esid
ent C
irde
nas
in19
35. I
ts e
stab
lishm
ent r
espo
nded
to th
e Pr
esid
ent's
cal
l for
an
inst
itutio
nde
dica
ted
prim
arily
to te
achi
ng te
chni
cal a
nd s
cien
tific
sub
ject
mat
ter
that
wou
ld h
ave
prac
tical
app
licat
ion
to th
e ne
eds
of a
cou
ntry
in d
evel
opm
ent.
At t
he o
nset
, not
able
dif
fere
nces
exi
sted
bet
wee
n th
e IP
N's
pla
ns o
f st
udy
and
thos
e of
the
UN
AM
, but
the
dive
rsif
icat
ion
of th
e pl
ans
of s
tudy
of
both
inst
itutio
ns h
as n
arro
wed
the
diff
eren
ces.
The
IPN
has
bro
aden
ed it
s sc
ope
into
are
as s
uch
as m
edic
ine,
eco
nom
ics,
soc
ial s
cien
ces,
and
adm
inis
trat
ion
and
offe
rs d
octo
ral d
egre
es in
man
y fi
elds
, whi
ch w
ere
in th
e pa
st e
xclu
-si
vely
thc
UN
AM
's d
omai
n.T
he U
NA
M, i
n tu
rn, h
as e
nter
ed s
ome
tech
nolo
gica
l are
as (
Coo
ms,
199
1, p
p. 9
1-92
; Sol
ana
et a
l., 1
982,
p. 4
80).
Pos
tgra
duat
ePo
stgr
adua
te e
duca
tion
cons
ists
of
spec
ializ
atio
n st
udie
s an
d m
aste
r'san
d do
ctor
ate
degr
ee p
rogr
ams.
The
se c
an b
e ac
com
plis
hed
in th
e U
NA
M,
the
UA
M, t
he I
PN, a
nd in
var
ious
pri
vate
uni
vers
ities
.M
ore
than
55,
000
stud
ents
wer
e en
rolle
d in
thes
e pr
ogra
ms
in 1
993-
94.
Dur
ing
this
per
iod,
199
pla
ns a
nd p
rogr
ams
of s
tudy
wer
e br
ough
t up
toda
te, o
f w
hich
94
corr
espo
nd to
the
univ
ersi
ty a
rea
and
105
to th
e te
chno
-lo
gica
l are
a. T
he U
NA
M s
tart
ed th
e un
iver
sity
pos
tgra
duat
e sy
stem
, with
eigh
t int
egra
ted
prog
ram
s. F
or it
s pa
rt, t
he I
PN c
reat
ed th
e do
ctor
ate
inM
etal
lurg
y an
d M
ater
ials
and
the
spec
ializ
atio
n in
The
rmal
Eng
inee
ring
(SE
P, E
duca
tion,
p. 1
37).
An
impo
rtan
t ins
titut
ion
supp
ortin
g po
stgr
adua
te s
tudy
is in
the
Con
sejo
Nac
iona
l de
Cie
ncia
y T
ecno
logi
a (C
ON
AC
YT
) [T
he N
atio
nal C
ounc
il of
Scie
nce
and
Tec
hnol
ogy]
, whi
ch s
timul
ates
res
earc
h th
roug
h sc
hola
rshi
ppr
ogra
ms.
In
1993
, it g
ave
appr
oxim
atel
y 65
0 sc
hola
rshi
ps, r
epre
sent
ing
a30
per
cent
incr
ease
fro
m th
e pr
evio
us y
ear.
The
edu
catio
nal s
ecto
r, in
turn
,gr
ante
d 3,
555
scho
lars
hips
to c
arry
out
pos
tgra
duat
e st
udie
s in
nat
iona
lin
stitu
tions
and
649
for
stu
dies
in f
orei
gn c
ount
ries
(SE
P, E
duca
tion,
p.
142)
.
Nor
mal
Edu
catio
nA
ll th
e in
form
atio
n co
ntai
ned
in th
is s
ectio
n w
as o
btai
ned
in d
irec
tco
nsul
tatio
n w
ith s
tude
nts
and
teac
hers
of
the
Esc
uela
Nac
iona
l de
Mae
-
33
06E
DU
CA
TIO
N IN
ME
XIC
O: H
IST
OR
ICA
L A
ND
LO
NT
Em
PO
RA
RY
tOU
CA
TIO
NA
L S
YS
TE
MS
stro
s (T
he N
orm
al S
choo
l of
Tea
cher
s), t
hem
agis
teri
al p
rofe
ssio
n, a
ndw
ith th
e sc
hola
rshi
p ho
lder
s of
the
Uni
vers
idad
de
las
Am
eric
as (
The
Uni
vers
ity o
f th
e A
mer
icas
).N
orm
al e
duca
tion
has
unde
rgon
e nu
mer
ous
refo
rms
thro
ugho
ut th
epo
litic
al h
isto
ry o
f th
e co
untr
y an
d, d
espi
te it
s im
port
ance
, has
rec
eive
d le
sssu
ppor
t tha
n ot
her
prof
essi
ons.
Tha
nks
to th
e de
cent
raliz
atio
nof
edu
ca-
tion,
the
who
le c
ount
ry n
ow h
as n
orm
al s
choo
ls.
The
bas
ic te
achi
ng p
rofe
ssio
n is
stu
died
in M
exic
o in
the
Esc
uela
Nac
iona
l de
Mae
stro
s (t
he N
atio
nal S
choo
l of
Tea
cher
s), i
n th
e st
ate
norm
alsc
hool
s, a
nd in
som
e M
exic
an p
riva
te s
choo
ls. I
n th
e fi
rst y
ears
aft
erth
e
foun
datio
n of
the
Nat
iona
l Sch
ool o
f T
each
ers,
so
little
impo
rtan
ce w
asgi
ven
to th
e ca
reer
of
prof
esso
r th
at o
nly
a m
iddl
e sc
hool
cer
tific
atio
n w
assu
ffic
ient
to e
nrol
l in
this
inst
itutio
n an
d, a
fter
3 y
ears
of
stud
ies,
stu
dent
sre
ceiv
ed th
e tit
le o
f Pr
ofes
sor
of E
lem
enta
ry I
nstr
uctio
n.A
t pre
sent
, to
enro
ll in
the
sam
e sc
hool
, the
bac
hille
rato
is r
equi
red
(gra
duat
ion
from
pre
para
tory
sch
ool)
. The
stu
dies
last
4 y
ears
and
, aft
er a
nin
tens
e st
uden
t tea
chin
g ex
peri
ence
with
pri
mar
y gr
oups
beg
inni
ngin
the
four
th s
emes
ter,
the
degr
ee o
f L
icen
ciat
ura
(Bac
cala
urea
te)
n pr
imar
yed
ucat
ion
is o
btai
ned.
Stud
ents
who
obt
ain
the
Lic
enci
atur
a ar
e ce
rtif
ied
to r
ecei
ve a
ppoi
nt-
men
ts a
s te
ache
rs o
f pr
imar
y in
stru
ctio
n. I
f th
ey w
ish
toai
m h
ighe
r, th
ey
can
enro
ll in
the
Esc
uela
Nor
mal
Sup
erio
r (H
ighe
rN
orm
al S
choo
l) o
r th
eU
nive
rsid
ad P
edag
ógic
a (t
he P
edag
ogic
Uni
vers
ity).
In
the
Nor
mal
Sup
e-ri
or in
stitu
tes,
spe
cial
ties
are
offe
red
such
as
Span
ish,
mat
hem
atic
s, n
atur
alsc
ienc
es, s
ocia
l sci
ence
, and
for
eign
lang
uage
. Gra
duat
es o
f th
is in
stitu
tion
acqu
ire
the
degr
ee o
f L
icen
ciat
ura
(Bac
cala
urea
te)
in s
econ
dary
edu
catio
nan
d fi
ll se
cond
ary
teac
hing
pos
ts th
roug
hout
Mex
ico.
The
stu
dies
in th
ePe
dago
gica
l Uni
vers
ity a
re d
esig
ned
to r
esul
t in
a m
aste
r's o
r do
ctor
ate
degr
ee.
Sinc
e 19
92, a
s an
ince
ntiv
e to
impr
ove
teac
hing
, the
Edu
catio
nal M
od-
erni
zatio
n A
gree
men
t est
ablis
hed
a pl
an f
or th
e re
eval
uatio
n of
teac
hcrs
infr
ont o
f th
eir
peer
s at
all
the
inst
ruct
iona
l gra
de le
vels
. The
teac
hers
atte
ndth
e C
ente
rs o
f T
each
er M
oder
niza
tion
and,
if th
ey c
ompl
ete
the
stri
ngen
tre
quir
emen
ts, o
btai
n an
ann
ual e
cono
mic
ben
efit.
The
Sec
reta
ry o
f Pu
blic
Edu
catio
n, in
coo
pera
tion
with
the
Ban
k of
Mex
ico,
gra
nts
to d
istin
guis
hed
teac
hers
sch
olar
ship
s to
obt
ain
the
mas
ter's
or
doct
orat
e de
gree
s in
edu
ca-
tion.
Scho
lars
hip
hold
ers,
apa
rt f
rom
hav
ing
obta
ined
a s
uper
ior
grad
e-po
int a
vera
ge, m
ust t
ake
an a
dmis
sion
exa
m a
t the
uni
vers
ity o
f th
eir
choi
ce.
The
Nat
iona
l Agr
eem
ent f
or th
e M
oder
niza
tion
of B
asic
Edu
catio
n(A
NM
EB
), e
stab
lishe
d in
May
199
2, s
tate
s th
at r
espo
nsib
ility
for
mat
eria
lan
d pe
rson
nel r
esou
rces
nee
ded
to p
rovi
de n
orm
al e
duca
tion
and
teac
her
34
VIC
TO
RIA
AN
DR
AD
E D
E H
ER
RA
RA
57
trai
ning
ser
vice
s w
ould
be
tran
sfer
red
from
the
fede
ral g
over
nmen
t to
the
stat
es (
SEP,
Edu
catio
n, p
. 136
).
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
In M
exic
o, a
dult
educ
atio
n is
fun
dam
enta
l.A
ccor
ding
to th
e 19
90ce
nsus
, 12.
4 pe
rcen
t of
Mex
ican
s co
uld
not r
ead
or w
rite
. Adu
lt ed
ucat
ion
is th
e ch
arge
of
the
Nat
iona
l Ins
titut
e fo
r th
e E
duca
tion
of A
dults
(IN
EA
).T
hia
Inst
itute
dev
elop
s ac
tiviti
es r
elat
ed to
illit
erac
y, p
rim
ary
and
seco
nd-
ary
educ
atio
n, a
nd w
ork
requ
irem
ents
for
Mex
ican
s ol
der
than
15
who
hav
ene
ver
gone
to s
choo
l or
who
did
not
fin
ish
thei
r ba
sic
educ
atio
n (S
EP,
Edu
catio
n, p
. 137
).D
urin
g th
e 19
93-9
4 sc
hool
yea
r, th
e IN
EA
taug
ht 1
.13
mill
ion
adul
ts to
read
, of
who
m 8
.3 p
erce
nt w
ere
indi
geno
us p
erso
ns; 7
3.7
perc
ent w
erel
ural
inha
bita
nts,
and
18
perc
ent w
ere
urba
n in
habi
tant
s. T
o ex
tend
the
cove
r-ag
e, tw
o sy
stem
s w
ere
used
: (1)
a r
adio
lite
racy
ser
vice
tran
smitt
ed r
adio
prog
ram
s at
fix
ed ti
mes
and
rep
eate
d th
em d
urin
g th
e da
y; a
nd (
2) s
tudy
grou
ps w
ere
form
ed a
nd p
rovi
ded
with
aud
ioca
sset
tes
and
cass
ette
pla
yers
.T
o he
lp a
dults
exe
rcis
e re
adin
g an
d w
ritin
g sk
ills,
wor
ksho
ps w
ere
con-
duct
ed th
at p
rodu
ced
dive
rse
type
s of
mat
eria
ls (
SEP,
Edu
catio
n, p
. 138
).Pr
imar
y an
d se
cond
ary
clas
ses
for
adul
ts w
ere
atte
nded
by
appr
oxi-
mat
ely
1.56
mill
ion
peop
le, o
f w
hom
70
perc
ent h
ad s
ome
prev
ious
pri
mar
ysc
hool
ing
and
30 p
erce
nt h
ad s
ome
mid
dle
scho
olin
g. T
hrou
gh a
n ag
ree-
men
t to
prom
ote
adul
t edu
catio
n in
indu
stri
es o
f th
e pr
ivat
e se
ctor
of
good
san
d se
rvic
es, 4
00,0
00 w
orke
rs w
ere
incl
uded
in th
e pr
imar
y an
d se
cond
ary
scho
ol p
rogr
am. T
akin
g in
to c
onsi
dera
tion
the
spec
ial n
eeds
of
thes
egr
oups
, app
ropr
iate
edu
catio
nal m
ater
ials
and
text
s w
ere
adop
ted.
Mat
eri-
als
deve
lope
d fo
r ad
ults
in r
ural
are
as c
ompr
ise
six
stat
e bi
ogra
phie
s, 2
6re
gion
al m
onog
raph
s, a
nd 2
2 bo
oks
of h
isto
ry (
SEP,
Edu
catio
n, p
. 138
).
Sum
mar
yT
he d
ecen
tral
izat
ion
proc
ess
will
con
tinue
as
each
sta
te p
lans
and
car
ries
out i
ts o
wn
part
icul
ar e
duca
tiona
l pro
gram
s to
mee
t sta
te a
nd lo
cal n
eeds
.T
he s
tate
s ar
e al
low
ed la
titud
e as
long
as
they
con
form
to b
asic
cri
teri
aes
tabl
ishe
r', a
t the
Fed
eral
leve
l.SE
P sp
ecif
ies
stan
dard
s an
d va
lues
,th
ereb
y c
mtr
ollin
g i.e
., th
e na
tiona
l cha
ract
er o
f M
exic
o's
educ
atio
nal
syst
em. 1
he
stat
e Se
cret
arie
s of
Edu
catio
n, s
choo
l adm
inis
trat
ors,
pro
fes-
sors
, tea
uler
s, a
nd o
ther
s w
ill n
eed
timc
to a
djus
t to
a m
ore
auto
nom
ous
syst
em in
con
tras
t to
Mex
ico'
s hi
ghly
reg
ulat
ed a
nd c
entr
aliz
ed e
duca
tiona
lsy
stem
of
prev
ious
yea
rs.
35
58E
DU
CA
TIO
N IN
ME
XIC
O: H
IST
OR
ICA
L A
ND
CO
NT
EM
PO
RA
RY
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
SY
ST
EM
S
Bib
liogr
aphy
[Som
e of
the
sour
ces
cite
d be
low
are
doc
umen
tscr
eate
d fo
r
adm
inis
trat
ive
use.
Mos
t are
ava
ilabl
e th
roug
h th
e Se
cret
arfa
de
Edu
caci
ón P
Ubl
ica
in M
exic
o C
ity.
For
mor
e in
form
atio
n ab
out
sour
ces,
con
tact
the
auth
or th
roug
hhe
r pu
blis
her,
Edi
tori
al T
rilla
s in
Mex
ico
City
.]
Adv
ance
s de
la M
oder
niza
cian
Edu
cativ
a. 1
994,
May
o.[A
dvan
ces
in E
duca
tiona
l
Mod
erni
zatio
n]. M
exic
o, D
F: S
ecre
tarf
a de
Edu
caci
dn P
dblic
a(S
EP)
.
Agu
ilar,
P. H
. (19
88).
La
Edu
caci
dn R
ural
en
Mex
ico
[Rur
al e
duca
tion
in M
exic
o].
Mex
ico,
DF:
Sec
reta
ria
de E
duca
cidn
Pdb
lica
.A
nnua
les
de E
stad
istic
as d
e U
NE
SCO
[St
atis
tical
Ann
uals
ofU
NE
SCO
]. 1
989.
Bar
bosa
, H. A
. (19
72).
Cie
n A
nos
en la
edu
caci
On
de M
exic
o.[O
ne h
undr
ed y
ears
of
educ
atio
n in
Mex
ico]
. Mex
ico,
DF:
Edi
tori
al P
ax.
Bru
nner
, J. J
. (19
90).
Edu
caci
an s
uper
ior
en A
mer
ica
Lat
ina:
Cam
bios
y d
csaf
ios
[Hig
her
educ
atio
n in
Lat
in A
mer
ica:
Cha
nges
and
cha
lleng
es].
Sant
iago
, Chi
le:
Fond
o de
Cul
tura
Eco
ndm
ica.
Con
stitu
ción
pol
itica
de
los
Est
ados
Uni
dos
Mex
ican
os,
edic
ian
deci
ma
[Pol
itica
lC
onst
itutio
n of
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es o
f M
exic
o, 1
0th
editi
on].
(19
94).
Mex
ico,
DF:
Edi
tori
al T
rilla
s.C
onvo
cato
ria
al c
oncu
rso
para
la r
enov
aci6
n de
los
libro
s de
text
osgr
atui
tos
deed
ucac
idn
prim
aria
(19
93-1
994)
[Su
mm
ons
to th
e C
ompe
titio
n fo
r th
eR
enov
atio
n
of th
e Fr
ee E
duca
tiona
l Tex
t Boo
ks f
or E
lem
enta
ry, 1
993-
94].
Mex
ico,
DF:
Secr
etar
fa d
e E
duca
ci6n
Pdb
lica.
Coo
ms,
P. H
. (19
91).
Est
rate
gia
para
mej
orar
la c
alid
ad d
e la
educ
acia
n de
Me.
xico
[Str
ateg
ies
for
bette
ring
the
qual
ity o
f (e
duca
tion
in M
exic
o]. M
exic
o, D
F:Se
cret
aria
de E
duca
ci6n
Pdb
lica,
Fon
do d
e C
ultu
ra E
cond
mic
a.D
irec
ci6n
Gen
eral
de
Info
rmac
ion,
Cap
itulo
Edu
caci
ón [
Gen
eral
Man
agem
ent o
fIn
form
atio
n, C
hapt
er o
n E
duca
tion]
. (19
92).
Mex
ico,
DF:
Sec
reta
ria
deE
duca
cidn
Pdbl
ica.
Dir
ecci
dn G
ener
al d
e In
form
aci6
n, I
nfor
me
de E
jecu
cian
[G
ener
alM
anag
emen
t of
Info
rmat
ion,
Exe
cutiv
e R
epor
t]. (
1993
). M
exic
o, D
F: S
ecre
tari
a de
Edu
caci
dn
Pdbl
ica.
Dir
ecci
ón G
ener
al d
e Pl
anea
cidn
, Pro
gram
ació
n y
Pres
upue
sto,
El X
I C
enso
Gen
eral
de
Pobl
aciO
n y
Viv
iend
a [G
ener
al M
anag
emen
t of
Plan
ning
, Pro
gram
min
g,an
d B
ud-
get,
The
Xl G
ener
al P
opul
atio
n an
d H
ousi
ng C
ensu
s].
Mex
ico,
DF:
Sec
reta
rfa
de
Edu
caci
dn P
dblic
a.E
stad
istic
a ba
sica
del
sis
tem
a ed
ucat
iva.
Fin
de
curs
os [
Bas
ic s
tatis
tics
of th
ena
tiona
l
educ
atio
nal s
yste
m. E
nd o
f co
urse
s]. (
1992
-199
3). M
exic
o, D
F: S
ecre
tarf
ade
Edu
caci
dn P
dblic
a.Fu
ndam
ento
s T
eari
co-M
etod
oldg
icos
del
Pro
gram
a Pr
eesc
olar
(19
92).
[The
oret
ical
-
Met
hodo
logi
cal F
unda
men
tals
of
Pres
choo
l Edu
catio
n]. M
exic
o, D
F: S
ecre
tarf
ade
Edu
caci
ón P
dblic
a,G
uerr
a, R
. (19
78).
Sys
tem
s of
Hig
her
Edu
catio
n: M
exic
o. I
nter
natio
nalC
ounc
il fo
r
the
Dev
elop
men
t of
Edu
catio
n.In
form
es A
nnua
les
[Ann
ual R
epor
ts],
(19
92-1
993)
. (19
93-1
994)
. Mex
ico,
DF:
Secr
etar
fa
de E
duca
cidn
Pdb
lica.
36
VIC
TO
RIA
AN
DR
AD
E D
E H
ER
RA
RA
59
La
Fede
raci
ón d
e E
duca
ci6n
, Dia
rio
ofic
ial d
e la
fede
raci
6n, 5
de
mar
zo d
e 19
93. [
The
Fede
ratio
n of
Edu
catio
n, O
ffic
ial D
iary
of
the
Fede
ratio
n, M
arch
5,19
93.]
Mex
ico,
DF:
Sec
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37