ed 352 419 author kleinsasser, audrey m.; horsch, elizabeth … · 2014. 4. 9. · elizabeth a....
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DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 352 419 TM 019 355
AUTHOR Kleinsasser, Audrey M.; Horsch, Elizabeth A.TITLE Teaching, Assessment, and Learning: Invitation to a
Discussion.INSTITUTION Wyoming Univ., Laramie. Wyoming Center for
Educational Research.SPONS AGENCY Wyoming State Dept. of Education, Cheyenne.PUB DATE Aug 92NOTE 167p.PUB TYPE Reports Evaluative/Feasibility (142)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PC07 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Educational Assessment; Educational Research;
Elementary Secondary Education; Evaluation Methods;*Evaluation Utilization; *Learning; Outcomes ofEducation; Policy Formation; *Student Evaluation;Teacher Role; *Teaching Methods; Test Use
IDENTIFIERS Alternative Assessment; *Outcome Based Education;Performance Based Evaluation; *Wyoming
ABSTRACT
Forms of assessment that are consistent with outcomesbased education are discussed. Assessment in service to learning mustinform students about their learning, provide data for teachers whoplan instruction, inform parents about student progress, and providedata for policymakers. Chapter 1 of this document is "TheImplications of Prevailing Testing Practices." Chapter 2, "ConnectingLearning and Assessment," summarizes research data about learning.Chapter 3, "Grades, Tests, and Ordeals: The American TestingCulture"; and Chapter 4, "Roles, Rules, and Rituals in a Culture ofAssessment: Blurring the Distinctions," show that practices thatexist in a culture of testing will probably need to be recast in a
culture of assessment. chapter 5, "Making the Transition: TheAssessment of Educational Standards and Outcomes," provides standardsfor outcomes-based education and examples of performance basedassessment from teachers in Wyoming. A resource section contains 13examples of strategies that teachers in Wyoming use to meetinstructional outcomes through assessment, including videoassessment; product testing; first grade multidisciplinaryassessment; alternative assessment; monographs; a Renaissance fair;self-evaluated gymnastics; integration of computers; literacyassessment in third grace; reading and writing in first grade;assessing the integration of reading, writing, social studies, andscience. Three summary streets and 56 sources are included. (SLD)
************************************************************************
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.
***********************************************************************
Tea
chin
g, A
sses
smen
t,an
d L
earn
ing.
Invi
tatio
n to
a D
iscu
ssio
nby
Aud
rey
M. K
lein
sass
eran
dE
lizab
eth
A. H
orsc
h
U.S
. DE
PA
RT
ME
NT
Of E
DU
CA
TIO
NO
ffice
of E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
h an
d Im
pove
men
t
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
RE
SO
UR
CE
S IN
FO
RM
AT
ION
CE
NT
ER
(E
RIC
)
P/in
isdo
cum
ent h
as b
een
repr
oduc
ed a
sre
ceiv
ed fr
ont t
he p
erso
n or
org
aniz
atio
nor
igin
atin
g it
0 M
inor
cha
nges
hav
e be
en m
ade
to im
prov
ere
prod
uctio
n qu
ality
Poi
nts
of v
iew
or
opin
ions
sta
ted
in th
is d
ocu-
men
t do
not n
eces
saril
y re
pres
ent o
ffici
alO
ER
I pos
ition
or
polic
y
"PE
RM
ISS
ION
TO
RE
PR
OD
UC
E T
HIS
MA
TE
RIA
L H
AS
BE
EN
GR
AN
TE
D B
Y
vl L
X/ Z
.gE
,tey
TO
TH
E E
DU
CA
TIO
NA
L R
ES
OU
RC
ES
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N C
EN
TE
R (
ER
IC).
"
Uni
vers
ityof
-W
yom
ing
Wyo
min
gC
ente
r fo
ir E
duca
tiona
l, R
esea
rch
BE
ST
CO
PY
AV
AIL
AB
LE
I
Tea
chin
g, A
sses
smen
t, an
d L
earn
ing:
Invi
tatio
n to
a D
iscu
ssio
nby
Aud
rey
M. K
lein
sass
eran
dE
lizab
eth
A. H
orsc
h
Publ
ishe
d by
Wyo
min
g C
ente
r fo
r E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
h
Box
337
4
Col
lege
of
Edu
catio
n
Uni
vers
ity o
f W
yom
ing
Lar
amie
, Wyo
min
g 82
071-
3374
Aug
ust,
1992
Port
ions
of
this
doc
umen
t wer
ede
velo
ped
as a
res
ult o
fac
tiviti
es c
ondu
cted
und
er a
FY 1
989
Cha
pter
2E
SEA
cont
ract
bet
wee
n th
eU
nive
rsity
of
Wyo
min
g C
olle
geof
Edu
catio
n an
d th
e W
yom
ing
Dep
artm
ent o
f E
duca
tion.
The
Uni
vers
ity o
f W
yom
ing
and
the
Wyo
min
g D
epar
tmen
t of
Edu
catio
n do
not
disc
rim
inat
e on
the
basi
s of
rac
e, c
olor
,nat
iona
l ori
gin,
sex
, age
or
hand
icap
in a
dmis
sion
or
acce
ss to
, or
trea
tmen
t or
empl
oym
ent i
n, it
s ed
ucat
iona
lpr
ogra
ms
or a
ctiv
ities
.In
quir
ies
conc
erni
ng T
itle
VI,
Titl
e IX
, and
Sect
ion
504
may
he
refe
rred
to W
yom
ing
Dep
artm
ent o
f E
duca
tion,
Off
ice
of C
ivil
Rig
hts
Coo
rdin
ator
, Hat
haw
ay B
uild
ing,
2nd
Flo
or,
2300
Cap
itol A
venu
e, C
heye
nne,
Wyo
min
g 82
002-
0050
or
307/
777-
6218
or
toth
e U
.S. D
epar
tmen
t of
Edu
catio
n,O
ffic
e of
Civ
il R
ight
s, R
egio
n V
III,
124
4Sp
eer
Bou
leva
rd, S
uite
300
, Den
ver,
Col
orad
o 80
204.
C)
1
P,
Tab
le o
f C
onte
nts
Intr
oduc
tion
5
Cha
pter
19
Prev
ailin
g T
estin
g Pr
actic
es:
Impl
icat
ions
for
Lea
rnin
gC
hapt
er 2
13C
onne
ctin
g L
earn
ing
and
Ass
essm
ent:
Res
earc
h ab
out L
earn
ing
Cha
pter
321
Gra
des,
Tes
ts, a
nd O
rdea
ls:
The
Am
eric
an T
estin
g C
ultu
reC
hapt
er 4
3 7
Rol
es, R
ules
, and
Ritu
als
in a
n C
ultu
re o
f A
sses
smen
t:B
lurr
ing
the
Dis
tinct
ions
Cha
pter
54
9M
akin
g th
e T
rans
ition
:T
he A
sses
smen
t of
Edu
catio
nal S
tand
ards
and
Out
com
esR
esou
rces
5 9
Wyo
min
g T
each
ers'
Exa
mpl
es o
f W
orth
whi
le A
sses
smen
t6
0Se
lect
ed R
efer
ence
s fo
r Fu
rthe
r R
eadi
ng:
Tes
ting
and
the
Tes
ting
Cul
ture
79A
sses
smen
t and
an
Ass
essm
ent C
ultu
re8
2T
he A
nthr
opol
ogy
and
Soci
olog
y of
Sch
oolin
g8
3R
eadi
ngs
on T
each
ing
and
Lea
rnin
g8
4C
ontr
astin
g a
Cul
ture
of
Tes
ting
to a
Cul
ture
of
Ass
essm
ent
8 5
Che
cklis
t of
Mea
ning
ful A
sses
smen
t8
6A
ssum
ptio
ns a
bout
Lea
rnin
g8
7
3
5
Tes
ting,
Ass
essm
ent,
and
Lea
rnin
g:In
vita
tion
to a
Dis
cuss
ion
INT
RO
DU
CT
ION
The
pur
pose
of
this
boo
k is
to in
trod
uce
and
info
rm r
eade
rs a
bout
for
ms
of
asse
ssm
ent w
hich
are
con
sist
ent w
ith o
utco
mes
base
d ed
ucat
ion.
We
hope
this
boo
k
prov
okes
thou
ghtf
ul d
iscu
ssio
n ab
out i
ssue
sim
port
ant t
o le
arne
rs, t
each
ers,
and
polic
y m
aker
s.W
e ho
pe it
will
foc
us im
port
ant q
uest
ions
abou
t tea
chin
g an
d
lear
ning
. How
doe
s a
book
abo
ut te
stin
g an
d as
sess
men
tre
late
to a
Wyo
min
g m
anda
te
for
outc
omes
bas
ed e
duca
tion?
We
view
thes
e fo
rms
as a
sses
smen
t in
serv
ice
to
lear
ning
.In
our
vie
w, a
sses
smen
t in
serv
ice
tole
arni
ng h
as f
our
mai
n pu
rpos
es: a
) it
incl
udes
and
info
rms
the
stud
ent a
bout
his
or h
er le
arni
ng; b
)it
prov
ides
info
rmat
ion
for
the
teac
her
who
pla
ns in
stru
ctio
n;c)
it in
form
s pa
rent
s ab
out
stud
ent p
rogr
ess;
and
d)
it pr
ovid
es w
orth
whi
lein
form
atio
n fo
r po
licy
mak
ers.
Our
posi
tion
is u
nequ
ivoc
al. T
he s
tude
nt c
omes
firs
t, th
e te
ache
r an
d pa
rent
s se
cond
, and
all o
ther
s th
ird.
Thi
s bo
ok is
div
ided
into
fiv
e ch
apte
rs.
The
fir
st c
hapt
er is
entit
led
"Pre
vaili
ng T
estin
g Pr
actic
es: T
he I
mpl
icat
ions
for
Lea
rnin
g."
The
sec
ond
chap
ter,
"Con
nect
ing
Lea
rnin
g an
d A
sses
smen
t:R
esea
rch
abou
t Lea
rnin
g,"
is a
sum
mar
y of
som
e of
the
late
st a
nd m
ost
pert
inen
t res
earc
h da
ta a
bout
lear
ning
.
Cha
pter
s 3
and
4 w
iden
the
lens
to in
clud
e te
stin
gan
d as
sess
men
t in
a cu
ltura
l
pers
pect
ive.
In th
ese
chap
ters
, we
show
that
pra
ctic
esw
hich
exi
st in
a c
ultu
re o
f
test
ing
will
pro
babl
y ne
ed to
be
reca
st in
acu
lture
of
asse
ssm
ent.
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& U
OR
SCII
6In
trod
uctio
n
We
get d
own
to th
e nu
ts a
nd b
olts
in C
hapt
er5:
sta
ndar
ds f
or o
utco
mes
bas
eded
ucat
ion
and
exam
ples
of
perf
orm
ance
bas
edas
sess
men
t tha
t com
plem
ent a
nou
tcom
es b
ased
lear
ning
app
roac
h.T
he e
xam
ples
are
fro
m e
lem
enta
ry a
ndse
cond
ary
teac
hers
thro
ugho
ut W
yom
ing.
We
have
ic.'.
entif
ied
each
bec
ause
we
wan
tto
cel
ebra
te th
eir
idea
s. W
e al
so w
ant r
eade
rs w
ho h
ave
ques
tions
to b
e ab
le to
cont
act t
hese
teac
hers
dir
ectly
, to
cont
inue
the
disc
ussi
onst
arte
d he
re.
Fina
lly, i
n a
refe
renc
e se
ctio
n,w
e ha
ve in
clud
ed th
irte
en e
xam
ples
of
wor
thw
hile
ass
essm
ent f
rom
Wyo
min
g te
ache
rs, a
ndfo
ur r
esou
rce
lists
for
fur
ther
read
ing.
The
boo
k cl
oses
with
thre
esu
mm
ary
shee
ts w
hich
can
be
easi
ly d
uplic
ated
.O
ne s
umm
ary
shee
t con
tras
ts th
e cu
lture
of
test
ing
to th
e cu
lture
of
asse
ssm
ent.
Ase
cond
hig
hlig
hts
the
char
acte
rist
ics
ofm
eani
ngfu
l ass
essm
ent.
The
thir
dsu
mm
ary
shee
t des
crib
es th
e as
sum
ptio
ns a
bout
lear
ning
that
und
ergi
rd th
is b
ook.
In p
art,
this
boo
k is
the
prod
uct o
fa
teac
hing
exp
erie
nce.
As
teac
hers
, we
thin
k th
at is
fitt
ing.
Dur
ing
the
spri
ng s
emes
ter
of 1
992,
we
taug
ht f
our
para
llel
sect
ions
of
a re
quir
ed c
ours
e fo
r un
derg
radu
ates
in th
e te
ache
r ed
ucat
ion
prog
ram
atth
e U
nive
rsity
of
Wyo
min
g. T
heco
urse
was
Edu
catio
nal T
ests
and
Mea
sure
men
ts.
Alo
ng w
ith c
olle
ague
Ala
n M
oore
,w
e ta
ught
test
s an
d m
easu
rem
ents
fro
ma
clas
sroo
m a
sses
smen
t per
spec
tive.
As
a re
sult
of o
ur e
ffor
ts, t
his
rede
sign
edco
urse
will
als
o ha
ve a
new
nam
e: C
lass
room
Ass
essm
ent.
Thr
ough
out t
he b
ook,
we
will
refe
r of
ten
to th
e 16
0 st
uden
tsw
e ta
ught
who
wan
t to
beco
me
elem
enta
ry a
ndse
cond
ary
teac
hers
.A
for
mal
nee
ds a
sses
smen
t plu
s on
goin
gco
nver
satio
ns w
ithth
em a
bout
thei
r le
arni
ng a
nd te
stin
gex
peri
ence
s he
lped
sha
pe m
any
of th
e id
eas
we
pres
ent h
ere.
Our
stu
dent
s he
lped
us
rem
embe
r th
atm
any
of o
ur te
achi
ng b
elie
fsan
d re
sulti
ng p
ract
ices
are
root
ed in
the
clas
sroo
m e
xper
ienc
es w
e ha
das
stu
dent
s.
TE
STIN
G, A
SSE
SSM
EN
T A
ND
LE
AR
NIN
G: 1
Nvr
rivr
ioN
TO
A D
ISC
USS
ION
Intr
oduc
tion
We
owe
a th
ank
you
to m
any
cont
ribu
tors
.Fi
rst,
we
than
k th
e W
yom
ing
teac
hers
who
se a
sses
smen
ts a
re s
potli
ghte
d in
this
boo
k. W
e al
so th
ank
stud
ents
inou
r U
nive
rsity
of
Wyo
min
g co
urse
s.C
ritic
al f
rien
ds, J
udy
Ells
wor
th, J
ane
Nel
son,
and
Lin
da G
oldm
an g
ave
inva
luab
le c
omm
ents
to e
arly
dra
fts.
We
than
k C
hris
tine
Shea
rer,
who
se d
eskt
op p
ublis
hing
tale
nts
put t
he d
ocum
ent t
oget
her
in w
hat w
eho
pe is
an
inte
rest
ing
and
usef
ul f
orm
at.
Wri
ting
a bo
ok li
ke th
is o
ne is
a p
erfo
rman
ce a
sses
smen
t of
the
firs
t ord
er!
Thr
ough
out t
he p
lann
ing,
wri
ting,
and
edi
ting,
one
que
stio
n fo
cuse
d ou
r w
ork:
How
can
we
invi
te W
yom
ing
educ
ator
s to
ent
er a
dis
cuss
ion
linki
ng te
stin
g, a
sses
smen
tan
d le
arni
ng?
Aud
rey
M. K
lein
sass
erU
nive
rsity
of
Wyo
min
gL
aram
ie, W
yom
ing
8207
1
307/
766-
6358
14
Aug
ust,
1992
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& 1
1OR
SCII
Eliz
abet
h A
.Hor
sch
Kel
ly W
alsh
Hig
h Sc
hool
Cas
per,
Wyo
min
g 82
609
307/
577-
4640
15
9
Cha
pter
I
The
Im
plic
atio
ns o
fPr
evai
ling
Tes
ting
Prac
tices
Con
side
r th
is S
cena
rio.
..It
is th
e da
y th
e te
ache
r ha
s de
sign
ated
for
the
test
.T
he m
ood
and
the
atn'
osph
ere
of th
e cl
assr
oom
is d
iffe
rent
fro
m p
revi
ous
days
. The
stud
ents
and
the
teac
her
are
seri
ous
and
busi
ness
like.
Man
y ar
e te
nse
and
anxi
ous.
The
des
ks a
re p
ushe
d as
far
apa
rt a
s po
ssib
le .
The
teac
her
asks
the
stud
ents
to p
utaw
ay a
ll m
ater
ials
, inc
lud;
ng b
ooks
, not
eboo
ks, e
xam
ples
, mod
els.
An
empt
yde
sk to
p
and
a pe
ncil
or p
en r
emai
n.T
he te
ache
r di
stri
bute
s th
e te
st a
nd is
sues
the
inst
ruct
ions
: "W
ork
care
fully
and
qui
etly
.If
you
hav
e qu
estio
ns, r
aise
you
r ha
ndan
d I
will
com
e to
you
. Kee
p yo
ur e
yes
on y
our
own
wor
k."
At t
he e
nd o
f th
e tim
epe
riod
whi
ch th
e te
ache
r ha
s de
sign
ated
, stu
dent
s gi
ve th
eir
test
sto
the
teac
her.
The
teac
her
iden
tifie
s th
e w
rong
ans
wer
s, c
ompu
tes
the
tota
l and
rec
ords
a n
umbe
ror
lette
r w
hich
rep
rese
nts
the
grad
e in
the
grad
eboo
k.So
met
imes
, the
test
will
be
retu
rned
to th
e st
uden
t.If
the
test
is a
maj
or o
r st
anda
rdiz
ed te
st h
owev
er, t
hest
uden
t may
not
be
allo
wed
to s
ee th
e co
rrec
ted
test
.
The
test
ing
mod
el w
e ha
ve d
escc
ibed
abo
ve r
emai
ns o
ne o
f th
e m
ost e
ndur
ing,
perv
asiv
e an
d co
mpe
lling
fea
ture
s of
the
ente
rpri
se w
e ca
ll sc
hool
. No
othe
r si
ngle
activ
ity h
as s
uch
a m
ajor
impa
ct o
n te
ache
rs, s
tude
nts,
cur
ricu
lum
and
inst
ruct
ion.
Whe
n pr
eser
vice
teac
hers
fro
m o
ur te
sts
and
mea
sure
men
ts c
lass
es a
t the
Uni
vers
ityof
Wyo
min
g in
terv
iew
ed e
ight
y W
yom
ing
teac
hers
abo
ut te
stin
g pr
actic
es a
t the
irsc
hool
s, th
ese
in-s
ervi
ce te
ache
rs e
xpre
ssed
maj
or c
once
rn a
bout
the
info
rmat
ion
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& H
OR
SCII
--.
NO
TE
S &
QU
OT
ES
16
10Pr
evai
ling
Tes
ting
Prac
tices
:
that
for
mal
test
ing
prod
uced
and
the
impa
ct o
f te
stin
gpr
ogra
ms
on c
urri
culu
m a
ndki
ds.
The
ir c
once
rns
are
wel
l fou
nded
. For
cou
ntle
ss s
tude
nts,
test
s ha
ve b
ecom
e th
ega
teke
eper
of
thei
r ac
adem
ic jo
urne
y.C
omm
erci
al la
rge
scal
e te
sts,
suc
h as
the
Col
lege
Boa
rd's
SA
T o
r th
e A
CT
aff
ect c
olle
ge a
dmis
sion
s, th
eaw
ardi
ng o
f sc
hola
rshi
psan
d fi
nanc
ial a
id, a
nd th
e st
uden
ts' p
erce
ptio
ns o
f th
eir
own
acad
emic
abi
litie
s.In
man
y st
ates
, tes
ting
is th
e so
rtin
g, a
ssig
ning
, and
cla
ssif
ying
sys
tem
whi
ch b
egin
sin
kind
erga
rten
or
befo
re.
The
con
stru
ctio
n, a
dmin
istr
atio
n, a
nd ta
king
of
test
sco
nsum
e in
ordi
nate
am
ount
s of
teac
her
and
stud
ent t
ime.
Alth
ough
ther
e is
littl
eag
reem
ent a
bout
wha
t tes
ts r
eally
tell
us, t
he r
esul
ts o
f fo
rmal
test
s ar
e us
ed to
sor
tan
d cl
assi
fy s
tude
nts
on th
e ba
sis
of a
cade
mic
pot
entia
l and
read
ines
s th
roug
hout
thei
r sc
hool
car
eers
.C
urri
culu
m d
ecis
ions
, jud
gmen
ts a
bout
teac
her
com
pete
nce,
and
com
pari
sons
bet
wee
n sc
hool
sar
e of
ten
mad
e us
ing
info
rmat
ion
from
a s
ingl
e,hi
gh s
take
s te
st.
Wid
e sc
ale
use
of te
st r
esul
ts r
aise
s im
port
ant q
uest
ions
abou
t tes
ting.
In th
isbo
ok, w
e w
ill e
xam
ine
som
e of
thes
e is
sues
abo
ut te
stin
g, le
arni
ng,
and
asse
ssm
ent.
Wha
t are
the
impa
cts
of c
urre
nt te
stin
g pr
actic
eson
teac
hers
and
stu
dent
s? W
hat
info
rmat
ion
does
the
trad
ition
al k
ind
of te
stin
g yi
eld?
Wha
t bel
iefs
do te
ache
rs a
ndst
uden
ts h
ave
abou
t tes
ting
and
lear
ning
?H
ow c
ompa
tible
are
cur
rent
test
ing
prac
tices
with
cur
rent
res
earc
h ab
out t
hew
ay s
tude
nts
lear
n? W
hat a
re th
e ro
les,
rule
s, a
nd r
itual
s w
hich
lim
it th
e op
port
uniti
es f
or c
hang
e?A
nd f
inal
ly, h
ow a
rere
al te
ache
rs in
rea
l sch
ools
cha
ngin
g th
eir
asse
ssm
ent p
ract
ices
?O
ur p
urpo
se in
wri
ting
this
boo
k is
to in
itiat
ea
dial
ogue
abo
ut a
sses
smen
tam
ong
teac
hers
, stu
dent
s, a
nd th
e co
mm
unity
whi
ch c
an g
ive
dire
ctio
nto
edu
cato
rsan
d po
licy
mak
ers
as w
e tr
y to
ref
orm
edu
catio
n in
this
stat
e.W
e in
vite
you
tobe
com
e a
part
of
this
dis
cuss
ion
and
to s
hare
your
insi
ghts
and
you
r ex
pert
ise.
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
: IN
VIT
AT
ION
'1'0
A D
ISC
US
SIO
N
Impl
icat
ions
for
Lea
rnin
g11
A P
RA
CT
ICE
IN
SE
AR
CH
OF
A D
EFI
NIT
ION
The
sce
nari
o w
e ha
ve d
epic
ted
mat
ches
Web
ster
's S
even
th N
ew C
olle
giat
eD
ictio
nary
def
initi
on o
f te
stin
g.It
is "
an o
dea
l or
oath
req
uire
d as
pro
of o
fco
nfor
mity
with
a s
et o
f be
liefs
." T
he k
ey w
ords
are
"or
deal
" an
d "p
roof
." A
s w
e w
illdo
cum
ent i
n th
e fo
llow
ing
sect
ion,
stu
dent
s ar
e m
ore
likel
y to
vie
w te
sts
as a
n or
deal
than
as
proo
f of
lear
ning
. We
aske
d th
e 16
0 pr
eser
vice
teac
hers
in o
ur f
our
sect
ions
of E
duca
tiona
l Tes
ts a
nd M
easu
rem
ents
at t
he U
nive
rsity
of
Wyo
min
g to
tell
us a
bout
thei
r ex
peri
ence
s w
ith te
stin
g.T
heir
res
pons
es te
stif
y to
the
prof
ound
and
last
ing
infl
uenc
e of
test
ing.
Man
y ex
pres
sed
pow
erfu
l fee
lings
abo
ut te
sts.
One
stu
dent
cons
ider
ed te
sts
"an
inev
itabl
e, h
orri
ble
expe
rien
ce w
hich
com
es a
t the
end
of
ever
ych
apte
r or
uni
t."Fo
r ot
her
stud
ents
, yea
rs la
ter
the
effe
cts
of a
par
ticul
ar te
stin
gex
peri
ence
wer
e st
ill g
raph
ic a
nd tr
aum
atic
."I
n th
e fo
urth
gra
de w
e w
ere
fini
shin
ga
test
and
whe
n th
e en
tire
clas
s fi
nish
ed, w
e co
uld
go o
ut f
or r
eces
s ea
rly.
I w
as n
ot
fini
shed
and
my
frie
nd y
elle
d:'If
thes
e du
mm
ies
are
not f
inis
hed
yet,
then
they
shou
ldn'
t get
a r
eces
s.'
I w
ill n
ever
for
get t
hat."
Oth
er s
tude
nts
rega
rded
test
ing
as a
n or
deal
impo
sed
upon
them
. One
sai
d,"T
his
is th
e w
ay th
ey m
ake
you
lear
n th
e m
ater
ial,"
whi
le a
noth
er d
escr
ibed
a te
st a
s,"P
anic
. Not
a f
air
judg
men
t of
one'
s ac
tual
kno
wle
dge.
"E
ven
thos
e st
uden
ts w
ho d
id n
ot c
onsi
der
test
ing
hurt
ful,
expr
esse
d co
ncer
nth
at th
e te
sts
did
not o
ffer
rel
iabl
e pr
oof
of w
hat t
hey
had
lear
ned.
Des
crib
ing
his
expe
rien
ce w
ith th
e A
CT
, one
stu
dent
sai
d, "
In ta
king
the
AC
T, I
just
cho
se a
bla
nk to
fill
in if
I d
idn'
t kno
w th
e an
swer
....M
y ov
eral
l tes
t sco
re w
as 2
3 an
d I
did
equa
lly w
ell
in M
ath
and
Eng
lish,
alth
ough
I h
adn'
t tak
en A
lgeb
ra I
I or
Cal
culu
s/T
rig
and
havi
ng
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& B
OR
SCH
tJ
We
mus
t ove
rcom
e th
ela
zy h
abit
of g
radi
ng o
nth
e cu
rve
as a
che
apw
ay o
f set
ting
and
upho
ldin
g st
anda
rds.
(Wig
gins
, 198
9)
12Pr
evai
ling
Tes
ting
Prac
tices
:
take
n an
d go
tten
high
gra
des
in a
ll th
e ad
vanc
ed E
nglis
h co
urse
s. T
his
dem
onst
rate
dth
e in
cred
ible
inad
equa
cy o
f th
e te
st!"
The
se c
omm
ents
und
ersc
ore
the
impa
ct o
f te
stin
g on
mor
e th
an g
rade
poi
ntav
erag
e. O
ur s
tude
nts
rais
ed tw
o im
port
ant i
ssue
s ab
out t
he n
atur
e of
test
ing.
Do
form
aliz
ed te
sts
focu
s on
a d
efic
it m
odel
of
lear
ning
?D
o te
sts
tell
stud
ents
and
teac
hers
mor
e ab
out w
hat a
stu
dent
doe
s no
t kno
w th
an w
hat s
he o
r he
has
lear
ned?
As
one
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
r ob
serv
ed, "
Is it
me,
the
test
, or
the
teac
her?
"T
he e
ndur
ing
natu
re o
f th
e tr
aditi
onal
test
ing
mod
el s
ugge
sts
we
have
hig
hex
pect
atio
ns th
at te
stin
g sh
ould
yie
ld la
rge
amou
nts
of u
sefu
l inf
orm
atio
n fo
rst
uden
ts, t
eacn
ers,
adm
inis
trat
ors
and
polic
y m
aker
s. C
alls
for
edu
catio
nal r
efor
m a
tbo
th s
tate
nd n
atio
nal l
evel
s in
clud
e a
dem
and
for
a na
tiona
l or
stat
e te
st to
pro
veth
at s
tude
nts
are
lear
ning
.Y
et it
see
ms
clea
r th
at a
ll th
e te
stin
g w
e ha
ve d
one
has
not g
iven
us
irre
futa
ble
evid
ence
of
wha
t our
stu
dent
s kn
ow o
r ca
n do
as
a re
sult
ofth
eir
scho
olin
g. T
o pa
raph
rase
an
earl
ier
resp
onse
, is
it th
e st
uden
t, th
e te
st, o
r th
ete
achi
ng?
In th
e ch
apte
r th
at f
ollo
ws,
we
exam
ine
wha
t the
late
st r
esea
rch
says
abo
utle
arni
ng. H
ow c
an a
sses
smen
t be
conn
ecte
d to
hum
an le
arni
ng?
TE
STIN
G, A
SSE
SSM
EN
T A
ND
LE
AR
NIN
G: I
NuI
TA
TIO
N T
O A
DIS
CU
SSIO
N
13
Cha
pter
II
Con
nect
ing
Lea
rnin
gan
d A
sses
smen
t
The
test
ing
scen
ario
we
desc
ribe
d in
Cha
pter
I im
plie
s a
set o
f be
liefs
abo
ut th
ew
ay s
tude
nts
lear
n. A
lthou
gh te
stin
g ha
s si
gnif
ican
t and
last
ing
effe
cts
on le
arni
ng,
teac
hers
and
stu
dent
s se
ldom
dis
cuss
or
iden
tify
the
belie
fs w
hich
dir
ect t
he p
roce
ss.
Nei
ther
teac
hers
nor
stu
dent
s ar
e lik
ely
to q
uest
ion
the
purp
ose
of a
test
. Whe
n a
stud
ent i
nitia
tes
a di
scus
sion
abo
ut a
test
, the
dis
cuss
ion
cent
ers
on w
hat m
ater
ial w
illbe
on
the
test
. Occ
asio
nally
, the
test
sco
re o
r th
e fa
irne
ss o
f th
e te
st w
ill b
equ
estio
ned.
Tes
ting
is s
o in
grai
ned
in th
e ro
utin
e of
sch
oolin
g th
at q
uest
ioni
ngei
ther
the
purp
ose
or th
e m
etho
dolo
gy is
unt
hink
able
.A
lthou
gh te
ache
rs a
ndst
uden
ts a
like
expr
ess
diss
atis
fact
ion
with
test
ing
and
the
info
rmat
ion
't pr
ovid
es, a
seri
ous
exam
inat
ion
of th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n te
stin
g an
d le
arni
ng d
oes
not o
ccur
.W
hat b
elie
fs a
bout
lear
ning
are
con
sist
ent w
ith th
e te
stin
g sc
enar
io w
ede
scri
bed
in C
hapt
er I
?W
e ar
gue
that
trad
ition
al te
stin
g im
plie
s a
belie
f th
at le
arni
ngis
an
indi
vidu
alis
tic a
ctiv
ity a
nd m
ust b
e de
mon
stra
ted
by th
e st
uden
t wor
king
alo
ne o
n an
indi
vidu
al te
st.
Tea
cher
s ar
rang
e ch
airs
to e
mph
asiz
e th
is b
elie
f.St
uden
ts s
itfo
rmal
ly in
str
aigh
t row
s, a
s fa
r fr
om th
eir
peer
s as
pos
sibl
e.T
he a
tmos
pher
e is
inte
nded
to d
isco
urag
e di
scus
sion
and
col
labo
ratio
n.W
hen
stud
ents
sha
rein
form
atio
n or
com
pare
mea
ning
dur
ing
a te
st, t
his
activ
ity is
labe
led
chea
ting.
Eve
n in
cla
ssro
oms
whe
re th
e da
ily r
outin
e in
clud
es li
vely
dis
cuss
ion
and
the
exch
ange
of
idea
s, th
e te
st d
ay is
sile
nt a
nd s
olita
ry.
KLE
INS
AS
SE
R &
HO
RS
CI1
r
NO
TE
S &
QU
OT
ES
14C
onne
ctin
g L
earn
ing
and
Ass
essm
ent:
Tra
ditio
nal t
estin
g m
odel
s al
so s
ugge
st th
at th
e te
ache
r ex
pect
s th
e st
uden
tto
dem
onst
rate
or
to r
ecog
nize
onl
y th
ose
mea
ning
s w
hich
hav
e be
en le
arne
dpr
evio
usly
.It
is a
ppar
ent a
lso
that
the
teac
her
or th
e te
xtbo
ok w
rite
rs id
entif
y th
em
eani
ng. S
ince
talk
ing
is ta
boo
and
the
time
fram
e is
teac
her
pres
crib
ed a
nd b
rief
,st
uden
ts c
anno
t con
tem
plat
e or
exp
lore
new
mea
ning
. The
rol
e of
the
stud
ent i
sto
reco
gniz
e th
e ri
ght r
espo
nse,
eve
n if
itis
cle
verl
y hi
dden
am
ong
care
fully
cons
truc
ted
dist
ract
ors
in m
ultip
le c
hoic
e ite
ms,
a m
atch
ing
sequ
ence
, or
in a
true
/fal
se q
uest
ion.
Stud
ents
in o
ur te
ache
r pr
eser
vice
test
s an
d m
easu
rem
ents
cla
sses
em
phas
ized
this
vie
w o
f te
stin
g w
ith th
ese
com
men
ts.
One
stu
dent
iden
tifie
d th
e te
st a
s an
inst
rum
ent t
o "s
ee h
ow w
ell t
he s
tude
nt h
ad le
arne
d."
For
mos
t stu
dent
s an
d te
ache
rsth
e te
st is
not
eve
n ex
pect
ed to
be
a le
arni
ng e
xper
ienc
e.It
is a
dem
onst
ratio
n cf
apr
evio
us h
appe
ning
sep
arat
e fr
om a
n on
goin
g, s
omet
imes
cir
cula
r le
arni
ngpr
oces
s.T
radi
tiona
l tes
ting
also
cle
arly
est
ablis
hes
who
is in
con
trol
of
lear
ning
and
Iho
cont
rols
how
mas
tery
will
be
exhi
bite
d. T
each
ers
give
test
s; s
tude
nts
take
test
s.T
he s
tude
nt is
the
pass
ive
ques
tion
answ
erer
, not
the
activ
e qu
estio
nge
nera
tor.
As
stud
ents
pro
gres
s th
roug
h th
eir
year
s of
sch
oolin
g, th
eyse
em to
bec
ome
mor
ew
illin
g to
ass
ume
a pa
ssiv
e ro
le.
The
y be
com
e so
con
ditio
ned
to g
ivin
g u
pre
spon
sibi
lity
that
they
res
ist a
ccep
ting
a m
ore
activ
e ro
le.
Som
e ed
ucat
ors
have
obse
rved
that
by
the
fift
h or
six
th g
rade
, stu
dent
sex
pres
s a
pref
eren
ce f
or a
ctiv
ities
whi
ch d
eman
d on
ly r
ote
lear
ning
and
rec
all.
A c
olle
ague
sha
red
a di
stur
bing
sto
ryw
hich
illu
stra
tes
this
kin
d of
stu
dent
det
achm
ent.
On
a pa
rtic
ular
day
in h
er h
igh
scho
ol li
tera
ture
cla
ss, s
he m
ista
kenl
y di
stri
bute
da
test
to h
er s
tude
nts
whi
ch a
sked
them
to a
nsw
er q
uest
ions
abo
ut a
pie
ce o
f lit
erat
ure
they
had
not s
tudi
ed. A
lthou
ghth
e qu
estio
ns c
ompr
ised
a m
ajor
par
t of
the
test
,no
t a s
ingl
e st
uden
t que
stio
ned
the
appl
icab
ility
of
the
test
to th
e m
ater
ials
they
had
stu
died
.U
ntil
she
bega
n gr
adin
g
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
: IN
VIT
AT
ION
TO
A D
ISC
US
SIO
N
Research about Learning
15
pape
rs, s
he d
id n
ot k
now
that
she
had
dis
trib
uted
the
wro
ng te
st.
Inci
dent
s su
ch a
sth
is il
lust
rate
how
impo
rtan
t the
con
trol
issu
e is
and
how
con
ditio
ned
stud
ents
hav
ebe
com
e to
rel
inqu
ish
it w
ithou
t que
stio
n.
As
we
exam
ine
the
trad
ition
al te
stin
g sc
enar
io, w
e pr
opos
e th
at th
e of
ten
repe
ated
adm
oniti
on to
"pu
t aw
ay a
ll m
ater
ials
" im
plie
s th
e be
lief
that
stu
dent
s ca
nex
hibi
t the
ir k
now
ledg
e an
d sk
ills
in a
tool
fre
e en
viro
nmen
t.A
lthou
gh th
eim
port
ance
of
"han
ds-o
n" le
arni
ng r
ecei
ves
muc
h su
ppor
t am
ong
educ
ator
s, th
etr
aditi
onal
test
ing
envi
ronm
ent i
s de
void
of
prop
s an
d is
del
iber
atel
y to
ol-
free
.. T
hein
stru
ctio
nal s
ettin
g m
ay h
ave
been
ric
h an
d va
ried
but
the
test
ing
situ
atio
n ut
ilize
sm
inim
al to
ols.
Alth
ough
a f
lutis
t wou
ld n
ot b
e as
ked
to d
emon
stra
te m
aste
ry o
f th
efl
ute
by n
amin
g its
par
ts, s
tude
nts
in a
che
mis
try
clas
s of
ten
take
a p
aper
and
pen
cil
lab
test
, and
no
one
ques
tions
the
prac
tice.
Sinc
e a
seri
ous
disc
ussi
on o
f th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n be
liefs
abo
ut le
arni
ngan
d te
stin
g pr
actic
es d
oes
not o
ccur
, we
cann
ot b
e su
re th
at tr
aditi
onal
test
ing
actu
ally
ref
lect
s th
e co
mm
only
hel
d be
liefs
abo
ut s
tude
nt le
arni
ng. H
owev
er, w
e ca
nex
amin
e a
rela
ted
ques
tion.
How
do
belie
fs a
bout
lear
ning
that
are
exe
mpl
ifie
d by
trad
ition
al te
stin
g m
atch
cur
rent
res
earc
h an
d th
inki
ng a
bout
stu
dent
lear
ning
?W
e ar
gue,
and
we
thin
k th
at m
ost e
duca
tors
wou
ld a
gree
, tha
t stu
dent
s le
arn
best
whe
n th
ey a
re e
xcite
d ab
out w
hat t
hey
are
lear
ning
.St
uden
ts w
ho s
eeth
emse
lves
as
activ
e in
itiat
ors
rath
er th
an p
assi
ve r
espo
nder
s le
arn
mor
e de
eply
and
reta
in k
now
ledg
e m
ore
effe
ctiv
ely.
Whe
n te
ache
rs r
elin
quis
h so
me
cont
rol o
f w
hat
is le
arne
d an
d ho
w to
lear
n it
and
whe
n st
uden
ts a
re a
llow
ed to
mon
itor
thei
r ow
npr
ogre
ss, l
earn
ing
is e
nhan
ced
and
acce
lera
ted.
We
prop
ose
that
the
sam
e st
anda
rds
mus
t be
appl
ied
to te
stin
g. S
tude
nts
need
topa
rtic
ipat
e in
the
sele
ctio
n of
the
time
and
the
met
hod
of e
valu
atio
n. T
hey
mus
t hav
eow
ners
hip
in b
oth
proc
esse
s. A
n ex
ampl
e of
the
pow
er o
f th
is p
ract
ice
cam
e fr
om
r 4..0
K L
E1N
SASS
ER
& I
1OR
SCII
3U
16C
onne
ctin
g L
earn
ing
and
Ass
essm
ent:
one
of o
ur p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
rs.
She
desc
ribe
d he
r ex
peri
ence
in th
is w
ay. "
In m
y
fres
hman
yea
r in
col
lege
,I
took
an
anth
ropo
logy
exa
m w
hich
was
com
plet
ely
mul
tiple
cho
ice
and
I re
ceiv
ed a
D-
grad
e.I
wen
t to
my
inst
ruct
or to
let h
im k
now
that
I h
ad s
tudi
ed a
nd k
new
the
mat
eria
l and
that
I w
assh
ocke
d to
get
a D
. He
agre
ed
to g
ive
me
an e
ssay
test
the
next
mor
ning
and
I g
ot a
95%
. The
rem
aind
erof
the
sem
este
r, I
took
ess
ay e
xam
s an
d fi
nish
edth
e co
urse
with
a h
igh
A!"
Mak
ing
conn
ectio
ns.
Log
ic a
nd e
xper
ienc
e te
ll us
that
lear
ning
mus
tfi
t
into
and
exp
and
the
fram
ewor
k of
wha
t is
alre
ady
know
n. T
he p
revi
ous
expe
rien
ces
of th
e le
arne
r an
d th
e "r
eal w
orld
" ap
plic
atio
nsw
ith w
hich
he
or s
he is
fam
iliar
shou
ld b
e th
e ba
sis
of d
esig
ning
inst
ruct
ion.
A s
tude
nt w
ho c
anno
t ide
ntif
y a
conn
ectio
n or
link
a n
ew id
ea w
ith a
n ex
istin
g co
ncep
tha
s lit
tle c
hanc
e of
mak
ing
sens
e of
the
idea
.M
ary
Bud
d R
owe,
for
mer
Pre
side
nt o
f th
eN
atio
nal S
cien
ce
Tea
cher
s A
ssoc
iatio
n w
ho h
as s
pent
man
y ye
ars
stud
ying
how
stu
dent
s le
arn
scie
nce,
uses
an
elev
ator
ana
logy
toill
ustr
ate
this
poi
nt. O
nce
the
idea
is o
n th
e el
evat
or, i
t
mus
t fir
st g
et o
ff o
n th
e ri
ght f
loor
.W
hen
the
elev
ator
doo
r op
ens,
the
idea
pou
rs
dow
n th
e ha
ll.If
the
door
to a
roo
m w
here
the
idea
bel
ongs
ope
ns,
then
the
idea
find
s a
plac
e to
sta
y.If
not
, it j
ust c
ontin
ues
dow
n th
e ha
ll, d
own
the
stai
rsan
d is
lost
fore
ver. A
stu
dent
mus
t con
stru
ct k
now
ledg
e us
ing
wha
t he
or s
he a
lrea
dy k
now
s.T
radi
tiona
l tes
ts w
hich
mea
sure
bits
and
pie
ces
have
sev
ere
limita
tions
in th
is
resp
ect.
Tes
t que
stio
ns g
ener
ally
are
brie
f. T
he te
ache
r pr
ovid
es li
ttle
or n
o co
ntex
t
info
rmat
ion.
Dis
cuss
ion
is n
ot a
llow
ed.
Thu
s, th
e st
uden
t may
not
iden
tify
the
fram
ewor
k of
the
idea
. Fac
ed w
ith th
is d
ilem
ma,
mos
t stu
dent
sw
ho h
ave
not "
gotte
n
off
on th
e ri
ght f
loor
" m
ay r
esor
t to
blin
d ch
oice
and
gues
sing
.
The
con
text
of
lear
ning
.T
he id
ea o
f co
ntex
t is
clos
ely
rela
ted
to m
akin
g
conn
ectio
ns.
Alth
ough
ther
e ar
e di
ffer
ing
view
s on
the
subj
ect,
som
ere
sear
cher
s
TE
STIN
G, A
SSE
SSM
EN
T A
ND
LE
AR
NIN
G: I
NV
ITA
TIO
N T
O A
DIS
CU
SSIO
N
Res
earc
h ab
out L
earn
ing
17
prop
ose
that
the
skill
s an
d w
ays
of th
inki
ng w
hich
mak
e a
disc
iplin
e un
ique
are
acqu
ired
in th
e co
ntex
t of
the
cont
ent a
nd m
etho
dolo
gy o
f th
at d
isci
plin
e.It
app
ears
unlik
ely
that
a s
et o
f ge
nera
lizab
le s
kills
exi
sts
whi
ch c
an b
e tr
ansf
erre
d ea
sily
fro
mon
e di
scip
line
to a
noth
er.
Cla
ssro
om te
ache
rs h
ave
stru
ggle
d w
ith th
em
anif
esta
tions
of
this
con
cept
for
a lo
ng ti
me.
The
y ob
serv
e th
at s
tude
nts
who
exhi
bit p
rofi
cien
cy in
wri
ting
in a
wri
ting
clas
s ha
ve d
iffi
culty
wri
ting
cohe
rent
lab
repo
rts
in s
cien
ce, o
r th
at th
e m
athe
mat
ical
ski
lls w
hich
stu
dent
sdi
spla
y in
a m
ath
clas
s do
not
tran
sfer
whe
n th
ey a
re a
sked
to f
igur
e th
eir
test
per
cent
age
in a
soc
ial
stud
ies
clas
s.T
he d
efic
it m
ay li
e in
the
stud
ent's
fai
lure
to r
ecog
nize
the
cont
ext
rath
er th
an in
the
lack
of
his
or h
er s
kill.
Sim
ilarl
y, s
ome
obse
rver
s po
stul
ate
that
the
dram
atic
incr
ease
whi
ch s
tude
nts
exhi
bit o
n th
e C
olle
ge B
oard
's S
AT
or
the
Am
eric
an C
olle
ge T
estin
g Pr
ogra
m's
AC
T s
core
s af
ter
com
plet
ing
the
prac
tice
cour
sepr
obab
ly is
the
resu
lt of
impr
oved
abi
lity
to r
ecog
nize
the
cont
ext,
rath
er th
an th
ere
sult
of a
ny r
eal g
ains
in le
arni
ng.
We
acce
pt th
e pr
emis
e th
at le
arni
ng is
dif
ficu
lt in
a to
ol-f
ree
atm
osph
ere.
It is
reas
onab
le to
ass
ume
then
that
the
tool
s w
hich
a s
tude
nt u
ses
beco
me
an in
tegr
alpa
rt o
f hi
s or
her
kno
wle
dge
base
. The
boo
ks, c
alcu
lato
rs, m
anip
ulat
ives
,an
d a
host
of o
ther
inst
ruct
iona
l dev
ices
bec
ome
so e
ntw
ined
with
lear
ning
that
stu
dent
s m
ayfi
nd it
dif
ficu
lt to
dem
onst
rate
lear
ning
with
out t
hem
. Thi
s be
lief
requ
ires
a v
ery
diff
eren
t tes
ting
envi
ronm
ent f
rom
the
stan
dard
"pa
per
and
penc
il an
d no
thin
gel
se"
mod
el w
hich
pre
vails
in m
ost t
estin
g si
tuat
ions
.A
lthou
gh te
ache
rs e
xhor
tst
uden
ts to
con
sult
the
dict
iona
ry a
nd r
ewar
d th
em f
or c
iting
mul
tiple
sou
rces
on
are
sear
ch p
aper
, the
se s
ame
stud
ents
may
be
expe
cted
to p
rove
wha
t the
y kn
oww
ithou
t any
tool
s on
the
test
.T
eam
ing.
Incr
easi
ngly
in th
e w
orld
of
wor
k, te
ams
wor
k to
geth
er to
sol
vepr
oble
ms
and
mak
e de
cisi
ons.
Edu
cato
rs a
lso
are
begi
nnin
g to
ack
now
ledg
e th
at
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& I
IOR
SCII
18C
onne
ctin
g L
earn
ing
and
Ass
essm
ent:
expa
nded
lear
ning
is m
ore
likel
y to
occ
ur w
hen
stud
ents
hav
e th
e op
port
unity
todi
scus
s, p
robe
and
exp
lore
mea
ning
in g
roup
s. W
hen
a st
uden
t tes
ts id
eas
agai
nst t
heju
dgem
ent o
f ot
hers
, he
or s
he is
mor
e lik
ely
to d
evel
op h
ighe
r or
der
thin
king
ski
lls.
Rot
e m
emor
y an
d re
call
may
flo
uris
h in
an
solit
ary
setti
ng b
ut e
xplo
ratio
n, s
ynth
esis
and
anal
ysis
are
enh
ance
d by
col
labo
ratio
n.A
s te
ache
rs, w
e ac
know
ledg
e th
e di
ffic
ulty
of
wri
ting
test
s w
hich
pro
be h
igh
leve
l thi
nkin
g sk
ills.
Per
haps
the
prob
lem
lies
mor
e in
the
met
hodo
logy
of
test
ing
than
in th
e te
stin
g in
stru
men
t.It
may
be
that
a s
olo
perf
orm
ance
sev
erel
y lim
its th
eop
port
uniti
es f
or e
xhib
iting
thin
king
.R
ecal
ling
a co
oper
ativ
e fi
nal,
one
of o
urpr
eser
vice
teac
hers
sai
d, "
I to
ok a
fin
al in
an
educ
atio
n co
urse
with
a g
roup
of
six
peop
le. W
e op
enly
dis
cuss
ed th
e qu
estio
ns.
I le
arne
d m
ore
than
I e
ver
had
just
taki
ng a
test
alo
ne."
Ano
ther
res
earc
h fi
ndin
g w
hich
has
maj
or im
plic
atio
ns f
or te
achi
ng, t
estin
g,an
d le
arni
ng d
eals
with
the
conc
ept o
f le
arni
ng a
s a
hier
arch
y of
low
er a
nd h
ighe
rle
vel t
hink
ing
skill
s pr
esum
ed to
occ
ur in
som
e so
rt o
f pr
edet
erm
ined
pro
gres
sion
.O
ur o
bser
vatio
ns c
onvi
nce
us th
at c
hild
ren
can
orga
nize
and
syn
thes
ize
inre
mar
kabl
e w
ays.
As
very
you
ng c
hild
ren
deve
lop
lang
uage
ski
lls, t
hey
dem
onst
rate
this
cap
abili
ty.
Yet
sch
ools
spe
nd v
ast a
mou
nts
of ti
me
teac
hing
bas
ic s
killS
and
havi
ng s
tude
nts
prac
tice
them
bef
ore
stud
ents
are
cha
lleng
ed to
app
ly th
ese
skill
s in
mea
ning
ful w
ays.
Such
an
educ
atio
nal p
roce
ss m
ay b
e un
nece
ssar
y an
d ev
ende
trim
enta
l to
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f hi
gh o
rder
thin
king
. Tim
Rus
h w
ho te
ache
s at
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f W
yom
ing
cite
s w
ork
done
with
lear
ning
dis
able
d ch
ildre
n. H
e ob
serv
esth
at it
is n
ot n
eces
sary
for
a c
hild
to b
ecom
e ab
solu
tely
com
pete
nt in
the
skill
of
soun
ding
the
lette
r "p
", a
nd to
be
requ
ired
to e
xhib
it th
is f
acili
ty r
epea
tedl
y, b
efor
ehe
or
she
can
lear
n to
say
"Pe
ter
Pipe
r pi
cked
a p
eck
of p
ickl
ed p
eppe
rs."
61T
ES
TIN
G, A
SS
ES
SM
EN
T A
ND
LE
AR
NIN
G: I
NV
ITA
TIO
N T
O A
DIS
CU
SS
ION
Res
earc
h ab
out L
earn
ing
19
Bra
in r
esea
rch.
Res
earc
h on
bra
in d
evel
opm
ent m
ay o
ffer
sup
port
for
equa
l and
coi
ncid
ing
emph
asis
on
high
er o
rder
ski
lls a
nd b
asic
ski
lls. T
he a
reas
of
the
brai
n w
hich
sup
port
mem
ory
and
the
site
s fo
r co
mpl
ex th
inki
ng a
re d
iffe
rent
.L
earn
ing
theo
rist
s po
stul
ate
that
thes
e ar
eas
deve
lop
inde
pend
ently
and
that
incr
ease
d em
phas
is o
n on
e ki
nd o
f le
arni
ng a
t the
exp
ense
of
the
othe
r m
a y
adve
rsel
y af
fect
the
rate
of
deve
lopm
ent o
f th
e le
ss u
sed
area
. Alth
ough
the
rese
arch
is te
ntat
ive,
the
impl
icat
ions
are
not
triv
ial.
Sum
mar
y. S
ome
of th
e be
liefs
abo
ut le
arni
ng a
n be
sum
mar
ized
as
follo
ws:
Lea
rnin
g...
depe
nds
on th
e ac
tive
invo
lvem
ent o
f th
e le
arne
r in
inte
rpre
ting
as w
ell
as r
ecor
ding
info
rmat
ion
and
in m
onito
ring
his
or
her
own
know
ledg
eco
nstr
uctio
n st
rate
gies
depe
nds
in p
art o
n th
e le
arne
r's a
bilit
y to
pla
ce a
n id
ea o
r sk
ill w
ithin
the
fram
ewor
k of
wha
t is
alre
ady
know
noc
curs
in c
onte
xt.
In r
eal l
ife
lear
ning
, too
ls, p
rops
, and
oth
er a
ids
are
ofte
n a
part
of
the
cont
ext i
n w
hich
one
lear
ns.
is n
ot a
utom
atic
ally
tran
sfer
red
from
one
con
text
to a
noth
er. T
here
are
prob
ably
sev
ere
limita
tions
on
gene
raliz
ed le
arni
ng a
bilit
ies.
occu
rs m
ost s
ucce
ssfu
lly in
a s
ocia
l con
text
.K
now
ledg
e th
at is
pos
ed,
expo
sed
and
test
ed w
ith o
ther
s is
mor
e lik
ely
to h
ave
real
and
last
ing
mea
ning
for
the
lear
ner.
proc
eeds
fro
m th
e ge
nera
l to
the
part
icul
ar.
Mas
tery
of
deta
il sh
ould
not b
e ex
pect
ed b
efor
e th
e bi
g pi
ctur
e is
exp
lore
d.T
hese
em
ergi
ng b
elie
fs a
bout
lear
ning
des
erve
ser
ious
con
side
ratio
n.A
sses
smen
t and
inst
ruct
ion
shou
ld b
e in
tegr
ated
.T
estin
g ca
n no
long
er b
eco
nsid
ered
as
an is
olat
ed e
vent
whi
ch a
lway
s oc
curs
as
an in
terr
uptio
n or
KL
E1N
SASS
ER
& H
OR
SCI1
20C
onne
ctin
g L
earn
ing
and
Ass
essm
ent:
culm
inat
ion
of th
e in
stru
ctio
nal p
roce
ss.
Whe
n te
stin
g do
es o
ccur
at a
des
igna
ted
time,
it w
ill r
efle
ct m
etho
ds o
f in
stru
ctio
n an
d it
may
eve
n oc
cur
whe
n th
e st
uden
tde
cide
s he
or
she
is r
eady
to d
emon
stra
te p
rofi
cien
cy.
Ass
essm
ent s
trat
egie
s w
ill c
all
for
the
use
of to
ols,
sel
f m
onito
ring
, mul
tiple
ans
wer
s an
d ev
olvi
ng id
eas.
Stu
dent
sw
ill e
xerc
ise
som
e co
ntro
l ove
r th
e fo
rm o
f as
sess
men
t. T
hey
will
fin
d an
d de
sign
man
y w
ays
to e
xhib
it th
eir
achi
evem
ents
.T
each
ers
will
not
lim
it th
e ev
iden
ce f
orle
arni
ng to
a s
ingl
e bi
t of
info
rmat
ion
gath
ered
at a
par
ticul
ar ti
me
by a
par
ticul
arin
stru
men
t.Pa
rent
s an
d th
e co
mm
unity
will
acc
ept m
ultip
le a
nd le
ss s
truc
ture
din
dica
tors
as
"pro
of"
that
chi
ldre
n ar
e le
arni
ng.
Tea
cher
s, s
tude
nts
and
the
com
mun
ity w
ill s
hare
res
pons
ibili
ty f
or a
sses
smen
tan
d in
stru
ctio
n.T
he c
urre
nt a
tmos
pher
e of
str
uctu
red,
pre
scri
bed
test
s of
know
ledg
e w
ill g
ive
way
to m
essy
and
var
ied
indi
cato
rs o
f ac
hiev
emen
t whi
chm
irro
r th
e w
ay r
eal p
eopl
e le
arn
abou
t rea
l pro
blem
s.
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
: IN
VIT
AT
ION
TO
A D
ISC
US
SIO
Nr
d
21
Cha
pter
III
Gra
des,
Tes
ts, a
nd O
rdea
ls:
The
Am
eric
an T
estin
g C
ultu
re
In th
is c
hapt
er, w
e lo
ok a
t tes
ting
thro
ugh
the
lens
of
cultu
re. W
e ar
gue
that
man
y A
mer
ican
test
ing
prac
tices
thri
ve w
ithin
a c
ultu
ral f
ram
ewor
k w
hich
incl
udes
role
s, r
ules
, and
ritu
als
for
teac
her-
, .1n
d st
uden
ts.
If e
duca
tors
are
to im
plem
ent
alte
rnat
ives
to tr
aditi
onal
pap
er a
nd p
enci
l tes
ts, i
t is
impo
rtan
t to
unde
rsta
nd th
ecu
lture
that
sup
port
s th
is tr
aditi
on. W
e w
ill e
xplo
re th
e id
ea th
at a
test
ing
cultu
re is
unlik
ely
to b
e ho
spita
ble
to w
orth
whi
le a
sses
smen
ts s
uch
as p
ortf
olio
san
d ot
her
form
s of
per
form
ance
bas
ed a
sses
smen
t.
EX
AM
ININ
G S
CH
OO
LIN
G F
RO
M S
OC
IOL
OG
ICA
LA
ND
AN
TH
RO
POL
OG
ICA
L P
ER
SPE
CT
IVE
S.
In th
e la
st 1
5-20
yea
rs, i
t has
bec
ome
com
mon
plac
e fo
r so
me
educ
ator
s to
exam
ine
scho
olin
g us
ing
a so
ciol
ogic
al o
r an
thro
polo
gica
l per
spec
tive.
A b
rief
desc
ript
ion
of th
e im
pact
soc
iolo
gy a
nd a
nthr
opol
ogy
have
had
on
the
way
edu
cato
rsvi
ew s
choo
ling
follo
ws.
Con
trib
utio
ns o
f so
ciol
ogy.
A s
ocio
logi
cal p
ersp
ectiv
e m
aint
ains
that
scho
olin
g is
larg
er th
an th
e in
divi
dual
stu
dent
or
teac
her.
To
bette
r un
ders
tand
a
grou
p, s
ocio
logi
sts
ofte
n ex
amin
eth
e re
latio
nshi
p of
soc
io-e
cono
mic
sta
tus,
age
, rac
e,
gend
er, r
elig
ion,
and
fam
ily s
truc
ture
.So
ciol
ogis
ts h
ave
also
stu
died
the
role
of
teac
hers
, the
sch
ool a
s a
wor
k pl
ace,
and
teac
hing
as
a pr
ofes
sion
. One
exa
mpl
e of
KL
EJN
SASS
ER
& I
IOR
SCII
NO
TE
S &
QU
OT
ES
42
22G
rade
s, T
ests
, and
Ord
eals
:
soci
olog
y's
expl
anat
ory
pow
er r
elat
es to
und
erst
andi
ngch
ange
or
the
lack
of
chan
ge.
Soci
olog
ical
stu
dies
off
er in
sigh
ts a
bout
the
reas
ons
why
the
inst
itutio
nof
scho
ol s
eem
s to
res
ist c
hang
e. T
each
ers
and
adm
inis
trat
ors
atal
l edu
catio
nal l
evel
s
are
bom
bard
ed b
y ca
lls f
or r
estr
uctu
ring
,re
new
al, a
nd r
efor
m.
In th
e vi
ew o
f th
e
cyni
cs a
mon
g us
, cal
ls f
or v
ario
us f
orm
s of
res
truc
turi
ng, n
ot to
men
tion
plan
s fo
r
coop
erat
ive
lear
ning
, site
-bas
ed m
anag
emen
t, an
d ou
tcom
esba
sed
lear
ning
sim
ply
repr
esen
t thi
s ye
ar's
new
thin
g w
hich
rep
lace
sla
st y
ear's
new
thin
g.
A s
econ
d ex
ampl
e of
the
way
soc
iolo
gy in
form
sed
ucat
iona
l res
earc
h an
dpr
actic
e re
late
s to
a c
omm
unity
's e
xpec
tatio
ns f
or it
s st
uden
tsan
d sc
hool
s.A
com
mun
ity c
omm
unic
ates
exp
ecta
tions
for
aca
dem
ic a
chie
vem
ent i
nva
riou
s w
ays.
Som
e of
the
expe
ctat
ions
are
sub
tle a
nd c
over
t, ot
hers
are
ove
rt. F
orex
ampl
e, it
use
d
to b
e co
mm
onpl
ace
for
nine
wee
ks a
nd s
emes
ter
hono
r ro
lls to
be
prin
ted
in s
choo
lan
d co
mm
unity
new
spap
ers.
The
199
0s v
ersi
on o
f su
ppor
t for
acad
emic
ach
ieve
men
t
take
s a
com
plet
ely
diff
eren
t for
mat
in s
ome
com
mun
ities
. The
mes
sage
that
for
mer
ly
appe
ared
in n
ewsp
aper
s no
w f
lash
es f
rom
the
rear
bum
pers
of
cars
and
truc
ks:
I'M
PRO
UD
TO
BE
A P
AR
EN
T O
F A
N H
ON
OR
ST
UD
FNT
.
A th
ird
exam
ple
of s
ocio
logy
's p
ower
to h
elp
us u
nder
stan
dsc
hool
invo
lves
the
valu
es h
onor
ed b
y a
com
mun
ity. O
ne e
xam
ple
is th
e w
ay a
com
mun
ity m
ay o
r m
ay
not s
uppo
rt s
port
s.In
a c
omm
unity
that
doe
s no
t val
ue s
occe
r, it
will
not
mat
ter
how
skill
ed th
e so
ccer
coa
ch is
or
how
muc
h m
oney
the
scho
ol b
oard
allo
cate
s to
the
prog
ram
. Soc
cer
is n
ot li
kely
to th
rive
in th
at c
ultu
re.
Con
trib
utio
nsof
anth
ropo
logy
.R
esea
rch
abou
t sch
oolin
g ha
s al
sobe
nefi
ted
from
the
pers
pect
ive
anth
ropo
logy
off
ers.
The
ant
hrop
olog
ical
pers
pect
ive
is h
olis
tic.
it in
clud
es h
uman
bel
iefs
, pra
ctic
es, a
nd o
rgan
izat
iona
lpa
ttern
s.U
ntil
rece
ntly
, mos
t ant
hrop
olog
ists
wer
e ex
pect
ed to
trav
el to
rem
ote
loca
tions
to s
tudy
gro
ups
of p
eopl
e w
ith d
iffe
rent
lang
uage
s fr
om th
eir
own,
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
: IN
VIT
AT
ION
TO
A D
ISC
US
SIO
N
The
Am
eric
an T
estin
g C
ultu
re23
dist
inct
ive
fam
ily a
nd c
omm
unity
rol
es, a
nd u
niqu
e ru
les
of b
ehav
ior
whi
chpr
oduc
ed c
ultu
ral r
itual
s. H
owev
er, s
ome
anth
ropo
logi
sts
cam
e to
see
that
ther
e w
asm
uch
to b
e le
arne
d at
hom
e, m
uch
to b
e le
arne
d ab
out u
niqu
ely
Am
eric
an c
ultu
res
and
sub-
cultu
res.
Thi
s aw
aren
ess
has
led
rese
arch
ers
to e
xam
ine
Am
eric
ansc
hool
ing
from
an
anth
ropo
logi
cal l
ens.
The
res
ult o
f an
ant
hrop
olog
ical
stu
dy o
f ed
ucat
ion
has
yiel
ded
a fi
ndin
g th
atw
ould
not
sur
pris
e m
any
Am
eric
an s
tude
nts
or te
ache
rs.
Nam
ely,
edu
catio
nal
anth
ropo
logi
sts
view
for
mal
Am
eric
an s
choo
l pra
ctic
es a
s a
rich
and
com
plex
cul
ture
with
its
own
role
s, r
ules
, and
ritu
als.
Stud
ies
usin
g an
thro
polo
gica
l met
hods
of
inte
rvie
w a
nd o
bser
vatio
n ov
er lo
ng p
erio
ds o
f tim
e ha
ve le
d so
me
rese
arch
ers
tobe
lieve
that
rur
al s
choo
ls d
iffe
r fr
om u
rban
sch
ools
, and
ele
men
tary
sch
ools
dif
fer
from
sec
onda
ry s
choo
ls. M
ore
impo
rtan
t, an
thro
polo
gica
l stu
dies
sug
gest
that
ther
eca
n be
gre
at v
aria
tions
am
ong
scho
ols
clas
sifi
ed a
s ei
ther
rur
al o
r ur
ban.
Fact
ors
such
as
ethn
icity
, rel
igio
us v
alue
s, a
nd e
cono
mic
sta
tus
of th
e co
mm
unity
cre
ate
impo
rtan
t dif
fere
nces
bet
wee
n co
mm
uniti
es th
at m
ay b
e of
sim
ilar
popu
latio
n si
ze.
In f
act,
part
icul
ar a
nthr
opol
ogic
al s
tudi
es s
ugge
st th
at s
ome
of th
e co
mm
onad
ject
ives
use
d to
des
crib
e sc
hool
s an
d sc
hool
ing,
for
exa
mpl
e, a
whi
te, m
iddl
e cl
ass
scho
ol, m
ay n
ot b
e m
eani
ngfu
l or
even
use
ful,
espe
cial
ly to
teac
hers
.Sc
hool
ing
isju
st m
ore
com
plex
than
the
labe
ls u
sed
to d
escr
ibe
it.W
hene
ver
teac
hers
try
toad
dres
s is
sues
abo
ut s
choo
l clim
ate
and
cultu
re, t
hey
are
ackn
owle
dgin
g th
atef
fect
ive
teac
hing
and
lear
ning
is c
ompl
ex, a
nd n
ot e
asily
gen
eral
izab
le f
rom
com
mun
ity to
com
mun
ity, o
r ev
en f
rom
sch
ool b
uild
ing
to s
choo
l bui
ldin
g w
ithin
the
com
mun
ity.
Edu
catio
nal a
nthr
opol
ogy
has
spaw
ned
a re
lativ
ely
new
res
earc
h fi
eld
calle
dcr
itica
l the
ory.
One
of
the
char
acte
rist
ics
of c
ritic
al th
eory
is th
at te
ache
rs b
ecom
ere
sear
cher
s in
thei
r ow
n cl
assr
oom
s.T
each
ers
tell
thei
r ow
n re
sear
ch "
stor
ies.
"
KL
EJN
SASS
ER
& I
IOR
SCII
Eco
logi
cal p
sych
olog
yw
as a
ble
to e
xam
ine
"big
pic
ture
" di
ffere
nces
betw
een
big
scho
ols
and
smal
l sch
ool.
(Bar
ker
& G
ump,
196
4)
For
a s
peci
fic e
xam
ple
abou
t eig
hth
grad
est
uden
ts, s
ee A
twoo
d's
(198
7): I
n th
e M
iddl
e:W
ritin
g R
eadi
ng, a
ndLe
arni
ng w
ithA
dole
scen
ts. (-
)10
24G
rade
s, T
ests
, and
Ord
eals
:
Cri
tical
theo
ry e
xam
ines
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f ra
ce, g
ende
r, a
nd e
thni
city
in a
for
mal
lear
ning
set
ting.
Stud
ies
of th
is ty
pe h
ave
info
rmed
pre
-sch
ool e
duca
tion
and
liter
acy.
For
exam
ple,
com
mun
icat
ion
rule
s in
som
e cu
lture
s de
man
d th
at c
hild
ren
aver
t the
ir e
yes
whe
n an
adu
lt sp
eaks
to th
em. W
hen
a te
ache
r ha
s th
is in
form
atio
nan
d ac
ts o
n it,
a c
hild
who
mig
ht h
ave
been
des
crib
ed a
s un
coop
erat
ive,
eve
nbe
llige
rent
, is
now
mor
e ac
cura
tely
und
erst
ood
to b
e re
spec
tful
of
a te
ache
r.T
he im
plic
atio
n of
this
ant
hrop
olog
ical
fin
ding
for
an
inst
ruct
iona
l app
roac
hsu
ch a
s co
oper
ativ
e or
col
labo
rativ
e le
arni
ng is
stu
nnin
g. H
ow c
ould
a c
hild
who
ista
ught
that
adu
lts r
epre
sent
a s
uper
ior
auth
ority
eas
ily th
ink
of h
is o
r he
r te
ache
r as
a co
llabo
rato
r, a
s an
equ
al p
artn
er in
lear
n. ig
?A
s de
scri
bed
abov
e, s
ocio
logi
cal a
nd a
nthr
opol
ogic
al r
esea
rch
stud
ies
have
info
rmed
edu
catio
nal p
ract
ice
and
theo
ry.
The
se s
tudi
es c
halle
nge
over
sim
plif
ied
solu
tions
to e
duca
tiona
l pro
blem
s. M
any
over
sim
plif
ied
solu
tions
are
bei
ng p
ropo
sed
at th
e na
tiona
l or
inte
rnat
iona
l lev
el w
ith r
espe
ct to
larg
e gr
oup,
sta
ndar
dize
dte
stin
g.O
vers
impl
ifie
d so
lutio
ns d
o no
t add
ress
the
role
s th
at s
tude
nts
and
teac
hers
have
in a
sch
ool c
ultu
re, t
he s
choo
l rul
es th
at te
ache
rs, s
tude
nts,
and
oth
ers
follo
w,
or th
e sc
hool
ing
ritu
als
mos
t of
us ta
ke f
or g
rant
ed.
In th
e re
mai
nder
of
this
cha
pter
and
the
one
that
fol
low
s, w
e co
ntra
st th
ecu
lture
of
trad
ition
al f
orm
s of
test
ing
to a
cul
ture
of
asse
ssm
ent.
By
unde
rsta
ndin
gth
at p
ract
ices
like
test
ing
occu
r in
a c
ultu
ral s
ettin
g, e
duca
tors
can
unr
avel
the
mea
ning
of
rule
s, r
oles
, and
ritu
als
whi
ch h
ave
defi
ned
Am
eric
an te
stin
g pr
actic
esth
roug
hout
this
cen
tury
.A
mer
ican
sch
ools
' cul
ture
of
test
ing.
Am
eric
an s
choo
ling
perp
etua
tes
and
exis
ts w
ithin
a c
ultu
re o
f te
stin
g."W
hen'
s th
e te
st?"
is u
sual
ly o
ne o
f th
e fi
rst
ques
tions
a s
tude
nt a
sks
the
teac
her.
Itis
a g
ood
ques
tion.
For
mos
t stu
dent
s an
dte
ache
rs, t
he s
choo
l yea
r is
hig
hlig
hted
by
test
ing
even
ts th
at h
ave
beco
me
TE
STIN
G, A
SSE
SSM
EN
T A
ND
LE
AR
NIN
G: I
NV
rFA
TIO
N T
O A
DIS
CU
SSIO
N
41
The
Am
eric
an T
estin
g C
ultu
re25
trad
ition
al. S
ome
of th
e te
stin
g ev
ents
can
be
char
acte
rize
d as
"hi
gh s
take
s" te
stin
g.C
onsi
der
the
follo
win
g ex
ampl
es o
f hi
gh s
take
s te
sts:
plac
emen
t tes
ts f
or s
peci
al e
duca
tion;
Cha
pter
1 s
cree
ning
test
s;in
divi
dual
inte
llige
nce
test
ing
for
plac
emen
t in
gift
eded
ucat
ion
prog
ram
s;qu
arte
rly,
mid
-ter
m, a
nd s
emes
ter
test
s;fa
ll an
d sp
ring
ach
ieve
men
t tes
ting;
stat
e-m
anda
ted
achi
evem
ent t
estin
g;co
llege
ent
ranc
e ex
amin
atio
ns li
ke th
eC
olle
ge B
oard
's S
AT
.
Usu
ally
, the
impl
emen
tatio
n of
hig
h st
akes
test
ing
is n
ot in
the
cont
rol o
fcl
assr
oom
teac
hers
. Hig
h st
akes
test
ing
does
not
mak
e a
diff
eren
ce in
mos
t stu
dent
s'da
y-to
-day
cla
ssro
om li
fe b
ecau
se th
ey f
ail t
o se
e th
e co
nnec
tion
amon
g th
e te
sts,
curr
icul
um, a
nd in
stru
ctio
n. S
tude
nts
do n
ot r
ealiz
e th
at a
cur
ricu
lum
or
a se
t of
text
book
s m
ay h
ave
been
ado
pted
in th
eir
scho
ol b
ecau
se th
e re
sults
of
trad
ition
alst
anda
rdiz
ed te
stin
g in
dica
te d
efic
its.
Polic
y m
aker
s ho
pe th
at a
dif
fere
nt te
xt b
ook
and
rela
ted
curr
icul
um m
ater
ials
will
add
ress
the
defi
cits
. The
res
ults
of
high
sta
kes
test
ing
also
lead
to s
igni
fica
nt d
ecis
ions
con
trol
led
by p
olic
y m
aker
s at
the
stat
e an
dna
tiona
l lev
els:
colle
ge a
dmis
sion
, the
cre
atio
n or
elim
inat
ion
of s
peci
al p
rogr
ams.
In a
dditi
on to
hig
h st
akes
test
s, s
tude
nts
are
bom
bard
ed w
ith lo
w s
take
s te
sts.
The
se a
re te
sts
that
occ
ur m
ore
freq
uent
ly. O
ften
, the
y ar
e te
ache
r-m
ade
and
driv
enby
the
curr
icul
um. E
xam
ples
of
low
sta
kes
test
s in
clud
e th
e fo
llow
ing:
unit
test
;ch
apte
r te
st;
test
ove
r th
e bo
ok;
test
ove
r th
e m
ater
ial;
end-
of-t
he w
eek
test
;po
p qu
iz;
lab
test
.
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& H
OR
SCII
26G
rade
s, T
ests
, and
Ord
eals
:
The
re is
am
ple
evid
ence
that
mos
t Am
eric
an s
tude
nts
are
bein
g te
sted
regu
larl
y w
ith a
s m
uch
prec
isio
n as
sta
te-o
f-th
e ar
t sta
ndar
dize
d te
st p
roce
dure
sde
man
d an
d hu
man
adm
inis
trat
ion
allo
ws.
Adm
itted
ly, t
each
er-m
ade
test
s ar
e le
sspr
ecis
e. T
his
lack
of
prec
isio
n is
wha
t tes
ting
expe
rts
refe
r to
as
wea
k re
liabi
lity
and
valid
ity.
Yet
, des
pite
trad
ition
al te
stin
g, s
ome
rese
arch
ers
mai
ntai
n th
at A
mer
ican
stud
ents
are
the
mos
t und
er-e
xam
ined
stu
dent
s in
the
wor
ld.
By
unde
r-ex
amin
ed,
they
mea
n th
at s
tude
nts
are
not a
sked
pro
bing
que
stio
ns to
exp
lain
and
sub
stan
tiate
thei
r an
swer
s. N
or a
re s
tude
nts
requ
ired
to s
elf-
appr
aise
thei
r pe
rfor
man
ce. D
espi
teal
l of
the
high
and
low
sta
kes
test
ing
in s
choo
ls, t
radi
tiona
l tes
ting
prac
tices
do
not
tell
stud
ents
, tea
cher
s, o
r pa
rent
s ve
ry m
uch
abou
t the
way
kid
s le
arn
or h
ow th
eyth
ink
abou
t wha
t the
y ha
ve le
arne
d.T
he p
redi
ctab
le c
ycle
of
calls
for
mas
tery
lear
ning
, or
now
, per
form
ance
base
d as
sess
men
t and
por
tfol
io a
sses
smen
t und
ersc
ores
the
poin
t tha
t cur
rent
test
ing
prac
tices
do
not s
eem
to r
evea
l wha
t stu
dent
s ha
ve le
arne
d or
nee
d to
lear
n. S
ome
sour
ces
sugg
est t
hat s
tude
nts
spen
dsi
xw
eeks
a y
ear
in te
stin
g ev
ents
.M
oreo
ver,
curr
ent t
estin
g pr
actic
es b
ear
little
rel
atio
nshi
p to
the
way
peo
ple
lear
n.Se
e
Cha
pter
2, "
Con
nect
ing
Lea
rnin
g an
d A
sses
smen
t" f
or a
mor
e co
mpl
ete
disc
ussi
on o
fcu
rren
t lea
rnin
g th
eori
es a
nd w
hy w
e be
lieve
the
boun
dari
es b
etw
een
asse
ssm
ent
and
inst
ruct
ion
are
blur
red.
Cle
arly
, hig
h an
d lo
w s
take
s te
stin
g ha
ve a
n ef
fect
on
stud
ents
and
teac
hers
.Fo
r m
ost s
tude
nts,
any
test
, eve
n a
five
poi
nt q
uiz,
is a
hig
h st
akes
test
sin
ce th
ere
isso
met
hing
to lo
se o
r ga
in:
conf
iden
ce, s
elf
este
em, t
he r
espe
ct o
f th
e te
ache
r.A
s
disc
usse
d th
roug
hout
this
boo
k, s
peci
fica
lly, t
he c
omm
ents
fro
m u
nder
grad
uate
s w
how
ant t
o be
com
e te
ache
rs, t
he e
ffec
ts o
f tr
aditi
onal
test
ing
and
grad
ing
are
mor
e th
anps
ycho
logi
cal.
Tra
ditio
nal t
estin
g af
fect
s fr
iend
ship
s an
d gr
oup
mem
bers
hip,
for
exam
ple,
hon
or s
ocie
ties
and
extr
a-cu
rric
ular
act
iviti
es.
In th
e se
ctio
n th
at f
ollo
ws,
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
: IN
VIT
AT
ION
TO
A D
ISC
US
SIO
Nrr
-7
0
The
Am
eric
an T
estin
g C
ultu
re27
we
desc
ribe
som
e of
the
role
s, r
ules
, and
ritu
als
that
teac
hers
and
stu
dent
s liv
e by
and
obse
rve
in a
cul
ture
of
test
ing.
RO
LE
S, R
UL
ES,
AN
D R
ITU
AL
S IN
A C
UL
TU
RE
OF
TE
STIN
G
The
teac
her's
rol
e.In
a c
ultu
re o
f te
stin
g, th
e ro
le o
f th
e te
ache
r is
cle
ar.
The
teac
her
wri
tes
test
s or
use
s co
mm
erci
ally
pre
pare
d te
sts.
The
teac
her
mon
itors
the
test
set
ting
to d
isco
urag
e ch
eatin
g an
d w
rite
s do
wn
the
resu
lts in
a g
rade
boo
k.So
me
teac
hers
ent
er n
umbe
rs in
to a
mic
ro-c
ompu
ter,
usi
ng a
sof
twar
e pr
ogra
m to
calc
ulat
e pe
rcen
tage
s.It
is th
e te
ache
r w
ho e
xpla
ins
the
resu
lts to
stu
dent
s an
dpa
rent
s.In
a c
ultu
re o
f te
stin
g, th
e te
ache
r's r
ole
is o
ne o
f to
tal c
ontr
ol a
ndre
spon
sibi
lity
for
clas
sroo
m te
stin
g.Y
et, m
ost t
each
ers
feel
unc
omfo
rtab
le in
the
role
of
judg
e or
eva
luat
or.
Rec
ent r
esea
rch
poin
ts o
ut th
at if
they
had
a te
sts
and
mea
sure
men
ts c
ours
e in
thei
r te
ache
r pr
epar
atio
n pr
ogra
m (
and
not a
ll te
ache
rsha
ve th
is tr
aini
ng),
for
a m
ajor
ity, i
t was
a c
ours
e th
ey n
eith
er li
ked
nor
enjo
yed.
Thu
s, m
ost t
each
ers
are
in th
e un
com
fort
able
pos
ition
of
know
ing
that
they
are
supp
osed
to b
e an
eva
luat
or a
t the
sam
e tim
e th
at th
ey la
ck th
e co
nfid
ence
to b
e a
com
pete
nt e
valu
ator
.Pa
rt o
f a
teac
her's
rol
e is
to k
eep
test
s fr
om b
ecom
ing
cont
amin
ated
.C
onta
min
ated
test
s ar
e th
ose
for
whi
ch th
e qu
estio
ns o
r an
swer
s ha
ve s
omeh
owgo
tten
into
the
hand
s of
stu
dent
s or
oth
ers.
Con
tam
inat
ed te
sts
are
no lo
nger
rel
iabl
eor
val
id.
In a
cul
ture
of
test
ing,
one
of
the
rule
s is
that
onl
y th
e te
st g
iver
kno
ws
the
ques
tions
and
ans
wer
s. S
uch
a te
st is
kno
wn
as a
sec
ure
test
. Fro
m p
hilo
soph
ical
and
theo
retic
al s
tand
poin
ts, "
teac
hing
to th
e te
st"
or m
akin
g su
re th
at s
tude
nts
know
wha
t is
goin
g to
be
on th
e te
st, i
s a
maj
or p
oint
of
deba
te a
mon
g te
stin
g ex
pert
s.Y
et,
ther
e is
som
ethi
ng u
nset
tling
abo
ut th
e co
ntra
dict
ion
of r
equi
ring
stu
dent
s to
atte
nd
1;2
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& I
IOR
SCH
Gul
licks
on's
198
6 st
udy
reve
als
that
man
yte
ache
rs d
o no
t fee
lco
mpe
tent
as
eval
uato
rs o
f stu
dent
wor
k.
28G
rade
s, T
ests
, and
Ord
eals
:
scho
ol f
or th
e pu
rpos
e of
mas
teri
ng s
kills
we
as a
cultu
re h
ave
deci
ded
are
impo
rtan
t
to le
arn
(cul
tura
l ski
lls a
nd k
now
ledg
e)an
d th
en d
evis
ing
way
s to
kee
p te
sts
abou
t
thos
e sk
ills
secr
et. K
eepi
ng te
sts
unco
ntam
inat
ed o
r se
cure
is o
ne w
ay th
at a
cul
ture
of s
choo
ling
mak
es te
stin
g m
yste
riou
s to
stu
dent
s an
d ev
en to
som
ete
ache
rs. T
he
mys
tery
is p
art o
f w
hat m
akes
trad
ition
al te
stin
gpo
wer
ful.
The
chi
ef r
ole
of th
e te
ache
r in
a te
stin
g cu
lture
is th
atof
a ju
dge,
eva
luat
or,
and
scor
ekee
per.
In
a cu
lture
of
test
ing,
a c
ultu
rede
man
ding
acc
ount
abili
ty a
t loc
al,
stat
e, n
atio
nal,
and
inte
rnat
iona
l lev
els,
teac
hers
and
stu
dent
s ar
e w
ell a
war
e of
test
scor
es th
at s
ymbo
lize
failu
res,
defi
cits
, or
mis
take
s.T
each
ers
trad
ition
ally
rep
ort
poin
ts g
aine
d or
per
cent
ages
ear
ned
from
a te
st.
Whe
n a
teac
her
is a
sco
reke
eper
,
not a
com
pete
nt e
valu
ator
of
stud
ent
wor
k, w
hat h
e or
she
is r
epor
ting
is a
def
icit.
Thu
s, in
stea
d of
cel
ebra
ting
the
succ
ess
of le
arni
ng, a
cultu
re o
f te
stin
g em
phas
izes
wha
t was
not
lear
ned.
Som
e re
ader
s m
ay d
isag
ree
with
our
inte
rpre
tatio
nof
a
test
ing
cultu
re th
at c
alcu
late
s an
d re
port
s st
uden
tde
fici
ts r
athe
r th
an c
eleb
rate
s
succ
esse
s.H
owev
er, w
e co
nten
d th
at c
eleb
ratio
ns li
ke th
e on
esob
serv
ed in
a te
stin
g
cultu
re ,o
me
for
too
few
stu
dent
s, to
o in
freq
uent
ly.
The
test
ing
cultu
re p
rodu
ces
a ki
nd o
f ac
adem
ic e
cono
my.
Som
ere
sear
cher
s
have
des
crib
ed g
rade
s as
the
coin
of
the
real
m.
Inst
ead
of n
icke
ls, d
imes
, and
silv
er
dolla
rs, t
he c
urre
ncy
incl
udes
A's
, B's
, C's
, D's
, and
F's
. The
acad
emic
eco
nom
y hi
nges
on th
e th
eory
that
ther
e m
ust b
efe
wer
A's
than
B's
or
C's
.A
fter
all,
if e
very
one
rece
ived
A's
and
B's
, new
spap
ers
wou
ld n
ot p
ublis
h ho
nor
rolls
. One
of th
e m
yths
of
grad
ing
(esp
ecia
lly a
t the
pos
tsec
onda
ry le
vel)
is th
at a
cou
rse
with
am
ajor
ity o
f A
's
mus
t be
an e
asy
cour
se, e
vide
nce
of g
rade
infl
atio
n. W
hen
we
thin
k ab
out g
rade
s as
an e
cono
my,
it is
ano
ther
way
of
unde
rsta
ndin
g th
at in
a c
ultu
re o
f te
stin
g, o
nly
asm
all p
erce
ntag
e of
stu
dent
s w
ill h
ave
the
righ
t to
cele
brat
e su
cces
s as
mea
sure
d by
grad
es. T
ypic
ally
, we
labe
l the
se s
tude
nts
as g
ifte
d or
aca
dem
ical
ly s
uper
ior.
Oth
er
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
: IN
VIT
AT
ION
TO
A D
ISC
US
SIO
N
The
Am
eric
an T
estin
g C
ultu
re29
win
ners
in a
n ac
adem
ic e
cono
my
are
a sc
hool
's v
aled
icto
rian
, sal
utat
oria
n, o
rna
tiona
l mer
it sc
hola
rshi
p w
inne
rs.
Our
poi
nt h
ere
is n
ot to
less
en th
eac
com
plis
hmen
ts o
f ac
adem
ical
ly s
ucce
ssfu
l stu
dent
s. W
e si
mpl
y po
int o
ut th
at in
the
econ
omic
s of
A-F
gra
de d
istr
ibut
ions
, the
re c
an o
nly
be a
few
win
ners
, per
haps
as
few
as
four
or
six
perc
ent r
ecei
ving
A's
. The
A's
rep
rese
nt e
duca
tion'
s w
ealth
y.In
sum
mar
y, th
e ro
le o
f th
e te
ache
r in
a te
stin
g cu
lture
is th
e pe
rson
inco
ntro
l.H
e or
she
is in
con
trol
of
the
test
, the
test
site
, man
agem
ent o
f th
e te
stre
sults
, and
the
econ
omy
of g
rade
s.T
he te
ache
r is
an
eval
uato
r, a
nd m
ay b
eun
conf
iden
t in
an e
valu
ator
's r
ole.
The
stu
dent
rar
ely
chal
leng
es.
But
a te
ache
r'sau
thor
ity is
loca
lized
. The
hig
her
the
stak
es o
f th
e te
st, t
he le
ss c
ontr
ol th
e te
ache
rha
s, a
lthou
gh tr
aditi
onal
sta
ndar
dize
d te
stin
gaf
fect
s de
cisi
on-m
akin
g ab
out
curr
icul
um a
nd te
xtbo
oks,
whi
ch in
turn
aff
ects
cla
ssro
om in
stru
ctio
n.In
this
coun
try,
the
cont
rol o
f a
high
sta
kes
test
s lik
e th
e C
olle
ge B
oard
's S
AT
res
ts w
ith a
nin
depe
nden
t bod
y. O
ne e
xam
ple
is th
e E
duca
tiona
l Tes
ting
Serv
ice
in P
rinc
eton
, New
Jers
ey.
Hig
h st
akes
test
ing
like
that
rep
rese
nted
by
the
SAT
, the
Am
eric
an C
olle
geT
est (
AC
T),
or
the
Gra
duat
e R
ecor
d E
xam
(G
RE
) is
a to
pic
unde
rgoi
ng in
tens
e de
bate
at
natio
nal a
nd in
tern
atio
nal l
evel
s.W
hile
the
relia
bilit
y of
thes
e te
sts
goes
unch
alle
nged
(th
ey a
re h
ighl
y re
liabl
e), t
heir
val
idity
rem
ains
con
trov
ersi
al:
do
resu
lts o
f a
the
GR
E p
redi
ct a
nyth
ing
othe
r th
an th
e re
sults
of
a si
mila
r ki
nd o
f te
st?
The
pur
pose
of
this
boo
k is
not
to a
ddre
ss th
e hi
gh s
take
s te
stin
g de
bate
or
the
help
less
ness
and
lack
of
owne
rshi
p m
ost t
each
ers
feel
in r
elat
ion
to th
em.
For
read
ers
inte
rest
ed in
the
topi
c, w
e ha
ve in
clud
ed s
ourc
es f
or f
urth
er r
eadi
ng.
The
stu
dent
's r
ole.
A c
ultu
re o
f te
stin
g cl
earl
y in
dica
tes
wha
t the
rol
e of
the
stud
ent i
s.Fo
r st
uden
ts li
ke th
e on
es w
e su
rvey
ed a
t the
Uni
vers
ity o
f W
yom
ing,
test
ing
is in
thei
r w
ords
, "in
evita
ble,
" so
met
imes
an
"ord
eal."
Wor
ds li
ke in
evita
ble
KI.
F.IN
SASS
ER
& H
OR
SCII
u0
30G
rade
s, T
ests
, and
Ord
eals
:
and
orde
al s
ugge
st th
at th
e st
uden
t has
littl
e or
no
cont
rol o
ver
the
test
ing
situ
atio
n,
and
in f
act,
ofte
n fe
els
like
a po
wer
less
vic
tim.
Stud
ents
rar
ely
sche
dule
test
s or
oth
er k
inds
of
exit
perf
orm
ance
sfo
r
them
selv
es. O
ne e
xcep
tion
to th
is is
wha
t is
know
n as
"ch
alle
ngin
gth
e fi
rst c
hair
"
in m
usic
. Thi
s is
how
it w
orks
.If
a tr
umpe
t pla
yer
thin
ks s
he is
cap
able
of
sitti
ng
firs
t cha
ir in
the
sect
ion
(a p
ositi
on m
usic
ians
usu
ally
ack
now
ledg
e as
the
best
play
er a
nd le
ader
of
the
sect
ion)
, she
may
ask
the
dire
ctor
for
the
oppo
rtun
ity to
chal
leng
e th
e cu
rren
t fir
st c
hair
pla
yer.
The
cha
lleng
e is
bas
ed o
n an
aut
hent
icpe
rfor
man
ce o
f th
e m
usic
ian'
s sk
ill w
hen
the
mus
icia
n kn
ows
the
time
isri
ght.
How
ever
, in
mos
t sch
ool c
ultu
res,
stu
dent
s ar
e ex
amin
ed w
hen
teac
hers
"ne
ed
a gr
ade
for
the
grad
e bo
ok."
Typ
ical
ly,
stud
ents
are
exa
min
ed a
t a n
atur
al s
topp
ing
poin
t in
the
sche
dule
. Sto
ppin
g po
ints
are
oft
en c
alen
dar
driv
en, n
otcu
rric
ulum
and
outc
ome
driv
en, i
. e.,
test
s at
the
end
of th
e w
eek,
just
befo
re a
maj
or h
olid
ay, a
nd a
t
the
end
of th
e qu
arte
r or
sem
este
r.O
ne o
f th
e un
ique
cha
ract
eris
tics
of m
ost
trad
ition
al te
stin
g si
tuat
ions
is th
at th
e st
uden
t doe
s no
t det
erm
ine
whe
n he
or
she
isre
ady
to b
e te
sted
or
on w
hat.
A s
econ
d ch
arac
teri
stic
of
trad
ition
al te
stin
g is
that
it
tend
s to
"co
nclu
de"
idea
s.Fo
r ex
ampl
e, w
hen
the
test
ove
r th
e R
evol
utio
nary
War
is
com
plet
ed, s
o is
mos
t dis
cuss
ion
abou
t the
Rev
olut
iona
ry W
ar.
Stud
ents
in a
test
ing
cultu
re c
an b
e m
ystif
ied
by a
gra
ding
pro
cess
that
teac
hers
con
trol
, mai
ntai
n, a
nd m
anag
e. O
ne o
f th
e ir
onie
s of
a te
stin
g in
dust
ry th
atpr
oduc
es m
icro
-com
pute
r so
ftw
are
whi
ch w
ill g
ener
ate
perc
enta
ges,
sta
nine
s,in
terq
uart
ile r
ange
s, c
lass
ave
rage
s, a
nd s
tude
nt a
vera
ges,
all
at th
e to
uch
of a
key
on a
mic
ro-c
ompu
ter
keyb
oard
, is
that
mos
t stu
dent
s do
not
know
why
a te
ache
r gi
ves
them
the
grad
e th
ey g
et.
Res
earc
h te
lls u
s th
at s
tude
nts
who
per
form
the
poor
est i
nsc
hool
are
als
o th
e le
ast a
ble
to a
ccur
atel
y ap
prai
se w
hy th
ey a
re r
ecei
ving
the
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
: IN
VIT
AT
ION
TO
A D
ISC
US
SIO
N
The
Am
eric
an T
estin
g C
ultu
re31
grad
es th
ey a
re r
ecei
ving
. Whe
re d
o gr
ades
com
e fr
om a
nd w
hat d
o th
ey m
ean?
Too
man
y st
uden
ts s
impl
y do
not
kno
w.
Rul
es o
f te
stin
g.Ju
st a
s th
ere
are
dist
inct
rol
es f
or te
ache
rs a
nd s
tude
nts
ina
test
ing
situ
atio
n, th
ere
are
dist
inct
rul
es o
f te
stin
g. O
ne te
stin
g ru
le in
Am
eric
ansc
hool
s is
the
"do
it al
one"
rul
e. A
stu
dent
com
plet
es m
ost t
ests
by
him
or
hers
elf.
Som
etim
es, "
doin
g it
alon
e" m
eans
an
abse
nce
of c
alcu
lato
rs, m
icro
com
pute
rs,
dict
iona
ries
, per
iodi
c ta
ble
char
ts, o
r an
y of
the
tool
s ch
arac
teri
stic
of
ever
yday
wor
kin
fie
lds
like
econ
omic
s, b
usin
ess,
and
che
mis
try.
A s
econ
d ru
le o
f m
ost t
estin
g ev
ents
in s
choo
ls is
the
dom
inan
ce o
f tr
aditi
onal
,pa
per-
penc
il te
sts.
Pape
r-pe
ncil
test
s ar
e in
expe
nsiv
e to
cre
ate,
eff
icie
nt to
adm
inis
ter,
and
exc
ept f
or e
ssay
s, th
ey a
re s
core
d ob
ject
ivel
y.T
ypic
ally
they
take
the
form
of
true
or
fals
e, m
ultip
le c
hoic
e, c
ompl
etio
n, a
nd s
hort
ans
wer
. Som
etim
espa
per-
penc
il te
sts
are
used
eve
n w
hen
they
do
not m
ake
muc
h se
nse,
for
exa
mpl
e, a
pape
r-pe
ncil
test
to d
eter
min
e th
e gr
ade
in a
phy
sica
l edu
catio
n co
urse
or
a w
ord
proc
essi
ng c
ours
e. U
sing
pap
er-p
enci
l tes
ts w
hen
a pe
rfor
man
ce o
r a
dem
onst
ratio
nw
ould
be
mor
e m
eani
ngfu
l is
one
mor
e pi
ece
of e
vide
nce
that
the
rule
s of
test
ing
are
part
of
a po
wer
ful s
choo
l cul
ture
, a c
ultu
re s
tude
nts
and
teac
hers
sel
dom
que
stio
n or
chal
leng
e. W
e su
gges
t tha
t the
pre
dom
inan
ce o
f pa
per-
penc
il te
sts
is th
e re
sult
of a
lack
of
conf
iden
ce te
ache
rs h
ave
as c
ompe
tent
and
qua
lifie
d ev
alua
tors
.A
thir
d ru
le o
f m
ost t
estin
g si
tuat
ions
is th
at th
e te
ache
r ev
alua
tes
the
test
.T
his
mak
es th
e te
ache
r th
e so
le a
udie
nce
for
the
test
.O
ne o
f th
e ou
tcom
es o
f th
ete
ache
r be
ing
the
audi
ence
for
the
test
is th
at s
tude
nts
give
up
owne
rshi
p fo
r th
eir
wor
k. W
ho d
oes
the
test
bel
ong
to?
The
que
stio
ns a
nd th
e an
swer
s be
long
to th
e
teac
her.
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& H
OR
SCII
3 2
Gra
des,
Tes
ts, a
nd O
rdea
ls:
We
aske
d 16
0 pr
epro
fess
iona
l tea
cher
s en
rolle
d in
an
educ
atio
nal
test
s an
dm
easu
rem
ents
cou
rse
at th
e U
nive
rsity
of
Wyo
min
g w
hy u
nive
rsity
stu
dent
s fa
il to
pick
up
thei
r en
d-of
-the
-sem
este
r ex
ams
from
the
inst
ruct
or.
Som
e of
thei
rre
spon
ses
follo
w:
All
thes
e st
uden
ts a
re c
once
rned
with
is th
eir
fina
l gra
de. T
hey
don'
tca
re h
ow th
ey g
ot it
, jus
t so
they
got
it. T
hey
feel
it w
ill n
ot d
o an
y go
odto
com
e pi
ck u
p th
eir
test
, it w
ill n
ot c
hang
e th
eir
grad
e.
Stud
ents
no
long
er a
re w
orri
ed a
bout
the
fina
l exa
m g
rade
aft
er th
eyre
ceiv
e th
eir
fina
l gra
de.
The
gra
de o
n th
e ex
am h
as li
ttle
rele
vanc
eaf
ter
they
rec
eive
thei
r re
port
car
d.
Stud
ents
oft
en o
nly
wor
ry a
bout
one
sem
este
r at
a ti
me.
Onc
e th
atse
mes
ter
is o
ver,
it's
ove
r, a
nd th
e st
uden
t sta
rts
fres
h. W
hen
rece
ivin
ga
cour
se g
rade
that
a s
tude
nt is
sat
isfi
ed w
ith, t
he s
tude
nt "
blow
s of
f" th
epa
per
or e
xam
s he
has
take
n.
Bec
ause
they
fou
nd o
ut th
eir
over
all g
rade
fro
m th
eir
repo
rt c
ards
and
felt
it w
as r
ight
.T
hey
didn
't se
e w
hat i
t wou
ld m
atte
r be
caus
e th
eir
grad
es w
ere
done
and
ther
e w
as n
othi
ng th
ey c
ould
do
abou
t it.
...th
ere
is n
othi
ng th
ey c
an d
o to
cha
nge
it (g
ood
or b
ad).
All
of th
e re
spon
ses
abov
e sh
are
a co
mm
on th
eme
abou
t ow
ners
hip
and
resp
onsi
bilit
y. T
he te
st is
not
the
stud
ent's
.It
is n
ot w
orth
pic
king
up.
Pic
king
it u
pw
ill n
ot m
ake
a di
ffer
ence
in th
e st
uden
t's g
rade
. The
onl
y th
ing
that
cou
nts
is th
egr
ade
on th
e re
port
car
d.T
he r
espo
nses
als
o su
gges
t tha
t stu
dent
s fa
il to
mak
eco
nnec
tions
bet
wee
n th
eir
cour
ses
and
lear
ning
.R
itual
s of
test
ing.
The
ritu
als
of te
stin
g in
Am
eric
an s
choo
ls a
re e
asily
iden
tifie
d.U
sual
ly, t
ests
com
e at
the
end
of a
uni
t of
stud
y. S
omet
imes
(as
in a
pre
-te
st o
r di
agno
stic
test
ing
for
spec
ial n
eeds
stu
dent
s) th
ey o
ccur
on
the
very
fir
st d
ay
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
: IN
VIT
AT
ION
TO
A D
ISC
US
SIO
Nr J
The
Am
eric
an T
estin
g C
ultu
re33
of s
choo
l.O
ften
, the
test
is d
iffe
rent
fro
m th
e in
stru
ctio
n th
at p
rece
ded
it.Fo
r
exam
ple,
the
lect
ure
and
grou
p di
scus
sion
that
pre
cede
s a
hist
ory
exam
may
be
follo
wed
by
a pa
per-
penc
il te
st th
at th
e st
uden
t com
plet
es a
lone
. Mos
t of
the
stud
ents
we
surv
eyed
at t
he U
nive
rsity
of
Wyo
min
g ex
peri
ence
d an
d vi
ewed
inst
ruct
ion
asbe
ing
diff
eren
t fro
m te
stin
g.T
his
impo
rtan
t poi
nt is
one
we
will
ret
urn
to in
our
disc
ussi
on o
f th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
an a
sses
smen
t cul
ture
and
the
blur
ring
of
inst
ruct
ion
and
asse
ssm
ent.
A s
econ
d ri
tual
of
test
ing
is th
e sy
nthe
sis
and
pulli
ng-t
oget
her
that
stu
dent
spr
epar
ing
for
test
s en
gage
in.
Stud
ents
may
rev
iew
all
of th
eir
note
s, w
rite
sum
mar
ies
of im
port
ant p
iece
s of
info
rmat
ion,
com
plet
e sa
mpl
e pr
oble
ms
or e
ssay
s.A
s no
ted
prev
ious
ly, i
n a
test
ing
cultu
re, s
ynth
esiz
ing
is a
n en
d-of
-the
-uni
t exe
rcis
e,no
t an
ongo
ing
lear
ning
act
ivity
.T
he te
st s
igna
ls c
losu
re a
nd c
oncl
usio
ns.
One
char
acte
rist
ic o
f sy
nthe
sizi
ng is
that
stu
dent
s st
op to
thin
k ab
out w
hat t
hey
have
lear
ned
or w
hat '
hey
need
to le
arn.
In th
is w
ay, t
estin
g lit
eral
ly p
unct
uate
s th
esc
hool
yea
r by
slo
win
g do
wn
or in
terr
uptin
g le
arni
ng. A
s te
ache
rs, m
ost o
f us
hav
epr
obab
ly e
xper
ienc
ed th
e si
nkin
g se
nsat
ion
that
stu
dent
s "m
emor
ize
for
the
test
."T
hese
sam
e st
uden
ts m
ay f
ail t
o m
ake
sens
e of
the
know
ledg
e so
that
it c
an b
em
eani
ngfu
lly a
pplie
d in
non
-tes
ting
setti
ngs.
Thi
s is
one
of
the
outc
omes
of
a te
stin
gri
tual
that
is s
umm
ativ
e ra
ther
than
for
mat
ive
and
ongo
ing.
how
ever
, as
teac
hers
,w
e m
ust a
lso
ackn
owle
dge
that
trad
ition
al f
orm
s of
test
ing
enco
urag
e m
emor
izin
g fo
r
the
test
and
de-
emph
asiz
e co
nnec
tion-
mak
ing.
A th
ird
ritu
al o
f te
stin
g in
volv
es m
enta
l and
phy
sica
l pre
para
tion.
How
man
ytim
es h
ave
you,
in y
our
teac
her
role
, sol
emnl
y an
d co
nsci
entio
usly
dir
ecte
d st
uden
tsto
"ge
t a g
ood
nigh
t's s
leep
, eat
a g
ood
brea
kfas
t, co
me
prep
ared
men
tally
and
phys
ical
ly."
If s
uch
inst
ruct
ions
are
giv
en o
nly
on a
test
day
, the
y se
nd a
cle
arm
essa
ge to
stu
dent
s ab
out t
he im
port
ance
of
test
s in
con
tras
t to
ordi
nary
sch
ool
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& H
OR
SC
11
34G
rade
s, T
ests
, and
Ord
eals
:
activ
ities
.Su
ch m
essa
ges
may
sup
port
a s
tude
nt's
sus
pici
on th
at a
test
is a
n or
deal
requ
irin
g ex
trao
rdin
ary
stam
ina!
A c
ultu
re o
f te
stin
g ha
s ro
les,
rul
es a
nd r
itual
s fo
r st
uden
ts a
nd te
ache
rs. T
hero
les,
rul
es a
nd r
itual
s of
a te
stin
g cu
lture
are
sum
mar
ized
in th
e fi
gure
on
the
oppo
seite
pag
e. C
ultu
res
do n
ot c
hang
e ea
sily
.So
ciol
ogis
ts a
nd a
nthr
opol
ogis
ts h
ave
foun
d th
at g
rf u
ps o
f pe
ople
con
tinue
doi
ng w
hat t
hey
do b
ecau
se r
oles
, rul
es, a
ndri
tual
s ar
e pu
rpos
eful
.T
hey
repr
esen
t lon
g-he
ld a
nd a
ccep
ted
trad
ition
s.In
ate
stin
g cu
lture
, one
pur
pose
of
test
ing
is to
sor
t and
wee
d st
uden
ts. T
he c
ultu
re o
fte
stin
g is
a p
ower
ful o
ne in
Am
eric
an s
choo
ls, s
uppo
rted
by
trad
ition
and
a te
stin
gin
dust
ry th
at c
an p
rodu
ce r
elia
ble
and
chea
p pa
per-
penc
il te
sts.
How
ever
, mov
ing
from
a te
stin
g cu
lture
to a
n as
sess
men
t cul
ture
is n
ot im
poss
ible
.In
the
follo
win
gch
apte
r, w
e de
scri
be w
hat a
n as
sess
men
t cul
ture
look
s lik
e an
d w
here
it a
lrea
dyex
ists
.
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
: IN
VIT
AT
ION
TO
A D
ISC
US
SIO
N
i"-"
,1.
4 /
The
Am
eric
an T
estin
g C
ultu
re35
Cul
ture
of
Tes
ting
RO
LE
Ste
ache
r is
the
sole
aut
hori
ty, s
ole
audi
ence
for
a te
stte
ache
rs k
eep
test
s un
cont
amin
ated
, so
they
can
be
used
ove
r an
d ov
erag
ain
RU
LE
Sst
uden
t usu
ally
has
to g
o it
alon
ete
stin
g is
a z
ero
sum
gam
e (c
ompe
titio
n)le
tter
grad
es a
re p
rodu
ced,
this
is a
def
icit
repo
rt, "
econ
omy
of th
rift
"gr
ades
cre
ate
a cl
o- s
room
eco
nom
y pr
edet
erm
ined
num
ber
of A
s, B
s, C
s, D
san
d Fs
dom
inan
ce o
f pa
per/
penc
il te
sts
whi
ch c
arry
mor
e va
lue
than
ane
cdot
alre
cord
ste
st g
iver
(so
met
imes
the
teac
her)
is s
ole
eval
uato
rkn
owle
dge
is d
isag
greg
ated
into
sep
arat
e pi
eces
of
know
ledg
e (e
.g.,
mat
h,re
adin
g, s
ocia
l stu
dies
, sci
ence
) so
it c
an b
e ea
sily
test
ed v
ia p
/p te
stin
g
RIT
UA
LS
lear
ning
for
the
test
and
onl
y th
e te
st, e
.g.,
"Will
ther
e be
a te
st o
ver
this
?"te
st s
igna
ls th
e en
d of
"sc
hool
lear
ning
," s
trat
egic
for
getti
ng, d
umpi
ngte
stin
g is
som
etim
es d
iffe
rent
fro
m th
e in
stru
ctio
n th
at p
rece
des
itte
stin
g is
mys
teri
ous
whe
re d
o gr
ades
com
e fr
om?
test
ing
is a
n or
deal
, a te
st o
f fi
rete
stin
g is
a r
ed f
lag
wor
d fo
r m
ost o
f us
the
proc
ess
is tr
aditi
on a
nd f
amili
ar to
mos
t, th
us it
is a
pro
cess
that
isse
ldom
que
stio
ned.
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& H
OR
SC I
I
37
Cha
pter
IV
Rol
es, R
ules
, and
Ritu
als
in a
Cul
ture
of
Ass
essm
ent:
Blu
rrin
g th
e D
istin
ctio
ns
In th
e pr
evio
us c
hapt
er, w
e su
gges
ted
that
rol
es, r
ules
, and
ritu
als
can
beid
entif
ied
in a
test
ing
cultu
re. W
hat w
e w
ill d
escr
ibe
next
is a
n as
sess
men
t cul
ture
.A
sses
smen
t doe
s no
t car
ry th
e em
otio
nal b
agga
ge th
at th
e w
ord
test
ing
carr
ies.
Air
asia
n (1
991)
def
ines
ass
essm
ent a
s:th
e pr
oces
s of
col
lect
ing,
syn
thes
izin
g, a
nd in
terp
retin
g in
form
atio
n to
aid
clas
sroo
m d
ecis
ion
mak
ing;
incl
udes
info
rmat
ion
gath
ered
abo
utpu
pils
, ins
truc
tion,
and
cla
ssro
om c
limat
e.It
may
be
impo
rtan
t to
note
that
som
e pe
ople
use
the
term
s as
sess
men
t, te
stin
g,ev
alua
tion,
and
mea
sure
men
t int
erch
ange
ably
.Fo
r ed
ucat
iona
l res
earc
hers
and
psyc
hom
etri
cian
s, e
ach
term
has
a s
epar
ate
and
tech
nica
l mea
ning
.In
this
cha
pter
and
thro
ugho
ut th
e bo
ok, w
e ar
e us
ing
Air
asia
n's
defi
nitio
n of
ass
essm
ent.
A c
ultu
reof
ass
essm
ent l
ooks
and
fee
ls d
iffe
rent
fro
m a
test
ing
cultu
re. A
sses
smen
t blu
rs th
ero
les,
rul
es, a
nd r
itual
s th
at s
eem
to b
e di
stin
ct, p
erha
ps u
ncha
ngea
ble
in a
cul
ture
of
test
ing.
We
begi
n w
ith th
e -
'es
of te
ache
rs a
nd s
tude
nts.
Tea
cher
and
stu
dent
rol
es. A
key
cha
ract
eris
tic o
f as
sess
men
t is
brin
ging
stud
ents
into
a c
onve
rsat
ion
abou
t the
ir o
wn
lear
ning
.A
noth
er w
ay o
f th
inki
ngab
out t
his
idea
is to
ask
stu
dent
s to
take
an
activ
e ro
le in
thei
r ow
n le
arni
ng a
nd it
sas
sess
men
t.T
each
ers
mov
e to
war
d co
llabo
ratio
n w
ith s
tude
nts
whe
n te
ache
rs a
ndst
uden
ts s
hare
ass
essm
ent d
ecis
ions
.M
any
teac
hers
dem
onst
rate
this
idea
l whe
n
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& I
IOR
SCII
NO
TE
S &
QU
OT
ES
38R
oles
, Rul
es, a
nd R
itual
s in
a C
ultu
re o
f A
sses
smen
t:
they
inst
ruct
stu
dent
s to
"R
ead
four
boo
ks o
f yo
ur c
hoic
e fr
om th
is li
st o
f te
n."
On
anes
say
test
, a s
tude
nt m
ay b
e in
stru
cted
to "
choo
se th
ree
of th
e fo
ur e
ssay
s."
A te
ache
rm
ay p
rovi
de th
ree
or f
our
optio
ns to
a p
roje
ct a
stu
dent
mus
t com
plet
e.W
hile
the
exam
ples
abo
ve s
ugge
st th
at a
stu
dent
has
som
e ch
oice
abo
ut w
hat t
oco
mpl
ete,
the
resp
onsi
bilit
y an
d au
thor
ity o
f cr
eatin
g th
e qu
estio
ns a
nd a
sses
sing
the
prod
ucts
rem
ain
in th
e te
ache
r's h
ands
. In
an a
sses
smen
t cul
ture
res
pons
ibili
tyan
d au
thor
ity a
re s
hare
d by
the
stud
ent a
nd th
e te
ache
r--f
or q
uest
ions
and
ans
wer
s.T
he s
tude
nt s
hare
s ow
ners
hip
of th
e as
sess
men
t.A
t a f
unda
men
tal l
evel
, stu
dent
san
d te
ache
rs s
hare
ow
ners
hip
of w
hat l
earn
ing
is in
a c
onte
nt a
rea,
for
exa
mpl
e.T
oget
her,
stu
dent
s an
d te
ache
rs g
rapp
le w
ith h
ard
ques
tions
like
the
follo
win
g:a)
Wha
t doe
s it
mea
n to
kno
w s
omet
hing
?b)
Wha
t is
the
rela
tions
hip
amon
gin
stru
ctio
n, c
urri
culu
m, a
nd a
sses
smen
t?c)
How
do
outc
omes
for
par
ticul
ar c
onte
ntar
eas
rela
te to
one
ano
ther
?In
a te
stin
g cu
lture
, the
teac
her's
ass
essm
ent r
ole
is c
lear
:th
e te
ache
r is
the
fina
l and
onl
y ap
prai
ser
of a
n ac
cept
able
ans
wer
or
prod
uct.
App
rais
ing
mea
nsev
alua
ting
the
wor
th, s
igni
fica
nce,
or
stat
us o
f th
eir
wor
k.In
an
asse
ssm
ent c
ultu
re,
stud
ents
are
sel
f-ap
prai
sers
and
co-
appr
aise
rs w
ith te
ache
rs a
nd o
ther
com
pete
ntev
alua
tors
. With
trai
ning
and
a h
ealth
y cr
itica
l per
spec
tive,
stu
dent
s ta
ke a
n ac
tive
role
in th
e as
sess
men
t pro
cess
.T
hus,
the
trad
ition
ally
dis
tinct
rol
es o
f te
ache
r an
dst
uden
t are
blu
rred
in a
n as
sess
men
t cul
ture
.Po
rtfo
lio a
sses
smen
t off
ers
one
exam
ple
of s
tude
nt a
ppra
isal
and
ow
ners
hip.
Firs
t, so
me
of th
e m
ater
ials
for
the
port
folio
are
sel
ecte
d by
the
stud
ents
.Se
lect
ed
mat
eria
ls a
re b
ased
on
crite
ria.
Sele
ctio
n is
pur
pose
ful.
Seco
nd, i
n th
eir
port
folio
s,of
ten
in a
n in
trod
ucto
ry s
tate
men
t, st
uden
ts e
xpla
in w
hy th
ey h
ave
incl
uded
thei
rch
oice
s.T
hese
sta
tem
ents
are
val
uabl
e in
sigh
ts to
par
ents
and
teac
hers
abo
ut a
stud
ent's
inte
ntio
ns. T
hey
tell
wha
t the
stu
dent
car
es a
bout
, why
the
stud
ent t
hink
s it
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
: IN
VIT
AT
ION
TO
A D
ISC
US
SIO
Nkj
Blu
rrin
gth
eD
istin
ctio
ns39
is d
one
wel
l.Pe
rhap
s m
ore
impo
rtan
tly, b
y se
lect
ing
som
e of
the
mat
eria
ls th
at g
oin
to th
e po
rtfo
lio a
nd ju
stif
ying
thei
r in
clus
ion,
stu
dent
s ow
n th
eir
wor
k:st
uden
ts
have
som
e co
ntro
l ove
r po
rtfo
lio c
onte
nts.
Thi
s is
muc
h di
ffer
ent f
rom
the
secu
re,
unco
ntam
inat
ed te
st th
at b
elon
gs to
the
teac
her
or a
noth
er te
st g
iver
in a
test
ing
cultu
re. W
hat w
e ar
e de
scri
bing
is a
col
labo
ratio
n ba
sed
on s
olid
cri
teri
a.B
y ap
prai
sing
thei
r ow
n w
ork,
stu
dent
s le
arn
to h
ave
opin
ions
and
mak
ein
form
ed, t
houg
htfu
l jud
gmen
ts.
In a
cul
ture
of
test
ing,
onl
y th
e te
st g
iver
appr
aise
s, h
as o
pini
ons,
and
mak
es ju
dgm
ents
.It
may
be
mor
e ac
cura
te to
say
that
the
only
judg
men
t tha
t cou
nts
in th
e en
d is
the
one
mad
e by
the
test
giv
er. H
owev
er,
the
effe
cts
of th
e te
stin
g m
ay h
ave
long
last
ing
impa
ct o
n th
e te
st ta
ker.
One
of
the
mos
t dif
ficu
lt ta
sks
of m
ovin
g fr
om a
test
ing
cultu
re to
an
asse
ssm
ent c
ultu
re is
con
vinc
ing
stud
ents
that
sel
f ap
prai
sals
are
a n
eces
sary
par
tof
an a
sses
smen
t cul
ture
. Stu
dent
s ar
e be
ing
aske
d to
chan
ge w
hat i
s a
wel
l-es
tabl
ishe
d
stud
ent r
ole.
It is
like
ly to
be
part
icul
arly
dif
ficu
lt fo
r ju
nior
hig
h an
d se
nior
hig
hst
uden
ts w
ho a
re n
ewly
intr
oduc
ed to
the
idea
s of
por
tfol
ios
or p
erfo
rman
ceas
sess
men
ts.
Stud
ents
and
teac
hers
will
nee
d tr
aini
ng a
nd p
eer
supp
ort f
or a
nas
sess
men
t cul
ture
to th
rive
.Fo
r st
uden
ts a
nd te
ache
rs to
take
the
risk
s in
here
nt in
the
mov
e fr
om a
test
ing
cultu
re to
an
asse
ssm
ent c
ultu
re, s
afe
envi
ronm
ents
for
risk
ing
mus
t be
esta
blis
hed.
It w
ill r
equi
re p
aren
t inf
orm
atio
n se
ssio
ns.
It w
ill b
e
help
ful f
or te
ache
rs w
ho a
re u
ncom
fort
able
with
the
idea
of
stud
ents
sha
ring
asse
ssm
ent r
espo
nsib
ilitie
s to
spe
nd s
ome
time
talk
ing
abou
tco
llabo
ratio
n an
d ro
lede
fini
tions
. Tea
cher
s sh
ould
elic
it st
uden
t que
stio
ns a
nd r
espo
nses
.It
may
be
wis
e to
star
t mov
ing
into
a c
ultu
re o
f as
sess
men
t slo
wly
, per
haps
in o
neas
sign
men
t, ra
ther
than
rev
ampi
ng th
e en
tire
cour
se.
Ano
ther
idea
is to
beg
in w
ith le
ss r
igor
ous
asse
ssm
ent.
I or
exa
mpl
e, m
any
teac
hers
are
doi
ng th
is a
lrea
dy w
hen
they
ask
stud
ents
to c
ompl
ete
draf
ts o
f w
ritte
n w
ork
over
the
peri
od o
f a
sem
este
r or
eve
n a
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& D
OR
SCH
e
0
40R
oles
,R
ules
, and
Ritu
als
in a
Cul
ture
of
Ass
essm
ent:
year
. Col
lect
ing
the
draf
ts, f
inal
cop
y, a
nd e
valu
atio
n cr
iteri
a fo
r po
rtfo
lio in
clus
ion
is o
ne w
ay to
beg
in m
eani
ngfu
l ass
essm
ent c
olla
bora
tions
bet
wee
n st
uden
ts a
ndte
ache
rs.
The
rul
es o
f an
ass
essm
ent c
ultu
re.
We
iden
tifie
d th
ree
rule
s in
ate
stin
g cu
lture
:go
ing
it al
one,
the
pred
omin
ance
of
pape
r-pe
ncil
test
ing,
and
the
teac
her
as a
sin
gle
audi
ence
. In
the
sect
ion
belo
w, w
e lo
ok a
t the
way
thes
e ru
les
are
bent
, lite
rally
res
hape
d, in
an
asse
ssm
ent c
ultu
re.
As
we
have
em
phas
ized
in e
arlie
r ch
apte
rs, g
oing
it a
lone
(w
orki
ng a
lone
on
ate
st),
see
ms
to b
e a
char
acte
rist
ic o
f a
scho
ol s
ettin
g, n
ot th
e re
al w
orld
.In
fac
t,w
orki
ng c
oope
rativ
ely
and
colla
bora
tivel
y is
som
etim
es c
onsi
dere
d ch
eatin
g in
asc
hool
set
ting
and
frow
ned
upon
as
bein
g le
ss d
eman
ding
.B
usin
ess
and
indu
stry
have
long
cha
lleng
ed e
duca
tors
to p
repa
re s
tude
nts
for
the
wor
ld o
f w
ork.
A c
urre
ntch
alle
nge
to s
choo
ls is
to p
repa
re s
tude
nts
for
the
grea
tly c
hang
ing
wor
k pl
ace
ofth
e tw
enty
-fir
st c
entu
ry. W
orki
ng c
oope
rativ
ely
is o
ne s
kill
need
ed f
or th
e fu
ture
.O
ther
ski
lls in
clud
e a
capa
city
for
sel
f re
flec
tion
and
for
sust
aine
d en
gage
men
t in
ata
sk.
Hig
her
orde
r th
inki
ng s
kills
are
bei
ng e
mph
asiz
ed a
s ne
ver
befo
re.
In a
cul
ture
of
asse
ssm
ent,
stud
ents
are
col
labo
rato
rs a
nd w
ork
coop
erat
ivel
y.B
y co
oper
ativ
ely,
we
refe
r sp
ecif
ical
ly to
coo
pera
tive
lear
ning
as
conc
eptu
aliz
ed b
yJo
hnso
n an
d Jo
hnso
n, a
nd S
lavi
n.C
oope
rativ
e le
arni
ng r
equi
res
inte
rdep
ende
nce
and
indi
vidu
al a
ccou
ntab
ility
.So
met
imes
, coo
pera
tive
lear
ning
may
invo
lve
peer
eval
uatio
n.In
an
asse
ssm
ent c
ultu
re, a
sec
ond
rule
of
test
ing
is b
ent.
It is
the
use
ofpa
per-
penc
il te
stin
g.In
an
asse
ssm
ent c
ultu
re, i
n ad
ditio
n to
or
som
etim
es in
pla
ceof
pap
er-p
enci
l tes
ts, s
tude
nts
com
plet
e w
hat s
ome
expe
rts
are
calli
ng w
orth
whi
leas
sess
men
ts. W
orth
whi
le a
sses
smen
ts a
re a
lso
refe
rred
to a
s al
tern
ativ
e as
sess
men
ts,
auth
entic
test
s, a
nd r
eal t
ests
. The
term
per
form
ance
bas
ed a
sses
smen
t is
yet a
noth
er
Tis
TIN
G, A
SSE
SSM
EN
T A
ND
LE
AR
NIN
G: I
NV
ITA
TIO
N T
O A
DIS
CU
SSIO
N
I
Blu
rrin
gth
eD
istin
ctio
ns41
way
of
desc
ribi
ng a
wor
thw
hile
ass
essm
ent.
In a
per
form
ance
bas
ed a
sses
smen
t,st
uden
ts d
emon
stra
te w
hat t
hey
know
and
can
do
in a
rea
l-lif
e or
mea
ning
ful
situ
atio
n. Perf
orm
ance
bas
ed a
sses
smen
ts a
re n
othi
ng n
ew o
r ev
en r
evol
utio
nary
. One
exam
ple
mos
t of
us a
re f
amili
ar w
ith is
a d
rive
r's li
cens
e pr
oced
ure.
To
be li
cens
ed,
the
driv
er m
ust c
ompl
ete
two
test
s, b
oth
wor
thw
hile
, bot
h di
ffer
ent.
Firs
t the
appl
ican
t mus
t com
plet
e a
pape
r-pe
ncil
exam
abo
ut r
ules
of
the
road
at a
par
ticul
arpr
ofic
ienc
y le
vel.
Eve
n w
ith a
per
fect
sco
re o
n th
e ex
am, t
he li
cens
e w
ill n
ot b
egr
ante
d w
ithou
t a b
ehin
d-th
e-w
heel
dri
ving
exa
min
atio
n co
nduc
ted
by a
n ex
amin
erw
ho a
sks
the
appl
ican
t to
perf
orm
ski
lls im
port
ant t
o dr
ivin
g sa
fely
and
with
am
inim
um o
f sk
ill.
Sinc
e ev
ery
driv
er is
uni
que,
so
is e
very
beh
ind-
the-
whe
el e
xam
.B
ased
on
the
exam
inee
's le
vel o
f ex
peri
ence
, the
exa
min
er m
akes
an
info
rmed
judg
men
t abo
ut li
cens
ing
the
driv
er.
Itis
impo
rtan
t to
note
that
ther
e is
littl
edi
sagr
eem
ent t
hat b
oth
exam
s ar
e w
orth
whi
le.
is a
lso
impo
rtan
t to
note
that
the
driv
ing
exam
occ
urs
in a
con
text
.If
an
appl
ican
t liv
es in
New
Yor
k st
ate,
the
exam
occu
rs th
ere.
The
re is
not
muc
h ar
gum
ent t
hat p
eopl
e ac
cust
omed
to r
ural
dri
ving
know
that
city
dri
ving
has
a d
iffe
rent
set
of
dem
ands
, eve
n th
ough
the
rule
s of
the
road
are
sta
ndar
dize
d.L
astly
, in
a cu
lture
of
asse
ssm
ent,
the
thir
d ru
le w
hich
is b
ent i
s th
at o
fau
dien
ce. T
he te
ache
r is
not
the
sole
aud
ienc
e of
an
asse
ssm
ent.
Ear
lier,
we
refe
rred
to th
e re
sults
of
a su
rvey
we
aske
d st
uden
ts in
our
Tes
ts a
nd M
easu
rem
ents
cou
rses
at
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f W
yom
ing
to c
ompl
ete.
Stu
dent
s to
ld u
s th
at th
ey d
o no
t pic
k up
test
sbe
caus
e th
ey d
o no
t ow
n th
em. P
icki
ng th
em u
p w
ill n
ot m
ake
a di
ffer
ence
in th
eir
grad
e an
yway
.In
a c
ultu
re o
f as
sess
men
t, st
uden
ts h
ave
an a
uthe
ntic
aud
ienc
e fo
r th
eir
wor
k, w
heth
er it
be
wri
ting,
sci
entif
ic e
xper
imen
ts, o
r hi
stor
y pr
ojec
ts.
Man
y
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& B
OR
SCH
r
42R
oles
, Rul
es, a
nd R
itual
s in
a C
ultu
re o
f A
sses
smen
t:
teac
hers
alr
eady
dem
onst
rate
that
they
val
ue a
uthe
ntic
aud
ienc
esfo
r st
uden
t wor
k.
Mos
t sch
ools
org
aniz
e an
d su
ppor
t pla
ys, d
ebat
e to
urna
men
ts, a
rtex
hibi
tions
, ban
d
conc
erts
, voc
al c
once
rts,
ope
n ho
uses
to d
ispl
ayin
dust
rial
art
s pr
ojec
ts, s
cien
ce f
airs
,
hist
ory
fair
s, a
ll va
riet
y of
spo
rts
com
petit
ions
and
exh
ibiti
ons.
Som
etim
es th
e
purp
ose
of th
e ev
ent i
s a
com
petit
ion,
som
etim
esit
is a
n ex
hibi
tion.
Eac
h is
a
cele
brat
ion
of s
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent,
prog
ress
, and
acc
ompl
ishm
ent.
Not
one
is
orga
nize
d to
exh
ibit
a de
fici
t.St
uden
ts d
evel
op e
xper
tise
whe
n th
ey h
ave
an o
ppor
tuni
ty to
sha
reth
e
prod
ucts
of
thei
r w
ork
with
an
appr
opri
ate
audi
ence
. Stu
dent
s sh
are
thei
r id
eas
for
reac
tions
, rev
isio
ns, o
r as
sist
ance
. Aud
ienc
e ca
n in
clud
e ot
her
stud
ents
, tea
cher
s
with
exp
ertis
e in
that
par
ticul
ar c
onte
nt a
rea,
par
ents
, and
one
self
.In
a te
stin
gcu
lture
, the
re is
onl
y on
e m
embe
r of
the
audi
ence
the
test
giv
er, t
hete
ache
r. W
hen
stud
ents
sha
re th
eir
lear
ning
pro
duct
s w
ith o
ther
stu
dent
s, th
e au
dien
cebr
oade
ns.
The
wid
er th
e au
dien
ce, t
he m
ore
usef
ul th
e in
form
atio
n a
stud
ent i
slik
ely
to r
ecei
ve
abou
t his
or
her
perf
orm
ance
.T
he te
ache
r ca
nnot
and
sho
uld
not b
e th
e so
leau
dien
ce f
or a
ll as
sess
men
ts.
How
ever
, the
teac
her
shou
ld b
e a
mem
ber
of th
e
audi
ence
.T
here
is a
n im
port
ant d
iffe
renc
e be
twee
n th
e di
spla
ys d
escr
ibed
abo
vean
d
trad
ition
al p
aper
-pen
cil t
ests
that
are
not
wor
thw
hile
ass
essm
ents
.It
is u
nusu
al f
or a
scie
nce
proj
ect t
o be
left
beh
ind
in th
e sc
hool
aud
itori
um, u
nusu
al f
or a
scul
ptur
e to
aban
done
d af
ter
an a
rt e
xhib
ition
.R
eal s
cien
tists
and
rea
l scu
lpto
rs w
ould
not
do
that
.H
owev
er, a
s th
e ed
ucat
ion
com
mun
ity e
mbr
aces
the
idea
of
wor
thw
hile
asse
ssm
ents
,it
mus
t gua
rd a
gain
st th
e tr
ivia
lizat
ion
of f
airs
, exh
ibiti
ons,
and
com
petit
ions
. Whe
n a
scie
nce
proj
ect i
s le
ft b
ehin
d, it
is a
cle
ar s
tate
men
tth
at th
est
uden
t did
not
vie
w th
e sc
ienc
e fa
ir a
s an
y ki
nd o
f ce
lebr
atio
n of
his
or
her
wor
k.
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
: IN
VIT
AT
ION
TO
A D
ISC
US
SIO
N
Blu
rrin
gth
eD
istin
ctio
ns43
Ritu
als
of a
sses
smen
t. W
e id
entif
ied
thre
e ri
tual
s pr
eval
ent i
n a
cultu
re o
fte
stin
g:a
test
sig
nifi
es th
e co
mpl
etio
n of
lear
ning
; a te
st is
an
orde
al r
equi
ring
ext
rasl
eep
and
nutr
ition
; and
a te
st is
mys
teri
ous.
The
ritu
als
of a
sses
smen
t blu
rtr
aditi
onal
test
ing
ritu
als.
In a
cul
ture
of
asse
ssm
ent t
he b
orde
rs s
epar
atin
g in
stru
ctio
n an
d te
stin
g ar
ebl
urre
d.W
hat s
ome
wri
ters
cal
l kid
wat
chin
g an
d ot
hers
cal
l inf
orm
al a
sses
smen
till
ustr
ates
how
inst
ruct
ion
and
asse
ssm
ent c
oexi
st.
Kid
wat
chin
g ha
s its
ori
gin
in th
ew
hole
lang
uage
mov
emen
t and
stu
dies
of
emer
ging
lite
racy
(le
arni
ng to
rea
d an
dw
rite
).M
ost e
lem
enta
ry te
ache
rs a
re w
ell-
acqu
aint
ed w
ith th
e te
rm.
Kid
wat
chin
g is
the
proc
ess
of in
terv
iew
ing
and
obse
rvin
g st
uden
ts to
mak
e in
form
ed ju
dgm
ents
abou
t stu
dent
lear
ning
and
inst
ruct
iona
l pla
nnin
g. T
he r
esul
t of
kidw
atch
ing
is n
ota
form
al le
tter
grad
e or
ext
erna
l rep
ort.
Ear
ly in
the
1980
s, a
pre
scho
ol s
peci
al e
duca
tion
spec
ialis
t rel
ated
the
follo
win
g re
al e
vent
to o
ne o
f th
e w
rite
rs o
f th
is b
ook.
The
ane
cdot
e sh
ows
the
pow
erof
inte
rvie
win
g as
an
asse
ssm
ent t
ool.
The
spe
cial
ist w
as te
stin
g th
ree
year
-old
s as
part
of
pres
choo
l spe
cial
edu
catio
n an
d ki
nder
gart
en r
eadi
ness
scr
eeni
ng.
For
one
test
, the
pre
scho
oler
s w
ere
supp
osed
to te
ll he
r th
e na
mes
of
the
colo
rs. W
hen
the
spec
ialis
t sho
wed
a li
ttle
boy
the
colo
r gr
een,
he
read
ily id
entif
ied
the
colo
r as
"Jo
hnD
eere
."G
iven
the
righ
t/wro
ng n
atur
e of
the
test
, the
chi
ld g
ave
the
wro
ng a
nsw
eran
d w
as p
enal
ized
for
his
def
icit
know
ledg
e:he
did
not
pro
duce
the
righ
t ans
wer
whi
ch w
as "
gree
n."
How
ever
, wha
t wou
ld h
ave
happ
ened
if th
e sp
ecia
list h
adqu
estio
ned
him
abo
ut h
is r
easo
ns f
or g
ivin
g th
at a
nsw
er?
Wha
t if
she
wou
ld h
ave
aske
d a
ques
tion
or tw
o ab
out w
here
he
lived
, wha
t his
mot
her
and
fath
er d
id?
Wha
tif
she
wou
ld h
ave
aske
d hi
m w
hat J
ohn
Dee
re w
as?
Prob
ing
ques
tions
like
thes
em
ight
hav
e gi
ven
the
child
and
opp
ortu
nity
to d
emon
stra
te th
at h
is in
form
atio
n w
asco
ntex
tual
ly a
ccur
ate.
In f
act,
he c
ould
hav
e de
mon
stra
ted
that
he
knew
far
mor
e
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& H
OR
SCII
44R
oles
, Rul
es, a
nd R
itual
s in
a C
ultu
re o
fA
sses
smen
t:
than
the
test
que
stio
n as
ked
or m
easu
red.
In
the
real
wor
ld o
f fa
rmin
g, th
e lit
tle b
oy
knew
that
gre
en m
eant
Joh
n D
eere
. Jus
t as
impo
rtan
t, in
the
cour
se o
f in
terv
iew
ing,
the
spec
ialis
t cou
ld h
ave
help
ed th
e bo
ym
ake
the
conn
ectio
n be
twee
n th
e co
ncep
t
"gre
en"
and
the
conc
ept "
John
Dee
re."
Int
ervi
ewin
gst
uden
ts is
one
way
to te
ach
and
asse
ss a
t the
sam
e tim
e.T
he a
sses
smen
t eve
nt is
a le
arni
ng e
vent
.T
he e
vent
blu
rs
the
arbi
trar
y di
stin
ctio
n be
twee
n in
stru
ctio
nan
d te
stin
g.
A s
econ
d ri
tual
that
is b
lurr
ed in
an
asse
ssm
ent
cultu
re is
cha
ngin
g te
stin
g
prac
tices
fro
m a
n or
deal
into
a c
eleb
ratio
n fo
rbo
th th
e st
uden
t and
the
teac
her.
The
1980
s an
d ea
rly
1990
s w
ere
not a
tim
e of
cel
ebra
tion
for
the
give
rs o
r th
e ta
kers
of
larg
e sc
ale,
sta
ndar
dize
d te
sts
in th
e U
nite
d St
ates
.N
ewsp
aper
hea
dlin
es r
egul
arly
jolte
d re
ader
s w
ith r
epor
ts o
f de
clin
ing
mat
han
d sc
ienc
e sc
ores
and
the
poor
perf
orm
ance
of
Am
eric
an s
tude
nts.
Am
eric
an s
tude
nts
fare
d po
orly
whe
n co
mpa
red
to W
este
rn E
urop
ean
and
Asi
anst
uden
ts.
The
test
ing
fren
zy a
nd it
s so
ul m
ate,
acco
unta
bilit
y, h
ave
so a
ffec
ted
the
Am
eric
ansc
hool
cul
ture
it is
unl
ikel
y th
at a
ny
repo
rt o
f st
uden
t pro
gres
s w
ould
cau
seA
mer
ican
s to
rea
ct w
ith a
sm
ile a
nd a
"W
ell
done
!"W
e re
turn
to th
e pu
rpos
e of
this
boo
k to
emph
asiz
e th
is im
port
ant p
oint
.In
our
view
, in
a cu
lture
of a
sses
smen
t, th
e bo
unda
ries
bet
wee
nle
arni
ng a
nd
asse
ssm
ent a
re b
lurr
edM
eani
ngfu
l lea
rnin
g co
uple
d w
ith w
orth
whi
le a
sses
smen
t
incl
udes
the
stud
ent i
n an
ong
oing
con
vers
atio
nab
out h
is o
r he
r un
ders
tand
ing
and
grow
th.
Seco
ndar
y pu
rpos
es o
f as
sess
men
t inc
lude
prov
idin
g in
form
atio
n fo
r th
e
teac
her
who
pla
ns a
nd m
odif
ies
inst
ruct
ion
a'.d
info
rmin
g pa
rent
s ab
out s
tude
nt
prog
ress
.T
hird
and
last
, in
a cu
lture
of
asse
ssm
ent,
the
ritu
als
of te
stin
g an
d gr
adin
g ar
e
dem
ystif
ied.
One
of
the
reas
ons
test
ing
and
grad
ing
is s
opo
wer
ful i
s th
at th
ey a
re
both
mys
teri
ous.
Whe
re d
id th
ey c
ome
from
? W
hat
do th
ey m
ean?
Why
is it
that
TE
S fI
NG
, A
SS
ES
SM
EN
T A
ND
LE
AR
NIN
G: I
NV
ITA
TIO
N T
O A
DIS
CU
SS
ION
6
Blu
rrin
gth
eD
istin
ctio
ns45
grad
es a
re in
adeq
uate
pre
dict
ors
of f
utur
e su
cces
s on
the
job?
It is
a m
yste
ry to
stud
ents
, esp
ecia
lly to
thos
e w
ho d
o no
t per
form
wel
l in
scho
ol.
In a
n as
sess
men
t cul
ture
, stu
dent
s kn
ow w
hy th
ey a
re b
eing
exa
min
ed a
ndw
hat t
heir
per
form
ance
mea
ns. S
tude
nts
know
the
asse
ssm
ent c
rite
ria.
Part
of
the
mys
tifyi
ng n
atur
e of
test
s is
the
lang
uage
exp
erts
use
:av
erag
es, p
erce
ntile
s,st
anin
es, b
ell-
shap
ed c
urve
s, g
radi
ng o
n th
e cu
rve.
All
of th
ese
wor
ds h
ave
prec
ise,
tech
nica
l mea
ning
s.T
estin
g ex
pert
s fe
el c
omfo
rtab
le a
nd u
nder
stan
d th
e la
ngua
geof
mea
sure
men
t.B
ut s
omet
imes
test
giv
ers
and
othe
r ex
pert
s hi
de b
ehin
d th
ela
ngua
ge o
f te
stin
g w
hen
they
talk
with
stu
dent
s ab
out t
heir
per
form
ance
on
scho
ol-
rela
ted
task
s.A
dmin
iste
ring
the
test
is o
nly
half
of
the
job;
inte
rpre
ting
the
test
isth
e ot
her
half
.In
an
asse
ssm
ent c
ultu
re, s
tude
nts
and
teac
hers
sha
re th
e la
ngua
ge o
fas
sess
men
t. T
he f
ollo
win
g ex
ampl
e ill
ustr
ates
our
poi
nt. H
ow d
oes
a re
ader
ass
ess
ast
ory?
Can
a th
ird
grad
er a
sses
s a
stor
y?C
an a
thir
d gr
ader
iden
tify
the
char
acte
rist
ics
of a
n ef
fect
ive
stor
y?Is
the
stor
y in
tere
stin
g, b
orin
g, f
unny
, sad
,tr
ue-t
o-lif
e?T
his
is th
e la
ngua
ge o
f as
sess
men
t in
the
real
wor
ld o
f bo
oks
and
liter
acy.
The
re is
not
hing
mys
teri
ous
abou
t it.
It is
not
ow
ned
by th
e te
ache
r.It
isno
t too
com
plic
ated
for
a th
ird
grad
er to
talk
abo
ut w
ith a
noth
er th
ird
grad
er, a
teac
her,
a p
aren
t, or
eve
n an
othe
r w
rite
r.T
he r
oles
, rul
es, a
nd r
itual
s of
an
asse
ssm
ent c
ultu
re a
re s
umm
ariz
ed in
the
figu
re o
n pa
ge 4
7.C
oncl
usio
n.In
this
cha
pter
we
cont
rast
ed a
n as
sess
men
t cul
ture
to a
test
ing
cultu
re. W
e co
nclu
de b
y re
peat
ing
one
of th
e po
ints
we
mad
e ea
rly
in th
e ch
apte
r.C
ultu
ral p
ract
ices
are
res
ilien
t.C
ultu
ral p
ract
ices
do
not c
hang
e ea
sily
or
quic
kly.
Tea
cher
and
stu
dent
rol
es in
a te
stin
g cu
lture
are
cle
arly
def
ined
and
the
prod
uct o
flo
ng h
eld
trad
ition
s th
at d
efin
e th
e A
mer
ican
sch
ool.
Bec
ause
we
(edu
cato
rs a
ndno
nedu
cato
rs)
have
bee
n pr
oduc
ed b
y th
at c
ultu
re, m
ost o
f us
are
com
fort
able
with
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& H
OR
SCII
46R
oles
, Rul
es, a
nd R
itual
sin
a C
ultu
re o
f A
sses
smen
t:
the
clea
r bo
unda
ries
pro
vide
d by
the
role
s,ru
les,
and
ritu
als
of a
test
ing
cultu
re.
The
y te
ll us
wha
t to
do a
nd h
ow to
do
it.R
edes
igni
ng th
e ro
les
of te
ache
r an
d st
uden
t
in a
n as
sess
men
t cul
ture
will
not
be
easy
.W
orth
whi
le a
sses
smen
ts a
re ti
me
cons
umin
g to
pro
duce
, val
idat
e, a
nd a
dmin
iste
r.W
orth
whi
le a
sses
smen
ts r
epre
sent
a
diff
eren
t kin
d of
eva
luat
ion
para
digm
.It
will
be
tem
ptin
g to
try
to f
it ne
was
sess
men
t nee
ds in
to f
amili
aran
d tr
aditi
onal
eva
luat
ion
para
digm
s.T
he tw
o
cultu
res
are
cont
rast
ed a
t the
end
of
the
book
, on
page
85.
The
exp
ecta
tions
in a
n as
sess
men
t cul
ture
para
llel t
he c
hang
es A
mer
ican
cultu
re h
as e
xper
ienc
ed w
ith r
espe
ct to
fam
ilylif
e, c
omm
unity
life
, and
wor
k pl
ace.
The
cul
tura
l rol
es, r
ules
, and
ritu
als
for
the
twen
tyfi
rst c
entu
ry d
eman
d a
diff
eren
t
kind
of
teac
her
and
a di
ffer
ent k
ind
of s
tude
nt.
We
belie
ve th
at it
will
dem
and
a
cultu
re o
f as
sess
men
t rat
her
than
a c
ultu
re o
fte
stin
g.In
the
next
cha
pter
, we
focu
s
on tr
ansi
tions
, fro
m te
stin
g to
ass
essm
ent.
Lod
AS
SV
;SM
EN
T A
NI)
LE
AR
NIN
G:
INvr
rivr
ION
10
AD
ISC
US
SIO
N
Blu
rrin
gth
eD
istin
ctio
ns47
Cul
ture
of
Ass
essm
ent
RO
LE
Sst
uden
t as
wor
ker,
as
the
expe
rt, a
s a
com
pete
nt s
elf
eval
uato
rst
uden
t as
gene
rato
r of
kno
wle
dge,
not
just
a r
ecep
tor
of k
now
ledg
est
uden
t and
teac
her
shar
e ro
les
of a
utho
rity
and
/or
lear
ning
teac
hing
is b
uild
ing
conn
ectio
ns (
mor
e th
an f
acili
tatin
g)te
achi
ng/le
arni
ng is
a c
onve
rsat
ion,
not
telli
ng
RU
LE
Sco
llabo
ratio
n, te
amin
g, c
oope
ratio
n (a
dult/
stud
ent,
stud
ent/s
tude
nt)
an a
sses
smen
t usu
ally
has
mul
tiple
aud
ienc
es (
self
, pee
rs, t
each
ers,
othe
rs)
wor
thw
hile
ass
essm
ent t
akes
man
y fo
rms:
pape
r/pe
ncil,
per
form
ance
,de
mon
stra
tion,
exh
ibiti
onw
e ca
n ha
ve m
ore
than
one
win
ner,
lear
ning
isn'
t a z
ero
sum
gam
eri
goro
us s
ubje
ctiv
e ju
dgm
ent t
hat i
s da
ta b
ased
RIT
UA
LS
wor
thw
hile
ass
essm
ents
are
a c
eleb
ratio
n no
t an
orde
al, i
t is/
can
bepu
blic
, not
just
pri
vate
in th
e cl
assr
oom
or
scho
olon
goin
g sy
nthe
sis,
ong
oing
que
stio
ns a
nd c
onve
rsat
ions
abo
ut "
Is th
ism
akin
g se
nse?
"ro
ugh
draf
ts a
nd jo
urna
ling
are
legi
timat
e pi
eces
of
evid
ence
that
lear
ning
occ
urre
das
sess
men
ts a
re m
ore
than
pap
er/p
enci
l evi
denc
e: p
lay,
com
petit
ion,
dem
onst
ratio
n, c
onte
st, o
pen
hous
e, s
cien
ce f
air
K L
EIN
SASS
ER
& J
i0PS
C11
49
Cha
pter
V
Mak
ing
the
Tra
nsiti
on:
The
Ass
essm
ent o
f E
duca
tiona
lSt
anda
rds
and
Out
com
es
Con
side
r th
is S
cena
rio.
..It i
s a
norm
al d
ay in
the
clas
sroo
m. T
he p
reva
iling
moo
d is
ser
ious
and
inte
nt. S
tude
nts
wor
k in
smal
l gro
ups
to f
inis
h sp
ecif
ic ta
sks.
The
y co
nfer
with
eac
h ot
her
and
betw
een
grou
ps to
coo
rdin
ate
thei
r w
ork.
The
roo
mis
fill
ed w
ith b
ooks
, map
s, c
ompu
ter
equi
pmen
t, an
d ot
her
mat
eria
ls. O
n th
e w
all,
the
stud
ents
hav
e po
sted
an
outli
ne o
f th
e ta
sks
to b
e co
mpl
eted
and
the
assi
gnm
ents
for
each
sm
all g
roup
. A ti
mel
ine
show
s w
hen
the
part
s of
the
proj
ect m
ust b
e co
mpl
eted
to m
eet t
he d
eadl
ine
for
pres
enta
tion
of th
e fi
nal r
epor
t to
an o
utsi
de g
roup
. The
teac
her
circ
ulat
es q
uiet
ly a
mon
g th
e gr
oups
, res
pond
ing
to q
uest
ions
and
mon
itori
ng g
roup
dyn
amic
s of
the
grou
ps.
Nea
r th
e en
d of
the
peri
od, t
he te
ache
ran
d th
e cl
ass
disc
uss
the
prog
ress
that
has
bee
n m
ade
and
the
proj
ecte
d w
ork
for
the
rem
aind
er o
f th
e pr
ojec
t. A
s a
grou
p, th
ey d
efin
e an
d as
sign
res
pons
ibili
ty f
or th
ene
cess
ary
task
s. T
he te
ache
r di
stri
bute
s a
chec
klis
t for
eac
h st
uden
t whi
ch li
sts
som
eof
the
iden
tifie
d le
arne
r ou
tcom
es in
clud
ing
the
know
ledg
e an
d sk
ills
whi
ch a
reem
bedd
ed in
the
wor
k of
the
proj
ect.
She
asks
for
fee
dbac
k on
the
chec
kshe
et a
ndre
min
ds th
e st
uden
ts th
at th
ey w
ill b
e re
spon
sibl
e fo
r se
tting
goa
ls a
nd m
onito
ring
thei
r ow
n pr
ogre
ss to
war
d m
aste
ry o
f th
e ou
tcom
es o
n th
e ch
ecks
heet
. Alth
ough
the
stud
ents
are
inte
rest
ed a
nd a
ttent
ive,
they
cle
arly
reg
ard
this
pro
cess
as
a pa
rt o
f th
ero
utin
e of
the
clas
sroo
m. T
he c
onve
rsat
ion
quic
kly
switc
hes
back
to th
e pr
ojec
t and
the
prep
arat
ions
for
mak
ing
the
resu
lts o
f th
eir
wor
k av
aila
ble
to th
e co
mm
unity
.A
s
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& il
OR
SCII
NO
TE
S &
QU
OT
ES
Sin
ce 1
970,
sco
res
(of
U.S
. stu
dent
s) o
n ba
sic
skill
s te
sts
have
bee
nst
eadi
ly in
crea
sing
whi
lesc
ores
on
asse
ssm
ent
of h
ighe
r-or
der
thin
king
have
bee
n st
eadi
lyde
clin
ing
in v
irtua
lly a
llsu
bjec
t are
a.
(Dar
ling-
Ham
mon
d,19
91)
"Out
com
es a
reno
ntra
ditio
nal,
futu
re-
orie
nted
abi
litie
sst
uden
ts w
ill n
eed
to b
epr
oduc
tive
citiz
ens
ofth
e 21
st c
entu
ry.
Our
dis
tric
t has
take
n on
the
mis
sion
of
grad
uatin
g st
uden
tsw
ho a
re 1
) se
lf-di
rect
edle
arne
rs,
2) c
olla
bora
tive
wor
kers
, 3)
com
plex
thin
kers
, 4)
qual
itypr
oduc
ers,
and
5) c
omm
unity
cont
ribut
ors.
[Out
com
es] b
ecom
eou
r cu
rric
ulum
, the
focu
s of
our
inst
ruct
ion,
and
even
tual
ly o
urgr
adua
tion
requ
irem
ents
.
But
to k
now
whe
nst
uden
ts h
ave
achi
eved
the
Fiv
e O
utco
mes
and
to b
e ab
le to
doc
umen
tth
at a
chie
vem
ent
requ
ired
a ra
dica
lch
ange
in a
sses
smen
t.
(Red
ding
, 199
2)
50M
akin
g th
e 'T
rans
ition
:
the
wor
k se
ssio
n en
ds, t
he s
tude
nts
retu
rn th
eir
pape
rs a
ndm
ater
ials
to th
eir
wor
king
file
s an
d th
e te
ache
r co
mpl
etes
her
ane
cdot
al r
ecor
ds o
n he
r cl
ipbo
ard.
Do
thes
e ac
tiviti
es c
onst
itute
legi
timat
e te
stin
g?C
erta
inly
ther
e is
littl
eev
iden
ce to
link
this
sce
nari
o w
ith th
e te
stin
g sc
enar
io d
escr
ibed
in C
hapt
erO
ne. I
n
a te
stin
g cu
lture
, we
have
bee
n en
gros
sed
inm
easu
ring
bits
and
pie
ces
of s
tude
nt
know
ledg
e.A
s w
e m
ake
the
tran
sitio
n fr
om a
test
ing
to a
n as
sess
men
tcu
lture
, we
firs
t mus
t be
able
to d
ecid
e w
hat w
e w
ant s
tude
nts
to k
now
or
be a
ble
to d
o.A
tth
e
stat
e an
d na
tiona
l lev
el, w
e ar
c st
rugg
ling
to r
each
a c
onse
nsus
and
the
focu
s is
shif
ting
from
beh
avio
ral o
bjec
tives
to m
eani
ngfu
l out
com
es a
s th
e st
anda
rds
of
stud
ent a
chie
vem
ent.
Out
com
es, a
s th
ey a
re b
egin
ning
to b
e de
fine
d at
sta
te le
vel,
refl
ect a
ver
y di
ffer
ent v
iew
of
wha
t stu
dent
s sh
ould
kno
w a
nd b
e ab
le to
do.
The
se
outc
omes
indi
cate
an
awar
enes
s of
the
know
ledg
e, s
kills
and
attit
udes
whi
ch s
tude
nts
will
nee
d to
fun
ctio
n ef
fect
ivel
y in
an
incr
easi
ngly
com
plex
and
tech
nolo
gica
lso
ciet
y. A
s th
e co
mm
unity
take
s a
mor
e ac
tive
role
in d
efin
ing
goal
s fo
r th
e sc
hool
,th
e de
fini
tion
of w
hat c
onst
itute
s ap
prop
riat
e ed
ucat
ion
is c
hang
ing
also
.M
erel
y
succ
eedi
ng in
sch
ool i
s no
t eno
ugh.
Sch
ools
and
com
mun
ities
are
exp
ectin
g st
uden
tsto
bec
ome
mor
e th
an in
form
atio
n st
orer
s.T
hey
are
artic
ulat
ing
the
view
that
the
"lea
rnE
R"
is m
ore
likel
y to
suc
ceed
than
the
"lea
rnE
D",
that
life
long
lear
ning
impl
ies
the
abili
ty to
dir
ect o
ne's
ow
n le
arni
ng in
pur
pose
ful a
nd p
rodu
ctiv
e w
ays.
Alth
ough
som
e sc
hool
s an
d co
mm
uniti
es h
ave
iden
tifie
d un
ique
stu
dent
outc
omes
, the
re a
rc m
any
com
mon
aliti
es a
mon
g th
e ch
arac
teri
stic
sth
ey c
ite a
s
esse
ntia
l.T
he a
bilit
y to
sol
ve c
ompl
ex p
robl
ems,
to a
cces
s an
d cr
itica
lly a
naly
zein
form
atio
n, a
nd to
ada
pt to
cha
nge
are
iden
tifie
d tim
e an
d ag
ain
as c
ritic
al s
kills
for
all s
tude
nts.
Soci
a! a
nd in
tera
ctiv
e sk
ills,
sel
f aw
aren
ess,
and
the
abili
ty to
que
stio
n
one'
s ow
n po
sitio
n of
ten
mak
e th
e lis
t.Pe
rhap
s th
e m
ost i
nter
estin
g an
d si
gnif
ican
tid
ea w
hich
app
ears
am
ong
the
list o
f ex
pect
atio
ns is
the
emer
ging
vie
w o
f st
uden
ts a
s
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
:1
twrr
AT
ioN
TO
A D
ISC
US
SIO
N
The
Ass
essm
ent o
f E
duca
tiona
l Sta
ndar
ds a
nd O
utco
mes
51
imm
edia
te, a
ctiv
e co
mm
unity
con
trib
utor
s an
d an
unt
appe
d re
sour
ce f
or im
prov
ing
thei
r ow
n liv
es a
nd th
e liv
es o
f ot
hers
in th
e co
mm
unity
.If
sch
ools
are
to b
e ac
coun
tabl
e fo
r as
sess
ing
stud
ents
' ach
ieve
men
t of
thes
eco
mpl
ex o
utco
mes
, wha
t kin
ds o
f as
sess
men
t pro
cedu
res
will
be
valu
able
? H
ow w
illth
e re
sults
be
repo
rted
? H
ow w
ill s
tude
nts,
teac
hers
and
par
ents
mak
e th
e tr
ansi
tion
from
rel
ianc
e on
a s
ingl
e gr
ade
to m
ultip
le in
dica
tors
(ob
serv
atio
ns, i
nter
view
s, a
ndpe
rfor
man
ces
of r
eal l
ife
task
s) a
s ev
iden
ce th
at le
arni
ng h
as o
ccur
red?
To
find
ans
wer
s to
thes
e qu
estio
ns, w
e in
terv
iew
ed W
yom
ing
teac
hers
.T
heir
nam
es, a
ddre
sses
and
str
ateg
ies
are
deta
iled
in th
e Pe
ople
Res
ourc
es s
ectio
n (p
age
59of
this
boo
k). A
s th
ese
skill
ed a
nd th
ough
tful
teac
hers
sha
red
thei
r ex
peri
ence
s w
ithus
, we
iden
tifie
d so
me
com
mon
and
som
e un
ique
con
cern
s am
ong
teac
hers
who
are
desi
gnin
g an
d pi
lotin
g al
tern
ativ
es to
trad
ition
al te
stin
g in
thei
r cl
assr
oom
s. T
hese
teac
hers
had
a c
lear
vis
ion
of th
e kn
owle
dge
and
skill
s th
ey c
onsi
dere
d es
sent
ial f
orth
eir
stud
ents
.T
hey
wer
e al
so c
onfi
dent
of
thei
r as
sess
men
t pra
ctic
es.
How
ever
,
man
y of
them
fou
nd it
dif
ficu
lt to
tran
slat
e th
eir
obse
rvat
ions
into
are
cord
of
prog
ress
--a
rep
ort-
- w
hich
cou
ld b
e ac
cept
ed a
nd u
nder
stoo
d by
the
publ
ic.
For
som
e te
ache
rs, t
he a
ttem
pt to
mas
sage
the
info
rmat
ion
gain
ed f
rom
thes
eon
goin
g an
d in
form
al k
inds
of
asse
ssm
ent a
ctiv
ities
into
mor
e st
anda
rdiz
ed m
easu
res
dist
orte
d bo
th th
e ac
tivity
and
the
eval
uatio
n. D
ana
Van
Bur
gh, a
mid
dle
scho
ol e
arth
scie
nce
teac
her,
des
crib
ed a
sum
mat
ive
perf
orm
ance
ass
essm
ent i
n hi
s cl
assr
oom
whi
ch h
e us
ed to
fin
ish
a un
it on
map
s, r
ock
type
s, s
truc
ture
s, a
nd e
leva
tions
. Eac
hte
am o
f st
uden
ts w
as g
iven
a b
lack
and
whi
te L
ands
at im
age
of th
e co
unty
. Tea
ms
labe
led
as m
any
feat
ures
as
poss
ible
, inc
ludi
ng s
trea
ms,
tow
ns, r
oads
, and
geo
logi
cfe
atur
es. T
o pe
rfor
m th
e ta
sk, t
he te
ams
had
to w
ork
from
a v
arie
ty o
f m
aps
with
diff
eren
t sca
les
and
diff
eren
t way
s of
pre
sent
ing
info
rmat
ion.
His
del
ight
in th
eab
ilitie
s of
his
stu
dent
s to
pro
cess
info
rmat
ion
and
to u
se b
its a
nd p
iece
s to
cre
ate
a
c tiK
LE
INSA
SSE
R &
HO
RSC
II
Stu
dent
s w
ho h
ave
tope
rfor
m o
r ex
hibi
t the
irow
n kn
owle
dge
and
skill
s ge
t lea
rnin
g in
the
bone
s: a
ctiv
e le
arne
rsbe
com
e lif
etim
ele
arne
rs.
(Rex
ford
Bro
wn,
198
9)
t_t
We
have
a s
tron
gte
nden
cy to
pro
clai
mth
e ed
ucat
iona
l pov
erty
of te
st s
core
s an
d th
entu
rn a
roun
d an
d us
eth
em, w
hen
we
can,
as
indi
ces
of o
ur o
wn
succ
ess,
thus
legi
timat
ing
the
valid
ityof
the
publ
ic c
once
rns
abou
t the
qua
lity
ofed
ucat
ion.
If te
st s
core
sin
thei
r co
nven
tiona
lfo
rm d
o no
t rev
eal w
hat
real
ly m
atte
rs in
sch
ool,
we
shou
ld n
ot u
se th
emto
judg
e ou
r "s
ucce
ss."
(Eis
ner,
199
1)
5 2
Mak
ing
the
Tra
nsiti
on:
com
posi
te p
ictu
re w
as o
bvio
us. W
hen
we
quer
ied
him
abo
ut h
ow h
e tr
ansl
ated
the
succ
ess
of th
e st
uden
ts in
to n
umbe
rs in
the
grad
e bo
ok, h
e re
mar
ked
that
sim
ply
givi
ng th
e st
uden
ts c
redi
t for
the
num
ber
of la
ndfo
rms
they
cou
ld id
entif
y se
emed
ast
erile
and
insu
ffic
ient
mea
sure
of
thei
r ac
hiev
emen
t. H
e w
orri
ed a
loud
abo
ut th
ree
sum
mat
ive
test
s gr
ades
whi
ch h
e ha
d re
cord
ed f
or e
ach
stud
ent a
nd th
e di
spar
itybe
twee
n th
e st
uden
ts' t
est s
core
s an
d th
eir
abili
ty to
util
ize
data
and
to s
olve
pro
blem
she
had
obs
erve
d as
they
wer
e en
gage
d in
the
activ
ities
of
the
clas
sroo
m.
Oth
er te
ache
rs e
xpre
ssed
sim
ilar
conc
ern.
Vic
ki F
oste
r, w
hose
six
th g
rade
clas
s en
gage
d in
a y
ear-
long
stu
dy o
f th
e ef
fect
s of
an
oil s
pill
on a
loca
l str
eam
,su
pplie
d us
with
a li
st o
f th
e ki
nds
of p
erfo
rman
ces
she
used
to d
eter
min
e th
epr
ogre
ss o
f he
r st
uden
ts a
s th
ey s
quar
ed o
ff a
gain
st a
rea
l lif
e pr
oble
m. H
er s
tude
nts
draf
ted
a pe
rson
al c
onse
rvat
ion
ethi
c, w
rote
and
pre
sent
ed s
peec
hes
tot h
e
com
mun
ity b
ased
on
thei
r fi
ndin
gs, d
esig
ned
wal
l mur
als
to d
ispl
ay th
eir
data
, and
enga
ged
in d
ebat
es o
n co
ntro
vers
ial i
ssue
s. S
he u
sed
no o
bjec
tive
test
ing
and
in h
erw
ords
, "T
he g
rade
s I
assi
gn to
stu
dent
s ar
e ha
rd to
just
ify
to s
omeo
ne w
ho d
oes
not
obse
rve
firs
than
d w
hat t
he k
ids
can
do."
We
foun
d te
ache
rs p
ione
erin
g un
ique
way
s of
rep
ortin
g st
uden
t pro
gres
s al
so.
In a
fir
st g
rade
cla
ssro
om in
Yod
er, W
yom
ing,
Jud
y L
issm
an h
as r
epla
ced
repo
rtca
rds
with
por
tfol
ios
as th
e m
etho
d sh
e us
es to
rep
ort t
o pa
rent
s. S
he k
eeps
a r
ecor
dof
eac
h ch
ild's
act
iviti
es a
nd h
is o
r he
r pe
rfor
man
ce o
n sp
ecif
ic s
kills
on
a vi
deo
tape
. Thi
s vi
deo
tape
, alo
ng w
ith o
ther
por
tfol
io it
ems,
is s
hare
d w
ith p
aren
ts d
urin
gth
e qu
arte
rly
pare
nt c
onfe
renc
e se
ssio
ns.
Pare
nts
view
the
tape
, off
er c
omm
ents
,an
d re
spon
d to
que
stio
ns a
bout
thei
r ch
ild's
pro
gres
s.Ju
dy c
omm
ente
d th
at a
nun
expe
cted
div
iden
d fr
om th
e ta
ping
act
ivity
has
bee
n th
e aw
aren
ess
the
child
ren
deve
lop
abou
t the
ir o
wn
prog
ress
and
thei
r in
tere
st in
cha
rtin
g th
eir
impr
ovem
ent.
TE
STIN
G, A
SSE
SSM
EN
T A
ND
LE
AR
NIN
G: I
NV
ITA
TIO
N T
O A
DIS
CU
SSIO
N
C 2
The
Ass
essm
ent o
f E
duca
tiona
l Sta
ndar
ds a
nd O
utco
mes
53
Riv
erto
n E
lem
enta
ry S
choo
l eng
ages
the
stud
ent,
the
pare
nt, a
nd th
e te
ache
rin
mon
itori
ng s
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent i
n an
ong
oing
pro
cess
. Onc
e or
twic
e a
wee
k th
est
uden
t is
aske
d to
wri
te a
lette
r ho
me,
exp
lain
ing
a pa
rtic
ular
lear
ning
act
ivity
.W
ayne
Den
nis,
Pri
ncip
al/T
each
er o
f th
e sc
hool
sta
tes,
"T
hese
lette
rs h
elp
us to
kno
wif
the
stud
ents
trul
y un
ders
tand
the
proc
ess
we
are
teac
hing
, whe
ther
in m
ath,
scie
nce,
soc
ial s
tudi
es, o
r re
adin
g."
Tea
cher
s ar
e al
so e
mbr
acin
g fo
rms
of in
form
al a
sses
smen
t.D
iana
Wiig
, who
teac
hes
firs
t gra
de in
Roc
k Sp
ring
s, r
epor
ts th
at a
sses
smen
t at t
he p
rim
ary
leve
l in
her
scho
ol is
info
rmal
.Sh
e de
scri
bes
her
own
asse
ssm
ent p
roto
col i
n th
is w
ay,
"Chi
ldre
n co
me
to s
choo
l ver
y ex
cite
d ab
out l
earn
ing.
Tes
ting
seem
s to
dam
pen
thei
ren
thus
iasm
. Tes
ting
stud
ents
at a
n ea
rly
age
tend
s to
tell
us o
nly
wha
t the
y D
ON
'Tkn
ow, n
ot w
hat t
hey
know
. My
asse
ssm
ent b
egin
s on
day
one
.Si
nce
youn
g ch
ildre
nar
e al
way
s ea
ger
to s
how
you
wha
t the
y kn
ow, t
hat's
whe
re I
beg
in. W
e si
t dow
nan
d ta
lk, o
ne-o
n-on
e. W
ith f
orty
stu
dent
s, th
at c
an ta
ke a
lot o
f tim
e, b
ut m
y pa
rtne
ran
d I
deem
it w
ell w
orth
the
time
spen
t. W
e al
so o
bser
ve th
e ch
ildre
n at
inde
pend
ent
lear
ning
act
iviti
es a
nd in
gro
up s
ituat
ions
. We
keep
a n
oteb
ook
hand
y to
wri
te d
own
our
obse
rvat
ions
.If
a c
hild
con
cern
s us
, we
may
sta
rt a
n an
ecdo
tal f
ile a
nd a
dd m
ore
deta
ils." T
he N
atro
na C
ount
y Sc
hool
Dis
tric
t's L
ight
hous
e Pa
rk S
choo
l has
rep
lace
dgr
ades
with
an
indi
vidu
aliz
ed, o
ngoi
ng a
sses
smen
t pro
ject
. The
re th
e te
ache
rs h
ave
com
pile
d a
skill
s ch
eckl
ist b
ased
on
such
pro
cess
ski
lls a
s "t
he a
bilit
y to
con
sult
ava
riet
y of
sou
rces
," "
unde
rsta
nds
that
the
read
ing
mus
t mak
e se
nse,
" an
d "s
how
s an
appr
ecia
tion
for
the
envi
ronm
ent."
The
mar
king
key
for
the
skill
s ch
eckl
ist d
efin
esth
e ca
tego
ries
of
Beg
inni
ng, D
evel
opin
g, I
ndep
ende
nt, C
omm
enda
ble,
or
Not
Ass
esse
d
this
Qua
rter
.R
ecor
ds a
re k
ept o
n th
e co
mpl
etio
n of
ass
ignm
ents
and
the
qual
ity o
fth
e w
ork
done
. Eac
h ch
ild h
as a
por
tfol
io a
nd v
ideo
tape
s of
pre
sent
atio
ns o
r sp
ecia
l
uK
LI.
INSA
SSE
R &
HO
RSC
II
Thi
s m
ode
ofas
sess
men
t (po
rtfo
lios)
conj
ures
a d
iffer
ent
perc
eptio
n of
acl
assr
oom
-a p
ortfo
liocu
ltura
l cen
ter
whe
rekn
owle
dge
isco
nstr
ucte
dco
mm
unal
ly, i
ndiv
idua
lst
reng
ths
are
deve
lope
d an
d le
arni
ngbe
com
es a
n ad
vent
ure
whe
re s
ucce
ss is
disp
laye
d.
(Col
lins,
199
0)
We
foun
d th
e pr
oces
sof
cre
atin
g pe
rfor
man
ceas
sess
men
t sym
met
ricw
ith g
ood
teac
hing
activ
ity to
be
time
cons
umng
, req
uirin
gco
nsid
erab
le s
cien
tific
and
tech
nolo
gica
l kno
w-
how
.
(Sha
vels
on &
Bak
er,
1992
) 162,
54M
akin
g th
e T
rans
ition
:
proj
ects
.A
per
sona
l com
pute
r di
sk is
the
repo
sito
ry f
or e
vide
nce
of th
e ch
ild's
lang
uage
ski
lls.
At t
he e
nd o
f th
e ye
ar, t
he te
ache
rs c
onfe
r w
ith p
aren
ts to
dete
rmin
e w
hat m
ater
ials
will
rem
ain
in th
e po
rtfo
lio to
bec
ome
a pa
rtof
the
child
's
perm
anen
t rec
ord.
Dor
is W
adde
ll, th
e te
ache
r of
the
thir
d/fo
urth
gra
de in
the
Lig
htho
use
scho
ol, r
epor
ts th
at th
e te
ache
rs f
ind
this
sys
tem
of a
sses
smen
t bot
h
exci
ting
and
chal
leng
ing.
For
som
e te
ache
rs, t
he u
se o
f pr
ojec
ts a
s a
form
of
asse
ssm
ent c
reat
esin
tere
stin
g in
sigh
ts a
bout
stu
dent
lear
ning
.G
reg
Ham
mon
ds, w
ho te
ache
s in
am
iddl
e sc
hool
, use
s a
prod
uct t
estin
g pr
ojec
t as
an a
sses
smen
t of
his
stud
ents
' mas
tery
of p
roce
ss s
kills
.A
fter
a p
relim
inar
y cl
assr
oom
exe
rcis
e in
whi
ch th
e st
uden
tsco
mpa
re v
ario
us b
rand
s of
pap
er to
wel
s, th
est
uden
ts c
hoos
e a
diff
eren
t com
mer
cial
prod
uct a
nd c
ompa
re d
iffe
rent
bra
nds.
The
y m
ust d
esig
n an
d co
nduc
tth
eir
own
expe
rim
ent.
Ham
mon
ds' c
rite
ria
for
eval
uatin
g th
e pr
ojec
ts is
bas
ed o
nda
ta
colle
ctin
g sk
ills,
the
valid
ity o
f th
e pr
ojec
t des
ign,
dat
a an
alys
is, a
ndho
w w
ell t
he
conc
lusi
ons
are
supp
orte
d by
the
data
.O
ne o
f hi
s co
ncer
ns w
as th
e di
ffic
ulty
stud
ents
had
in a
pply
ing
the
met
hodo
logy
and
ski
lls le
arne
d in
one
con
text
toan
othe
r pr
oble
m. F
or h
im, t
his
adds
ano
ther
com
plex
ity to
the
prob
lem
of
desi
gnin
g
perf
orm
ance
ass
essm
ents
whi
ch a
re n
ovel
but
als
o ac
cura
tely
ref
lect
wha
t stu
dent
s
have
lear
ned.
In o
ther
cas
es, t
he u
se o
f al
tern
ativ
e fo
rms
of a
sses
smen
t (no
t pap
er-p
enci
l) to
asse
ss s
tude
nt p
rogr
ess
tow
ard
iden
tifie
d ou
tcom
es h
asha
d si
gnif
ican
t im
pact
on
the
curr
icul
um.
In W
orla
nd, a
s a
resu
lt of
thei
r ex
peri
ence
s w
ith o
utco
mes
and
alte
rnat
ive
asse
ssm
ent,
the
mid
dle
scho
ol te
ache
rs r
ecom
men
ded
the
adop
tion
of a
curr
icul
um w
hich
de-
emph
asiz
es a
ny f
orm
al te
stin
g.In
Tor
ring
ton,
Bob
Pes
icka
, an
elem
enta
ry s
choo
l pri
ncip
al, n
oted
that
wha
t the
teac
hers
lear
ned
abou
t the
irst
uden
ts f
rom
mor
e th
ough
tful
ass
essm
ent c
ause
d m
ajor
sci
ence
cur
ricu
lum
cha
nge.
TE
STIN
G, A
SSE
SSM
EN
T A
ND
LE
AR
NIN
G:
INV
FI'A
TIO
N T
O A
DIS
CU
SSIO
NIG
3
The
Ass
essm
ent o
f Edu
catio
nal S
tand
ards
and
Out
com
es55
Tea
cher
s in
that
ele
men
tary
sch
ool d
evot
ed c
onsi
dera
ble
time
to s
tude
nt in
terv
iew
sin
an
ongo
ing
effo
rt to
fin
d ou
t pre
cise
ly w
hat s
tude
nts
knew
and
wer
e le
arni
ng a
s a
resu
lt of
thei
r in
stru
ctio
n.B
ased
on
the
info
rmat
ion
and
insi
ghts
this
kin
d of
asse
ssm
ent p
rodu
ced,
teac
hers
dis
card
ed o
r re
vise
d pa
rts
of th
e K
-5 c
urri
culu
m.
The
y
put c
rite
rion
ref
eren
ced
test
ing
on h
old.
Acc
ordi
ng to
Pes
icka
:W
hat w
e ha
ve e
xper
ienc
ed is
to s
ee th
e to
p do
wn
mod
el (
outc
omes
,cu
rric
ulum
, les
sons
, ass
essm
ent)
bec
omin
g pa
rt o
f a
deve
lopm
ent c
ycle
so th
at w
hat w
e le
arn
abou
t the
lear
ner
driv
es th
e pr
oces
s. O
ur in
tent
is
to r
espo
nd to
the
lear
ner
resu
lts a
s ob
serv
ed b
y th
e te
ache
rs to
dete
rmin
e w
hen
and
how
our
out
com
es a
nd c
urri
culu
m n
eed
adju
stin
g.A
lthou
gh th
e m
etho
ds th
ese
teac
hers
use
d to
ass
ess
stud
ent l
earn
ing
wer
edi
ffer
ent,
som
e co
mm
on e
lem
ents
wer
e ob
viou
s. T
hrou
gh th
ese
conv
ersa
tions
and
base
d on
the
wri
tings
of
othe
r ed
ucat
ors,
we
have
iden
tifie
d so
me
of th
ech
arac
teri
stic
s of
mea
ning
ful a
sses
smen
t. W
e of
fer
this
che
cklis
t as
a st
artin
g po
int
for
desi
gnin
g an
d ev
alua
ting
alte
rnat
ive
asse
ssm
ent.
K L
EIN
SASS
ER
& I
OR
SC
II
The
mai
n fe
atur
e of
dyna
mic
ass
essm
ent
tech
niqu
es is
that
they
seek
to e
valu
ate
stud
ents
' pot
entia
l for
chan
ge b
y ei
ther
obse
rvin
g th
eir
resp
onse
to in
stru
ctio
nof
det
erm
inin
g th
epr
oces
ses
resp
onsi
ble
for
chan
ge.
(Cam
pion
a, 1
991)
1u5
56M
akin
g th
e'I'
rans
ition
:
Cha
ract
eris
tics
of m
eani
ngfu
l ass
essm
ent..
.is
bas
ed o
n a
clea
rly
artic
ulat
ed c
onse
nsus
of
wha
t the
lear
ner
mus
t kno
w o
rbe
abl
e to
do;
dem
ands
that
the
lear
ner
cons
truc
t mea
ning
as
wel
l as
resp
ond
to q
uest
ions
;pr
obes
the
proc
ess
used
to a
nsw
er th
e qu
estio
n;as
sign
s ta
sks
that
are
bot
h m
eani
ngfu
l to
the
lear
ner
and
accu
rate
mea
sure
s of
the
inst
ruct
iona
l pro
gram
;al
low
s fo
r m
ore
than
one
acc
epta
ble
answ
er;
prob
es u
nder
stan
ding
of
the
big
pict
ure;
allo
ws
for
alte
rnat
ive
way
s of
dem
onst
ratin
g ac
hiev
emen
t;in
clud
es th
e us
e of
app
ropr
iate
tool
s;al
low
s fo
r in
divi
dual
and
gro
up p
erfo
rman
ce;
incl
udes
sel
f an
d pe
er e
valu
atio
n an
d st
uden
t-te
ache
r co
llabo
ratio
n in
desi
gnin
g th
e as
sess
men
t pro
cess
;is
an
ongo
ing
proc
ess
whi
ch m
easu
res
grow
th;
is a
cel
ebra
tion
of s
ucce
ss r
athe
r th
an p
roof
of
failu
re;
Our
sea
rch
for
exam
ples
of
alte
rnat
ive
asse
ssm
ent i
n W
yom
ing
gave
us
som
ede
fini
tive
answ
ers
to th
e qu
estio
n of
wha
t goo
d as
sess
men
t loo
ks li
ke. H
owev
er, a
ste
ache
rs a
nd s
choo
ls m
ake
the
tran
sitio
n fr
om te
stin
g to
ass
essm
ent,
how
the
resu
ltssh
ould
be
repo
rted
rem
ains
an
unan
swer
ed q
uest
ion.
Info
rmal
ass
essm
ent i
s a
pow
erfu
l too
l for
ver
ifyi
ng th
at s
tude
nts
have
lear
ned
but t
he d
ata
com
e to
us
in a
disa
ggre
gate
d fo
rm w
hich
may
not
be
acce
ptab
le to
pol
icy
mak
ers
and
the
publ
ic.
Mea
ning
ful a
sses
smen
t doe
s no
t yie
ld a
sin
gle
num
ber
whi
ch c
an b
e co
nven
ient
lybu
bble
d in
on
a da
ta s
heet
. Yet
the
dem
and
for
mea
ning
less
qua
ntif
icat
ion
may
not
allo
w th
e tim
e an
d fr
eedo
m n
eces
sary
for
new
tech
niqu
es a
nd m
etho
ds o
f as
sess
men
tto
mat
ure
into
acc
epta
ble
mea
sure
s of
stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t.li
Li
TE
STIN
G, A
SSE
SSM
EN
T A
ND
LE
AR
NIN
G: I
NV
ITA
TIO
N T
O A
DIS
CU
SSIO
N
The
Ass
essm
ent o
f E
duca
tiona
l Sta
ndar
ds a
nd O
utco
mes
5 7
As
we
cont
inue
the
dial
ogue
abo
ut te
stin
g, le
arni
ng, a
ndas
sess
men
t and
as
the
unan
swer
ed q
uest
ions
con
tinue
to p
lagu
eus
, per
haps
we
will
do
wel
l to
rem
embe
rth
at g
ood
ques
tions
are
bet
ter
than
poo
ran
swer
s. W
e ha
ve b
een
mes
mer
ized
by
the
quan
tity
of d
ata
test
giv
ers
can
extr
act f
rom
a si
ngle
test
ing
epis
ode,
but
wha
t the
seda
ta te
ll us
abo
ut s
tude
nt le
arni
ng r
emai
nm
eage
r.
The
goo
d ne
ws
is th
atpe
rfor
man
ceas
sess
men
ts d
o no
tdu
plic
ate
info
rmat
ion
abou
t stu
dent
achi
evem
ent p
rovi
ded
by tr
aditi
onal
test
s(a
vera
ge c
orre
latio
n is
abou
t 0.4
5). T
hey
tap
diffe
rent
asp
ects
of
achi
evem
ent,
but w
ear
e no
t sur
e w
hat
aspe
cts
of a
chie
vem
ent
mul
tiple
cho
ice
test
or
perf
orm
ance
asse
ssm
ent d
o or
do
not t
ap.
(Sha
vels
on &
Bax
ter,
1992
)
1 .1.
(_.
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
HO
RSC
II
59
Res
ourc
es
EX
AM
PLE
S O
F W
OR
TH
WH
ILE
ASS
ESS
ME
NT
How
to A
cces
s In
form
atio
n in
Thi
s Se
ctio
n
The
res
ourc
es o
n th
e fo
llow
ing
page
s hi
ghlig
ht s
trat
egie
s W
yom
ing
K-1
2te
ache
rs u
se to
mee
t ins
truc
tiona
l out
com
es th
roug
h w
orth
whi
le a
sses
smen
ts.
Eac
h
exam
ple
incl
udeS
the
teac
her's
nam
e, s
choo
l add
ress
and
pho
ne, t
he g
rade
leve
l in
whi
ch th
ey u
se th
e ac
tivity
, and
a b
rief
des
crip
tion
of th
e ac
tivity
.
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& ti
OR
SC
II
NO
T E
S
60R
esou
rces
VID
EO
ASS
ESS
ME
NT
CO
NT
AC
T
Judy
Lis
sman
Sout
heas
t Ele
men
tary
Yod
er,W
Y 8
2244
532-
7176
(w
ork)
GR
AD
E L
EV
EL
Firs
t Gra
de
CO
NT
EN
T
Des
crip
tion
of th
e ac
tivity
:D
urin
g th
e ye
ar, v
ideo
tape
s of
eac
h ch
ilden
gage
d in
a v
arie
ty o
f ac
tiviti
es a
re m
ade.
Tap
es o
f fi
eld
trip
s, b
irth
days
and
oth
ersp
ecia
l eve
nts
are
reco
rded
als
o.T
he v
ideo
rec
ord
is c
orre
late
d w
ith a
por
tfol
iom
etho
d of
rep
ortin
g to
the
pare
nts.
The
por
tfol
io a
lso
cont
ains
pap
er a
nd p
enci
lsa
mpl
es o
f th
e st
uden
t's w
ork.
Form
al a
nd I
nfor
mal
Use
of
Ass
essm
ent I
nfor
mat
ion:
The
por
tfol
io is
shat
-ed
with
the
pare
nts
quar
terl
y.T
he v
ideo
is s
ent h
ome
with
the
pare
nts
for
view
ing
and
a qu
estio
nnai
re is
incl
uded
to s
olic
it pa
rent
res
pons
e. T
he te
ache
r vi
ews
the
tape
s as
a m
etho
d of
bec
omin
g m
ore
awar
e of
stu
dent
beh
avio
r an
d fo
r no
ting
spec
ific
are
as w
hich
are
targ
eted
for
impr
ovem
ent.
Stud
ents
als
o vi
ew th
e ta
pes
and
asse
ss th
eir
own
perf
orm
ance
.
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
:IN
Vrl'
AT
ION
To
A D
ISC
US
SIO
N
Res
ourc
es
BO
LT
ON
CR
EE
K S
TU
DY
ASS
ESS
ME
NT
61
CO
NT
AC
T
Vic
ki F
oste
rJa
ckso
n H
ole
Mid
dle
Scho
olP.
O. B
ox 5
68
Jack
son,
Wyo
min
g 83
001
733-
4235
(w
ork)
GR
AD
E L
EV
EL
Sixt
h G
rade
CO
NT
EN
TD
escr
iptio
n of
Act
ivity
: The
six
th g
rade
cla
ss c
ondu
cted
a y
ear
long
stu
dy
of a
str
eam
whi
ch h
ad b
een
impa
cted
by
an o
ilsp
ill. T
he s
tudy
was
don
e in
coop
erat
ion
with
the
Bur
eau
of L
and
Man
agem
ent a
ndth
e W
yom
ing
Gam
e an
d Fi
sh
Dep
artm
ent.
Ass
essm
ent
activ
ities
incl
uded
:1.
Stud
ents
wro
te a
per
sona
l con
serv
atio
n et
hic
at th
e en
dof
the
unit.
The
wri
tings
wer
e ev
alua
ted
to s
ee if
the
stud
ents
had
pers
onal
ized
the
info
rmat
ion.
2.St
uden
ts w
rote
and
pre
sent
ed s
peec
hes
abou
t the
pro
ject
tova
riou
s co
mm
unity
grou
ps a
nd to
oth
er c
lass
es in
scho
ol.
3.St
uden
ts r
epor
ted
resu
lts o
f th
e st
udy
eith
er p
icto
rial
ly o
r in
wri
ting.
4.R
ole
play
s w
ere
used
.
5.St
uden
ts d
ebat
ed th
e co
ntro
vers
ial i
ssue
s af
ter
rese
arch
ing.
Form
al a
nd I
nfor
mal
Use
of
Ass
essm
ent I
nfor
mat
ion:
No
obje
ctiv
e te
sts
wer
e gi
ven.
(T
each
er's
com
men
t:It
is h
ard
to ju
stif
y th
e gr
ade
whi
ch w
as g
iven
toso
meo
ne w
ho d
oes
not o
bser
ve w
hat
the
stud
ents
can
do.
I ha
te r
epor
t car
ds.)
KIi
& il
OR
SC
62R
esou
rces
PRO
DU
CT
TE
STIN
G P
RO
JEC
TC
ON
TA
CT
Gre
g H
amm
ons
Wor
land
Mid
dle
Scho
ol
1200
Cul
bert
son
Ave
Wor
land
, WY
824
01
347-
3233
(w
ork)
GR
AD
E L
EV
EL
Seve
nth
Gra
deC
ON
TE
NT
Des
crip
tion
of A
ctiv
ity:
Stud
ents
eng
age
in a
n in
stru
ctio
nal a
ctiv
ity in
whi
ch th
ey c
ompa
re th
e pr
oper
ties
of v
ario
us b
rand
sof
pap
er to
wel
s. T
he a
ctiv
ity is
a re
view
of
the
scie
nce
proc
ess
skill
s.A
fter
this
teac
her
dire
cted
act
ivity
, eac
hst
uden
t is
requ
ired
to c
hoos
e a
prod
uct a
nd d
esig
nan
d co
nduc
t an
expe
rim
ent t
oco
mpa
re d
iffe
rent
bra
nds
of th
e ch
osen
pro
duct
.Fo
rmal
and
Inf
orm
al A
sses
smen
t Inf
orm
atio
n: T
hepr
ojec
t is
eval
uate
dby
the
teac
her
base
d on
(1)
dat
a co
llect
ion,
(2)
criti
cal t
hink
ing
and
data
ana
lysi
s,(3
) pr
ojec
t des
ign,
and
(4)
whe
ther
the
data
supp
orts
the
conc
lusi
on. T
he g
rade
on
the
proj
ect b
ecom
es a
par
t of
the
stud
ent's
fin
alco
urse
gra
de. T
he s
cien
ce te
ache
rw
orks
with
the
lang
uage
art
s te
ache
r du
ring
the
proj
ect.
Stud
ents
pre
pare
a"c
omm
erci
al"
as a
mea
ns o
f re
port
ing
thei
r co
nclu
sion
s an
dpr
oduc
t tes
t res
ults
. The
com
mer
cial
s ar
e vi
deo
tape
d an
d ev
alua
ted
by th
ela
ngua
ge a
rts
teac
hers
and
the
scie
nce
teac
her
for
both
con
tent
and
pre
sent
atio
n.
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
: IN
VIT
AT
ION
TO
A D
ISC
US
SIO
N
Res
ourc
es
LIG
HT
HO
USE
SC
HO
OL
ASS
ESS
ME
NT
PR
OT
OC
OL
63
CO
NT
AC
T
Dor
is W
adde
ll
Park
Lig
htho
use
Scho
ol14
0 W
. 9th
Str
eet
Cas
per,
WY
826
01
577-
4593
(w
ork)
GR
AD
E L
EV
EL
Thi
rd/F
ourt
h G
rade
CO
NT
EN
T
Des
crip
tion
of A
ctiv
ity: A
por
tfol
io is
kep
t for
eac
h ch
ild.
Exa
mpl
es a
rein
clud
ed f
rom
all
subj
ects
and
pie
:es
are
sele
cted
to s
how
prog
ress
in a
par
ticul
arsk
ill a
rea.
Tea
cher
s us
e a
skill
s ch
eckl
ist w
hich
they
hav
e co
mpi
led.
Suc
h sk
ills
as"t
he a
bilit
y to
use
a v
arie
ty o
f re
sour
ces,
" "u
nder
stan
ds th
at r
eadi
ngm
ust m
ake
sens
e", a
nd "
show
s an
app
reci
atio
n an
d re
spec
t for
the
envi
ronm
ent"
are
incl
uded
. Ake
y w
hich
is u
sed
to m
ark
prog
ress
on
skill
acq
uisi
tion
uses
the
cate
gori
es o
fB
egin
ning
, Dev
elop
ing,
Ind
epen
dent
, Com
men
dabl
e an
d N
ot A
sses
sed.
Tea
cher
s ke
epa
grad
eboo
k an
d re
cord
com
plet
ion
of a
ssig
nmen
ts, q
ualit
y of
wor
k do
ne, a
nd w
hen
ask
ill is
mas
tere
d.A
not
eboo
k co
ntai
ning
ane
cdot
al r
ecor
ds o
n ea
ch c
hild
ism
aint
aine
d al
so. S
peci
al p
roje
cts
or p
rese
ntat
ions
are
rec
orde
d on
vid
eo ta
pe.
Form
al a
nd I
nfor
mal
Ass
essm
ent I
nfor
mat
ion:
No
grad
esar
e gi
ven.
A t
the
end
of th
e ye
ar, t
he p
aren
ts, c
hild
and
teac
her
mak
e de
cisi
ons
abou
t wha
t sho
uld
rem
ain
in a
chi
ld's
por
tfol
io f
or th
e ne
xt y
ear.
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& H
OR
SCII
64R
esou
rces
FIR
ST G
RA
DE
MU
LT
IDIS
CIP
LIN
AR
Y A
SSE
SSM
EN
TC
ON
TA
CT
Dia
na W
iig
Was
hing
ton
Scho
olR
ock
Spri
ngs,
WY
362-
3411
(w
ork)
GR
AD
E L
EV
EL
Firs
t Gra
de
CO
NT
EN
T
Des
crip
tion
of A
ctiv
ities
: Ass
essm
ent i
s in
form
al a
nd o
ngoi
ng.
A v
arie
ty
of to
ols
are
used
.D
epen
ding
upo
n th
e in
form
atio
n/pe
rfor
man
ce b
eing
sou
ght,
indi
vidu
al o
bser
vatio
ns a
re u
sed
to c
hart
pro
gres
s in
targ
eted
. ski
ll ar
eas
Con
tent
isin
tegr
ated
and
pro
ject
s ar
e us
ed f
or a
sses
smen
t.Fo
r ex
amp!
e, th
e fi
rst a
nd s
ixth
grad
es c
olla
bora
te o
n gr
owin
g pl
ants
. The
stu
dent
s re
cord
dat
a, w
rite
in a
pla
nt b
ook,
and
com
pare
rat
es o
f gr
owth
. The
y w
rite
a s
tory
abo
ut h
ow it
fel
t to
be a
see
d an
dw
hat t
he s
eed
was
thin
king
as
it w
aite
d to
spr
out.
TE
STIN
G, A
SSE
SSM
EN
T A
ND
LE
AR
NIN
G: i
NV
ITA
TIO
N T
O A
DIS
CU
SSIO
N
Res
ourc
es
Alte
rnat
ive
Ass
essm
ent E
xam
ples
CO
NT
AC
T
Way
ne D
enni
s, P
rinc
ipal
/Tea
cher
Riv
erto
n In
term
edia
te S
choo
l12
1 N
. 5th
St.
Riv
erto
n, W
Y 8
2501
856-
7852
(w
ork)
GR
AD
E L
EV
EL
Four
th a
nd F
ifth
Gra
deC
ON
TE
NT
Des
crip
tion
of A
ctiv
ities
:R
eadi
ng a
sses
smen
t:St
uden
tst
uden
t jou
rnal
s ar
e us
ed.
In th
e in
terv
iew
s, te
ache
rs c
heck
for
65
inte
rvie
ws
and
com
preh
ensi
onsk
ills
(how
wel
l the
stu
dent
s us
es c
onte
xt c
lues
, pre
viou
s in
form
atio
n), r
e-re
adin
gte
chni
ques
and
per
sona
l kno
wle
dge.
The
y in
clud
e:
a) w
hat d
oes
the
pass
age
talk
abo
ut?
b) w
hat k
ey w
ords
hel
ped
you
know
that
?c)
whe
re d
id y
ou g
et th
at in
form
atio
n?d)
did
you
re-
read
the
text
to g
et th
e in
form
atio
n?T
he jo
urna
ls a
re u
sed
to a
sses
s su
ch s
kills
as
com
pari
ng, c
ontr
astin
gpl
ot, f
act a
nd o
pini
on.
Pres
enta
tions
:St
uden
ts in
Soc
ial S
tudi
es r
eliv
e th
e pa
st
Key
que
stio
ns a
re u
sed
to a
sses
s th
ese
skill
s.
and
reco
gniz
ing
by b
ecom
ing
ape
rson
bor
n in
170
0 or
180
0, le
arni
ng th
eir
trad
e an
d bu
ildin
g a
tow
n. P
rese
ntat
ions
are
mad
e to
par
ents
and
oth
er s
tude
nts.
Kno
wle
dge
of ti
me
peri
od, o
ral
com
mun
icat
ion
skill
s, r
esea
rch
skill
s an
d w
ritin
g sk
ills
are
asse
ssed
by
this
kin
d of
activ
ity.
122
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& H
OR
SCII
66R
esou
rces
Proj
ects
:St
uden
ts b
uild
a c
olon
y, p
rodu
ce v
ideo
and
cas
sette
tape
s,w
rite
book
s or
sto
ries
usi
ng a
par
ticul
ar p
erio
d in
his
tory
.
Let
ters
:St
uden
ts w
rite
lette
rs h
ome
to p
aren
ts e
xpla
inin
gw
hat t
hey
have
lear
ned
in a
cer
tain
sub
ject
.Pe
rfor
man
ce O
utco
mes
:O
utco
mes
are
just
bei
ng w
ritte
n.O
utco
mes
and
rubr
ics
for
effe
ctiv
e m
athe
mat
ics
have
bee
n co
mpl
eted
.T
hese
are
sel
f, p
eer
and
teac
her
eval
uate
d.
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
: IN
VIT
AT
ION
To
A D
ISC
US
SIO
N
Res
ourc
es
MO
NO
GR
APH
S
67
CO
NT
AC
T
Dan
a V
an B
urgh
Dea
n M
orga
n Ju
nior
Hig
h Sc
hool
1440
S. E
lm
Cas
per,
WY
826
01
577-
4440
(w
ork)
GR
AD
E L
EV
EL
Nin
th G
rade
Enr
iche
d C
lass
esC
ON
TE
NT
Des
crip
tion
of A
ctiv
ity:
Stud
ents
sel
ect a
topi
c of
inte
rest
to th
em a
nd th
eco
mm
unity
. The
y do
the
rese
arch
(w
hich
may
incl
ude
inte
rvie
ws
and
loca
ting
ofex
istin
g ph
otog
raph
s), w
rite
the
text
and
pro
duce
cam
era
read
y la
yout
for
publ
icat
ion.
Top
ics
can
be s
elec
ted
from
any
dis
cipl
ine.
Exa
mpl
es o
f m
onog
raph
sw
hich
hav
e be
en c
ompl
eted
incl
ude
Cas
per's
Fir
st S
choo
l, T
he O
ld C
ity H
all,
Stic
ks a
ndB
ones
, and
The
San
d D
unes
.
Form
al a
nd I
nfor
mal
Ass
essm
ent:
The
mon
ogra
phs
prov
ide
insi
ght i
nto
the
stud
ent's
res
earc
h te
chni
ques
, per
sist
ence
and
inge
nuity
. The
wri
ting,
aft
erre
visi
on, i
s an
exa
mpl
e of
thei
r be
st w
ork.
The
sel
ectio
n an
d us
e of
pho
togr
aphs
and
the
layo
ut is
an
indi
cato
r of
art
istic
eff
ort.
K L
EIN
SASS
ER
8c
IIO
RSC
II
1_4;
0
68R
eso
urce
s
RE
NA
ISSA
NC
E F
AIR
CO
NT
AC
TS
Bar
bara
Mat
teso
n, D
'Arc
y Pa
tey
Nat
rona
Cou
nty
Hig
h Sc
hool
930
S. E
lm S
tree
t
Cas
per,
WY
826
01
577-
0355
or
577-
0330
(w
ork)
GR
AD
E L
EV
EL
:
Eng
lish
Lite
ratu
re H
onor
s, E
nglis
h L
itera
ture
Adv
ance
dC
ON
TE
NT
Des
crip
tion
of A
ctiv
ity: E
nglis
h L
itera
ture
Hon
ors
and
Eng
lish
Lite
ratu
reA
dvan
ced
are
part
of
the
llth
grad
e co
re c
urri
culu
m a
t Nat
rona
Cou
nty
Hig
h Sc
hool
.E
ach
spri
ng, t
hese
cla
sses
hol
d a
Ren
aiss
ance
Fai
r as
the
culm
inat
ing
activ
ity f
or th
eth
eir
stud
y of
the
Eng
lish
Ren
aiss
ance
.T
he F
air
prov
ides
an
oppo
rtun
ity f
orst
uden
ts to
be
imm
erse
d in
the
cultu
re o
f th
e pe
riod
. For
exa
mpl
e, s
tude
nts
sele
ct a
nar
ea to
res
earc
h in
dep
th a
nd p
rese
nt to
vis
itors
as
part
of
a vi
gnet
te.
Vig
nette
s
cove
r va
riou
s as
pect
s of
Eng
lish
life.
For
exam
ple,
one
gro
up f
ocus
es o
n a
Shak
espe
area
n pl
ay a
nd c
uts
it fo
r a
20 m
inut
e pr
esen
tatio
n. T
he p
laye
rs w
)ul
d al
sore
sear
ch a
ctin
g so
that
they
cou
ld e
xpla
in to
vis
itors
abo
ut th
e ki
nd o
f liv
es a
ctor
sle
d. V
isito
rs in
clud
e gr
ade
scho
ol s
tude
nts.
Oth
er g
roup
s le
arn
abou
t dif
fere
nt a
spec
ts o
f E
nglis
h lif
e.O
ften
this
invo
lves
coop
erat
ion
acro
ss th
e cu
rric
ulum
, bec
ause
stu
dent
s w
ho a
re m
adri
gal s
inge
rs n
eed
the
help
of
the
choi
r di
rect
or.
Tho
se w
ho a
re p
rese
ntin
g E
nglis
h co
untr
y lif
e w
ork
with
the
scie
nce
teac
hers
to le
arn
how
to m
ake
esse
ntia
ls li
ke s
oap
and
cand
les.
Oft
enou
tsid
e re
sour
ce p
eopl
e w
ill te
ach
stud
ents
abo
ut a
spe
cifi
c sk
ill o
r cr
aft. c. n
TE
STIN
G, A
SSE
SSM
EN
T A
ND
I.F
.AR
NIN
G:
INV
ITA
TIO
N T
O A
DIS
CU
SSIO
N
Res
ourc
es69
Who
use
s th
e as
sess
men
t inf
orm
atio
n?T
he a
sses
smen
tof
stud
rmt
perf
orm
ance
is ju
dged
by
the
Eng
lish
liter
atur
e te
ache
rs a
nd is
bot
h fo
rmal
(st
uden
tsre
ceiv
e a
grad
e) a
nd in
form
al (
info
rmat
ion
will
be
used
to p
lan
for
next
yea
r's f
air)
.T
he a
sses
smen
t is
shar
ed b
etw
een
teac
her
and
stud
ent o
r gr
oups
of
stud
ents
in a
debr
iefi
ng. T
he d
ebri
efin
g fo
cuse
s on
the
valu
e of
wha
t the
stu
dent
s le
arne
d ab
out
the
Ren
aiss
ance
and
how
eff
ectiv
e th
e st
uden
ts w
ere
at te
achi
ng w
hat t
hey
lear
ned
to a
udie
nce
mem
bers
.C
omm
ents
fro
m f
air
visi
tors
hel
p co
nfir
m th
e te
ache
r'sev
alua
tion.
Form
alan
dIn
form
alU
seof
Ass
essm
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
The
info
rmat
ion
is u
sed
form
ally
(gr
ades
) an
d in
form
ally
(fi
ne tu
ning
the
fair
for
nex
tye
ar).
In th
e or
al d
ebri
efin
g, te
ache
rs ta
lk w
ith s
tude
nts
to d
eter
min
e if
kno
wle
dge
gaps
exi
st a
bout
the
peri
od.
If th
ere
are
gaps
, the
y m
ay b
e ta
ught
trad
ition
ally
. The
form
al g
rade
is b
ased
on
the
leve
l of
invo
lvem
ent a
nd th
e de
mon
stra
tion
ofun
ders
tand
ing,
act
ual p
artic
ipat
ion.
itK
1.1:
1NSA
SSE
R &
IIO
RSC
II
r1-
`41
..4<
;
70R
esou
rces
SEL
F E
VA
LU
AT
ED
GY
MN
AST
ICS
CO
NT
AC
T
Cha
rles
Zur
buch
enW
yom
ing
Cen
ter
for
Tea
chin
g an
d L
earn
ing
Lar
amie
Box
337
4 U
nive
rsity
Sta
tion
Lar
amie
, WY
820
71-3
374
766-
2155
(w
ork)
GR
AD
E L
EV
EL
AN
D C
ON
TE
NT
Eig
hth
and
Nin
th G
rade
Gym
nast
ics
CO
NT
EN
T
Des
crip
tion
of A
ctiv
ity: T
wo
grou
ps o
f ei
ghth
and
nin
th g
rade
phys
ical
educ
atio
n st
uden
ts p
artic
ipat
ed in
a g
ymna
stic
s un
it w
hich
was
com
pose
d of
sev
en
stat
ions
or
appa
ratu
s.E
ach
clas
s w
as d
ivid
ed in
to s
even
gro
ups
of th
ree
to f
our
stud
ents
.St
uden
ts h
ad o
ne w
eek
to p
ract
ice
at e
ach
stat
ion
and
wer
eev
alua
ted
the
follo
win
g w
eek.
Oly
mpi
c st
yle
judg
ing
(0-1
0) w
as u
sed
and
crite
ria
wer
e es
tabl
ishe
dfo
r ea
ch
appa
ratu
s by
the
inst
ruct
or.
The
fir
st p
erio
d cl
ass
was
eva
luat
ed s
olel
y by
the
teac
her,
whi
le in
the
seco
nd p
erio
d cl
ass,
the
stud
ents
eva
luat
ed e
ach
othe
r.T
he f
irst
peri
od r
equi
red
thre
e cl
ass
sess
ions
for
the
teac
her
to e
valu
ate
each
stu
dent
,th
eref
ore
the
stud
ents
' act
iviti
es a
t eac
h st
atio
n ha
d to
be
redu
ced.
The
sec
ond
peri
od
eval
uatio
ns w
ere
done
in tw
o pe
riod
s, p
rovi
ding
am
ple
time
for
stud
ents
to r
etes
t
activ
ities
at e
ach
stat
ion.
Who
use
s th
e as
sess
men
t inf
orm
atio
n?T
he a
sses
smen
t inf
orm
atio
nis
used
for
info
rmal
ass
essm
ent a
nd u
sefu
l dur
ing
pare
nt te
ache
rco
nfer
ence
s.
Com
men
ts b
y st
uden
ts w
ho f
avor
ed p
eer
eval
uatio
n in
clud
ed th
efo
llow
ing:
it w
as
inte
rest
ing
to le
arn
how
to s
core
peo
ple
in g
ymna
stic
s an
d to
be
scor
edby
my
TE
STIN
G, A
SSE
SSM
EN
T A
ND
LE
AR
NIN
G: I
NV
ITA
TIO
N T
O A
DIS
CU
SSIO
Nr
1-1
1)
Res
ourc
es71
frie
nds;
gra
ding
eac
h ot
her
was
fun
as
long
as
we
all w
ere
hone
st a
bout
it; i
t 'va
sha
rd to
gra
de e
ach
othe
r an
d I
thin
k w
e gr
ade
toug
her
than
the
teac
her
wou
ld h
ave;
we
had
mor
e fu
n ta
king
the
test
than
if th
e te
ache
r w
as th
ere;
whe
n w
e di
d th
esc
orin
g, it
was
mor
e lik
e a
clas
s ac
tivity
than
a te
st.
Form
al a
nd I
nfor
mal
Use
of
Ass
essm
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
.A
sses
smen
tan
d in
stru
ctio
n ar
e bl
urre
d in
this
act
ivity
.
t--I
L,.)
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& li
OR
SCII
1.!0
72R
esou
rces
INT
EG
RA
TIO
N O
F C
OM
PUT
ER
S
CO
NT
AC
T
Way
ne S
chat
z
Cen
tral
Mid
dle
Scho
ol
25 S
outh
Cus
ter
Sher
idan
, WY
828
01
672-
9014
(w
ork)
GR
AD
E L
EV
EL
Sixt
h an
d Se
vent
h G
rade
Int
egra
ted
Com
pute
r w
ith C
ore
Are
a
CO
NT
EN
T
Des
crip
tion
of A
ctiv
ity:
The
com
pute
r te
ache
r an
d th
e la
ngua
ge a
rts
teac
her
(thi
s ye
ar's
foc
us)
team
teac
h co
mpu
ter
less
ons.
The
six
thgr
ade
teac
hers
enco
urag
e st
uden
ts to
bui
ld a
por
tfol
ioof
wri
tten
wor
k to
be
shar
ed w
ith th
e se
vent
h
grad
e la
ngua
ge te
ache
rs.
Eac
h st
uden
t has
bee
n w
ritin
g on
the
com
pute
r w
ith th
e
prog
ram
Ban
k St
reet
Wri
ter
III.
Eac
h ch
ild h
as h
is o
r he
r ow
n di
sk o
n w
hich
to s
ave
all s
tori
es. A
t the
end
of
this
sch
ool y
ear,
eac
h st
uden
t cho
se o
neof
thei
r st
orie
s an
d
used
the
prog
ram
, "G
host
Wri
ter"
pro
duce
d by
the
Min
neso
taE
duca
tiona
l Com
pute
r
Con
sort
ium
(M
EC
C)
to a
naly
ze th
e st
ory.
The
res
ults
wer
e pr
inte
dan
d ke
pt in
the
stud
ent's
por
tfol
io.
"Gho
st W
rite
r" d
oes
the
follo
win
g:a)
rea
dabi
lity
test
;b)
sen
tenc
e le
ngth
anal
yzer
, c)
clar
ity c
heck
, and
d)
voca
bula
ry a
naly
zer.
The
pro
gram
gav
e co
mm
ents
on th
e st
uden
t's w
rit?
ng. S
tude
nts
look
ed a
t the
sum
mar
y an
d w
rote
any
com
men
ts o
n
it th
at th
ey w
ante
d to
sha
re.
The
pri
nted
sum
mar
y w
as a
dded
to th
e st
uden
t'spo
rtfo
lio a
nd g
iven
to n
ext y
ear's
lang
uage
art
s te
ache
r.W
ho u
ses
the
asse
ssm
ent i
nfor
mat
ion?
The
goa
l is
to a
sses
s w
ritin
gev
ery
spri
ng. T
he in
form
atio
n is
giv
en to
the
next
yea
r's te
ache
r so
that
she
or
he
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
: IN
VIT
AT
ION
TO
A D
ISC
US
SIO
N
Res
ourc
es73
can
begi
n sk
ill a
sses
smen
t im
med
iate
ly,
thus
avo
idin
g a
"dry
ass
essm
ent."
The
asse
ssm
ent i
s al
so a
con
fere
nce
tool
bet
wee
nst
uden
t and
teac
her.
Form
al a
nd I
nfor
mal
Use
of
Ass
essm
ent I
nfor
mat
ion.
For
the
pres
ent,
the
asse
ssm
ent i
s in
form
al, g
oing
into
a te
mpo
rary
wri
ting
file
that
fol
low
s th
e
stud
ent.
Stor
ies
sele
cted
by
the
stud
ent a
nd th
e te
ache
r ar
ein
clud
ed a
s w
ell.
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& D
OR
SCH
74R
esou
rces
LIT
ER
AC
Y A
SSE
SSM
EN
T I
N T
HIR
D G
RA
DE
CO
NT
AC
T
Pats
y T
omb
Cof
feen
Ele
men
tary
1053
S. S
heri
dan
Sher
idan
, WY
828
01
674-
9333
(w
ork)
GR
AD
E L
EV
EL
Thi
rd G
rade
Lite
racy
CO
NT
EN
T
Des
crip
tion
of A
ctiv
ity: T
each
ers
deve
lope
d a
form
to b
e us
ed d
urin
g sm
all
grou
p di
scus
sion
s of
boo
ks to
kee
p a
reco
rd o
f w
hat s
tude
nts
wer
e do
ing.
Firs
t, st
uden
ts d
iscu
ss th
e bo
ok.
Whe
n st
uden
ts a
nd te
ache
r de
cide
that
ever
ythi
ng's
bee
n co
vere
d, th
ey jo
t dow
n im
port
ant p
oint
s th
at w
ould
be
incl
uded
ifth
ey w
ere
to w
rite
a s
umm
ary.
Eac
h of
the
poin
ts is
ass
igne
d a
poin
t val
ue a
ccor
ding
to a
con
sens
us o
f th
e gr
oup.
The
teac
her
dete
rmin
es p
oint
s fo
r th
e re
adin
g se
ctio
n by
ask
ing
stud
ent i
fth
ey h
ave
read
the
assi
gnm
ent.
If th
e te
ache
r ha
s do
ubts
aft
er th
e di
scus
sion
, s/h
eca
n as
k th
e gr
oup
wha
t it t
hink
s ab
out e
ach
pers
on's
sco
re. S
tude
nts
do n
ot tr
y to
get
poin
ts w
hen
they
are
n't e
arne
d, o
nce
they
und
erst
and
that
the
who
le g
roup
will
be
resp
onsi
ble
for
asse
ssin
g th
e w
ork.
Freq
uent
ly, s
tude
nts
asse
ss m
ore
hars
hly
than
the
teac
her,
nev
er th
e ot
her
way
aro
und.
Stu
dent
s an
d te
ache
r ag
ree
on a
rul
e th
atth
e te
ache
r ha
s th
e la
st s
ay in
the
fina
l poi
nts
awar
ded.
Stu
dent
s ha
ve a
ppro
ache
dth
e te
ache
r af
ter
clas
s to
say
that
they
did
n't d
eser
ve a
ll of
the
beha
vior
poi
nts
beca
use
they
wer
e m
essi
ng a
roun
d du
ring
gro
up ti
me.
4-1
1
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
: IN
VIT
AT
ION
TO
/1 D
ISC
US
SIO
N
Res
ourc
es75
Who
use
s th
e as
sess
men
t inf
orm
atio
n? T
oget
her,
teac
her
and
stud
ents
use
the
info
rmat
ion.
Form
al a
nd I
nfor
mal
Use
of
Ass
essm
ent
Info
rmat
ion.
See
the
asse
ssm
ent r
ubri
c be
low
.C
HE
CK
LIS
T
Rea
ds A
ssig
nmen
t (5
poin
ts)
Jour
nal
Act
ivity
Dis
cuss
ion
Beh
avio
r (1
0 Po
ints
)C
omm
ents 14
2K
LE
INSA
SSE
R &
ifO
RSC
II
76R
esou
rces
RE
AD
ING
AN
D W
RIT
ING
IN
FIR
ST G
RA
DE
CO
NT
AC
T
Bet
te S
ampl
e
Ger
trud
e B
urns
Ele
men
tary
Sch
ool
116
Cas
per
Ave
nue
New
cast
le, W
Y 8
2701
746-
4671
(w
ork)
GR
AD
E L
EV
EL
Firs
t Gra
de R
eadi
ng a
nd W
ritin
g
CO
NT
EN
T
Des
crip
tion
of A
ctiv
ity: E
ach
day,
by
noon
, fir
st g
rade
rs in
my
clas
sroo
mha
ve a
mas
terp
iece
that
they
've
wri
tten
and
read
to m
e, o
ther
stu
dent
s, o
r an
othe
rad
ult (
the
prin
cipa
l or
read
ing
cons
ulta
nt).
Thi
s pa
st y
ear,
our
sch
ool p
ut a
mor
ator
ium
on
stan
dard
ized
test
s in
the
prim
ary
grad
es (
K-2
). M
y go
als,
in r
egar
d to
asse
ssm
ent,
are
to d
eter
min
e th
e pr
ogre
ss m
ade
by e
ach
firs
t gra
de s
tude
nt, e
very
day.
I ha
ve a
n in
form
al a
sses
smen
t tea
m. M
ost o
f th
e m
embe
rs d
o no
t kno
w th
ey a
re
part
icip
atin
g.T
he te
am is
mad
e up
of
colle
ague
s, a
dmin
istr
ator
s, p
aren
ts, t
hest
uden
ts, a
nd m
e.St
uden
ts r
ead
and
wri
te e
ach
day.
The
y sh
are
thei
r w
ork
with
thei
r cl
assm
ates
, my
colle
ague
s, o
ur a
dmin
istr
ator
s, a
nd th
eir
pare
nts.
Who
use
s th
e as
sess
men
t inf
orm
atio
n?A
t the
end
of
the
scho
ol y
ear,
Icr
eate
a p
ortf
olio
of
thei
r w
ritin
g (f
our-
five
pie
ces)
for
incl
usio
n in
the
cum
ulat
ive
fold
er. N
ext y
ear,
I p
lan
to c
olle
ct s
omet
hing
at t
he e
nd o
f ea
ch m
onth
. The
ir w
ork
rang
es f
rom
two
to th
ree
sent
ence
s to
fou
r pa
ges.
The
ir w
ritin
g sp
eaks
for
itse
lf,
I do
not i
nclu
de a
teac
her
narr
ativ
e ab
out i
t.
145
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
: IN
VIT
AT
ION
TO
A D
ISC
US
SIO
N
Res
ourc
es7
7
ASS
ESS
ING
TH
E I
NT
EG
RA
TIO
N O
F R
EA
DIN
G,
WR
ITIN
G, S
OC
IAL
ST
UD
IES
AN
D S
CIE
NC
EC
ON
TA
CT
Joyc
e T
yrre
llM
eado
wla
rk S
choo
l
550
S. B
urri
tt
Buf
falo
, WY
828
34
684-
9518
(w
ork)
GR
AD
E L
EV
EL
Seco
nd G
rade
, Int
erdi
scip
linar
yC
ON
TE
NT
Des
crip
tion
of th
e A
ctiv
ity: T
he g
oal o
f th
is a
sses
smen
t is
to a
sses
s di
stri
ctsk
ills
obje
ctiv
es a
s st
uden
ts u
se th
em in
hig
her
leve
l per
form
ance
s th
at c
orre
late
to a
dist
rict
out
com
e fo
r in
terd
epen
denc
e.T
he s
peci
fic
skill
s sh
eets
ser
e us
ed b
y th
ete
ache
r to
che
ck f
or d
istr
ict s
kills
obj
ectiv
es. T
he r
ubri
cs w
ere
used
by
the
stud
ent a
sa
guid
e fo
r th
e en
d pr
oduc
t and
wer
e us
ed b
y th
e st
uden
t and
the
teac
her
to a
sses
sth
e
fina
l pro
duct
.St
uden
ts m
ade
a po
ster
incl
udin
g th
e ob
ject
ives
on
the
rubr
ic. T
hey
wro
te a
thre
e pa
ragr
aph
pape
r ex
plai
ning
thei
r po
ster
(ba
sed
on th
e th
ree
sect
ions
of
the
rubr
ic)
for
the
purp
ose
of te
achi
ng a
kin
derg
arte
n st
uden
t abo
ut b
irds
and
inse
cts.
The
y al
so h
ad th
e ki
nder
gart
en s
tude
nt m
ake
an in
sect
out
of
clay
. The
sec
ond
rubr
icis
the
deliv
ery
rubr
ic--
how
wel
l the
y th
ough
t the
y ta
ught
thei
r ki
nder
gart
ner.
The
teac
her
then
mar
ked
off
dist
rict
obj
ectiv
es b
ased
on
the
rubr
ic, t
he s
tude
nt's
pap
er,
and
thei
r de
liver
y to
the
kind
erga
rten
stu
dent
.W
ho u
ses
the
asse
ssm
ent i
nfor
mat
ion?
The
aud
ienc
e fo
r th
e as
sess
men
tin
clud
es th
e st
uden
ts, t
he te
ache
r, th
e pr
inci
pal,
and
the
pare
nts.
146
K L
EIN
SASS
ER
& I
IOR
SCII
%8
Res
ourc
es
Form
al a
nd I
nfor
mal
Use
of
Ass
essm
ent I
nfor
mat
ion.
The
ass
essm
ents
of th
is a
ctiv
ity a
re in
form
al f
or th
e pr
esen
t.T
hey
do n
ot g
o to
the
thir
d gr
ade
teac
her.
Whi
le th
e as
sess
men
t doe
s ad
dres
s a
dist
rict
out
com
e, a
ccou
ntab
ility
for
mee
ting
the
outc
ome
is th
e di
stri
ct's
nex
t ste
p.
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
DL
EA
RN
ING
:IN
vrrA
TIo
N T
O A
I) IS
CU
SS
ION
Res
ourc
es
Sour
ces
for
Add
ition
al R
eadi
ng
TE
STIN
G A
ND
TE
STIN
G C
UL
TU
RE
79
Air
aisi
an, P
. W. (
1988
). S
ymbo
lic v
alid
atio
n: T
he c
ase
of s
tate
-man
date
d, h
igh-
stak
este
stin
g. E
duca
tiona
l Eva
luat
ion
and
Polic
y A
naly
sis,
10(
4), 3
01-3
13.
Air
asia
n, P
. W. (
1991
). C
lass
room
Ass
essm
ent.
New
Yor
k: M
cGra
w-H
ill.
And
erso
n, B
., &
Phi
pho,
C. (
1984
). S
tate
man
date
d te
stin
g an
d th
e fa
te o
f lo
cal c
ontr
ol.
Phi D
elta
Kap
pan,
66(
3), 2
09-2
12.
Atk
in, M
., K
enne
dy, D
., &
Pat
rick
, C. (
1989
). I
nsid
e Sc
hool
s: A
Col
labo
rativ
e V
iew
. New
Yor
k: P
alm
er P
ress
.B
row
n, R
. (19
89).
Tes
ting
and
thou
ghtf
ulne
ss. E
duca
tiona
l Lea
ders
hip,
46(
7), 3
1-33
.
Chi
ttend
on, E
. (19
91).
Aut
hent
ic a
sses
smen
t, ev
alua
tion
and
docu
men
tatio
n of
stu
dent
perf
orm
ance
. In
V. P
erro
ne, (
Ed.
) E
xpan
ding
Stu
dent
Ass
essm
ent.
Ale
xand
ria,
VA
: ASC
D.
Col
lins,
A. (
1990
).Po
rtfo
lios
for
asse
ssin
g st
uden
t lea
rnin
g. I
n A
. Cha
mpa
gne,
B.
l.ovi
tts, a
nd B
. Cal
inge
r, (
Eds
.) A
sses
smen
t in
the
Serv
ice
of I
nstr
uctio
n. (
pp.
157-
166)
Was
hing
ton,
DC
: AA
AS.
Cub
an, I
.. (1
984)
. How
Tea
cher
s T
augh
t - C
onst
ance
and
Cha
nge
in th
e A
mer
ican
Cla
ssro
om, 1
890-
1980
. New
Yor
k: L
ongm
an, I
nc.
Dar
ling-
Ham
mon
d, L
. (19
91).
The
impl
icat
ions
of
test
ing
polic
y fo
r qu
ality
and
equa
lity.
Phi
Del
ta K
appa
n, 1
3(3)
, 220
-225
.E
isne
r,E
. (19
91).
Shou
ld A
mer
ica
have
a n
atio
nal c
urri
culu
m?
Edu
catio
nal
Lea
ders
hip,
49(
2), 7
6-81
.
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& li
OR
SC
II
80R
esou
rces
Em
ber,
C.R
., &
Em
ber,
M. (
1981
). C
ultu
ral A
nthr
opol
ogy.
Eng
lew
ood
Clif
fs, N
. J.:
Pren
tice-
Hal
l, In
c.G
oodm
an, Y
. (19
85).
Kid
wat
chin
g: O
bser
ving
chi
ldre
n in
cla
ssro
oms.
In
A.
Jagg
ar &
M. T
. Sm
ith-B
urke
r (E
ds.)
Obs
ervi
ng th
e L
angu
age
Lea
rner
. (pp
. 9-1
8).
New
ark,
Del
awar
e:In
tern
atio
nal R
eadi
ng A
ssoc
iatio
n.
Gul
licks
on, A
. R. (
1986
).T
each
er e
duca
tion
and
teac
her-
perc
eive
d ne
eds
ined
ucat
iona
l mea
sure
men
t and
eva
luat
ion.
lour
nal o
f E
duca
tiona
lM
easu
rem
ent,
23 (
45),
347
-354
.
Hud
son,
L. (
1990
).N
atio
nal i
nitia
tives
for
ass
essi
ng s
cien
ce e
duca
tion.
In
A.
Cha
mpa
gne,
B.
Lov
itts,
and
B. C
a lin
ger
(Eds
.) A
sses
smen
t in
the
Serv
ice
ofIn
stru
ctio
n. (
pp.6
1-79
). W
ashi
ngto
n,D
C: A
AA
S.
Jaeg
er, R
. (19
91).
Leg
isla
tive
pers
pect
ives
on
stat
ewid
e te
stin
g-go
als,
hop
esan
d
desi
res.
Phi
Del
ta K
appa
n, 1
3(3)
, 239
-242
John
son,
D. W
., &
Joh
nson
, R. T
.(1
974)
.In
stru
ctio
nal g
oal s
truc
ture
:co
oper
ativ
e,co
mpe
titiv
e, o
r in
divi
dual
istic
. Rev
iew
of
Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch,
44,
213
-240
.
John
son,
D. W
., &
Joh
nson
, R. 1
'.(1
987)
. Lea
rnin
g T
oget
her
and
Alo
ne.
Eng
lew
ood
Clif
fs, N
.J.:
Pren
tice-
Hal
l.K
oret
z, D
. (19
92).
A R
and
Not
e. E
valu
atin
g an
d V
alid
atin
g In
dica
tors
of M
athe
mat
ics
and
Scie
nce
Edu
catio
n. S
anta
Mon
ica,
CA
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ND
.
Mad
aus,
G.(
1991
)T
he e
ffec
ts o
f im
port
ant t
ests
on
stud
ents
:im
plic
atio
ns f
or a
natio
nal e
xam
sys
tem
. Phi
Del
ta K
appa
n, 7
3(3)
, 226
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.
Nat
iona
l Com
mis
sion
On
Tes
ting
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Publ
ic P
olic
y. (
1990
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om G
atek
eepe
r to
Gat
eway
: Tra
nsfo
rmin
g T
estin
g in
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eric
a. C
hesn
ut H
ill, M
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osto
n C
olle
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Red
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sses
sing
the
big
outc
omes
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catio
nal L
eade
rshi
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9 (8
), 4
9-53
.
Res
nick
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., &
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nick
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.(1
985)
. Sta
ndar
ds, c
urri
culu
m, a
nd p
erfo
rman
ce: A
hist
oric
al a
nd c
ompa
rativ
e pe
rspe
ctiv
e. E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
her,
14,
5-2
1.
1 5,
3T
ES
TIN
G, A
SS
ES
SM
EN
T A
ND
LE
AR
NIN
G: I
NV
ITA
TIO
N T
O A
DIS
CU
SS
ION
Res
o ur
ces
81
Shav
elso
n, R
. & B
axte
r, G
. (19
92).
Wha
t we'
ve le
arne
d ab
out a
sses
sing
han
ds-o
nsc
ienc
e. E
duca
tiona
l Lea
ders
hip,
49(
8), 2
0-25
.Sh
epar
d, L
(19
89).
Why
we
need
bet
ter
asse
ssm
ents
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catio
nal L
eade
rshi
ri, 4
6(7)
,4-
9.
Slav
in, R
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3). C
oope
rativ
e L
earn
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New
Yor
k: L
ongm
an.
Slav
in, R
. E.
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7). G
roup
ing
for
inst
ruct
ion
in th
e el
emen
tary
sch
ool.
Edu
catio
nal
Psyc
holo
gist
, 22
109-
127.
Smith
, M.L
.(19
91).
Mea
ning
s of
test
pre
para
tions
. Am
eric
an E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
hJo
urna
l, 28
(3),
521
-542
.
Wig
gins
, G. (
1989
). A
true
test
. Tow
ard
mor
e au
then
tic a
nd e
quita
ble
asse
ssm
ent.
Phi
Del
ta K
appa
n, 7
0(9)
. 703
-713
.
1. L
.)t'-*
KI.
F.IN
SASS
ER
& I
IOR
SCII
A.
5
k ki
82R
esou
rces
ASS
ESS
ME
NT
AN
D A
N A
SSE
SSM
EN
T C
UL
TU
RE
Air
asia
n, P
. W. (
1991
). C
lass
room
Ass
essm
ent.
New
Yor
k: M
cGra
w-H
ill.
Art
er, J
. A.,
& S
pand
el, V
.(S
prin
g, 1
992)
.N
CM
E in
stru
ctio
nal m
odul
e:U
sing
port
folio
s of
stu
dent
wor
k in
inst
ruct
ion
and
asse
ssm
ent.
Edu
catio
nal
Mea
sure
men
t: Is
sues
and
Pra
ctic
e, 1
1(1)
, 36-
44.
Fred
erik
sen,
J. R
., &
Col
lins,
A.
(198
9). A
sys
tem
s ap
proa
ch to
edu
catio
nal t
estin
g.E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
her,
18(
9), 2
7-32
.
Han
ey, W
., &
Mad
aus,
G. (
May
, 198
9). S
earc
h fo
ral
tern
ativ
es to
sta
ndar
dize
d te
sts:
Why
s, w
hats
, and
whi
ther
s. P
hi D
elta
Kap
pan,
70(
9),
683-
687.
Goo
dman
, Y. (
1985
). K
idw
atch
ing:
Obs
ervi
ng c
hild
ren
incl
assr
oom
s. I
n A
. Jag
gar
&
M. T
. Sm
ith-B
urke
r (E
ds.)
Obs
ervi
ng th
e L
angu
age
Lea
rner
. (pp
. 9-1
8).
New
ark,
Del
awar
e:In
tern
atio
nal R
eadi
ng A
ssoc
iatio
n.
Meh
rens
, W. A
.(S
prin
g, 1
992)
.U
sing
per
form
ance
ass
essm
ents
for
acc
ount
abili
typu
rpos
es. E
duca
tiona
l Mea
sure
men
t: Is
sues
and
Prac
tice,
. 1 I
(1)
, 3-9
, 20.
Stig
gins
, R. J
. (19
91).
Ass
essm
ent l
itera
cy. P
hi D
elta
Kap
pan,
72(
7), 5
34-5
39.
Stig
gins
, R. J
., &
Bri
dgef
ord,
N. J
.(1
985)
.T
he e
colo
gy o
f cl
assr
oom
ass
essm
ent.
lour
nal o
f E
duca
tiona
l Mea
sure
men
t, 22
(4)
, 271
-286
.
Wig
gins
, G.
(May
, 198
9).
A tr
ue-t
est:
Tow
ard
mor
e au
then
tic a
nd e
quita
ble
asse
ssm
ent.
Phi D
elta
Kap
pan,
70(
9), 7
03-7
13.
Wol
f, D
., B
ixby
, J.,
Gle
nn, J
.II
I, &
Gar
dner
, H.
(199
1).
To
use
thei
r m
inds
wel
l:in
vest
igat
ing
new
for
ms
of s
tude
nt a
sses
smen
t.In
G. G
rant
, (E
d.).
Rev
iew
of
Res
earc
h in
Edu
catio
n, 1
7, 3
1-74
. Was
hing
ton
D. C
.:A
mer
ican
Edu
catio
nal
Res
earc
h A
ssoc
iatio
n.
1 5
7
TE
STIN
G, A
SSE
SSM
EN
TA
ND
LE
AR
NIN
G:
iNV
rl'A
T1O
NT
oA
DIS
CU
SSIO
N
Res
ourc
es
TH
E A
NT
HR
OPO
LO
GY
AN
D S
OC
IOL
OG
Y O
F SC
HO
OL
ING
83
Bar
ker,
R. G
., &
Gum
p, P
. V.,
(196
4). B
ig S
choo
l. Sm
all S
choo
l. St
anfo
rd, C
A: S
tanf
ord
Uni
vers
ity P
ress
.Ja
ckso
n, P
. W. (
1968
). L
ife
in C
lass
room
s. N
ew Y
ork:
Hol
t, R
ineh
art &
Win
ston
.K
irsc
henb
aum
, H.,
Sim
on, S
., &
Nap
ier,
R. (
1971
). W
ad -
la -
Get
? T
he G
radi
ng G
ame
inA
mer
ican
Edu
catio
n. N
ew Y
ork:
Har
t.L
ight
foot
, S.
(198
3). T
he G
ood
Hig
h Sc
hool
. New
Yor
k: B
asic
Boo
ks.
Lor
tie, D
.(1
975)
.Sc
hool
teac
her:
A S
ocio
logi
cal S
tudy
. Chi
cago
:U
nive
rsity
of
Chi
cago
Pre
ss.
Pesh
kin,
A.
(198
6). G
od's
Cho
ice:
The
Tot
al W
orld
of
a Fu
ndam
enta
list C
hris
tian
Scho
ol. C
hica
go: U
nive
rsity
of
Chi
cago
Pre
ss.
Wal
ler,
W. (
1932
). T
he S
ocio
logy
of
Tea
chin
g. N
ew Y
ork:
Wile
y.W
olco
tt, H
. F.
(197
5). T
he M
an in
the
Prin
cipa
l's O
ffic
e: A
n E
thno
grap
hy. P
rosp
ect
Hei
ghts
, IL
.:W
avel
and
Pres
s, I
nc.
150
KL
EIN
SASS
ER
& H
OR
SCII
I
84R
esou
rces
RE
AD
ING
S O
N T
EA
CH
ING
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
And
erso
n, J
. (19
83).
The
Arc
hite
ctur
e of
Cog
nitio
n. C
ambr
idge
, MA
:H
arva
rd
Uni
vers
ity P
ress
.A
nder
son,
J. (
1882
).A
cqui
sitio
n of
cog
nitiv
e sk
ills.
Psy
chol
ogic
al R
evie
w, 8
9, 3
69-
406.
Atw
ood,
N. (
1987
).In
the
Mid
dle:
Wri
ting
Rea
ding
and
Lea
rnin
g w
ith A
dole
scen
ts.
Port
smou
th, N
.H.:
Boy
nton
/Coo
k H
eine
man
.C
aine
, R. N
., &
Cai
ne, G
. (19
91).
Mak
ing
Con
nect
ions
: Tea
chin
g an
d th
e H
uman
Bra
in.
Ale
xand
ria,
VA
: ASC
D.
Jacq
ues,
E. (
1985
). D
evel
opm
ent o
f in
telle
ctua
l cap
abili
ty. I
n F.
Lin
k(E
d.).
Ess
ays
on
the
Inte
llect
. (pp
. 107
-142
). A
lexa
ndri
a, V
A: A
SCD
.
Mac
Lea
n, P
. (19
87).
A m
ind
of th
ree
min
ds:
educ
atin
g th
e tr
iune
bra
in.
In 7
7th
Yea
rboo
k of
the
Nat
iona
l Soc
iety
for
the
Stud
y of
Edu
catio
n. C
hica
go, I
L:
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
hica
go P
ress
.R
esni
ck, L
. (19
87).
Edu
catio
n an
d L
earn
ing
to T
hink
.W
ashi
ngto
n, D
C:
Nat
iona
l
Aca
dem
y Pr
ess.
Res
nick
, L. (
Ed.
) (1
989)
.K
now
ing,
Lea
rnin
g an
d In
stru
ctio
n: E
ssay
s in
Hon
or o
f
Rob
ert G
lase
r. H
illsd
ale,
NJ:
Law
renc
e E
rlba
um A
ssoc
iate
s.
Row
e, M
. (19
73).
Tea
chin
g Sc
ienc
e as
Con
tinuo
us I
nqui
ry. N
ew Y
ork:
McG
raw
-Hill
.
Vyg
otsk
y, L
(19
78).
Min
d in
Soc
iety
. Cam
brid
ge: H
arva
rd U
nive
rsity
Pre
ss.
161
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
:iN
yrrn
-noN
TO
A D
ISC
US
SIO
N
Res
ourc
es85
Cul
ture
of
Tes
ting
RO
LE
S
teac
her
is th
e so
le a
utho
rity
, sol
e au
dien
ce f
or a
test
teac
hers
kee
p te
sts
unco
ntam
inat
ed, s
o th
ey c
an h
eus
ed o
ver
and
over
aga
in
RU
LE
S
stud
ent u
sual
ly h
as to
go
it al
one
test
ing
is a
zer
o su
m g
ame
(com
petit
ion)
lette
r gr
ades
are
pro
duce
d, th
is is
a d
efic
it re
port
,"e
cono
my
of th
rift
"
grad
es c
reat
e a
clas
sroo
m e
cono
my
pred
eter
min
ednu
mbe
r of
As,
Bs,
Cs,
Ds
and
Fs
dom
inan
ce o
f pa
per/
penc
il te
sts
whi
ch c
arry
mor
eva
lue
than
ane
cdot
al r
ecor
ds
test
giv
er (
som
etim
es th
e te
ache
r) is
sol
e ev
alua
tor
know
ledg
e is
dis
aggr
egat
ed I
nto
sepa
rate
pie
ces
ofkn
owle
dge
(e.g
., m
ath,
rea
ding
, soc
ial s
tudi
es, s
cien
ce)
so it
can
be
easi
ly te
sted
via
p/p
test
ing
RIT
UA
LS
lear
ning
for
the
test
and
onl
y th
e te
st, e
.g.,
"Will
ther
ebe
a te
st o
ver
this
?"
test
sig
nals
the
end
of "
scho
ol le
arni
ng,"
str
ateg
icfo
rget
ting,
dum
ping
test
ing
is s
omet
imes
dif
fere
nt f
rom
the
inst
ruct
ion
that
pre
cede
s it
test
ing
is m
yste
riou
s -
whe
re d
o gr
ades
com
e fr
om?
test
ing
is a
n or
deal
, a te
st o
f fi
re
test
ing
is a
red
fla
g w
ord
for
mos
t of
usth
e pr
oces
s is
trad
ition
and
fam
iliar
to m
ost,
thus
it is
apr
oces
s th
at is
sel
dom
que
stio
ned.
Cul
ture
of
Ass
essm
ent
RO
LE
S
stud
ent a
s w
orke
r, a
s th
e ex
pert
, as
a co
mpe
tent
sel
fev
alua
tor
stud
ent a
s ge
nera
tor
of k
now
ledg
e, n
ot ju
st a
rece
ptor
of
know
ledg
e
stud
ent a
nd te
ache
r sh
are
role
s of
aut
hori
ty a
nd/o
rle
arni
ng
teac
hing
Is
build
ing
conn
ectio
ns (
mor
e th
anfa
cilit
atin
g)
teac
hing
/lear
ning
is a
con
vers
atio
n, n
ot te
lling
RU
LE
S
colla
bora
tion,
team
ing,
coo
pera
tion
(adu
lt/st
uden
t,st
uden
t/stu
dent
)an
ass
essm
ent u
sual
ly h
as m
ultip
le a
udie
nces
(se
lf,
peer
s, te
ache
rs, o
ther
s)
wor
thw
hile
ass
essm
ent t
akes
man
y fo
rms:
pape
r/pe
ncil,
per
form
ance
, dem
onst
ratio
n.ex
hibi
tion
we
can
have
mor
e th
an o
ne w
inne
r, le
arni
ng is
n't a
zero
sum
gam
e
rigo
rous
sub
ject
ive
judg
men
t tha
t is
data
bas
ed
RIT
UA
LS
wor
thw
hile
ass
essm
ents
are
a c
eleb
ratio
n no
t an
orde
al, i
t is/
can
be p
ublic
, not
just
pri
vate
in th
ecl
assr
oom
or
scho
ol
ongo
ing
synt
hesi
s, o
ngoi
ng q
uest
ions
and
conv
ersa
tions
abo
ut is
this
=ki
ng s
ense
?"
roug
h dr
afts
and
jour
nalin
g ar
e le
gitim
ate
piec
es o
fev
iden
ce th
at le
arni
ng o
ccur
red
asse
ssm
ents
are
mor
e th
an p
aper
/pen
cil e
vide
nce:
play
, com
petit
ion,
dem
onst
ratio
n, c
onte
st, o
pen
hous
e, s
cien
ce f
air
Or)
It)
KL
F.IN
SASS
ER
& H
OR
SCIl
0
86R
esou
rces
ME
AN
ING
FUL
ASS
ESS
ME
NT
is b
ased
on
a cl
earl
y ar
ticul
ated
con
sens
usof
wha
t the
lear
ner
mus
t kno
w o
r be
abl
e to
do;
dem
ands
that
the
lear
ner
cons
truc
t mea
ning
as
wel
l as
resp
ond
to q
uest
ions
;pr
obes
the
proc
ess
used
to a
nsw
er th
e qu
estio
n;as
sign
s ta
sks
that
are
both
mea
ning
ful t
o th
ele
arne
ran
d ac
cura
te m
easu
res
of th
e in
stru
ctio
nal
prog
ram
;al
low
s fo
r m
ore
than
one
acc
epta
ble
answ
er;
prob
es u
nder
stan
ding
of
the
big
pict
ure;
allo
ws
for
alte
rnat
ive
way
s of
dem
onst
ratin
gac
hiev
emen
t;in
clud
es th
e us
e of
app
ropr
iate
tool
s;al
low
s fo
r in
divi
dual
and
gro
up p
erfo
rman
ce;
incl
udes
self
and
pee
r ev
alua
tion
and
stud
ent-
teac
her
colla
bora
tion
inde
sign
ing
the
asse
ssm
ent
proc
ess;
isan
ong
oing
pro
cess
whi
ch m
easu
res
grow
th;
is a
cel
ebra
tion
of s
ucce
ss r
athe
r th
anpr
oof
of f
ailu
re.
(..;
5
TE
ST
ING
, AS
SE
SS
ME
NT
AN
D L
EA
RN
ING
: IN
VIT
AT
ION
TO
A D
ISC
US
SIO
N
Res
ourc
es
LE
AR
NIN
G...
depe
nds
on th
e ac
tive
invo
lvem
ent o
f th
e le
arne
r in
inte
rpre
ting
as w
ell a
s re
cord
ing
info
rmat
ion
and
inm
onito
ring
his
or
her
own
know
ledg
e co
nstr
uctio
nst
rate
gies
;
depe
nds
in p
art o
n th
e le
arne
r's a
bilit
y to
pla
ce a
n id
eaor
ski
ll w
ithin
the
fram
ewor
kof
wha
t is
alre
ady
know
n;
occu
rs in
con
text
. In
real
life
lear
ning
,too
ls, p
rops
, and
othe
r ai
ds a
re o
ften
a p
art o
f th
e co
ntex
t in
whi
ch o
nele
arns
;
is n
ot a
utom
atic
ally
tran
sfer
red
from
one
con
text
toan
othe
r. T
here
are
pro
babl
y se
vere
lim
itatio
ns o
nge
nera
lized
lear
ning
abi
litie
s;
occu
rs m
ost s
ucce
ssfu
lly in
a s
ocia
l con
text
.K
now
ledg
eth
at is
pos
ed, e
xpos
ed a
nd te
sted
with
oth
ers
is m
ore
likel
y to
hav
e re
al a
nd la
stin
g m
eani
ng f
or th
ele
arne
r;
proc
eeds
irom
the
gene
ral t
o th
e pa
rtic
ular
. Mas
tery
of
deta
il sh
ould
not
be
expe
cted
bef
ore
the
big
pict
ure
isex
plor
ed.
87
KL
EIN
SASS
FR &
HO
RSC
II