economic empowerment of rural women and … folder/26--kaur.pdf · make institutions more...

ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT OF RURAL WOMENAND MGNERGA

INDER JEET KAUR

Based on the premise of contextual theory of empowerment,the article looks into the causes of inequities and multiplesufferance of rural women in India which incapacitated themto develop as individual and as resource for community.According to UND Report—“Gender equality...... is also smarteconomics. Greater gender equality can enhance productivity,improve development outcomes for the next generation, andmake institutions more representative”. The article is basedon this contention that economic empowerment with duesincere state intervention can assure holistic development—socio-eco-political. With this notion article strives to find outhow far has MGNREGA, as flagship programme ofemployment, benefitted rural women? How far has it ensuredand achieved gender equity and empowerment—both economicand political? Whether there had been some gaps in assuranceand achievement? If yes, why and where? Lastly, a humbleattempt has been made to list some corrective measures forimproving the structural and operational aspects of theprogramme strengthening their empowerment process.

THIS SAYING by Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s that “Man is born free, buteverywhere he is in chains”, is more applicable to the status of women allover the humanity, despite its male-oriented tone. The women communityhas not only suffered but is still suffering not only because of deprivationsof opportunities but also due to the exploitations inflicted by an archaicsociety in multiple forms, resulting into inequitable development of societywith under or non-utilisation of capacities of half of the society-comprisingof women. The main cause of this ailment lies in the preconceived genderedroles in the society which takes away even minimal opportunities ofdeveloping their abilities. Now, it is a proven fact that various kinds oflimitations on anyone can incapacitate a person even to realise and developone’s inherent abilities, resulting into deprivation of capacities to perform

ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT OF RURAL WOMEN AND MGNERGA / 697INDER JEET KAUR

a desirable role as an individual and in social community. Reversely, suchperson is condemned for one’s worthlessness for undertaking a meaningfulrole in societal development, despite this fact that person is a by-productof contextual circumstances. With the augment of progressive and subalterntheories of empowerment, it is now being strongly contended that there isa “fundamental difference between inability to act, because one has nochoice and lack of ability to act. Not every case of inactivity may be seenas lack of ability to act”.

In simple words, for an individual or a group of individuals of similarcircumstances, the empowerment can be defined as a process of achieving adegree of consciousness and initial ability or skill for emancipation fromany kind of deprivation to realise their aspirations—personal or groupautonomy, which, consequently, paves way for “learning to take on sociallyvaluable roles, to exercise social skills, to exert interpersonal influence, todevelop commitment, to take responsibility and to acquire political efficacy”.The contextual theory of empowerment confirms the connection betweenthe private and the political. It analyses individual issues in social lifepolitically. As per notion of co-existence of freedom vis-à-vis responsibility,the autonomy and freedom herein has been conceived in wider perspectiveconnoting not only freedom from exploitation, inequality, oppression inflictedby others but also from self-inflicted conditions of ignorance and inactionthereby preparing them to move ahead to take up social responsibility ofchanging the context-social and political to empower others. Thus individualempowerment creates a reservoir of community potential.

The Chart-1 reveals the various stages of this process-

CHART 1: LEVELS OF DEVELOPMENT AND EMPOWERMENT

698 / INDIAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION698 / VOL. LX, NO. 3, JULY-SEPTEMBER 2014

This also reveals that this is an incremental process in nature as theflat pyramid indicates inclusion of the declining number of beneficiariesat higher levels of this process. The reason for this can pertain to the natureof intervention or lackadaisical effort for the same or the degree of interestof the targeted group or all of these together. Whatever may be the reasonsfor this slow pace, it is imperative for intervening authority to review themodes of intervention and take corrective measures or alternative ones.The favourable context comprises of democratic political structures, openand egalitarian social groups, commitment of intervening authorities, andinterest and willingness of empowering target groups. The presence orabsence of any of these variables or combination of these can cause up ordown swings in the processes.

When seen in the backdrop of this concept of empowerment, womenas a whole in world over suffer from secondary status and are overallvulnerable in many situations, and in the Indian context they are at thelowest level of hierarchy. India has been ranked at a poor 115 by a globalsurvey on women empowerment scale which looked into the level ofeconomical empowerment of women in 128 countries.1 Nevertheless, it isbeing widely acknowledged that “Gender equality is a core developmentobjective in its own right. It is also smart economics. Greater gender equalitycan enhance productivity, improve development outcomes for the nextgeneration, and make institutions more representative”.2

Women form almost half the population in our country. Though ourConstitution guarantees equal rights and opportunities to both men andwomen,3 yet gender based visible and invisible inequalities and inequitiespersist galore in our society. The rural women in India suffers more thantheir urban counterparts both because of extreme destitution,4 hardshipcaused due to natural calamities and gender–insensitive socio-eco-politicalstructures resulting into gender discrimination and gender inequity.5 Lateris vindicated by screwing sex ratio, increasing female infanticide and femalefoeticide6 and other acts of violence against women. Despite their role

1http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-10-16/news/34499304_1_honour-killings-indian-women-workforce Oct 16, 2012, 03.57PM IST DL 28.2.13

2"Gender Equality and Development”, World Development Report: 2012.3Article 14—Equality Before Law and Equal Protection of Law, Constitution of India4India suffers from substantial poverty (41.6% of the population living below the new

International poverty line of $1.25(PPP) per day).The World Bank further estimates that33% of the global poor now reside in India. (World Bank) Moreover, the percentage of therural population living below the national rural poverty line in 2010 had been 33.8%.

5Ibid.6Rural sex ratio has been 947 female per thousand male which gets screwed again in the

case of child sex ratio. A worrisome decline from 934 female child in 2001 to 919 (lessby15) in Census -2011.


related to procreation in society, they are suffering due to multipledeprivations such as nutritional diet, healthcare, institutional deliveryfacilities, etc. Men occupy focal space in economic life in the Indiancountryside. Rural women have to perform, along with household chores,several activities both inside and outside the house which form part ofagricultural production process, such as sowing, seeding, weeding,transplanting, harvesting, processing, marketing, etc., but not consideredproductive. Though their status is intertwined with overall well-being ofrural life yet in the given state of affairs there is impending need ofaffirmative action by the government—both general and gender specific,for improving their living conditions in rural India which is known asBharat.

Various studies have reiterated this fact that the status of women isinstantly uplifted with economic independence. Following this notion, theadopting and implementing socio-economic programmes for economicdevelopment of rural and needy women is an uncontested idea. Hence,this requires positive governmental intervention vis-a-vis change in societaloutlook.

Affirmative Action for Empowering WomenIn consonance with the socialist and welfare constitutional duty the

Indian state has continuously been adopting programmes aiming toameliorate their impoverished conditions by empowering themeconomically, taking care of their health and developing their workcapacities.7 In fact, the poverty elimination is one of the primary objectivesof any country’s developmental planning. So was the endeavour of Indianstate through Five Years Plans. But it was only the Fifth Five Year Plan(1974-1979) which explicitly aimed at poverty alleviation, employmentand justice along with self-reliability in defence and agriculture. Again,the 10th Five Year Plan (2002-2007) aimed at poverty reduction by fiveper cent and attaining a growth rate of eight per cent in GDP. However,11th Five Year Plan (2007-2012) was based on different objectives thatinclude education, income and poverty, women and children, infrastructure,health and safeguarding the environment. In fact, an integrated approachis needed to remove the rural poverty in general and poverty among womenspecifically.

The introduction of National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme(NREGS) is one of these affirmative programmes. The National Rural

7MGNREGA, PDS, ICDSS, National Rural Health Mission(NRHM), SSA, NLM,SABLA, RSBY, IGMSY, TSC


Employment Guarantee Act was launched on February 2, 2006 fromAnantapur in Andhra Pradesh and initially covered 200 of the ‘poorest’districts of the country. The Act was implemented in a phased manner.Where in 130 districts were added in 2007 and it was spread to over 625districts across the country in 2008. During 2009-10, through anamendment, the NREGA has been rechristened as the Mahatma GandhiNational Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA). Thus, theMGNREGA covers the entire country with the exception of districts thathave a hundred per cent urban population.

The mandate of the Act is to provide 100 days of guaranteed wageemployment on demand in a financial year to every household whose adultmembers volunteer to do unskilled manual work. Besides having thepotential of creating useful assets, strengthening democracy anddecentralisation by effecting transparency and accountability8 this flagshipprogramme of the UPA Government endeavours to: empowerment of thesocially disadvantaged, especially women, Scheduled Castes and ScheduledTribes, through the processes of a rights-based legislation. Thus,MGNREGA with twin objectives of rural employment and developmenthas been perceived as a powerful instrument for inclusive growth in ruralIndia because of its triple impact on social protection, livelihood securityand democratic empowerment. It stipulates that employment generatingworks must be targeted towards a set of specific rural development activitiesas mentioned above. According to Jairam Ramesh, Minister of RuralDevelopment (MoRD):

“In 2010-11, nearly 5.50 crore families were provided over 250 croreperson-days of work under the programme. Over the last six years,MGNREGA has generated more than 1,100 crore person-days of work at atotal expenditure of over Rs.150,000 crore. The share of SC/ST families inthe work provided under MGNREGA has been 55 per cent and 45 per centof workers are women....and 80 per cent of MGNREGA payments are madethrough this route, an unprecedented step in the direction of financialinclusion”.9

The Prime Minister (PM) while addressing the Conference ofMGNREGA in February 2, 2013 also reiterated these facts’.10

The focus of this article is to find out how far has MGNREGA benefitedwomen? How far has it ensured and achieved gender equity and

8http://nrega.nic.in/circular/Report_Committee_Revision_guidelines.pdf on 17.2.20139Jairam Ramesh, MoRD, in the preface of MGNREGA Guideline.10February 03, 2013, 09:19 http://zeenews.india.com/business/news/economy/mnrega-

will-help-implement-direct-benefit-transfers-pm_69376.html) 15.2.13.


empowerment? Whether there had been some gaps in assurance andachievement. If yes, why and where? Lastly, a humble attempt has beenmade to list some corrective measures for improving the structural andoperational aspects of the programme strengthening their empowermentprocess. For the purpose of the study both secondary and primary sourceshave been used. For the later some interviews of migrants to Delhi fromRajasthan, Bihar, Jharkhand, etc. were conducted.

Besides “its bottom-up, people-centred, demand-driven, self-selecting,rights-based design”, it is unprecedented because of its pro-genderapproach. Both, the provisions of the Act and related Guidelines, adoptedsubsequently, emphatically provide for a share of benefits of the schemeto the rural women, thereby, paving the way for their economicempowerment. It is generally believed that plans, policies, legislations andlaws provide only the philosophical blueprint for directing the progress ofsociety, however implementation of the same with underlying spirit canonly bear the fruits for the targeted group. In the light of this backgroundthe following provisions of the major statutory provision of MNGREGAcan be tested:

General Provisions• Adult members of a rural household, willing to do unskilled manual

work, are required to make registration in writing or orally to thelocal Gram Panchayat.

• The Gram Panchayat after due verification will issue a Job Cardfree of cost. The Job Card will bear the photograph of all adultmembers of the household willing to work under NREGA.

• The Job Card should be issued within 15 days of application.

• A Job Card holder may submit a written application for employmentto the Gram Panchayat, stating the time and duration for whichwork is sought. The minimum days of employment have to be atleast 14.

• The Gram Panchayat will issue a dated receipt of the writtenapplication for employment, against which the guarantee ofproviding employment within 15 days operates.

• Employment will be given within 15 days of application for work,if it is not, then daily unemployment allowance as per the Act, hasto be paid. The liability of payment of unemployment allowanceis of the states.

• Work should ordinarily be provided within five km radius of the


village. In case work is provided beyond five km, extra wages often per cent are payable to meet additional transportation and livingexpenses.

• Emphasis on labour intensive works prohibiting the use ofcontractors and machinery.

• Wages are to be paid according to the Minimum Wages Act 1948for agricultural labourers in the State, unless the Centre notices awage rate which will not be less than 60 (US$ 1.09) per day.

• Wages are to be paid according to piece rate or daily rate.

• Disbursement of wages has to be done on weekly basis and notbeyond a fortnight in any case.

Women Specific• Equal wages will be provided to both men and women and the

provisions of the equal Remuneration Act, 1976 shall be compliedwith (Section 6(1) of the MGNREGA)

• At least one-third beneficiaries shall be women who are registeredand have requested work under the scheme (MGNREGA, ScheduleII, Section 6).

• Work site facilities such as crèche, drinking water, shade have tobe provided.

Decentralisation Specific• The shelf of project for a village will be recommended by the

Gram Sabha and approved by the Zilla Panchayat.

• At least fifty per cent of works will be allotted to Gram Panchayatsfor execution.

• Social audit has to be done by the Gram Sabha.

Development Specific• Permissible works predominantly include water and soil

conservation, afforestation and land development works. UnionRural Development Ministry has notified 30 new works underMGNREGA, majority of which are related to agricultural and alliedactivities, besides the works that will facilitate rural sanitationprojects in a major way. (MGNREGA 2.0-((MORD,, May 8, 2012,http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?)

Miscellaneous• A 60:40 wage and material ratio has to be maintained. No

contractors and machinery is allowed.


• The Central Government bears the 100 per cent wage cost ofunskilled manual labour and 75 per cent of the material costincluding the wages of skilled and semi-skilled workers.

• Grievance redressal mechanisms have been put in place forensuring a responsive implementation process11

Supplementary Provisions: Guidelines12

For the effective implementation of Act, a Committee under thechairmanship of Mihir Shah was constituted by Ministry of RuralDevelopment which brought out a very elaborate set of guidelines bykeeping minute details for ensuring interest of various groups particularlyinterest of women in the employment programme as transparency andaccountability. The report runs into 170 pages containing 14 chapterscovering various aspects of scheme. The women related guidelines are asfollows:

• For fair selection of Mates though literacy and experience ofworking with MGNREGA, transparency, and publicity are acceptedas key components, but preference for the most deserving familiesin terms of need and priority for women and the differently abledmakes it humane and gender sensitive.

• The survey team should include Gram Panchayat members, SCs/STs members and women residents, a village-level governmentfunctionary and the Panchayat Secretary. SHG leaders, Anganwadiworkers, ASHA, etc. could also be involved. The team membersmay be given orientation at the Block/District level. (3.1.1Committee p. 14)

• The recruitment of MGNREGA staff at all levels shall beundertaken by a competent authority as notified by the stategovernments or national government, as the case may be. In therecruitment process, the reservation policy of the state should bestrictly followed. The MGNREGS staff should be adequatelyrepresented by women, SCs, STs, disabled, etc. (4.6 RecruitmentPolicy–Committee report p. 40)

• The process of planning and identification of works must start in aparticipatory manner at the habitation level, reflecting the needs

11Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act.12Report of the Committee for Revision of MGNREGA Operational Guidelines by Dr.

Mihir Shah, Chairperson, Committee for Revision of MGNREGA Operational GuidelinesMinistry of Rural Development Government of India p.9) http://nrega.nic.in/circular/Report_Committee_Revision_guidelines.pdf.


and aspirations of the local people, while ensuring maximumparticipation of women, salits, adivasis and the poor. (6.3.3Committee)

• About fixing up the SoRs, the guideline clearly mentions that thereis adequate provisions for variations according to geology andclimatic conditions of the area, without discriminating againstwomen, underpaying workers by lumping various activitiestogether and the rate be revised in line with increments in wagerates. (7.6.2 Committee p. 64)

• The WT (Work Studies) and MS (Motion Studies) should alsoallow for regional variations in tasks, depending on the variablelocal conditions and the health and nutrition status of thepopulation. In particular, they must reflect the productivity of mixedgroup of workers including both men and women, elderly workersand those who are physically challenged (7.6.6 Committee p. 65).

• Allowance for regional variations in tasks, depending on thevariable local conditions and the health and nutrition status of thepopulation. For instance, the tasks expected to be performed bythe malnourished, primitive tribal groups, the aged and womenshould be different from those expected from able-bodied men.Tasks should be assigned which can be done by pregnant women,aged and disabled (7.6.10 Committee p. 65).

• Pregnant women travelling more than one km to reach the worksiteshall be provided with transportation facility (7.11.4 Committeep. 66).

• Special awareness and outreach activities should be conducted toensure that all wage-seekers (including women) are able to handlebank procedures, especially in areas where they are unfamiliarwith the banking system (8.1.x Committee, p. 89).

• Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) to become part of mobilisation,vigilance, monitoring and Social Audit Facilitating Organisationsmust be organisations with an established track-record anddemonstrated experience and capacity of high quality work ofmobilising the people. Moreover they must have formed andfacilitated active SHGs, UGs, SIGs, Federations of women/workers/farmers, etc. (9.4.4 Committee, p. 105-106).

• While providing a strong social safety net for vulnerable groupsunder MGNREGA, extra efforts need to be made for certain specialcategories such as persons with disabilities, primitive tribal groups,nomadic tribal groups, de-notified tribes, women in special


circumstances, senior citizens above 65 years of age, Internallydisplaced persons (10.1 comm).

• Widowed, deserted and destitute women are highly vulnerable andrequire special attention. The Gram Panchayat should identify suchwomen and ensure that they are provided 100 days of work.Pregnant women and lactating mothers (at least up to eight monthsbefore delivery and 10 months after delivery) should also be treatedas a special category. Special works which require less effort andare close to their house should be identified and implemented forthem. (10.6.1 comm., p.113).

• At the local level, Vigilance and Monitoring Committee should beassigned a definite and reasonable service area. Ideally, it shouldconsist of about ten members half of whom shall be women withrepresentation for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes inproportion to their population. Members of the Vigilance andMonitoring Committee may be identified from among local schoolteachers, anganwadi workers, SHG members, Social Auditvolunteers, members of various CBOs, user groups, youth clubs,etc. (14.7.4. comm., p. 154)

An overview of the above provisions reveals that the gender sensitivityof this programme has doubly empowered the women. Firstly, they arepolitically empowered as being part of grassroots institutions-Gram Sabha(GS), Gram Panchayats (GP), Mandal Panchayats (MP), District Panchayats(DP) wherein they enjoy almost 50 per cent representation and they areentrusted with the power of making and approving of plans and takingdecisions regarding the nature and choice of works be undertaken, theorder in which each work is to be triggered, site selection, etc. in openassemblies which is then ratified by the GPs. It is so powerful that worksthat are inserted at Intermediate Panchayat and DP level have to be approvedand assigned a priority by the Gram Sabha before administrative approvalcan be given. The Gram Sabha may accept, amend or reject them. It isentitled to carry social audit of Outcome Report. (Appendix-1) Secondly,as the beneficiaries of the scheme they are entitled for work, as the Actprovides that at least one-third beneficiaries shall be women who haveregistered and requested work under the scheme while giving dueconsideration to the limitations of female workers. This has been consideredas important move for their economic empowerment.

MGNERGA: Operational Aspect and Gender Equity and EmpowermentThe Chart-2 depicts a comparative analysis of total women persons

days in two different categories.


Till date, besides various reports of government (easily accessible onwebsites of state and Central Government) innumerable area specific studieshave been conducted by both national and International research scholarsand institutions which corroborate the statements of PM Rural DevelopmentMinister. Annual reports of the states’ performance13 of the MNGREGSunravels the differential performance of the programme among the statesand within the states themselves about women’s participation (WP). TheChart for the FY 2011-12 clearly brings out that women’s participationvaried from lowest 17 per cent in UP followed by 18 per cent in J&K tohighest 93 per cent in Kerala followed by Tamil Nadu with 74 per cent andRajasthan with 69 per cent. The analysis of the two categories in the chartpertaining average per cent of person days of women in FYs 2006-07 to2011-2012 and per cent of person days for the FY 2011-12 in states and allIndia levels, respectively, vividly show the upward trend in the year 2011-2012. The other notable trends are as follows:

1. Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan—three leading states rankingI, II and III with maximum average per cent of person days forwomen in five years kept their ranks in tact in the FY 2011-12 aswell, despite per cent coming down in Tamil Nadu for FY-2011-12.

2. Himachal, though, had ranked 11th on the basis of average in sixyears in the state jumped up to fourth rank in FY year 2011-2012displacing Andhra Pradesh to V rank from IV.

CHART 2: PER CENT OF WOMEN PERSONS DAYS*

13http://www.mnerga.nic.in


3. Jammu and Kashmir being at the lowest in state average performersshowed upward performance in FY of 2011-12.

4. In both the categories, total number of states (numbering 15) whichshowed WP more than 33 per cent also remained the same withminor changes in the ranks of different states because of slightlyupward or downward performances.14

The data in Appendix-2 also highlights the trends about the states’performance with regard to WP in MGNREGA from the FY 2006-07 to2011-12. On the basis of which following three categories emerged:

Categories Rate of WP1. High Performers above 50 per cent

2. Moderate Performers 33 per cent—50 per cent

3. Low Performers below 33 per cent

It is clear from the data that Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and AndhraPradesh can be bracketed in the first category having high and sustainedWP—above 50 per cent throughout this period .The Moderate Performers-10 states though recorded average participation but much above 33 percent as stipulated in the Act. These also remained steady performers withslight ups and downs here and there. Noticeable change could be traced inthe case of J&K where WP in first FY-2006-07 was merely four per centwhich went down to alarming one per cent in the following FY. However,this jumped to 18 per cent—a commendable increase in FY-2011-12 andto 23 per cent in FY-2013-14. This change can be attributed to the civiliangovernment’s success in rebuilding the confidence among people in trouble-ridden area and happening of elections of PRIs after a long time in thestate. There is also noticeable high rise in WP in Himachal Pradesh aswell. In this State WP started with 12 per cent, rising from 30 per cent thenext FY to 60 per cent in FY 2011-12. Uttar Pradesh remained the poorestperformer show 17-18 per cent throughout the period.

As per analysis, women’s participation in MGNERA, though, has notbrought absolute equity, but has definitely caste positive effect in improvingtheir economic status. Reetika Khera and Nandini15 and Hirway, I., and S.Batabya16 in their respective studies have contended that India’s star

14The data of 2013 shows a marginal drop in total number of person-days, but increasein women’s participation in most of the states

15Reetika Khera and Nandini, “Narega: Women Battle On”, Excerpts from The Battlefor the Employment Guarantee; edited by Khera, Reetika and Nandini (2011) OxfordUniversity Press, http://southasia.oneworld.net/peoplespeak/nrega-women-battle-on

16Hirway, I., and Batabya, S. (2012) MGA and Women’s Empowerment’, New Delhi:UN Women South Asia.


programme, NREGA has raised the bar for rural women who now workoutside their homes enjoy an equal status with their fellow men workers inthe field. Social hurdles persist, but they visualise the scheme evolving tobecome more women-friendly.

Jairam Ramesh, Minster for Rural Development with his administrativecolleagues, while countering the arguments of opponents of the MGNREGAforcefully emphasised the success of this programme for benefitting womenspecifically. In his words:

Perhaps even more impressively, women have been a major beneficiary;the proportion of women person-days in FY 2011—12 was 49 per cent(up to December 2011) and 53 per cent in 2012-13 (up to December2012) thus actually showing an increase. Overall, research indicatesthat MGNREGA is an important work for women who would haveotherwise remained unemployed–probably because it incorporatesgender sensitivity in its design, ensuring that work is provided withinfive km and ensuring wage parity, a fact validated by the NationalSample Survey Organisation’s 66th round survey.17

All these studies besides above cited guidelines pertaining MGNREGAlead us to following findings about gender equity and empowerment:

• Women’s participation in MGNREGA is increasing

• Political awareness and participation in elections is also increasing.

• Seventy five to 85 per cent of them are collecting or getting theirwages directly through their bank accounts and maximum of themkeeping same to themselves, and in the process learning banking.18

• In spite of being a conservative patriarchal social structure, theireconomic power has led to women’s social respect and helpedimproving the intra-family relations and having a say in familyand matters of society.19

• Not only their wages help to mitigate hunger of family but are alsohelping them to spend more for better food for family and avoidillness in the family.

• MGNREGA has helped the single women, e.g. widows to uphold

17"A Boon In The Rural Landscape”, Times of India February 18, 2013, p 16.18Hirway, I. and Batabya, S “It is interesting to note that 92.3 per cent bank accounts

are in the name of women; the rest are joint accounts” op.cit. p33; Similarly, according toMerlin “the female respondents reported having faced less hunger due to employments.Apart from keeping their own wages, now women have a substantial say in how to spendit.” Merlin Thomas, op.cit. p. 70-71.

19Hirway, I., and S. Batabya, op.cit., p 50.


their self-respect and offers a great relief to those widows notgetting pension.

• Enabled them to spend for educational and other needs of thechildren and to enjoy festivity.

• NREGA enabled woman to stop working for a local landlord, whopays women less than men.20 These changes pertaining to improvingstatus of women due to the NREGS were also confirmed byrespondents from Rajasthan and Jharkhand who were interviewedfor the present study by the researcher of this paper herself.

• MNGREGA has helped in strengthening the SHGs in the village.In fact SHGs and WP in MGNREGA are interrelated. Initially, theSHGs helped women members with right information about thesame and later women of the programme joined and formed moreSHGs which are making women economically self-reliant.

• The studies have further established this fact that after joiningMGNREGA, women have started taking interest in the meetingsof Gram Sabha. Hiray has recorded that not only women’sparticipation gone up from merely 20 per cent to now 90 per centbut the meetings of Gram Sabhas are also being held morefrequently.

Flip Side of MGNREGAThe fallouts of MGNREGA for WP are multi-angular. These are the

by-product of archaic social relations (wherein women are seen subordinateor subservient to men irrespective of their higher calibre and higher sharein running the family in comparison to their male counterparts and thisattitude is carried forward in public arena as well), lack of gender sensitivityin the society, her own physical limitations, her familial responsibilityparticularly child rearing and above all and over and above all these, flawedexecution of the programme. These have resulted into followingrepercussions which have helped in sustaining social, economic andpolitical inequalities.

Social and Economic Fallouts for Women and Issue of GenderInequality

• Working hours for women have increased; leisure time hasvanished; and there are physical and emotional strains related tosuch work.

20Khera and Nandini, op.cit.


• They have to face some harassment from the male ‘mate’ whopressurise them to work harder. Also they have to face verbal sexualharassment and verbal abuses. Moreover, they are teased andsnubbed by male workers at worksite.

• Their worry about small children who are left alone at home inabsence of child care facility has yet to find some satisfactorysolution. The essential facilities such as crèche, caretaker, waterand medical services, though are assured in the Guidelines but arenot provided in practice.21

• An adverse indirect impact of women’s participation has beennoticed in the absentation of the girl child in school who had tostay back home to take care of young siblings and performhousehold activities.22

• Lack of information about their entitlement about work on demandalso obstructed women to have her share of work.

• Poor participation of women due to lack of interest in labour work.

• Presence of tenacious social norms and hazardous nature of workand high standards of productivity women are reluctant to take upthe task.

• At times women got registered and after having job cards wereturned away from the worksite paving the way for men.

• Illegal presence of contractor on the worksite obstruct womenemployment as their preference goes for young and healthy men.

• A four-day report of NREG schemes in Raichur District inKarnataka, points out that “in many villages women are asked tocome to work with ‘male partners’ and single women are turnedback as ‘liabilities’23 Surveys and social audits of NREGA workshave shown that single women (widows, divorced, spinisters,separated) are systematically excluded from seeking employmentin NREGA programmes.24 Delayed and low wages also aggravatethe hardship of poor and single. Social audit of Borampally villagein Kalyandurgram Mandal in Andhra Pradesh reported, “Over 200women said that they were not being called for work at all. This is

21Hirway and Batabya, op.cit., p 33.22Ibid, p 34.23Cited in Kelkar, Govind UNIFEM, Gender pathways Out of Poverty http://

knowledge.nrega.net/822/1/Kelkar_Final.pdf.24Bhatty, The Hindu Magazine, 16 March, 2008.


worse and clear in the case of single women and they are unable tofind work in NREGA.25

• Under rating of women’s work is, hence, causing discrimination.“The work of the women is thus “invisible” and seen as “attendant”and almost “dispensable” in nature and hence not meritingmeasurement. This leads to the wage differential especially as thereis a sexual division in such works. We also pointed out that menwork with tools, while women do not. For instance, in NREGAmoney is payable for purchase and sharpening of shovels used bymen but no effort is made to address the drudgery of the tasksdone by women”.26

• Ironically, in some cases MGNERGS workers are only women.When in 2008’s assessment by the MORD it is reported that Keralahas the most number of female NREGA workers in the country,and the projection for the year 2010 showed 95 per cent of NREGAworkers in the state would be women... Why more women comefor NREGA work is because men in Kerala are not ready to workfor Rs 150 a day, the wage that is paid. Though some researchershave accepted that it’s extra money for women, but it is a strongcontributory factor for inequity. “Men can get anything betweenRs 350 and 500 a day for manual labour, so they don’t find NREGAappealing”, says Tany Abraham, district coordinator,Kudumbashree.27

• The potential of MGNREGS has not been tapped to develop suchfacilities in villages that can facilitate woman in saving her timeand energies, such as projects relating accessible clean drinkingwater or creating alternative gas plants to be used for cookinginstead of burning wood.

• Non-availability of work on demand.

Political Empowerment—Not in RealityThe contours of women’s equity go beyond their ability of getting

their names registered and getting job cards with job. It has to be tested onthe basis of degree of their participation in planning, decision-making,monitoring and assessment (social auditing) of the community programme/s.In this context studies revealed a very dismal picture. The shortfall in their

25Kelkar - Draft for discussion –11.26http://knowledge.nrega.net/822/1/Kelkar_Final.pdf.27http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-10-10/kochi/30263598_1_nrega-

workers-households-Kerala (15.2.13).


participation in these activities is being caused due to lackadaisicalfunctioning of the system. The pitfalls thereof are:

• With some exceptions, the meetings of Gram Sabhas, where theultimate power lies, are rarely held. If ever held, either there areno women or only a few women who attend these with thisimpression that these are not meant for women. Even male membersof underprivileged classes are set aside as responded by theRespondents of this study. Hence, total power of GS is exercisedonly by dominant elite males with bold M2 power–money andmuscle power. Similarly, the functioning of upper levels of PRIsis also not pro-women’s participation. (See Appendix-2)

• Both PRIs and concerned officials are widely infected by corruptionand widespread corrupt practices have been reported byrespondents in the operation of MGNREGA. Incumbents of PRIsare getting cash in return of Job Cards(while the service is free ofcharge) and under payment of wages and manipulation of musterrolls, over recording of work, deduction from wage as commission,etc. are common malpractices.28 Though, mostly men are involvedbut as confirmed by respondents resentfully that nowadays womenPradhans also after the one or one and half year’s of experiencemaster these manly tricks and start filling up their own pockets.

The forgoing facts indicate that like any other programme and policyof government, this much-appreciated affirmative programme of India, isalso suffering due to implementation—deficit and accountability—deficitat various levels resulting into its underperformance particularly when seenfrom women’s perspective. Moreover, marred with leakages and corruption,the programme has resulted into another form of dole, creating hardly wealthor productive assets.

28Our Money, Our Responsibility: A Citizens’ Guide to Monitoring GovernmentExpenditure by Vivek Ramkumar (International Budget Partnership, 2008), available atwww.internationalbudget.org. DL on 18.2.2013; Prabhakar Kumar, in a report about Patnadisclosed, “The MGNREGA programme in Bihar has run into a controversy. A surveyconducted by an NGO shows that nearly 75 per cent of funds have been allegedly siphonedoff by local officials. In some cases, money was allegedly withdrawn in the names ofpeople, who don’t even exist. In one of such cases, over Rs 5,000 was withdrawn from theMNREGA job account of Mukut Paswan”- Jan. 01, 2013 http://ibnlive.in.com/news/bihar-govt-rejects-demand-for-cbi-probe-into-mnrega-implementation/308668-3-232.html DLon15.2.2013; Engineer commits suicide after pressure to clear MGNERGA Files (onsubstandard civil works, Mysore), Current Affairs, June 26, 2014 http://www.in.com/news/current-affairs/engineer-commits-suicide-after-pressure-to-clear-mgnrega-files-52851550-in-1.html.


CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

Notwithstanding the flaws related to programme, in general and vis-a-vis WP, we find some truth in the observations of Merlin Thomas whohas stated that:

“empowerment of rural women has emerged as an unintendedconsequence of NREGS. Women have benefited more as workers thanas a community. Women as individuals have gained because of theirability to earn independently, made possible due to the paid employmentopportunity under NREGS. .... Women as a community, however, havebeen slow in realising the potential benefits of the scheme”.29

As per the steps in the process of empowerment (Chart-1), the author isof the view that this individual performance could pave way for empowermentof women as community if its ailments are checked on time as is happeningin Kerala. Also, assessing any programme—such as MGNREGA as aninstrument for achieving equity-socio-eco-political, will be an illusion asper the incremental a symmetrical nature of development (Chart-1). However,instead of dismissing it completely, it would be desired that it should begiven fair trial because of growing acceptability in large number of statesparticularly among women. In fact, there is need for insightful efforts tounderstand the variables which resulted into very high WP in MGNREGAin some states and feasibility of replicating the same elsewhere. The highperforming states have indicated that higher rate of literacy, high level ofawareness, positive role played by community groups like ‘Kudumbashree’in Kerala, Self-Help Groups in Tamil Nadu, involvement of Civil Societyorganisations in Rajasthan, building up suitable capacity of administration-initiative on the part of administration as in Rajasthan (‘Amrita devi VishnoiYojna’, wherein women completing 100 day’s are duly awarded), enlightenedwomen rejecting social taboos and realising importance of extra wages forbetter health, better food and education of children, etc. have helped in betterperformance of programme for WP in various places.

The New Guidelines of 2012 provide comprehensively the answersfor tackling structural, procedural and execution related drawbacks. Ifimplemented in letter and spirit, not only it will be possible to checkirregularities, corrupt practices and procedural delays but which, in turn,will ensure better quality of development and boost participation of womenand underprivileged classes. As said above the author reiterates thateconomic empowerment precedes all other empowerment. This givesconfidence, leisure and power which are pre-requisites for participating in

29Merlin Thomas, op.cit. p. 70.


political institutions. For injecting real equity in the programme, a correctionneeds to made by raising women’s share in MGNREGA to 50 per centfrom present 33 per cent as has been envisaged in proposed PRIs-110th

Constitutional Amendment. Moreover, ensuring the regular meetings ofGram Sabhas and attendance and participation of women should beconsidered obligatory on the part of administrative and politicalfunctionaries. MoRD had issued a directive to this effect in April 2013, ifthe same is followed in its letter and spirit it would surely give affirmativeresults. Accountability for conducting regular meetings, dissemination ofinformation, regular monitoring at different levels, social audit, andobservance of Guidelines should be fixed. The time-bound performanceaudits should be conducted regularly, for which already two models ofsocial audits are in place, i.e. Rajasthan Model and Andhra Pradesh Model.In Rajasthan, people are auditing MGNREGA works with the help of NGOswhereas in Andhra Pradesh, state government has set up a directorate forsocial audit for the same.30 It is suggested that official and social auditsshould be conducted simultaneously for getting unbiased assessment.Failure in execution of these provisions and guidelines on the part ofofficials and agencies at any level should be considered as legal offence.Independent and objective research studies about programme should beencouraged to bring out the facts. Government has been, rightly awardingthe best performer for MGNREGA-GP, Blocks or Districts, however, thereis an urgent requirement of stringent and expeditious action for defaultersfor dereliction of duty and violation of law and Guidelines. In addition toputting up the names of defaulters on the Notice boards of PRIs andwebsites—both social and official, speedy action against them would ensurefavourable results. Guidelines for MGNREGA-231 take care of many ofthe above mentioned loopholes. These visualise tightening up the controlby using technology and software for making registration (even throughmobile phones), job distribution, payments, etc. Strict time schedule foreach and every macro-micro activity vis-a-vis effective planning, etc. hasbeen emphasised. Also by adopting Electronic Fund Management System(e-FMS, Electronic Muster Rolls (MR), Adhaar-Unique IdentificationNumber linked to the person’s demographic and biometric information,which can be used to identify themselves anywhere in India, and to accesshost of benefits and services, various malpractices and corrupt practicesmentioned above can be checked. Initially, MoRD started working withfive banks in four States (Odisha, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Karnataka) tosuccessfully develop electronic transfer of data files to banks. This solution

30http://www.nrega.net/csd/nregaradioseries/social-audit-in-mgnrega-hindi31Operational Guidelines of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee

Act http://drd.nic.in/drd/programmes-schemes-MGNREGA.asp


32Times of India, May 31, 2014, p. 17.

is being adopted in other states as well. Equal opportunities for vulnerablepeople, greater role for Civil Society from planning to execution and socialaudits and help increased transparency and accountability in theimplementation of Act. These judicious steps if clubbed with effectiveimplementation with commitment both by the beneficiaries andfunctionaries at all levels will lead to the path of empowerment of ruralwomen if not towards total gender equity. The new NDA Minister of MoRDhas taken initiative to streamline the MGNREGS instead of scrapping it,as was indicated by BJP during its election campaign. Acknowledging theneed of job guarantee scheme in villages, the minister emphasised uponlinking MGNREGA to development of villages and assured the release offunds from the centre for “district level development perspective plans” toback their proposals of labour budgets about the man-days of jobs to begenerated in a time period”. So instead of the process money first followedby work creation in the villages is reversed by the process—envisagingthe proposal of need/work ensuing commensurate fund after properassessment of the merit of the proposal.32 However, it is difficult to readtoo much from this announcement in the absence of detailed parametersfor assessment. The researchers, however, out of scepticism are bound toraise these questions: What would be role of GPs and GS in the Districtplanning while in the present system, as stated above, the later is entrustedwith ultimate power of approval of the plans and projects even if these arerecommended by the DP? How would women be involved in this planning?In the wake of plan of five years—How much involvement of the expertsand professional would be permissible? Whether elected representatives,with the given capacity, would be able to undertake this planning task? Orthis would become another paradise of power for experts and officials?Moreover, how long a programme based on manual labour can findacceptance among upcoming educated and semi-educated youth-both girlsand boys in the rural areas who are escaping from villages in search ofskilled and semi-skilled jobs in the city? Should not the government comeout with novel programme of employment in the rural India attractive,lucrative and dignified enough for upcoming youth which could ensuretheir bonding with their villages? It is suggested that the guidelines wouldbe so amended without overtaking the spirit of this programme which restson three core principles—democratisation, decentralisation and womenempowerment, socio-eco-political, it is reincarnated into skill-oriented jobswhich would ensure sustainable productive assets. Only future course ofhappenings will bring out its clear picture.


APPENDIX-1

TABLE 1: MGNREGA AND WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION

Institution & Participation of women

Functions Features Findings

Gram Sabha/Ward Sabha

50% Women

Recommends work, final authority to determine the order of work, appointment of Vigilance and Monitoring Committees, Primary forum for conduct of social audit, proactive disclosure of key documents

Participatory

Transparency

Occasional meeting of Gram Sabhas

Women’s presence negligible

Women hardly speak

Gram Panchayat (GP)

33-50% Women+*

Receiving, verifying, registration of applications, households, work, etc. Planning and developing shelf of projects, issuing job cards, allotment of work, conducting surveys, execution of work, maintaining records, providing utilization certificates, Calling meetings of Gram Sabha, monitoring the execution of work

Participatory

Transparency

Account-ability

Men’s dominant role under the garb of women representatives

Block Level/Intermediate level

33% Women

Consolidation of plan within Blocks, Forwarding to District Panchayat, Monitoring and supervision of works at Block level

As per GP

Programme Officer at Block Level

Ensuring work to applicant within 15 days, Setting up cluster-level facilitation teams, technical support to Gram Panchayats, scrutinizing the proposal of Intermediate Panchayats, consolidating all proposals into Block Plan, submission of Plan to DP, matching employment, baseline survey, assessment of work demand, Compilation of labour demand, monitoring and supervising implementation, ensuring prompt and fair payment, maintaining accounts of resources received and utilized, grievance redressal, maintaining complaint register, due acknowledgement of complaints, Disposal of complaints within seven days*, conducting preliminary enquiry, Ensuring conduct of social audits and following up on them, Payment of unemployment allowance

Accountability**liable for action non-performing his duty


+*“The Cabinet approved the proposal for moving an official amendment to the Constitution (OneHundred and Tenth Amendment) Bill, 2009 for enhancing reservation for women in Panchayats atall tiers from 1/3 to at least 50 per cent,” Information and Broadcasting Minister Ambika Soni toldreporters. Bihar and some states have already made suitable amendments to increase reservation forwomen in Panchayats from 33 to 50 per cent.(Indian Express , July 21, 2011, http://www.indianexpress.com/news/testing-indias-sanity/820460/) DL on 18.2.2013

*Rule 23(6) of Act **Rule 25 of the Act

District Panchayat

33% Women

Consolidation of Annual Block Plans within the District Plan, Adding inter-lock work to enhance employment, monitoring and supervision

As per GP

District Programme Coordinator

Overall responsibility for ensuring the implementation of Scheme according to Act, assisting DP for discharging its functions, Prepare district labour Budget, accord timely technical and administrative sanction to shelf of projects, ensuring presentation of added projects to the concerned Gram Sabha(s) before administrative approval, esuring wage seekers work as per their entitlement, ensuring timely release of funds, Review, monitor, and Supervise the performance of POs, conducting inspection, appointing Project Implementation Agencies, carry out responsibilities relating grievance redressal, coordinate an IEC campaign for MGNREGA District, develop annual plans for capacity building training of various stakeholders, MIS, submission of monthly Progress Reports to the Government.

Accountability**


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