NAME(S): Mangroves, tidal forest, tidal swamp, mangrove community, mangrove ecosystem, and mangrove swamps

I. INTRODUCTION Definition: forested wetlands dominated by mangrove species. All true mangrove species have a physical specialization to the coastal environment, such as aerial roots and can tolerate moderate levels of salinity, but do not require it for good growth. Salt water reduces competitor species.

II. DISTRIBUTION Coastal Region and Florida Keys; 90% of the mangroves in Florida are located in Dade, Collier, Lee and Monroe Counties. Northern limits are Ponce de Leon Inlet on Atlantic Coast and Cedar Key on the Gulf.

III. DESCRIPTION

A. ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS

1. PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES

a. Climate: Mangroves do not resist cold climates, do not occur where annual temp is below 66oF, and tend to occur in areas susceptible to hurricanes, which tend to reduce their size b. Salt water: Mangroves don’t require it, but benefit from its effect on competing species and are usually out-competed in freshwater environments. c. Water fluctuation: Tidal action carries propagules (seeds) into upper estuary, nutrients into mangroves. Freshwater runoff flushes out harmful wastes. Mangroves are best developed where tidal fluctuations are great or where there is a broad, shallow bays with seasonal freshwater run-off (e.g., Everglades) d. Wave energy: Mangroves flourish in depositional environments with low energy. Moderate wave energy brings nutrients and removes waste. Excess wave energy prevents propagule growth.

B. BIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS

1. GENERAL FLORAL DESCRIPTION

The four most dominant species include red mangrove (Rizophora mangle), black mangrove (Avicennia germinans), buttonwood (Conocarpus erecta), and white mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa). These are usually arranged into zones which rarely cover an area more than 500 meters wide. The outermost, lowest elevation zone is represented by the red mangrove, the middle zone by black mangrove, and the inner, highest elevation zone by buttonwoods. The white mangrove usually appears at lower elevations than the buttonwoods in patches of disturbed areas.

Red mangrove: has a “prop” root that support mangroves against tidal energy and provide oxygen to submerged root system. Excludes salt from its root system. Spreads through propagules. Their "propagules" are pencil shaped; they flower generally in summer and spring but can flower throughout the year, and possess a small reserve of leaf buds.

Black mangrove: Have pneumatophores (1 to 10 inches above the soil) that provide oxygen to submerged roots. Excretes salt from the leaves. Their seedlings are lima-bean shaped, and they flower in spring and summer. White mangrove: in stressed conditions may produce pneumatophores and adventitious roots. Excretes salt from its leaves. Their seedlings are small diamond shaped, and they flower in spring and early summer.

Buttonwood: not really a mangrove, but member of the white mangrove family. No prop roots or pneumatophores. Excretes salt from leaves.

a. ENDEMICS

None

b. EXOTICS

Casuarina equisetifolia: Austrailian pine Colubrina asiatica: Lather leaf

Schinus teribenthifolius: Brazilian pepper c. DIVERSITY

Low for plants

2. GENERAL FAUNAL DESCRIPTION

High diversity of the different types of animal life found in this habitat, the greatest diversity is found among birds, many of which nest in the mangroves. The majority of these birds are the same that forage in the Biscayne Bay and Everglades region, including the eagle.

Fish diversity is also very high here with various fish like the tarpon, snook, and mangrove snapper using the mangroves as a nursery ground. The reptiles, including the crocodile, amphibians, and mammal population are much less diverse. One of the most common mammals is the raccoon.

IV. FACTORS INFLUENCING SPECIES ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION

A. ABIOTIC FACTORS

Climate, saltwater, water fluctuation and runoff, and wave energy

B. BIOLOGY AND/OR BEHAVIOR

1. Seed predation by mammals influences distribution.

2. Adaptations of mangroves also influence their abundance and distribution. a. Prop roots allow oxygenation. Peumatophores function similarly, but are more susceptible to clogging. b. Red mangroves exclude salt; black and white mangroves excrete salt

reds limited to soil salinities below 60-65 ppt, blacks and white can grow at 80-90 ppt

V. SUCCESSION Steady-state cyclical or catastrophic climax

VI. HUMAN USE AND LAND COVER CHANGE Fishing, dredging, buttonwood charcoal, egret hunting, mangrove clearing, dredge and fill Sport and commercial fishing

1. Panulirus argus (spiny lobster) 2. Penaeus duorarum(pink shrimp) 3. Mugil cephalus(mullet) 4. Megalops atlanticus (tarpon) 5. Centropomus undecimalis (snook) 6. Lutjanus apodus (mangrove snapper)

SPECIES LIST FOR MANGROVES I. PLANTS 1. Trees

Red mangrove: Rhizophora mangle Black mangrove: Avicennia germinans White mangrove: Laguncularia racemosa Buttonwood: Conocarpus erectus

2. Shrubs Brazilian pepper: Schinus terebinthifoliusEX

3. Herbs Leather fern: Acrostichum danaeifoliumT Black rush: Juncus roemerianus Glasswort: Salicornia virginica Saltgrass: Distichilis spicata

II. ANIMALS 1. Birds

Great blue heron: Ardea herodius Green-backed heron: Butorides striatus Great egret: Casmerodius albus Belted kingfisher: Ceryle alcyon Little blue heron: Egretta caeruleaSSC White ibis: Eudocimus albusSSC Snowy egret: Egretta thulaSSC Tricolor heron: Egretta tricolorSSC Fish crow: Corvus ossifragus Wood stork: Mycteria americanaT Greater Flamingo: Phoenicopterus ruberSSC Osprey: Pandion haliaetusSSC Double-crested cormorant: Phalacrocorax auritus Brown pelican: Pelicanus occidentalisSSC Bald eagle: Haliaeetus leucocephalusT White-crowned pigeon: Columba leucocephalaT Roseatte spoonbill: Ajaia ajajaSSC

2. Mammals Florida panther: Felis concolor ssp. coryiT[state animal] River otter: Lutra canadensis Raccoon: Procyon lotor Florida manatee: Trichechus manatusT Bottle-nose dolphin: Tursiops truncatus Marsh rabbit: Sylvilagus palustris

3. Reptiles Water moccasin: Agkistrodon piscivorus American crocodile: Crocodylus acutusT

4. Fish Snook: Centropomus undecimalis Mangrove snapper: Lutjanus griseus Tarpon: Megalops atlanticus Mullet: Mugil cephalus Red drum: Sciaenops ocellatus

5. Invertebrates a. Crustaceans

Blue crab: Callinectes sapidus Land crab: Gecarcinus lateralis Sand fiddler crab: Uca pugilator

b. Insects Saltmarsh mosquito: Aedes taeniorhynchus Honey bee: Apis mellifera

For superscript by species name: C = commercially exploited, SSC = species of special concern, T = threatened. Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission listings. EX = exotic.

NAME(S): Salt Marsh I. INTRODUCTION

Intertidal communities dominated by non-woody, salt tolerant plants. Salt marshes are ecotones between salt tolerant vegetation and freshwater vegetation or uplands.

II. DISTRIBUTION Cover about 170,000 ha throughout coastal Florida. In South Florida, most abundant in Eastern and Western Flatlands, and in Coastal Marsh physiographic region. Best developed where mangroves are absent.

III. DESCRIPTION A. ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES

Low wave energy with flooding from high tide flow B. BIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. GENERAL FLORAL DESCRIPTION

23 different plant species have been identified S. Fl salt marshes. The most common species of plant include the black needlerush (Juncus roemarianus). Others include leather fern and various succulents adapted to high levels of salinity.

a. ENDEMICS None

b. EXOTICS Colubrina asiatica

c. DIVERSITY Low for plants

d. ZONATION (distribution of plants into distinct zones) Distinct, but poorly understood

2. GENERAL FAUNAL DESCRIPTION Diversity and abundance is high. Due to the harsh condition of this habitat, many animal populations are transient predators, and their composition is similar to that found in the mangrove habitat.

IV. FACTORS INFLUENCING SPECIES ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION A. ABIOTIC FACTORS

Elevation gradients that influence depth of saltwater and salinity. Tidal action and freshwater runoff, which create tidal creeks.

B. BIOLOGY AND/OR BEHAVIOR V. SUCCESSION

Steady-state cyclical or catastrophic climax, often replaced by mangrove species VI. HUMAN USE AND LAND COVER CHANGE

A. Over-fishing: Sport and commercial fishing: shrimp, mullet, grouper, blue crabs, oysters, spiny lobster, red snapper, sea trout, calico scallops, Spanish mackerel, king mackerel B. Development-related drainage, dredge and fill, pollution C. Drainage for mosquito: Aedes taeniorhynchus - Brevard salt marsh 500 Landings per minute on a single person, marshes were ditched in the 1930's. Not effective but it did employ many people. Extensive spraying of DDT. Impounding now has replaced DDT

SPECIES LIST FOR SALT MARSHES I. PLANTS 1. Herbs

Leather fern: Acrostichum danaeifoliumT Black rush: Juncus roemerianus Glasswort: Salicornia virginica Saltgrass: Distichilis spicata Smooth cord grass: Spartina alterniflora

2. Trees Red mangrove: Rhizophora mangle Black mangrove: Avicennia germinans

II. ANIMALS 1. Birds

Red-winged blackbird: Agelaius phoeniceus Roseatte spoonbill: Ajaia ajajaSSC Seaside sparrow: Ammodramus maritimusT Great blue heron: Ardea herodius Green-backed heron: Butorides striatus Great egret: Casmerodius albus Turkey vulture: Cathartes aura Belted kingfisher: Ceryle alcyon Black vulture: Coragyps atratus Fish crow: Corvus ossifragus Little blue heron: Egretta caeruleaSSC Snowy egret: Egretta thulaSSC Tricolor heron: Egretta tricolorSSC White ibis: Eudocimus albusSSC American coot: Fulica americana Bald eagle: Haliaeetus leucocephalusT Wood stork: Mycteria americanaT Osprey: Pandion haliaetusSSC Double-crested cormorant: Phalacrocorax auritus Greater Flamingo: Phoenicopterus ruber Boat-tailed grackle: Quiscalus major

2. Mammals River otter: Lutra canadensis Raccoon: Procyon lotor Marsh rabbit: Sylvilagus palustris

3. Reptiles American crocodile: Crocodylus acutusT

4. Invertebrates a. Insects

Saltmarsh mosquito: Aedes taeniorhynchus b. Crustaceans

Blue crab: Callinectes sapidus Land crab: Gecarcinus lateralis Sand fiddler crab: Uca pugilator

For superscript by species name: C = commercially exploited, SSC = species of special concern, T = threatened. Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission listings. EX = exotic.

NAME(S): Estuary

I. INTRODUCTION A. Defined: Any area where sea water is diluted by land runoff, including semi-enclosed bodies of water with free connections to the open sea with dilution from land drainage.

B. Variation and communities supported: S. Fl estuaries include soft and hard bottom areas. Soft bottom areas range from shallow flat areas with clear water to deep unvegetated areas with turbid waters. Communities supported include sea grass, oyster reefs, and plankton and benthos communities.

1. Seagrass communities: Consist of seagrasses, and the plants and microalgae that grow on them. Provide nursery grounds for larvae of many freshwater and marine fishes. During low tide, shallow areas may become exposed as “mud banks”.

2. Oyster reefs: Unvegetated areas comprised of mounds of oysters attached to each other

3. Plankton and Benthos communities: Unvegetated communities dominated by phytoplankton, zooplankton, plankton-eating fish, and bottom (benthos) worm and bacterial organisms.

II. DISTRIBUTION Florida Bay, Biscayne Bay, and southwestern edge of the peninsula

1. Seagrass (and exposed mud bank) communities: Throughout the soft bottom areas of Biscayne Bay, Florida Bay, and the West coast. The term “mud banks” refers to the shallowest areas of seagrass in Florida Bay when they become exposed during low tide.

2. Oyster reefs: develop on hard bottom areas where salinity varies widely, especially Mouth of the Miami River and on the southwestern coast where freshwater outflows from the Everglades and Big Cypress Swamp mix with the saline water of the Gulf of Mexico. 3. Plankton and Benthos communities: Deeper soft bottom areas of Florida Bay estuary sometimes referred to as “lakes”

III. DESCRIPTION A. ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS

1. PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES

a. Seagrass communities: shallow, soft bottom clear flat areas

b. Oyster reefs: Shallow, hard bottom areas with brackish water. Oysters attach to each other, forming mounds. As mound grows, access to currents increases. c. Plankton and Benthos communities: deeper soft bottom areas with turbid water.

Area above sediment: comprised of suspended phytoplankton and zooplankton, and fish including menhaden and red drum.

In and on sediment: marine worms and bacteria, barnacles, shrimp, blue crabs, stone crab, scallops, queen conch, and spiny lobster

B. BIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS

1. GENERAL FLORAL DESCRIPTION (seagrass community only)

Seagrasses, and the plants and microalgae that grow on them make up most of the plants in the estuaries. These plants comprise the seagrass communities. The dominant species of seagrass communities in Biscayne Bay is turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum) some of the other common species include manatee grass (Syringodium filiformis), Cuban shoal weed (Halodule wrightii), and Halophila spp. Tiny microscopic plants called phytoplankton live suspended in the top layer of the plankton-benthos communities.

a. ENDEMICS

None

b. EXOTICS

None

e. DIVERSITY

Low plant diversity

2. GENERAL FAUNAL DESCRIPTION (general estuarine ecosystem)

High animal diversity.

a. Fish

There have been 512 fish species accounted for in Biscayne Bay. Some of the more notable of these include various species of sharks (Galiodea family) and rays (Myliobatidae family) and various sport or game fish including sea trout, snook, jack, flounder, black drum, red drum, bonefish, tarpon, and several varieties of snapper.

b. Birds

Birds forage for fish in the open waters, shallow perimeters, or exposed mud banks of the bay. Some of the more familiar birds include cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus), egrets and herons, brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis), bald eagle, various hawks and falcons (Buteo spp. and Falco spp.), and several smaller waterbirds and songbirds.

c. Mammals

Marine mammals include West Indies manatee and the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). Ethnohistorical reports of whales (Cetacea family) being caught eaten in the

southeastern coast indicate that they may have also frequented the bay area during prehistoric times.

d. Invertebrates

The invertebrates in estuaries include a wide variety of zooplankton as well as oysters, barnacles, shrimp, blue crabs, stone crab, scallops, queen conch, and spiny lobster. The bottom area of benthos communities supports marine worms and bacteria living in the sediment.

IV. FACTORS INFLUENCING SPECIES ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION

A. ABIOTIC FACTORS

1. Salinity (major ecological factor): organisms have to adapt to high levels of salinity and to large variations in salinity seasonally and from year to year. Salinity is affected by climate (temp and rainfall), water depth and basin configuration, and proximity to rivers or sloughs.

2. Circulation: movement of water as a result of river discharge, tidal currents, and wind keep sediment suspended and available for zooplankton. Also benefits phytoplankton by bringing them nutrients essential for photosynthesis.

3. Sediment: determines whether soft bottom or hard bottom communities will develop

B. BIOLOGY AND/OR BEHAVIOR

Estuaries serve as a sheltered nursery ground for many marine fish and invertebrate species.

V. SUCCESSION Florida Bay used to be covered with freshwater marsh and bordered by mangroves. Hurricanes and rising sea level forced succession to mud banks and sea grass beds. Bottom sediment is comprised of calcareous remains of calcite algae.

VI. HUMAN USE AND LAND COVER CHANGE A. Dredging B. Sport and commercial fishing

a. Spiny lobster b. Pink shrimp c. Striped mullet d. Blue Crab e. Tarpon f. Snook g. Mangrove snapper

SPECIES LIST FOR ESTUARIES I. PLANTS 1. Sea Grasses

Turtle grass: Thalassia testudinum Manatee Grass: Cymodacea filiforme

2. Algae Umbrella Algae: Acetabularia crenulata Green Fleece: Coduium decorticum Disk algae: Halimeda incrassata Mermaid's Shaving Brush: Penicillus captitatus Sargassum: Sargassum natans Sea lettuce: Ulva lactuca

II. ANIMALS 1. Birds

American coot: Fulica americana Osprey: Pandion haliaetusSSC Laughing gull: Larus atricilla Ring-billed gull: Larus delawarensis Royal tern: Sterna maxima Double-crested cormorant: Phalacrocorax auritus Brown pelican: Pelicanus occidentalisSSC

2. Reptiles Green sea turtle: Chelonia mydasT American crocodile: Crocodylus acutusT Loggerhead turtle: Caretta carettaT

3. Fish Bonefish: Albula vulpes Snook: Centropomus undecimalis Mangrove snapper: Lutjanus griseus Tarpon: Megalops atlanticus Mullet: Mugil cephalus Red drum: Sciaenops ocellatus Great Barracuda: Sphyraena barracuda

4. Mammals Florida manatee: Trichechus manatusT Bottle-nose dolphin: Tursiops truncatus

5. Invertebrates a. Sponges

Loggerhead sponge: Spheciospongia vesparium Vase sponge: Icinia campana

b. Jellyfish Portuguese man-of-war: Physalia physalia

c. Gastropods Horse conch: Leuroploca gigantea [state shell] Queen conch: Strombus gigasSSC

d. Bivalves Oyster: Crassotrea virginica

e. Crustaceans Blue crab: Callinectes sapidus Spiny lobster: Panulirus argus

Pink shrimp: Peneaus duorarum White shrimp: Penaeus setiferus

f. Sea urchins Long-spined sea urchin: Diadema antillarum

For superscript by species name: C = commercially exploited, SSC = species of special concern, T = threatened. Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission listings. EX = exotic.

SPECIES LIST FOR BEACHES I. PLANTS 1. Vines

Railroad vine: Ipomoea pes-caprae Seaside bean: Canavalia rosea

2. Herbs Sea oats: Uniola paniculataSSC* Beach sunflower: Helianthus debilis Saltgrass: Distichilis spicata

3. Shrubs Saw palmetto: Serenoa repens Ink berry: Scaeovola plumeiriT Spanish bayonet Yucca aloifolia

4. Trees Sea grape: Coccoloba uvifera Australian pine: Casurina equisetifoliaex

II. ANIMALS 1. Birds

Brown pelican: Pelicanus occidentalisSSC Double-crested cormorant: Phalacrocorax auritus Fish crow: Corvus ossifragus Great blue heron: Ardea herodius Laughing gull: Larus atricilla Osprey: Pandion haliaetusSSC Ring-billed gull: Larus delawarensis Royal tern: Sterna maxima Ruddy turnstone: Arenaria interpres Sanderling: Calidris alba

2. Mammals Gray fox: Urocyon cinereoargenteus Opossum: Didelphis virginiana Raccoon: Procyon lotor

3. Reptiles Green sea turtle: Chelonia mydasT Loggerhead turtle: Caretta carettaT Red rat snake: Elaphe guttata

4. Invertebrates a. Butterflies

Giant swallowtail: Heraclites cresphontes Gulf fritillary: Agraulis vanillae Monarch: Danaus plexippus Zebra: Heliconius charitonius [state butterfly]

b. Insects Black saltmarsh mosquito: Aedes taeniorhynchus Honey bee: Apis mellifera

c. Gastropods Horse conch: Pleuroploca gigantea [state shell] Queen conch: Strombus gigasSSC

d. Jellyfish

Portuguese man-of-war: Physalia physalia e. Polychaetes

Honeycomb tubeworm: Phragmatopoma lapidosa For superscript by species name: C = commercially exploited, SSC = species of special concern, T = threatened. Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission listings. EX = exotic.

NAME(S): Beaches I. INTRODUCTION

Beaches are sandy shores. Sandy shores are high-energy shores - low energy shores are dominated by Mangroves or salt marshes.

II. DISTRIBUTION High energy coastlines of the eastern edge of Barrier Islands, Fla. Keys, NW Coastal Region

III. DESCRIPTION A. ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES

a. Some areas (like Miami Beach) are referred to as “beaches”, but are actually barrier islands. Barrier islands are linear islands of sand that form parallel to the shore. Beaches experience harsh physical conditions including wind, waves, and salt spray - wind pruning. b. Beach Zonation i. upper beach and fore dune

• Open • Vine • Grass • Prickly

ii. Dune front (strand) iii. Back dune

2. GEOLOGY/SOILS Northern Florida beaches composed of quartz sands. Southern beaches composed of quartz and calcium carbonate. Quartz comes from Appalachians in SE US. Coastal plain receives little sediment. Important sources of sediment are the Apalachicola and Ochlockonee Rivers in the panhandle and the Santee, Savannah, and Altamaha Rivers in Georgia and South Carolina. Sediments of modern beaches come from reworked offshore deposits rather than directly from source areas.

3. HYDROLOGY Extremely well-drained

4. FIRE Unknown frequencies and intensities

B. BIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. GENERAL FLORAL DESCRIPTION

Over 115 different species of plants occur in this type of community. The most seaward (fore dune) beach vegetation includes railroad and morning glory vines (Ipomoea spp.), saltgrass (Distichilis spicata), Beach sunflower (Helianthus debilis), sea oats (Uniola paniculate) and sea purslane (Sesuvium portulacastrum). Some of the more common plants found farther inshore (dune front) include sea grape (Cocoloba uvifera), the inkberry (Scaevola plumieri and S. taccada), saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), and Spanish bayonet (Yucca aloifolia). The back dune vegetation includes shrubs changing to hammocks depending on age and protection.

a. ENDEMICS Include 22 taxa in Florida Cereus gracilis var. Simpsonii Helianthis debilis Jacquemontia reclinata

b. EXOTICS Casurina equisetifolia: Australian pine Scaevola plumieri and S. taccada: inkberry Schinus terebinthifolius: Brazilian pepper

c. DIVERSITY

Relatively low diversity 2. GENERAL FAUNAL DESCRIPTION Animal species diversity is relatively high, especially birds. The most abundant of the animals found in these beaches includes several birds such as terns (Sterna spp.), gulls (Larus spp.), and plovers (Charadrius spp.), land crabs, land hermit crabs, raccoons and opossum. The green sea turtle (Cheloniamydas) uses the beaches for nesting of its eggs. IV. FACTORS INFLUENCING SPECIES ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION A. ABIOTIC FACTORS

Wind, waves and longshore currents are the primary forces that shape the topography and influence the distribution of vegetation on the beach. The wind causes sand shifting and salt sprays to which vegetation must adapt to in order to survive. Waves cause erosion, accretion, and overwash, shaping the contours of the barrier islands. Also significant are tidal action and seasonal hurricanes.

V. SUCCESSION Hammock species such as Metopium toxiferum, Swietenia mahogoni and Bursera simarouba, and Dipholis salicifolia increase in the absence of fire.

VI. HUMAN USE AND LAND COVER CHANGE Very few plants and animals used by prehistoric and Native American Indian populations, but uses included food and medicines. Some used plants included seven year apple, cocoplum, sea purslane, green briar, sea oats, muscadine grape, and Spanish bayonet. Mostly small mammals caught on the beach and used for food and pelts. Urbanization and the development of tourism have greatly modified the beaches. Dredging of Biscayne Bay has accelerated the erosion of the beaches. Several exotics used in landscaping such as Australian pine tree and Brazilian pepper.

SPECIES LIST FOR MARINE ECOSYSTEMS I. PLANTS 1. Algae

Umbrella Algae: Acetabularia crenulata Green Fleece: Coduium decorticum Disk algae: Halimeda incrassata Mermaid's Shaving Brush: Penicillus captitatus Sargassum: Sargassum natans Sea lettuce: Ulva lactuca

II. ANIMALS 1. Birds

Osprey: Pandion haliaetusSSC Royal tern: Sterna maxima Double-crested cormorant: Phalacrocorax auritus Brown pelican: Pelicanus occidentalisSSC

2. Mammals Florida manatee: Trichechus manatusT Bottle-nose dolphin: Tursiops truncatus

3. Reptiles Green sea turtle: Chelonia mydasT Loggerhead turtle: Caretta carettaT

4. Fish Mangrove snapper: Lutjanus griseus Tarpon: Megalops atlanticus Mullet: Mugil cephalus Great Barracuda: Sphyraena barracuda Atlantic Sailfish: Istiophorus platypterus

5. Invertebrates a. Sponges

Loggerhead sponge: Spheciospongia vesparium Vase sponge: Icinia campana

b. Corals Common sea fan: Gorgonia ventalina Elkhorn coral: Acropora palmata Finger coral: Porites porites Grooved brain coral: Diploria labyrinthiformis Staghorn coral: Acropora cervicornis Star coral: Montastrea annularis Starlet coral: Siderastrea radians

c. Jellyfish Portuguese man-of-war: Physalia physalia

d. Gastropods Horse conch: Leuroploca gigantean [state shell] Queen conch: Strombus gigasSSC

e. Crustaceans Spiny lobster: Panulirus argus Pink shrimp: Peneaus duorarum White shrimp: Penaeus setiferus

f. Sea urchins Long-spined sea urchin: Diadema antillarum

For superscript by species name: C = commercially exploited, SSC = species of special concern, T = threatened. Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission listings. EX = exotic.

NAME(S): Marine (Offshore) Ecosystem I. INTRODUCTION

A. Types of offshore ecosystems in South Florida 1. Seagrass: Consist of seagrasses, and the plants and microalgae that grow on them. 2. Live bottom: Sessile plant and animal community anchored onto a solid, sediment-free hard surface. 3. Reefs

a. Coral Reefs: Defined: Coral reefs represent conglomerates of coral colonies and their associated biota. The S. Fl. coral reefs began their growth between 5,000 to 7,000 B.P. Since then, they have grown vertically at rates ranging from 2-15 feet per 1000 years. a. Types of Coral Reefs in S. Fla.

i. Bank reefs ii. Patch reefs

b. Corals belong to the animal Phylum called Cnidaria, which also includes anemones and jellyfish. c. Corals in S. Florida include members of the Hydrozoan and Anthozoan classes of Cnidaria.

b. Worm reefs Defined: consist of tubes made out of sand grains, which have been cemented together with protein by the tropical marine worm Phragmatopoma lapidosa.

c. Vermetid reefs Defined: consist of reefs built by the Petaloconchus worm-like gastropod mollusk

II. DISTRIBUTION 1. Seagrass: from inshore estuarine areas to deeper coral reef tracts 2. Live bottom: widely distributed on solid hard surfaces found anywhere from inshore ecosystems to the edge of the continental shelf. 3. All coral reefs are found on Atlantic Ocean side, and in the Florida Straits.

a. Bank reefs: 7.4-13 km seaward of Fla. Keys b. Patch reefs: found intermingled with bank reefs south and seaward of the barrier islands in depths of about two to nine meters.

4. Worm reefs: occur in waters less than ten meters deep from Cape Canaveral southward to Key Biscayne. 5. Vermetid reefs: shallow offshore bars found on Western coast on the side of the Gulf of Mexico

III. DESCRIPTION A. ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES

a. Seagrass: shallow, clear flat areas with deep layer of sediment b. Live Bottom: hard bottom with little to no sediment c. Bank reefs: characterized by a series of reef formations several hundred meters in length, which may extend laterally for one to two kilometers, paralleling the coastline. The formations are usually aligned perpendicular to the coast, facing into the predominant wind-sea direction. d. Patch reefs: characterized by a circular contour, which ranges from 30 meters to 700 meters in diameter.

B. BIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION

a. Seagrass: The dominant species of seagrass communities is turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum) some of the other common species include manatee grass (Syringodium filiformis), Cuban shoal weed (Halodule wrightii), and Halophila spp.

b. Live Bottom: Widely variable fauna are supported depending on depth and bottom surface. Dominant flora includes green, red, and brown algae. Dominant fauna include sponges, soft corals, hard stony corals, echinoderms, and worms. c. Coral Reefs:

• Bank reefs The stony mustard hill and elkhorn coral are the most common species of coral found in shallow bank reefs. Deep (37-40 meter depths) sections of bank reefs are dominated by a wide variety of other forms of stony corals. • Patch reefs The upper central portions of patch reefs are usually occupied by dense populations of various soft corals. The margins of the reef are dominated by hard stony corals. Areas directly adjacent to patch reefs tend to be barren due to the grazing of algae and sea grasses by the herbivores that live in the reefs. The stony star coral is one of the most abundant of the hard corals found in these reefs.

♣ Types of Corals in South Florida • Hydrozoan corals: carnivorous stinging and digesting zooids

♦ Fire coral: stinging coral that secretes a limestone skeleton. External tissues contain yellow-green zooxanthellae, an algae that supplements the coral’s food resource and processes their waste products. Include bladed and crenulated fire coral.

• Anthozoan corals: carnivorous polyps which resemble anemones ♦ Stony coral: members of the Scleractinia subclass of corals. They are reef building corals that secrete a calcium carbonate exoskeleton. All have polyps with six tentacles. All stony corals contain zooxanthellae. A highly diverse group that includes elkhorn, star, and brain coral. ♦ Soft coral: members of the Octocorrollia subclass of corals. All have polyps with eight tentacles. Some have hard exoskeleton, some do not. Some soft corals contain zooxanthellae, some do not. Includes sea whips, sea plumes, sea fans and various “soft” corals.

2. BIODIVERSITY a. Seagrass Low plant diversity, with high faunal diversity, supporting a large number of herbivores from invertebrates, fish, and marine reptiles. b. Live Bottom Low floral diversity. High faunal diversity including sponges, soft corals, hard stony corals, crustaceans, octopi, echinoderms, and marine worms. c. Coral Reefs Among the highest biodiversity of all ecosystems in the world. Molluscs (1200), crustaceans (500), marine worms (450), fish (450), sponges (120), echinoderms (75), stony corals (63), algae (60), soft corals (42), birds (40). Fish include grunts, tiger shark, lemon shark, and sharpnose flying fish, barracuda, porgies, jacks, and groupers, snapper, and parrot fish. d. Worm reefs: Support lobster and various fish species. In addition, the reefs provide a safe haven that serves as a nursery for many coastal fish. e. Vermetid reefs: Algae, sponges, soft corals, stony corals, stone crabs, and a wide variety of fish.

IV. FACTORS INFLUENCING SPECIES ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION A. ABIOTIC FACTORS

Light, warm temperature, clear water, saline water, low turbidity, and nutrient-poor waters. Hurricanes are natural enemies.

B. BIOLOGY AND/OR BEHAVIOR Mutualistic relationship between coral and zooxanthellae, comensalism and mutualism interrelationships common between fish with other fish and with invertebrates.

V. HUMAN USE AND LAND COVER CHANGE Extractive exploitation, excessive nutrients, ship grounding, some fishing practices (trawling, overfishing), and excessive recreational use.

NAME(S): Lake Okeechobee watershed I. INTRODUCTION

Lake Okeechobee is the largest lake in the southeastern United States. Modern Area of Lake Okeechobee about 700 square miles and an average diameter of 30 miles. Water depth average 13.5 to 15.5 feet (artificially managed). Connected to a broad watershed network of rivers, lakes, creeks, wetlands, and drainage areas to the north, beginning with Lake Tohopekaliga just south of Orlando. It’s annual flooding into the Everglades made Lake Okeechobee the hydrologic hub of the South Florida Ecosystem. It is now a completely managed hydrological system threatened by overuse, contamination, and poor water management.

Origins: Lake Okeechobee is originated as a meteor crater. Evidence indicates that a bedrock trough formed in south Florida’s interior a greater subsidence of thick underlying Miocene clays that contrasted to the substantial limestone and sand deposit. Bedrock trough formed by subsidence of underlying clays about 6000 YA Peat deposits show that wetlands occupied parts of the youthful lake basin for about 2000 years.

II. DISTRIBUTION Bordered by Okeechobee and Martin Counties to the north and northeast, Glades and Hendry Counties to the northwest and southwest, and Palm Beach County to the southeast.

III. DESCRIPTION A. ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS

1. PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES Deepest spot of bedrock trough – 1 foot below sea level east of the lake’s center. The southern rim is the highest spot. Here, bedrock is 7 feet above sea level with an additional 13-14 feet of peat accumulated on top to reach a maximum elevation of 20-21 feet above sea level. Elevation slopes downward from southern rim to about 10 feet above sea level by approximately 40 miles south, allowing the historical overflow of water from Lake Okeechobee to flow in a south- southwest direction as sheet flow. In addition, flooding during rainy season historically extended the edges of the lake in all directions except the higher elevation area on the northeast corner.

2. GEOLOGY/SOILS Basin: Clay substrate covered with soft peat soils and sand from ancient beach ridges of central Florida. Surrounding soils: peat (partially decomposed organic material) and muck (highly decomposed organic material).

3. HYDROLOGY Original Water sources that filled the lake came from rainfall, the Kissimmee River, Lake Istokpoga Discharge, Fisheating Creek, Taylor Creek, and Nubbin Slough. The original water flow out of the lake included the sheet flow of water flowing over the rims of the lake and flow from 17 “dead rivers” in the southern half of the lake. These rivers became gradually shallower southward, narrowing and dividing into smaller streams that ended within a few miles.

B. BIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. GENERAL FLORAL DESCRIPTION

All rooted, floating, and submerged vegetation is found distributed along 30 named littoral zone communities including the willow, beakrush, sawgrass, waterlily, bulrush, and submerged communities. The Pelagic zone supports only planktonic vegetation, which is suspended in the water column. Check Table 11.3 Ecologically important Littoral Zone Plants of Lake Okeechobee

a. ENDEMICS None

b. EXOTICS Common water hyacinth: Eichhornia crassipes Waterthyme: Hydrilla verticillata Torpedograss: Panicum repens Bladderworts: Ulticularia spp. Melaleuca: Melaleuca quinquenervia

2. GENERAL FAUNAL DESCRIPTION a. Vertebrates Fish, birds, and reptiles are common. Fish include 40 freshwater species and at least 8 marine species, likely introduced since the opening of canals to coastal areas. Some of the marine species include tarpon, snook, striped mullet, and Atlantic needledfish. Additional new fish include 15 aquarium species and the grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), which was introduced to control exotic aquatics. Most of the fish use the littoral zone as a nursery, but only a few (like the mosquitofish) remain there their whole life. Very few fish live their entire life in the open pelagic zone, including channel catfish and threadfin shad. Other abundant animals include wading birds and raptors common to the marshes of the Everglades. Snail kites and wintering ducks such as huge number of lesser scaups are common in the lake pelagic zone.. The Florida manatee is also a recent introduction into the lake, made possible by the opening of canals to the coastal waters. b. Invertebrates: Most invertebrates are benthic, living in or on the bottom sediment of the lake. These include mollusks, crustaceans, oligochaetes (aquatic worms). Other invertebrates include gastropods like the apple snail and insect larvae that breed in the water surface, such as mosquitoes.

IV. FACTORS INFLUENCING SPECIES ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION A. ABIOTIC FACTORS

Water depth, water clarity, phosphorus and nitrogen levels all influence the abundance and distribution of vegetation, which subsequently influences the abundance and distribution of fish. Water Quality Phosphorus input increased since 1900 due to agriculture.- Read page 150-153

B. BIOLOGY AND/OR BEHAVIOR Use of the bulrush community in the littoral zone as an important nursery ground by most

fish species. V. SUCCESSION

Lake-->Marsh-->Swamp-->Hammock (?)

VI. HUMAN USE AND LAND COVER CHANGE Drainage and water diversion efforts of the 19th and 20th century have been the most significant, but commercial and sport fishing, development, and pollution (mostly agricultural) are also important.

Drainage and water diversion efforts of the 19th and 20th century: 1881: First significant changes to hydrology of Lake Okeechobee begin with State of Florida supported efforts of Hamilton Disston to drain Kissimmee River region and Lake Okeechobee. Early 1900’s: Flood control and navigation projects building dikes around flood prone areas and constructing canals to empty Lake Okeechobee 1930’s: Building of limerock levee surrounding Lake Okeechobee, and dredging of deep navigation channels to create the “Okeechobee Waterway” 1948: Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood Control and Other Purposes creates massive water-control system, which is what is in place today

SPECIES LIST FOR LAKE OKEECHOBEE AND WATERSHED

I. PLANTS (LITTORAL ZONE)

1. Emergent Plants Giant bulrush: Scirpus californicus Spikerush: Eleocharis cellulosa Tracy’s beaksedge: Rhynchospoa tracyi

Saw grass: Cladium mariscus Bluejoint panicum: Panicum tenerum Sand cordgrass: Spartina bekeri

Duck-potato (Bulltongue arrowhead): Sagittaria lancifolia Pickerelweed: Pontederia cordata Dotted smartweed: Polygonum punctum

Southern cattail: Typha domingensis Broadleaf cattail: Typha latifolia Sweetscent (camphorweed): Pluchea odorata

Leather fern: Acrostichum danaeifoliumT

2. Shrubs and trees Coastplain (swamp) willow: Salix caroliniana Buttonbush: Cephalanthus occidentalis Maleleuca: Malaleuca quinquevernia

Bald cypress: Taxodium distichum Swamp primrose: Ludwigia octovalvis

3. Floating species White waterlily: Nymphaea odorata Yellow waterlily: Nymphea mexicana American lotus: Nelumbo nutea

Bladderwort: Urticularia spp. Common water hyacynth: Eichornea crassipesEX Torpedograss: Panicum repens

Spatterdock: Nuphar lutea

4. Submerged species Illinois pondweed: Potamogeton illinoensis American eelgrass (tapegrass): Vallisneria americana Hydrilla (waterthyme): Hydrilla verticillataEX

I. ANIMALS

1. Birds American coot: Fulica americana Anhinga: Anhinga anhinga

White ibis: Eudocimus albusSSC Bald eagle: Haliaeetus leucocephalusT

Common moorhen: Gallinula chloropus Double-crested cormorant: Phalacrocorax auritus

Great blue heron: Ardea herodius Great egret: Casmerodius albus Muscovy duck: Cairina moschataEX

Green-backed heron: Butorides striatus Wood stork: Mycteria americanaT Little blue heron: Egretta caeruleaSSC

Osprey: Pandion haliaetusSSC Snowy egret: Egretta thulaSSC Tricolor heron: Egretta tricolorSSC

Pied-billed grebe: Podilymbus podiceps White ibis: Eudocimus albusSSC

2. Amphibians Green tree frog: Hyla cinera Leopard frog: Rana sphaerocephala

3. Reptiles American alligator: Alligator mississipiensisSSC

Black racer: Coluber constrictor Florida cooter: Pseudemys floridana Florida softshell: Apalone ferox

Water moccasin: Agkistrodon piscivorus

4. Mammals River otter: Lutra Canadensis

Florida manatee: Trichechus manatus

5. Fish Blue tilpia: Tilapia niloticusEX Chinese grass carp: Ctenopharyngodon idellaEX Florida Gar: Lepisoteus platyrhincus

Largemouth bass: Micropterus salmoides[state fw fish] Mosquitofish: Gambusia affinis Oscar: Astronotus ocellatusEX

Spotted sunfish: Lepomis punctatus Walking catfish: Clarias batrachusEX

6. Invertebrates a. Crustacean Crayfish: Procambus alleni

b. Gastropods Apple snail: Pomacea paludosa c. Insects

Freshwater Mosquito: Psorophora confinnis

BIOGEOGRAPHY OF MODERN BIOTA:

GEOGRAPHICAL ORIGINS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF SOUTH FLORIDA

I. Composition of South Florida flora: includes vegetation that is native to S. Florida and vegetation introduced by humans, but reproducing in the wild outside of cultivation.

A. South Florida (south of Lake Okeechobee) supports about 1650 species of vascular plants with roots and stems.

B. About 65% of the South Florida flora is herbaceous

C. 35% of the South Florida flora is woody

II. Origins of the flora A. Prior to 5,000 years ago biota was temperate (not tolerant of extreme cold or heat)

B. Today: 60% of South Florida vascular flora (roots and stems) is of tropical origin

56% of the South Florida vascular flora also exists throughout the Caribbean

C. 40% of the South Florida vascular flora is temperate with origins in the southeastern coastal plains of the United States

D. 9% of the South Florida vascular flora is found only in Florida (endemic)

II. Herbaceous VS Woody Flora

A. The majority of South Florida flora is herbaceous (grasses, epiphytes, marine flora)

1. 65% of South Florida flora is herbaceous

About half of the herbaceous flora is of tropical origin

2. 35% of South Florida flora is woody (shrubs and trees)

B. Woody trees are the most likely type of vegetation to be of tropical origins

1. About 77% of the woody flora is of tropical origin

2. In South Florida, about 88% of trees have tropical origins

III. Tropical flora Dispersal mechanism (introduction into S. Florida) is mostly by wind, water, animals (mostly by birds), and humans

A. Tropical Trees 1. Distribution

a. Most tropical trees in South Florida are also found in the West Indies

b. Most species occur in hardwood hammocks

c. Four species found in mangrove swamps; 3 mangroves + buttonwood

d. Two species found in freshwater wetlands; pond apple and cocoplum

2. Dispersal mechanism

a. Seeds of hammock trees transported largely by birds

i. white-crowned pigeon documented to carry seeds of over 20 tropical hammock tree species from West Indies into South Florida

ii. West Indian mahogany is an example of a wind-dispersed species

b. Seeds of coastal trees transported largely by water (flotation) via ocean currents

c. Seeds of freshwater wetland tree species dispersed mostly by animals

i. found in tropical West Africa and tropical America

ii. Dispersal range is beyond that of flotation or birds

B. Palms 1. In General

a. Universally recognized as tropical, but some have a temperate range

b. Most widely recognized species is the coconut palm

Not a native to southern Florida

c. Most palms produce small fruits eaten and dispersed by birds and mammals

2. South Florida palms

a. Eleven species of palm are native to Florida

• Three restricted to central and northern Florida • Eight occur in southern Florida • Four occur in the Everglades habitats: royal palm, cabbage palm, saw

palmetto, and paurotis (Everglades) palm

C. Epiphytes: plants that grow upon other plants (not parasites)

1. Ferns

a. 100 species of ferns found in Florida a. 60% of Florida ferns are of tropical origin and limited to South Florida b. spores are transported by wind

c. found in damp and dark areas of hammocks, swamps, stream, river and lake sides

d. grow on trees with rough bark, dead logs, rocky walls of solution holes

2. Bromeliads (air plants): relatives of the pineapple – thus, also known as – “air-pines”

a. normally epiphytic, but may grow on the ground if they fall

b. best known species is Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneoides) – not a tropical species

c. Most of Florida’s other 15 bromeliads are tropical and limited to South Florida

d. Seeds transported by wind

e. Most commonly found in hammocks and cypress swamps

3. Orchids

a. Tropical and temperate species

i. South Florida supports mainly tropical species

Mostly epiphytic species

Most common species is the butterfly orchid

ii. Northern Florida supports mainly temperate species

Mostly terrestrial species

b. Dispersal and reproduction

i. Tiny seeds are transported into South Florida by wind from West Indies (Cuba)

ii. Many tropical orchids require pollination by specific insects to reproduce

iii. Absence of these insects in South Florida prevents some species from becoming established in places where wind transported seeds

iv. Most species native to South Florida are self pollinators (avoid need of specialized pollinators)

c. Found mostly in hammocks and cypress swamps

D. Marine flora 1. All of southern Florida’s marine flora came from the West Indies region on ocean currents

2. Many tropical algae

3. Only seven species of tropical marine grasses most prominent Thalassia testudinum (turtle grass) followed by shoalweed (Halodule wrightii) and manatee grass (Syringodium filiforme)

V. Temperate flora

A. Trees 1. Bald cypress Taxodium distichum floating seeds (wetlands)

2. Red maple Acer rubrum and willow Salix caroliniana wind-blown seeds (wetlands)

3. Live oak Quercus virginiana, sweet bay Magnolia virginica and red bay Persea borbonia animal dispersed (dry to wet hammocks)

B. Marsh vegetation 1. Mostly dispersed by wind and water

2. Many floras are not of tropical or temperate affinity (ie. Cladium jamaicense sawgrass)

a. Adapted to resist adverse conditions

VI. Fauna A. Most terrestrial and freshwater fauna is of temperate origin (except for lower keys)

In prehistoric times, animals migrated into Florida from South and Central Americas

B. Birds are of mixed tropical and temperate origin

C. Marine animals are mostly of tropical origin

INVERTEBRATES I. Defined

Animals without a backbone Include all animals except fishes, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds

II. Marine Invertebrates: jellyfish, spiny lobster, starfish, corals . . . A. Most marine invertebrates have planktonic larval forms dispersed by ocean currents. This prevents them from having to crawl or swim through tropical waters to get to South Florida waters. Fishing regulations need to consider effect of complex larval movements on population size and distribution. B. Most marine animals in South Florida waters are of tropical origin, but some invertebrates are found in warm waters of further north

• Blue crab and pink shrimp found in north US C. Florida Bay and mangrove swamps in Everglades National Park are extremely important nursery grounds for pink shrimp

• Freshwater discharges from Shark River Slough are important to success of pink shrimp harvests III. Freshwater Invertebrates Their origins are mostly from temperate North America freshwater. The Everglades does not have a high diversity of freshwater invertebrates due to limited habitats and stressful conditions such as seasonal drying and high summertime temperatures. However, the 174 different kinds of invertebrates found in the Everglades are very important in the local food chain

A. Apple snail: tropical; found in wetlands, lakes, and rivers 1. Extracts oxygen from water and air

• From water using gills • From air using a siphon and a lung-like chamber

2. Browses on submerged algae 3. Most abundant in or near shallow water of long hydroperiod with abundant vegetation.

• Avoid open water and depths greater than 20 inches (lack of plant stems to climb) • Deposits eggs on plant stems 6-8 inches above water line • Eggs are intolerant of submergence • Baby apple snails must enter water immediately • Adult apple snails can tolerate moderate dry periods

4. Important prey for young alligators and birds (snail kite and limpkin) B. Seminole Rams Horn (flattened coil) and Mesa Rams-Horn (slightly raised flat-topped spire)

1. Florida endemics; found in Everglades; shells are good markers for soils developed in freshwater 2. Browse on algae 3. Found in short hydroperiod marshes and in permanently flooded habitats

• More drought tolerant than apple snail • Burrows in moist soil

4. Can disperse quickly by riding onm underside of water surface (needs deeper water) 5. Prey for redear sunfish the “shellcracker”

C. Crayfish 1. General

• 50 species in Florida • 5 Species in South Florida • Two species found in the Everglades

• Everglades’s crayfish and Slough crayfish • • Prey for at least 40 vertebrate animals including largemouth bass, pig frogs, young alligators, and all wading birds, particularly the white ibis

2. Everglades crayfish • Adapted to dry/wet hydroperiod of the everglades • Lives in underground burrows during dry season

• Browses on algae during wet season • Female carries eggs at the end of dry season • Young crayfish emerge and populate flooded marshes at the beginning of the wet season • Important prey for wading birds at beginning of wet season in short hydroperiod areas

3. Slough crayfish • Found in deeper more permanently flooded areas • May have only recently invaded the Everglades due to canals and more permanent deeper water of impounded water conservation areas

D. Riverine Grass shrimp and Side-Swimmer Amphipod Keystone species due to importance in food chain

1. Grass shrimp • One species (Palaemonetes paludosus) dominant in the Everglades • Drought intolerant; uncommon in short hydroperiod areas • Abundant in permanently flooded areas • Feed by shredding dead plant material • Important prey for all freshwater fish • Most freshwater wading birds do not eat them due to small size and hard to see qualities

2. Side swimmer (scud) amphipod • Resemble a miniature shrimp without a tail • One species (Hyalella azteca) in the Everglades • Population density can be low to very high (9000 per square yard) • Feed on periphyton • Are prey for aquatic invertebrates and small fish

E. Aquatic insects Many are primarily aquatic, but retain ability to fly and relocate when their environment dries up Most species inhabit wet environment only as larvae

1. Dragonflies: over a dozen species found in the Everglades • Require water during larval stage • Predatory and cannibalistic larva • Important prey for young alligators, birds, fish

2. Hemipterans: stinging predatory true bugs • Alligator flea and electric light bug

3. Other pesky invertebrates • Flies, mosquitoes, midges and no-see-ums • Important prey in the food chain

F. Freshwater Invertebrate Species List See Lodge

IV. Terrestrial Invertebrates A. Spiders

1. Most spiders in Florida Keys are of tropical origin • Migrated from west Indies thru “ballooning”

2. Spiders in the South Florida mainland are a combination of temperate and tropical spiders B. Scorpions

Two scorpions found in South Florida • Brown centruoides: (Centruoides gracilis) – dark brown, 5 inches long, lives on ground under leaf litter, stones and logs • Centruoides hentzi: light tan, less than 3 inches long, lives under loose bark of dead trees

C. Butterflies Butterflies may depend on a particular food plant for larval development

• Zebra butterfly and passion flower; atala buttefly and coontie; Schaus’ swallowtail and torchwood • The food plants often have properties that help caterpillars fend of predators

D. Florida tree snails: tropical, over 50 varieties known (affiliated with particular hammocks?) 1. Restricted to southernmost extreme of Florida 2. Feed on small epiphytes like lichens and on tropical hammock trees 3. Dispersal to Florida a mystery

VERTEBRATES: FRESHWATER, MARINE, AND ESTUARINE FISHES

I. Freshwater Fishes

A. Classified according to saltwater tolerance 1. Primary freshwater

a. Species intolerant of salty water and unable to stray into estuaries b. All South Florida native primary freshwater fish originate from temperate North America

• Largemouth bass, bluegills, redear sunfish, golden shiners, and yellow bullheads common in Everglades

2. Secondary freshwater fish a. Some tolerance to salt water with ability to live there temporarily b. Colonize new areas swimming from mouth of one to river to another through interconnecting estuaries, coastal wetlands, or seawater c. 8 species; mostly killifishes and relatives

3. Peripheral freshwater fish a. Live most or all of their lives in marine waters, but regularly move or stray into freshwater b. 80 South Florida species

• Eel, tarpon, snook B. Florida Gar

Read about it in Lodge C. Importance to food chain

1. Herbivores: shiner, sailfin molly, least killifish, flagfish 2. Small Carnivores (invertebrate feeders): topminnows, marsh killifish, mosquitofish 3. Larger Carnivores (fish eaters): Florida gar, warmouth and largemouth bass 4. All fish are prey for other predators

D. Importance of population size and distribution on food chain 1. Hydropattern important factor in survival, breeding, and distribution

a. killifishes and mosquitofish most likely to survive extreme dry season b. fish who require deeper water for spawning need unrestricted access to open expanses of marsh during dry season

E. Representative Freshwater Fish Species List See Lodge

II. Marine and Estuarine Fish A. Diversity and abundance

1. Very high diversity and abundance important to food chain (esp. birds) 2. Deeper waters surrounding peninsula, Gulf of Mexico, bays and estuaries together support at least 1000 species 3. Near-shore waters support over 500 species 4. Species composition includes fish of tropical and temperate origins 5. Coral reef habitats support the greatest diversity of fish - 517 species 6. Inshore waters support marine and peripheral freshwater fish

B. Dispersal mechanism Many tropical species migrate from tropic in larval form dispersed by ocean currents, particularly the Florida Current

C. Game Fish and Mullet Read about them in Lodge

D. Representative Marine and Estuarine Fish Species List See Lodge

VERTEBRATES:

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES

I. Amphibians: salt water and drought intolerant

A. Life Cycle 1. Eggs laid in freshwater

2. Tadpoles live only in fresh water

3. Adults can be fully aquatic or partly terrestrial

Sirens are completely aquatic

Toads and treefrogs live on land or vegetation as adults

B. Dispersal Patterns 1. No tropical amphibians have become established in Florida

2. Most of native amphibian species found in South Florida also found throughout southeastern United States

3. Pig frog restricted to extreme southeast (including all of Florida)

4. More amphibians could probably live in South Florida marsh environment IF they could get here, but adverse conditions exist between southeastern woodlands and South Florida marshes prevents it

C. Two-toed amphiuma (congo eel) and the Greater Siren 1. Over 3 feet in length, prey on clams, snails, crayfish, and small tadpoles

2. During dry season they bury themselves in the mud

3. Have a powerful bite

4. Hunted by mud snake

D. Pig Frog 1. Economic and food interest

2. Highly camouflaged deep water dweller

E. Amphibian Diversity and Abundance 1. Low diversity (15 species), but high abundance in wet season

2. May be important prey in areas of short hydroperiod (fast maturing rate)

F. Everglades Amphibian Species List

See Lodge

II. Reptiles A. Salt and drought tolerance

1. Some species salt water tolerant

Sea turtles live in marine environments

Alligators and some freshwater turtles can live in estuarine or marine environments temporarily

2. Many reptiles are drought tolerant

Many reptiles can live in desert environments

B. Origins 1. Most South Florida reptiles are from temperate North America

All native terrestrial and freshwater species are allied to temperate North America except for green anole and reef gecko 2. Very few of the South Florida reptiles are of tropical origins

Most tropical reptiles are marine

American crocodile, green turtle, loggerhead turtle

A few other reptiles arrive from tropics by “rafting” on floating objects

Yet other reptiles arrive from tropics introduced by humans

C. Habits Most reptiles are highly secretive and difficult to see

Exceptions include the American alligator, redbelly turtle and Florida softshell turtle

D. Snakes 1. Many species, including terrestrial and aquatic species

2. Many snakes are poisonous

Eastern coral snake, eastern diamondback, pygmy rattler, Florida cottonmouth

Rattlers and Florida cottonmouth have become less common, but still represent a danger to hikers – use caution

E. American alligator: freshwater species found throughout Florida, temperate tolerant, black in color

1. Predation

Eggs and infants are prey to raccoons, otters, largemouth bass, and large water fowl

Juvenile alligators prey mostly on invertebrates – snails, crayfish, and blue crabs

Teen alligators (6 feet long) feed on birds, mammals, turtles, snakes

Large adult alligators are top predators and feed on most anything

2. Protected status

Over hunting in 1950’ and 60’s led to it being listed as endangered in 1966

Due to population rebound alligator was removed from the endangered species list, but hunting remains strictly regulated

3. Alligator holes (centuries old?)

Important for water birds

Help maintain some fish and invertebrates during dry season

Most alligator holes remain flooded except during periods of severe droughts

F. American crocodile: brackish to salt water habitat; exclusively tropical; olive green to brown in color

1. Almost completely confined to brackish and salt waters of the southern tip of Florida

2. Crocodiles achieve same size as alligators, but are shyer

3. Crocodile snout is tapered and comes to a narrower tip than that of the alligator

4. Crocodiles do not build ponds like the alligator

5. Crocodile are prey to same animals as alligator and also to additional marine fish

6. American crocodile was listed as endangered in 1975

7. Protection led to an increase from 20 nesting crocodiles in South Florida in 1975 to 50 today

G. Everglades Reptile Species List

See Lodge