ecology and animal behavior ecological interactions affect how organisms evolve, and evolutionary...
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Ecology and Animal Behavior
Ecological interactions affect how organisms evolve, and evolutionary
change in turn affects ecological relationships.
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EcologyEcology• the study of the relationships between organisms and their environment + two types of interactions
- biotic (living)- abiotic (nonliving)
+ levels of study- population, community, ecosystem, biosphere
• Population Ecology + population: group of individuals all of the same species living in the same area
- describing abundance/distribution of populations + size (total number of individuals = N) + density (total number of individuals per area/volume) + dispersion (clumped, uniform, random)
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Age Structure
Sweden- relatively stable population growthMexico- rapidly growing populationUnited States- relatively stable population growth
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Survivorship Curves
Type I: most individuals die oldType II: length of survivorship is randomType III: most individuals die young
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Population GrowthBiotic potential• maximum growth rate of population under ideal conditions + bacteria divide every 20 minutes + elephants require 2 year gestation period
- factors + age at reproductive maturity + clutch size + frequency of reproduction + reproductive lifetime + survivorship of offspring to maturity
Carrying Capacity (K)• maximum number of individuals a population can sustain + limiting factors
- elements that prevent a population from attaining its biotic potential
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Density-dependent FactorsDensity-dependent factor• intensifies as population increases + reduce the population growth by decreasing reproduction or by increasing mortality
- parasites/disease, competition,predation, stress
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Density-independent FactorsDensity-independent factor• occurs independently of population; unrelated to population size + natural disasters and extremes of climate
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Calculating Growth Rater = births - deaths
Nr = reproductive/growth ratebirths - deaths = net increase of individuals
N • r = births - deaths
ΔN = r • NΔt
represents the change in the number of individuals over a given time
When r is… positive (rmax = intrinsic rate) population size will increase negative, population size will decreasezero, population size remains constant (ZPG)
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Exponential Growth
J-shaped curve
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Logistic GrowthLogistic Growth• occurs when limitingfactors restrict the sizeof the population to the carrying capacity (K)
ΔN = r • N (K - N)Δt K
• as population increases,r decreases until N = K, and r = 0
S-shaped/sigmoid curve
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Life-history Strategies
k selected and r selected species• k selected (prudent or equilibrial populations) + produce small numbers of young; lots of parental care
- long life expectancy strategy + consequences
- increased probability of long term survival- slow to recuperate numbers when population is reduced
• r selected (prodigal or opportunistic populations) + produce many young; very little parental care
- short life expectancy strategy + consequences
- can recuperate numbers quickly following population crash- lead risky lives
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Generation Time and Body Size
Which organisms are…r selected?k selected?
What about in the plant kingdom?
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Community EcologyCommunity Ecology• looking at the interactions between populations + interspecific/intraspecific interactions
- interactions between populations of different/same species- positive (+), negative (-), or neutral (0)
+ types- Competition- Predation- Symbiosis
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CompetitionCompetition (-/-)• interaction between individual organisms that use the same resources present in limited supply
- niche: set of resources/conditions necessary for survival + organism’s role/job in the community- intraspecific/interspecific competition + same/different species- types + Interference Competition
- animals: overt fighting; plants: secretion of toxins + Exploitative Competition
- removal of a resource- Competitive Exclusion Principle- G.F. Gause, Russian biologist
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PredationPredation (+/-)• eating of live or freshly killed organisms + predators eat prey + parasitism
- specialized predators do not actually kill prey (host) + Three hypotheses
- When prey population decreases, predator population decreases;When predator population decreases, prey population increases- Prey populations may undergo a regular cycle- Predator populations may undergo a regular cycle
+ Defense against Predators- cryptic coloration (camouflage)- aposematic coloration (warning coloration)- mimicry
+ Batesian (harmless species mimics harmful model)+ Mullerian (harmful species resemble each other)
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SymbiosisSymbiosis • close and long term association between organisms of two species + Mutualism (+/+)
- both organisms benefit from the interaction + mycorrhizae, lichens
+ Commensalism (+/0)- one species benefits, but other is unaffected + remora-shark relationship
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Community Composition and the Question of Stability
Disturbances• events, such as storms, fire, floods, droughts, overgrazing, etc. + damage community, remove organisms, alter resource availability
- communities are usually in a state of recoveryEcological Succession• change in the composition of species over time + climax community
- final successional stage of constant species composition + changes that induce succession
- substrate texture- soil pH- soil water potential- light availability- crowding
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Primary Succession
Primary Succession• occurs on substrates that neverpreviously supported living things + succession on rock or lava
- lichens- bacteria, protists, mosses- insects, other arthropods- r-selected species of plants- k-selected species of plants
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Secondary SuccessionSecondary Succession• begins in habitats where communities were destroyed by disturbances + abandoned cropland
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EcosystemsTrophic Levels• Primary producers + autotrophs (plants, protists, cyanobacteria, chemosynthetic bacteria)• Primary consumers + herbivores• Secondary consumers + primary carnivores• Tertiary consumers + secondary carnivores• Detritivores + decomposers (fungi, bacteria, earthworms, insects, scavengers)
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Pyramid of Energy
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Pyramid of Biomass
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Pyramid of Numbers
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Ecological EfficiencyEcological Efficiency• proportion of energy represented at one trophic levelthat is transferred to the next + average efficiency=10%
- only 10% of productivityis transferred to next level- remaining 90% is consumed by metabolism
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Food Chains and Food WebsFood Chain• linear flow chart of who eats whom
grass --> zebra --> lion --> vulture
Food Webs• expanded, more complete
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Biogeochemical CyclesBiogeochemical Cycles• flow of essential elements from the environment to living things andback to the environment + reservoirs
- major storage locations + assimilation
- processes through which element incorporates into terrestrial plants and animals
+ release- processes through which element returns to the environment
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Hydrologic Cycle (water cycle)
Reservoirs: oceans, air, groundwater, glaciersAssimilation: plants absorb from soil; animals eat/drinkRelease: plants transpire; animals/plants decompose
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Carbon Cycle
Reservoirs: atmosphere (CO2), fossil fuels, peat, celluloseAssimilation: plants via photosynthesis; consumersRelease: respiration and decomposition; burn fossil fuels
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Nitrogen Cycle
Reservoirs: atmosphere (N2); soil (ammonium, ammonia, nitrite, nitrate)Assimilation: plants absorb from soil; animals consume plants/animalsRelease: denitrifying and detrivorous bacteria; animal excretion
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Phosphorous Cycle
Reservoirs: rocksAssimilation: plants absorb from soil (phosphate); consumersRelease: decomposition; excretion in waste products
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BiomesBiome• region of biosphere characteristized by vegetation and adaptations of organisms inhabiting the environment + Tropical rain forest (high temp., heavy rainfall) + Savannahs (grassland with scattered trees)
- tropical, but receive less rainfall than rain forest + Temperate grasslands (North American prairie)
- receive less water/lower temp. than savannahs + Temperate deciduous forests (warm summer/cold winters) + Deserts (hot and dry) + Taigas (coniferous forests)
- precipitation in the form of snow + Tundras (Lambau Field)
- permafrost + Fresh water biomes (ponds, lakes, streams, rivers) + Marine biomes (estuaries, intertidal zones, continental shelves, coral reefs, pelagic oceans)
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Animal BehaviorEthology• the study of animal behavior• nature versus nurture… both? + kinds of animal behavior
- Innate Behavior + instinct + fixed action patterns or FAP (Niko Tinbergen) + imprinting* (Konrad Lorenz)- Learned Behavior + associative learning
- classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) - operant conditioning (B.F. Skinner) + habituation + observational learning + insight
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Animal MovementKinesis• undirected change in speed of movement in response to stimulus + speed up in unfavorable; slow down in favorable
- light, touch, air temp., etc. + Avon bug in the bathroom tub
Taxis• directed movement in response to stimulus + toward/away from stimulus
- phototaxis, chemotaxis + mosquitos and CO2
Migration• long-distance, seasonal movement + availability of food, degradation of environment
- whales, birds, elks, insects, bats
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Communication in AnimalsWhy do animals communicate? How do animals communicate?Chemical• pheromones + releaser pheromones cause immediate/specific behavioral changes + primer pheromones cause physiological changes
- marking your territoryVisual• agonistic behavior + displays of aggression• courtship behavior + announce participants as non-threatening/potential matesAuditory• sounds + whales, crickets, birdsTactile• touching
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Social BehaviorAgonistic Behavior• aggression/submission + competition for food, mates, territory + ritualized; reduces injury/energyDominance Hierarchies• power and status relationships among groups + minimize fighting for food/matesTerritoriality• possession/defense of territory + insures adequate food/spaceAltruistic Behavior• unselfish behavior that appears to reduce fitness + increases inclusive fitness
- ground squirrels