ecological study of ghodaghodi lake

8/3/2019 Ecological Study of Ghodaghodi Lake

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Ecologicalstudy of

Ghodagho

di lakeJ. Diwakar

1, S. Bajracharya


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1

and U.R. Yadav1

Wetlands comprise

5% of worlds total

land areas of Nepal.

The present studyGhodaghodiLake in

the Far-West Nepal

Terai manifested


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the

physicochemicalcontamination in

thelake. All theparameters were

within the WHO

guideline values

except for

PhosphateandDissolved


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Oxygen. Water

depth varies form1-4 m. High

phosphate levelsuggested thatthe

lake is

hypertrophic.

Dissolved oxygen

was low, rangingbetween 5.27-6.56


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mg/l. Thepresence

of high density ofHemiptera (384.23

ind/m2) and

Ephimeripterae(273.66 ind/ m2

) indicted thatwater was polluted


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due to high

nutrient depositionboth from the

decayingof theabundant aquatic

flora and from the

surrounding area.

The most important

challengethat wehave to face is to


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strike a balance

betweensustainable human

exploitationandmaintaining the

ecological

character of a

wetland ecosystem.

Key words:


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Ghodaghodi Lake,

phytoplankton,macroinvertebrates

, phosphate, nitrate

Wetlands are landstransitional


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between

terrestrialand

aquatic systems

where soil isfrequently waterl

ogged, the watertable is usually at

or nearthesurface or the


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land is covered

by shallow water.

Entirecivilizatio

n developedaround wetland-

areasof immense

value botheconomically and


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in terms

of quality life.

But over

exploitation ofwetlands

impairsitssustainability.

Survival ofhuman


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civilization

ininextricably

linked with

wetlands. Bysustaining

theeconomicstability of

hundreds ofmillions of


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people,the

society is

benefited from

the wetlands inadifferent

manner. On ashorter time

scale,wetlandsare


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usually useful as

sources, sinks

and

transformersof amultitude of

chemical,biological and

geneticmaterials.They have been


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found to cleanse

pollutedwater,

prevent floods

and rechargegroundwateraqui

fers.Furthermore,

wetlands providea uniquehabitat


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for a wide variety

of flora and

fauna.

James(1995) hasrightly called the

wetlands asnatureskidneys

because of thenatural


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functions

they perform

(Poddar

et al2001).Water, the

most vitalresource for all

life on thisplanetis also the


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resource,

adversely

affected

qualitatively andquantitatively by

different ofhuman

activitieson land,in air, or in


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water. Today

most of the

surfaceand the

ground water ofthe world receive

millionsof litersof sewage,

domestic waste,industrial


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andagricultural

effluents

containing

substancesvarying in

characteristicsfrom simple

nutrients tohighly


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toxicsubstances

(Trivedy and

Goel

1986).Ghodaghodi lake is a

naturalfreshwater

oxbow lakeonthe lower slope


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of Siwalik. It is a

large and

shallow1

Central Department

of Environmental

Science, TribhuvanUniversity, Kirtipur,

P.O. Box: 9135,

Kathmandu, NepalE-


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mail:

[email protected], having

finger-likeprojections, with

associatedmarshes and meadows

surrounded by

tropicaldeciduou


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s forest on the

lower slopes of

Siwalik

range.There arethirteen

associated lakesand ponds;

somestreamshave separated


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lakes and ponds,

and somestreams

are separated by

hillocks situatedon theperiphery

of Ghodaghodi.The forest and

wetland isawildlife corridor


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between the low

land and

theSiwalik. The

lake is fed bysurface flows

fromthewatershed

area,groundwater,


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springs and

smallstreams.

Water depth

varies from 1-4 m(DNPWC

&WWF 2005).Site description:

It is situated at analtitude of


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Sukhad, ward no.

5, Darakh VDC,

1 kmwest of

SukhadChouraha,

Kailali district inthe Terairegion

of Far-WesternDevelopment


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Region, Nepal.It

lies along the

Mahendra

Highway (100 mnorth of the East-

West highway)with several

ramificationscaused by soil


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wetland sitesof

international

importance in

Nepal, and is partof the Terai Arc

Landscape.Ghodaghodi lake

(150 ha)is one ofthe 14 lakes of


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Ghodaghodi

Lake

Complex(2563

ha) a Ramsarsite of Nepal

(Kafle2006).Many of

the branchesbecome


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disconnected

fromthe main

water body

during low waterseasons.

Thewetland has apermanent flow.

Recently, thetempleof


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Ghodaghodi

Deity has been

built with

theassistancefrom the local

people andDistrict


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19Banko Janakari,

Special Issue

DevelopmentCommittee. The

topography oftheLake is palm

shaped withmany


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ramifications.

Among them,

notches

extendingtowards north are

largerthan thoseon other sides.

The temperaturerise ishighest in


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the month of

May, and drops

to its lowestin

the month ofJanuary. The

meanmaximumtemper

ature of Maywas 37.2


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0

C while in 1995itreached the

highest to 40.40C. Similarly, the

meanminimumtemperature of

January was 7.540


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C; thelowest

recorded

temperature in 19

years was 70

C inDecember1994. Pre-

monsoon was the

hottest


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season(average

34.430

C) while thewinter season

was thecoldestseason (average

8.420


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C). The area

receives

anaverage

annual rainfallof 1794.12 mm.

Dry andsurplusyear were almost

similarlydistributed


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(11:8)but of the

total rainfall,

87.71% of

rainfalloccurredin

monsoon season(June-

September). Thismightbe the


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crownedRoofed

Turtle (Kachuga

Kachuga); endangered

Tiger(Panthera tigris

), Three-stripedRoof Turtle (


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Kachuga dhongka

); vulnerable

Smooth-coated

Otter (Lutra perpiscillata

), Common Otter(

Lutra lutra), Swamp deer(


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Cervus

duvaucelli

), Lesser

Adjutant Stork(Leptotilos javanic

us) and Marsh

Crocodile (


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Crocodylus

palustris

);and

endangeredOrchid (

Aerides odorata),

religiously important and


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threatened Lotus

(Nelumbo

nucifera),and rare wild

rice (Hygrohiza

aristata


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) (DNPWC

&WWF,

2005).The lake is

rich in floraldiversity with

excellentenvironment conditions

for both lake andterrestrial(grassla


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nd and forest)

vegetation. Lake

vegetationinclud

es the freefloating species

(Azolla,

Lemna,Spirodelaand


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Ricclocarpus

), the submergent

species(

Hydrillaverticillata,

Chara fragilis,Nitella spp

andPotamogeton sp.


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andDictyospperum

scaberrimum

), theemergentspecies (

Limnophilaindica

and


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Monochoria hastat

a

) and marshland

species (Rannunculus,

Phragmites phalaris, Oryza isachne,

Shcoenoplectus,Ipomoea


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).The wetland

and surrounding

forests are

renownedfortheir rich

mammalianfauna too. The

lake is awinteringarea for sizeable


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numbers of

several speciesof

waterfowl, and

provides astaging area for

many speciesduring their

migration.Thelake is also rich


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Goldenmonitor

lizard, Indian

python and

tortoise. Thelakearea housed

Common otterand indigenous

speciesof fish. Alarge species of


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tortoise is also

reportedto be

present in this

area.About 140species of birds,

both migrantandresident,

representing over16% of national


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avifaunahave

been reported in

the area. A few

birds that breedinnorth Asia are

also reported toreside here.

Butthedestruction and


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deterioration of

the

surrounding fore

st area havethreatened their

presence. It isthelargest inter-

connected naturallake system in the


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Teraiof Nepal.

The other lakes

connected with

it areNakhrodiLake, Baishhawa

Lake, OjhuwaLake,Chidiya

Lake, BudhiNakhrodi Lake,


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Sunpokhari

Lakeand

Ramphal Lake. It

is vulnerable andis exposed

totremendousanthropogenic

activities.Because of


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thisthe Lake has

always been in

the top priority

of IUCNNepalsWetlands and

Heritage Unit.Likewise,

theNepalGovernment has


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also listed it as a

criticalwetland

habitat. Due to

these reasons,GhodaghodiLake

along with otherlakes at its

catchment areawasselected as


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the site for the

study.

Materials and

methodsPhysicochemical

and the status ofaquatic flora

andfauna was


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determined for

the assessment of

water

Table 1: Testparameters,

methods of analysesand instruments

usedS.N.

Parameters UnitMethod of analyses


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1 pH - pH

meter2Temperature0

C Mercuric

thermometer3

Conductivity

s/cm Conductivity

meter4 Dissolved


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Oxygen mg/L

WinklersIodometric

method5 TotalAlkalinity mg/L

Titrimetric

method6

Hardness mg/L

EDTA titrimetricmethod7 Chloride


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mg/L

Argentometricmethod8 Free

Carbondioxidemg/L Titrimetric

method9 Nitrate-

Nitrogen mg/L

Phenol

Disulphonic acidmethod10


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Phosphate mg/L

Ammoniummolybdate method

Diwakaret al.

20Banko Janakari,

Special Issue


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quality of the

lake. Analyses of

the physico-

chemicalparameters were done by

following APHA(1998).pH and

Conductivity ofwater samples


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were recordedat

the site during

the sampling

period.Otherparameter

s were analyzedin the

EnvironmentLaboratory of


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CDES. The

samples were

analyzedon the

same dayimmediately and

always within6hours of

collection. Testparameters,


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out using the

grab sampler of

an area

0.02498m2

. During thecollection of

samples, grab

samplerwas


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locked initially

and slowly

dropped into the

pondtying it withnylon thread, as

the samplertouchedthe

bottom itautomatically


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unlocked itself

grabbing the

sediment within

it. The samplerwas pulled upand

sediments weretransferred into a

bucket.Toremove clay


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and organic

matter, the

sediments

weresieved usingsieve size

number 106micron. Then

thesievedsamples were


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stored in

labelled

polythenesample

bag along withlittle water and

carried back tothe laboratory at

CDES. Thesorting of


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sampleswere

carried out in

white enamel

trays with thehelpof forceps,

brushes, anddropper.


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Results and

discussionThe temperature

at various depths

shows that

thetemperaturegradually

decreases with


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depths.

Thesurface

temperature at

different sitesranged from15

0C to 160


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C, temperature at

1.5 m depth was

150

Cat site 2, and

temperature at 1m depth was 160

C atsite 3.Conductivity


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ranged from 106

s/cm to

111s/cm. pH

ranged from 6.9to 7.4.

DissolvedOxygen (DO) increased

with depth. DOof surfacewater


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ranged from 5.27

mg/l to 5.43

mg/l. DO of site

2 was 6.40 mg/lat 1 m depth and

DO of site 3was6.56 at 1.5m

depth.. Totalalkalinity ranged


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from75 mg/l to

80 mg/l on the

surface, 75 mg/l

at 1.5 mdepth ofsite 2, and 75

mg/l at 1m depthat site 3.

Table 2: Physico-Chemical


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Parameters of

Ghodaghodi Lake.Site 1 Site 2 Site

3ParametersSurfaceSurface 1.5 m

Surface 1 mTime

10:30 A.M 10:55A.M 11:30 A.MAir

Temperature (0


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C) 18 17 17.5Water

Temperature (0

C) 15 15.5 15 16

15Conductivity

(S/cm) 111 111

110 106 108pH 7.47.0 7.2 7.3

6.9Dissolved

Oxygen (mg/l) 5.35


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5.43 6.56 5.27

6.4PhenolphthaleinAlkalinity (mg/l) 0

0 0 0 0TotalAlkalinity (mg/l)

80 80 75 75

90Hardness (mg/l)52 51.2 51.4 58

58Chloride (mg/l)12.78 15.62 13.49


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17.81 17.04Free

Carbondioxide(mg/l) 13.2 8.36

12.32 14.0815.4Phosphate

(mg/l) 0.409 0.105

0.099 0.421 0.206No. of individuals

(X)S i t e 1S i t e 2 S i t e


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3 S i t e 4 Name

of speciesA BC A B A

B C A BC

X1

X2Mean(X


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1

)Mean(X2)Density(X

1)Density(X1

)AverageDensityG o

s s i p h o n i d a

e 1 - - - -- - - - - -


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1 0 1 0

4 4 . 8 -2 2 . 4 H e m i p t

e r a 1 7 4 1 22 1 2 - - - -

1 7 1 2 1 7

1 . 2 7 6 1 . 66 . 8 6

3 8 4 . 2 3 L i n me a 2 1 - -


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- - - - - -

- 2 1 20 . 1 8 9 . 6

0 . 5 74 5 . 0 9 D i p t

e r a 3 - 1 -

- - - - - -- 3 1 3 0 . 1

1 3 4 . 4 0 . 5 76 7 . 4 9 E p h i m


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e r i p t e r a e 1 2

3 7 - - 1 - -- 5 1 1 2 1 7

1 2 1 . 7 5 3 7 . 69 . 7 1

2 7 3 . 6 6 C h r o n

o m i d a e 5 17 - - 2 1 2 3

1 5 1 5 4 1 54 . 1 4 4 . 8


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2 3 . 4 3

1 2 3 . 7 2 M o sq u i t o

l a r v a e 1 -- - - - - -

- - - 1 0

1 0 - -2 2 . 4

Gyraulus


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- - 3 - 4

1 - 4 - 21 - 1 5 -

1 . 5 -8 . 5 7 4 . 2 8

Hydracarina

- 1 - - -1 - - - -

- - 2 -0 . 2 -


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1 . 1 4

0 . 5 7 D r a go n f l y - 1

- - - - - -- - - - 2

- 0 . 2 -

1 . 1 40 . 5 7 C e r a t o

p o g o n i d a e- 1 - - - -


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- - - - - -

1 - 0 . 1 -0 . 5 7

0 . 2 9 N e r i t id a e - - 1

- - - - - -

- 1 - 2 -0 . 2 - 1 . 1 4

0 . 5 7 S e g n en t i n a - -


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- - 3 - - -

- - - - 3 -0 . 3 - 1 . 7 1

0 . 8 6 B i t h in i d a e - -

- - - - - 1

- - - - 1 -0 . 1 - 0 . 5 7

0 . 2 9Corixa


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- - - - -

- - 1 - -- - 1 -

0 . 1 -0 . 5 7

0 . 2 9

Isopteron isopteran- - - - -

- - - - -1 - 1 -


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0 . 1 -

0 . 5 70 . 2 9

Diwakaret al.


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21Banko Janakari,

Special

IssueDiwakaret al.

Hardness ranged

form 51.2 mg/l to

58 mg/l on

thesuface, 51.4


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mg/l at site 2 and

58 mg/l at site 3.

Freecarbondioxid

e ranged from8.36 mg/l to

14.08 mg/l on thesurface, 12.32

mg/l at site 2 and15.4 mg/l atsite


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3. Phosphate

ranged from

0.409 mg/l to

0.421mg/l on thesurface, 0.099

mg/l at site 2 and0.206mg/l at site

3. Itsconcentration


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decreased with

depth.Regarding

macroinvertebrat

es, higherdensity

of Hemiptera(384.23 no./m2


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) and the least

density ofIsopteron

isoptera, Corix,

BithindaeandCeratopogoni

dae (0.285 no./m2


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each).Wetlands

are full of

mystery. These

forgottenplacesare some

of our beautifulheritages. Nepal

aboundsinwetlands and has


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for centuries

benefited form

thewealth they

have provided,timbers, fruits,

firewood,fish andmedicines. Our

wetland wealthhas becomeeven


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more valuable

in the face of

increasing deve

lopmentpressures. Each

year,uncontrolleddev

elopment hasbeen destroying


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scores of

hectaresof

wetlands, the

essential naturalfilters.Pollution

of water isresponsible for a

large numberofmortalities and


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morbidities in the

world. Waterno

longer remains a

free good. Manhas tried tocope

up with thisscenario and has

rapidlyadvancedits


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efforts to

counterpart this

malady. Over the

pastfew decades,natural and

polluted watershave beenstudied

in detail all overthe world and


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considerabledata

are now available

on most kinds of

pollutantsandtheir effects on

ecosystems aswell as

organisms.Aregular


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monitoring of

some of them

not only prevents

diseases andhazards but also

checks thewaterresources from

getting furtherpolluted


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(Trivedy and

Goel,

1986).Temperatu

re is an importantlimiting factor of

anaquaticecosystem and a

good indicatorof waterquality.


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All metabolic and

physiological

activities suchas

respiration,circulation, and

reproduction.aregenerally

influenced bytemperature.


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During

thepresent

investigation the

temperature ofsurface

waterrangedform 150

C to 160


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C. The present

investigationdid

not show

considerablechanges in

temperature.Thedepth-wise

analysis oftemperature


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showed thatthere

was a decrease in

the temperature

as thedepthincreases.

It might be dueto high density

of phytoplanktonat the upper


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layers, which

restricts thesolar

radiation to

penetrate into thedeeper

layers.One of themost unusual

properties ofwater is thefact


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that its density

does not

monotonically

increaseas thetemperature

drops. Instead ithas a

maximumdensityat 4


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0

C. One result ofthis maximum

density is thatabove 40

C, the density ofwater decreases

withtemperature.Dissolved


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oxygen is

considered as an

importantparam

eter in waterquality

assessment.Theconcentratio

n of oxygen inwater depends


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mainly on two

sources:

diffusion from

atmosphere,whichdepends on

solubility ofoxygen under the

influenceoftemperature,


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salinity, water

movement.

andphotosynthet

ic evolution,which is a

biologicalprocess and depends on

the availability oflight andrate of


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metabolic

process. The

surface DO of

allthree sites isgreater than 5

mg/l while thedepthwise

analysis of DOshowed the


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requirement for

DO, so thelower

concentration

may affect thesurvival of

aquaticorganisms.The present

study revealedthat the valuesfor


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DO in sample

water from

surface and depth

wiseanalysiswere above the

WHOpermissible value

of 5 mg/l.Thehardness of water


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is not actually a

pollutionparamet

er but indicates

water quality. Itis due

topresence ofdissolved salts

of CalciumandMagnesium.


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It is expressed

as an

equivalentconce

ntration ofcalcium

carbonate inmg/l. Hardwater

requires aconsiderable


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amount of soap

toproduce lather.

Scaling of hot

water pipes,boilersand other

householdappliances is also

due to thehardwater. It was


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high at site 3

while least at site

2,this might be

due to presenceof agricultural

land insite 3,which was more

prone topollution.Carbon


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is usually found

from a number of

naturalsources,

includingalkalinity,

dissolved carbondioxidefrom the

atmosphere, anddecaying organic


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matter.So, it is

not often a

limiting nutrient.

Thecarbondioxide in

water increasedwith depth; this

might bedue todecomposition of


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dead and

decayed parts

of plants and

otherorganisms.The

conductivity is anumerical

expression oftheability of an


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aqueous solution

to carry an

electriccurrent

and depends onthe presence of

ions, theirtotalconcentration,

mobility, valenceand


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relativeconcentra

tion and on the

temperature

measurement.Itis an important

criterion indetermining

thesuitability ofwater for


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irrigation. Since

the values

of conductivity in

all the sitesexceeded the

limiting value,thewater was

suitable forirrigation.


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the sites were

withinthe

specified range

of water qualityas prescribed

by WHOguidelines 6.5-

7.5.In naturalfresh water high


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concentration of

chlorideis

considered to be

an indicator ofenvironmentpoll

ution due toorganic wastage

of animalorigin.The


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maximum

permissible

WHO standard

of chloride fordrinking water is

250 mg/l. Thechlorideconcentra

tions at all thesites were within


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the

specifiedrange of

water

quality.Alkalinity is the acid

neutralizingcapacity of

water.In nature,due to the


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action of

limestone

ingroundwater

there occurscarbonates,

bicarbonates,borate, silicates,

and phosphatestogether


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withhydroxyl

ions that

contributes to

alkalinity. Thestudy revealed

thatphenolphthalein

alkalinity wasabsentmanifestin


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g that the total

alkalinity was

only due

tobicarbonates.Phosphorus occurs

in water mostlyas phosphate. Itis

rarely found inhigh


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concentration at

it is

actively taken up

by plants.Natural source of

phosphorusaremainly due to

the weatheringof


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phosphorusbeari

ng rocks and the

decomposition

of organicmatter.In most natural

surface water,phosphorusrange

s from 0.0055-0.020 mg/l as


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ortho

phosphate.In the

study, all the sites

have exceededthis naturallevel.

The deviation tosome extent

might be duetoagricultural


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runoff from the

surrounding

area.Transparenc

y of waterdenotes the

ability of lighttopass through

the water so thatobject situated at


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depthcan be

clearly seen.

Transparency is

veryimportantphysic

al parameter,which directly

influencetheproductivity


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status of water

body. The

presence

of suspendeddissolved

organic,inorganic

materialandturbidity of


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water

diminishes the

sechhi

disctransparencystatus and is

essential afunction of the

reflection of lightand restricts the


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penetrationof

light in an

aquatic

environment. Alllakes

gradually accumulate silt and

organic matter asthey undergo


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anatural aging

process known as

eutrophication.

Ayoung lake ischaracterized by

low nutrientcontentand low

plantproductivity.


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Such oligotrophic

lakesgradually

acquire nutrients

from theirdrainage

basins,whichfacilitates

increased aquaticgrowth. Over


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time,the increased

biological

productivity

causes thewaterto become

murky withphytoplankton,

whiledecaying organic


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matter

contributes to

the depletion

of available DO.The lake becomes

eutotrophic astheaccumulating

silt and organicdebris cause the


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laketo become

shallower and

warmer, more

plants takerootalong the shallow

edges, and thelake

slowly transforms into a


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marsh or bog,

while

sucheutrophicati

on is a naturalprocess that may

takethousands ofyears, it is

possible toaccelerate


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greatly the rate of

change through

human activities.

Algalblooms dieand decay,

causingunsightly,

odorousclumpsof rotting debris


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along the

shoreline and

thick mats of

dead organicmatter in the

lake.Thedecompositi

on of dead algaeuses up


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availableoxygen

, resulting in

the same sort

ofoxygendepletion

problems.Among the first

casualties arecoldwater fish, whose


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temperature

sensitivity

forcesthem to

stay in the colderbottom waters of

lakewhere theleast amount of

oxygen, but thetoxicity of the


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water increases as

hydrogen sulfide

and metals,such

as iron andmanganese,

which arenormally tiedup

as precipitates insediments, are


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the lake. They

serveas food for

most of the

bottom feedingfishes andare the

nutritionalsources. A total

of 16 taxaswererecorded


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from the lake.

The density ofHemiptera spp

.(384.33 ind/m2

) was the highestand that ofCorix sp.

, Bithindae and


173/206

Isopteron

isopteran

sp. (0.2 ind/m2

each) was the

lowest.The

aquatic flora

collected and

identified during


174/206

thestudy period

areLidwigia

agscendens,Nymphoids

sp.,Hydrilla sp.,Ceratophyllum sp.

Trapa sp.,


175/206

Potamogetom nata

ns, Pistia sp.

and

Hygorhyza sp.Protection of

thesewatersources and

their effectivesustainableman


176/206

agement are all-

critical strategies

in

maintaining andimproving water

quality.Conclusion

The presentstudy disclosed


177/206


178/206

dissolved oxygen.

Water depth

varies form 1-4m.

High phosphatelevel indicates

the lakeishypertrophic.

Dissolvedoxygen is low


179/206

ranging between

5.27-6.56 mg/l.

The presence of

highdensity ofHemiptera

(384.23 ind/m2


180/206

)

andEphimeripter

ae (273.66 ind/m2

) indicted that

wateris polluteddue to high

nutrient

deposition


181/206

fromdecaying of

aquatic flora

which were

abundantandfrom the

surrounding area.Diwakaret al.

23


182/206

Banko Janakari,

SpecialIssueDiwakaret al.

Acknowledgem

entsAcknowledgements are due to

Central


183/206


184/206


185/206

APHA. 1998.

Statistical

Method for the

ExaminationofWater and Waste

Water, 20th

edition,

AmericanPublic


186/206

Health

Association,

American Water

WorksAssociation and Water

EnvironmentFederation,Unite

d Book Press,Inc. Baltimore,


187/206

Maryland,USA.B

PP. 1995.

Biodiversity

Assessment ofTeraiWetlands,

BiodiversityProfile Project,

PublicationNo. 1,Department of


188/206

National Parks

and

WildlifeConserva

tion, Kathmandu,Nepal.CBS.

1995.Statistical

Analysis ofNepal,


189/206

HMGNational

Planning

Commission

Secretariat,Central Bureau of

Statistics,Kathmandu,

Nepal.DNPWCand WWF. 2005.


190/206

Fact Sheet

GhodaghodiLake

Area Kailali

, Department ofNationalParks

and WildlifeConservation

andWorldWildlife


191/206

Fund,

Kathmandu,

Nepal.Diwakar,

J. 2007.Environmental

studyof Ghodaghodi

Lake,


192/206

a field study

report submitted

toCentral

Department ofEnvironmental

Science,

Kirtipur,Nepal.ENPHO. 1997.


193/206

Water Resource

MonitoringProgr

am for the

ShivapuriWatershed

byAssessingWater Quality

(1st


194/206

phase),Environ

ment and Public

Health

Organization,Kathmandu,

Nepal.IUCNNepal. 1998.

TheGhodaghodi


195/206


196/206

Nepal.James, E.

J. 1995.Managing the

wetlands andtheir watersheds.

Yojana39(182)

: 43-50.Kafle,G. 2006.


197/206

Avifauna and

Vegetation

of Ghodaghodi

Lake (A RamsarSite ) of

Nepal,NatureConservation.Po

ddar, P., Puste,A. M. and


198/206

Sengupta, K.,

2001.Wetlands

And Their

AgronomicUtilization.Envir

onment andAgriculture and

PollutioninSouth Asia.


199/206

In: Proceedings

of the

International Con

ference onEnvironment and

Agriculture,November

1-3


200/206

, 1998,

Kathmandu.

P.K.Jha, S. B.

Baral, S.B.Karmacharya,

H.D. Lekhak, P.Lacoul and C.

B.Baniya, Eds.Ecological


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Society

(ECOS),Kathma

ndu.

2: 410-

413.Toalanur, S.2004.

Practical SoilScience


202/206

andAgricultural

Chemistry,

First

edition,International Book

Distributing Co.,India.Trivedy , R.

K. and Goel, P.K. 1987.


203/206

Chemical

andBiological

Method for

WaterPollutionStudies

, 1stedition,

Environmental


204/206

Publication,Kara

d, India.WHO.

1971.

InternationalStandard for

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Organization.Zobel, D. B., Yadav,


205/206

U.K.R., Jha, P.K.

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206/206

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ecological study of ghodaghodi lake

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