eco design battery toxicity and eco ... - lighting global · cell”, lead acid batteries are the...

Introduction

Modern off‐grid lighting devices are a promising, low

costalternativetofuel‐basedlighting.Suchlightshavethe potential to deliver socio‐economic,

environmental,andpublichealthbenefitstotheusersand communities they serve. These off‐grid lightingproducts use batteries, and some battery chemistries

containtoxicmetalsandcausticelectrolytesthatposea danger to people and the environment if batteriesarehandledordisposedofimproperly.

Batteries come in a variety of types and chemistries,

and each type is composed of a different mix ofchemicalsandheavymetals.Mercury, lead,cadmium,andnickelarecommonheavymetalsthatposehealth

and environmental risks with improper disposal. Ifincinerated, theseheavymetalsmaybe released intothe air or concentrate in the ash produced by

combustion.Inlandfills,heavymetalssometimesleachinto the soil, surface water, or ground water. Thehealtheffectsvarybyheavymetal typeandexposure

level, but common symptoms from ingestion orinhalation of heavy metals may include headaches,abdominaldiscomfort,seizures,andcomas.

Manufacturers are encouraged to design products

with less hazardous battery chemistries. By makingthis environmentally sound design choice,manufacturers can prevent toxic battery components

fromentering theconsumerwaste stream,protectingboth consumers and the environment. In general,NickelMetal Hydride and Lithium Ion based batteries

havelowertoxiccontentthanotherbatterytypesandareconsideredthemostenvironmentallybenign(eventhese, however, have safety and environmental

hazardsthatshouldbeconsidered)

BatteryQualityoftendeterminesthenumberofcyclesarechargeablebatterywilldeliverandthusthe

lifetimeofthatbattery.Higherqualitybatterieswillincreaseaproduct’susefulllife(abenefittotheconsumer)andalsoreducethenumberofbatteriesfor

disposal(abenefittotheenvironment).

ASummaryofBatteryTypes

While a wide range of types and chemistries areavailable,batteriesaredividedintotwobroadclasses:primary (single‐use) and secondary (rechargeable)batteries.

PrimaryBatteries(single‐use,disposable)

Zinc Carbon batteries are the cheapest

primary battery. Widely used in SubSaharan Africa, zinc carbon batteriesperform poorly in high‐drain applications

suchasdigitalcameras,butaremoderatelyeffective in low to medium‐drainapplicationssuchasflashlightsandradios.

Alkaline batteries provide better

performance than zinc carbon, at anincreased price. Alkaline batteries cancontain mercury, although the use of

mercury has been restricted or banned insomecountries.

Button Cell batteries are found in hearingaids, calculators, andwatches.Avarietyofchemistries exist such as zinc air, andlithium, silver and mercuric oxide. Theyhave a high energy density and areinexpensive but have limited applications.Somebuttoncellscontainmercuryandarerestrictedorbannedinsomecountries.

©LightingGlobal‐September2011

EcoDesignNotes

Issue1Sept2012

BatteryToxicityandEcoProductDesignThisisthefirstinaseriesofEcoDesignNotes.Itprovidesacomparisonofthehazardsassociated with the types of batteries that are commonly used in off‐grid lightingproducts, as well as a summary of the potential to address these hazards throughproductdesign,properdisposal,andrecycling.Moreinformationcanbefoundat:

www.lightingafrica.org/resources/briefing‐notes.html

BatteryToxicityandEcoProductDesignIssue1September2012

RechargeableBatteries(multi‐use,“secondary”)1

Lead‐Acidbatteriesareinexpensiveand ruggedwhenhandledproperly.“Wet‐

cell”, lead acid batteries are the mainsource of power for cars, trucks, boats and othervehicles.Sealedlead‐acid(SLA)batteriesarecommonly

used to power industrial equipment, emergencylighting, and are often used in off‐grid LED lightingapplications.Theyare themosteconomicalbattery for

high‐power applications where weight is of littleconcern. Lead acid batteries contain large amounts of

lead(relativetoheavymetalcontentinotherbatteries),averytoxicheavymetal.

Nickel‐Cadmium(Ni‐Cd)batteriesarea maturesecondarybatterytechnology.

Theyarerelativelyinexpensiveand haveamoderateenergydensity.Ni‐Cdbatteries are usedwhere long life, high discharge rate

and extended temperature range are important. Theirpotential forvoltagedepression(“memoryeffect”)andtoxiccadmiumcontentareimportantdisadvantages.

NickelMetalHydride(NiMH)batteries

weredevelopedasacadmium‐free replacement for Ni‐Cd. NiMH batterieshave a higher energy density and are less prone to

“memory effect” than Ni‐Cd, but have a shorter cyclelife. They are more expensive than Ni‐Cd, but lessexpensive than Li‐Ion.NiMHbattery technology is also

viewedasthepredecessortolithium‐basedsystems.

Lithium‐Ion(Li‐ion)batteriesaremost commonlyfoundinlaptopsandcell phones. Li‐Ion batteries have a high

energy density, are lightweight, and provide excellentperformance. They are historically themost expensiverechargeable battery, but in recent years prices have

dropped due to mass adoption by the cell phonemarket.Li‐ionbatteriesmustcontainprotectioncircuits

tolimitvoltageandcurrentforsafetyreasons.

Lithium‐IronPhosphate(LFP)batteriesarethenewestrechargeable battery technology. LFP batteries are atypeofLi‐ionbatterywhere thecathode is composed

ofLiFePO4.Theironcompositionincreasesthestabilityofthecathodeanddecreasescost.

HealthandSafetyRisksofBatteryComponents

Strong electrolytes and heavy metals are essentialcomponents in battery chemistry, but they are alsotoxic and hazardous materials. If batteries are not

recycledordisposedofproperly,theircomponentswilleventuallyenterthesoil,air,andwatersupply,posingserioushealthriskstohumansandtheenvironment.

Electrolytes2

A variety of electrolytes are utilized for different

batterytypes,andtheyaregenerallycaustic,corrosive,orflammable.

PotassiumHydroxide is caustic, andmay cause burnsordamagetoskin,eyes,ortherespiratorysystem.Foundin:Alkaline,ButtonCell,Nickel‐Cadmium,NickelMetalHydride,andLithiumIonbatteries.Sulfuric Acid is corrosive and may cause burns ordamagetoskineyesorrespiratorysystem.Foundin:Lead‐AcidandSealedLeadAcidbatteries.EthylMethylCarbonate(EMC),Ethylenecarbonate(EC),PropyleneCarbonate(PC),Dimethylcarbonate(DMC)andlithium

hexaflurosphate(LiPF6) arethemainingredientsoftheelectrolyteinalithium‐ionbattery.Thechemistryisflammableandmay

decomposetohydrofluoricacidifexposedtomoisture.Foundin:Lithium‐ionbatteries.

©LightingGlobal–September2012

BatterySafety

It is important to note that ifmost battery types arestored, charged,orused improperly there isadangerofshort‐circuiting, ignition,orexplosion.Forexample,

If the protection circuits of Lithium‐Ion batteries aredamagedbyincorrectchargingoruseaserioushazardofignitionorexplosionexists.Batteriesshouldalsonot

be incineratedas this too can causeexplosionand/orproducetoxicheavymetalvapors.

DesignChoicesandBatterySelection

Thefirstandbestopportunitytopreventtoxicbatterycomponents from entering the waste stream comes

during the design process when a manufacturerchooses the battery type. Nickel Metal Hydride andLithiumbasedcellsaregoodenvironmentalchoicesfor

off grid lighting products. They exhibit highperformanceandhavealowtoxiccontent,andarethemost benign battery types in terms of disposal. Well

designedproductsthatuseNiMHorLibasedbatteriesare currently in the marketplace that have goodlifetimes and high performance at reasonable

consumerprices.

BatteryDisposalandRecycling

Properbatterydisposalandrecyclingpracticesdependon the chemistry of each battery. Regulations

enforcingproperbatterydisposalvarywidelybetweencountries andmunicipalities. The economic feasibilityof recycling, availability of hazardous waste facilities,

as well as consumer awareness of proper disposalpracticesgreatlyinfluencehowbatteriesaretreatedattheendoftheirusefullife.

Disposal

It is essential that batteries are disposed of properly,according to chemistry type, because the toxic

materialstheycontaincanendangerhumanhealthand



HeavyMetals3,4

Heavy metals cannot be degraded or destroyed. As

trace elements, some heavy metals are essential tomaintainmetabolism and enter our bodies via food,water, and air. However, at higher concentrations

they can cause poisoning. Heavy metal poisoningcould result fromdrinkingwater contamination, highambientair concentrationsnearemission sources,or

intakeviathefoodchain.

Mercury is a recognizeddevelopmental toxicant. Thenervoussystemisverysensitivetomercury;brainandkidney damage can result from mercury exposure.

Foundin:Alkalinebatteriesincountriesthathavenotbannedorrestrictedtheuseofmercury,andMercuricoxidetypebuttoncells.Cadmium is carcinogenic and a recognizeddevelopmental and reproductive toxicant. Long termexposure is associated with renal disfunction andbonedefects.Foundin:Nickel‐Cadmiumbatteries.Nickel is considered semi‐toxic. While the mostcommoneffectofnickelexposureisskinirritationandallergic reactions, nickel and nickel compounds arealsoconsideredpotentiallycarcinogenicforthosewithchronicexposuretoairbornenickeldust.Found in:Nickel‐Cadmium,NickelMetalHydride,andsomeLithiumbasedbatteries.Lead isacarcinogenandarecognizeddevelopmentalandreproductivetoxicant.Exposuretoleadcanresultinawiderangeofbiologicaleffectsdependingonthelevel and duration of exposure. High levels ofexposure may affect the kidneys, gastrointestinaltract,reproductivesystem,andthenervoussystem.Foundin:Lead‐AcidandSealedLeadAcidbatteries.Cobalt and Cobalt Compounds are consideredpotentiallycarcinogenic.Found in: Lithium‐ion and Nickel Metal Hydridebatteries.



theenvironment.Theseproperdisposalmethodsandtheircorrespondingbatterytypesaredescribedbelow

andsummarizedinTable1.

Sanitary(“lined”)landfill

Landfill disposal is considered acceptable for Zinc

Carbon,Alkaline(mercury‐free),ButtonCell(mercury‐free), NiMH, and Li‐Ion batteries, but only in very

small quantities. “If ten or more batteries areaccumulated, the user should consider disposing thebatteriesinasecurewastelandfill”(Buchmann2006).

Thereisstillariskofcontaminationwiththismethodof disposal because the liners of landfills caneventually fail. It is alsopreferable to recycle certain

types such as Li‐Ion and NiMH because of the scrapvalueoftheircomponents.

Hazardouswastedisposalsite

Batteries containing toxic mercury, cadmium, andlead must either be disposed of in a designatedhazardous waste facility or recycled because of the

potential health threats they pose. Disposal ofbatteries in hazardous waste facilities is expensive,theavailabilityofsuchfacilitiesislimited,andthereis

still a risk of air, water, and soil contamination. Inaddition, some types of batteries are consideredeconomicallydesirableforrecycling.Hazardouswaste

disposal for batteries is not considered ideal, but agood option if recycling is not available or noteconomicallyfeasible.

Recycling

Recycling isan idealwaytodisposeofmost ifnotalltypes of batteries. In practice, however, recycling is

often quite limited by economic and logisticalbarriers. Battery recycling consumes a lot of energy,facilities can be limited depending on location, and

the cost of shipping to recycling facilities can be

expensive because of the weight of batteries. For

somebattery types recycling is preferredbecauseoftheresalevalueofscrapmetal(e.g.NiMH),whileforothers it is preferable to recycle in order to divert

heavy metals and other toxicants from the wastestream(e.g.Mercuricoxide).Somebatteries fall intobothcategories (e.g. LeadAcid). Table1categorizes

thereasonsforrecyclingbybatterytype.

BatteryDisposalinAfrica

Zinc Carbon and Lead Acid are the most common

battery types in use in Sub Saharan African (SSA)countries. However, the quantities of NiMH, Ni‐Cd,and Li‐Ion types entering thewaste stream continue

to grow with the increased prevalence of mobilephonesandoff‐gridlightingproducts.

Battery disposal practices and the effectiveness ofmunicipal solid waste collection vary widely by

location.Ingeneral,fewpropersanitarylandfillsexistandthetrashisagglomeratedinunlinedgarbagepits(often defunct quarry sites). Non‐lead batteries are

typicallymixedinwithhouseholdwasteeither inthegarbagepits, by the roadsideandabandoned lots aslitter,orinthelatrine.Manybatteriesarealsoburned

in trash fires, which can mobilize heavy metals intodangerousair‐bornforms.

TheavailabilityofHazardousWastefacilitiesinSSAisextremely limited.At the timeofwriting this report,

SouthAfricaisfoundtobetheonlySSAcountrywithaneffectiveHazardousWasteManagementsystem.

There isarobustmarket inSSAfor leadscrapmetal,so lead‐containing batteries are collected by the

informalsectorandsoldtoscrapmetaldealers.Somecountries have made significant advances in thecollectionofbatteryandelectronicwaste,particularly

SouthAfricaandKenya.



BatteryRecycling5,6

Battery recycling provides invaluable environmentalandpublichealthbenefits‐‐thisshouldbetheprimarygoal of battery recycling. It can also potentially yield

some limited economic benefits. While scrap metalprovidesapromisingeconomicincentivetoprotectinghumans and the environment, “significant subsidies

are still required from manufacturers, agencies andgovernments to support the battery recycling

programs”1.Sorting thebatteriesby type isexpensive

and greatly adds to the cost of recycling. In addition,

the weight of batteries results in prohibitive shippingcosts if recycling facilities are not nearby. The pricegarnered for scrap metals after the battery recycling

processistiedtomarketvaluesandfluctuatesdaily.Itiscalculatedasapercentofthepriceofpuremetalson

the London Metal Exchange (LME). Metal purity andglobal demand also highly influence the value ofbatteryscrapmetal.

While there are many nuances to recycling based on

battery chemistry, the recycling process generallystarts by removing the battery casing material withshredders,hammermills,orheat.Theelectrolytesarethenneutralizedwithachemicalbath,andthecellsare

chopped into small pieces. The heavy metals arerecoveredbypyrometallurgicalprocesses,andaresoldbackintothemanufacturingchain.

Alkaline and Zinc Carbon batteries contain zinc,manganeseandsome ironwhichcanberecoveredbyrecycling.Theendmetalproductcanbeusedtomakelow‐grade steel (i.e. rebar), or slag usable in roadconstruction. The scrap value of Alkaline and ZincCarbonisrelativelylowcomparedtootherchemistries.Button Cell batteries that are mercury‐free areconsidereddesirableforrecyclingbecauseofthevalueof recoverablematerials (silver, zinc, and steel), theirsmall size, and their easy handling relative to otherbatterytypes.Marketvalueforreclaimedmetalvariesbychemistry.

Nickel‐Cadmium batteries can be recycled to recoverCadmiumandferronickelmetalsthatyieldamoderatemarketprice.NickelMetalHydridebatteriesyieldthebestreturnonrecycling. The recycling process is less expensive thanthat of Li‐Ion, and the recoverableNickelmetal has ahighscrapvalue.Lithium‐Ionbatteriesarethemostexpensivetorecyclebecause they require complex recycling processes.However, because the recoverable cobalt and othermetals also have relatively high scrap value, Li‐Ion isconsidered an economically desirable battery torecycle(wherefacilitiesexist).Lead Acid batteries are the most frequently recycledbatteries worldwide. The plastic casings, lead, andsulfuricacidcontainedin lead‐acidbatteriescanallberecovered and reused in other industries. There is amature,globalresalemarketforscrap leadthatyieldsamoderatemarketvalue.Batteries containing mercury undergo a controlled‐temperatureprocesstorecoverthemercury.Whiletheresale value of recovered mercury may only yield amoderate to low market price, it is important thatbatteries containing mercury are recycled because oftoxicity.

BatteryRecyclinginAfrica

LeadAcidbatteriesarewidelyrecycledthroughoutSSA

becausethereisarobustmarketfor leadscrapmetal.While there are some formal battery recyclingprograms,lead‐containingbatteriesareoftencollected

bytheinformalsectorandsoldtoscrapmetaldealers.Lead recycling has its own environmental healthhazards, and if unregulated, can cause serious air,

water,orsoilpollution.

Wastewater from cleaning lead batteries, emissionsfrommeltingthemdown,andtheleftovermetal“slag”

are all toxic by‐products of lead recycling. Manycountries in SSA “Lack adequate institutional capacity



in hazardous waste management and monitoring…”(Brice, 2004), and do not regulate lead recycling

operations. “The wastewater from cleaning thebatteries is contaminated with lead and is oftendischarged directly into sewer systems” (Brice, 2004).

While there are many environmental and healthbenefits,recyclingleaddoesn’tnecessarilyrepresentacomplete solution to the toxicity issueof leadbattery

disposal,givencurrentpracticesinSSA.

Atthetimeofwriting,itisbelievedthatonlylead‐acidbatteriesarecollectedandrecycledonalargescalein

SSA. Information about SSA recycling and batterydisposal practices in literature and on the internet islimited.However,itwasfoundthatabatterysmelterin

SouthAfricaiscurrentlytryingtoobtaincertificationofafacilitytorecycle“Ni‐Cdandotherchemistries”.

DesignChoicesandManufacturerResponsibility

Limited disposal and recycling options for batteriesplacesmore responsibility onoff grid lighting product

manufacturers to use less toxic battery types in theirproducts.Sealedleadacidbatteries,foundinsomelowcost, low quality products, are of particular concern.

Some of these have short lifetimes (very high lumendepreciation) and are gaining a reputation asdisposable products despite being marketed as

rechargeable. SLA batteries contain large amounts oflead, and evidence suggests that the vastmajority oftheseproductsarenotdisposedofproperly.

There are two primary concerns with these types of

low quality, high toxicity products. The heavy metalsand toxins, when disposed of improperly, cancontaminatetheenvironmentandposeahealthriskto

people and children who live and work in the area.Further,lowqualityproductscancontributetomarketspoilage,wherebyoffgrid lightingproducts ingeneral

gain a poor reputation due to poor consumerexperiences.

Manufacturers may be influenced to use lead and

cadmium type batteries because of cost concerns, asNi‐CdandSLAbatteriestendtobelessexpensivethan

the more environmentally benign NiMH and Li‐ionbatteries.Thedesignofanefficientproduct,however,can minimize system component sizes and help

mitigate or eliminate the added cost of NiMH and Li‐ionbatteries.Asanexample,doublingtheefficiencyofthe light source (LED, driver electronics, optics) could

allowabatterypack(andbatterycapacity)reductionof50%aswellasasmallersolarpanelwithoutsacrificinganyperformanceasseenbytheconsumer.Addtothis

thebenefitsofNiMHandLi‐ionbatteries(highenergydensity, long lifetimes, small size), and the off gridlightingproductcanprovidegoodperformanceforthe

customer, longservice life,andbeanenvironmentallyresponsiblealternativetofuelbasedlighting.

References

1. Buchmann, I. (2006, November). What's the BestBattery? Retrieved May 18, 2008, from Battery

University:www.batteryuniversity.com/partone‐3.htm

2. CentersforDiseaseControl.(2008,March18).

InternationalChemicalSafetyCards.RetrievedMay

2008,NIOSH/WHOInternationalProgramonChemicalSafetywww.cdc.gov/niosh/ipcsneng/neng0000.html

3. Lenntech.(1998‐2008).HeavyMetals.RetrievedJune2,2008,fromLenntechWatertreatment&AirPurification

HoldingB.V.:http://www.lenntech.com/heavy‐metals.htm

4. U.S.DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices.(1995‐

2008).ToxicologicalProfiles.RetrievedJune2,2008,fromAgencyforToxicSubstancesandDiseaseRegistry

(ATSDR):http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxpro2.html

5. BatterySoultions,Inc.(2006‐2008).BatteryRecycling‐CostEffectiveandSafeDisposal.RetrievedMay18,

2008,fromBatterySolutions,Inc.:http://www.batteryrecycling.com/nickel.html

6. EPA.(2007,December20).Batteries|MunicipalSolidWaste|USEPA.RetrievedJune1,2008,fromUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency:

http://www.epa.gov/garbage/battery.htm



Table2:SummaryofRecoverableMaterialsviaBatteryRecyclingBatteryType RecyclingProcess

AlkalineandzinccarbonBothhydroandpyrometallurgicalprocessesareavailabletorecover

zinc,steelandferromanganeseorslag.

NickelcadmiumPyrometallurgicalprocessesareusedtorecover99.9%purity

cadmiumthatisreusedinnewNiCdbatteries,aswellasferronickel.

NickelMetalHydride Processedtorecovernickel,ironandothermetals.

LithiumBased Processedtorecovercobalt,ironandothermetals.

LeadAcid Leadisrecoveredforreuseinnewbatteries.

ButtonCellsSilveroxidetypesusedinwatchesarecollectedbyjewelersandrecycledtorecoversilvermetal.Othertypescanberecycledto

recovermercury,zincandsteel.

Source:EuropeanPortableBatteryAssn‐http://www.epbaeurope.net/recycling.html#battery

Table1:ProperBatteryDisposalbyType*

BatteryType SanitaryLandfillHazardousWaste

FacilityRecycling

Primary

ZincCarbon X OK

Alkaline(mercuryfree) X OK

Alkaline(containsmercury) X T

ButtonCell(mercuryfree) X V

ButtonCell(containsmercury) X T

Secondary

LeadAcidandSLA X T,V

Ni‐Cd X T,V

NiMH X V

Li‐Ion X V*ChartCodes:(X)Acceptabledisposalmethod,(OK)Canberecycled‐notoxicityorparticularmarketvalue.(T)

Recyclefortoxiccomponents,(V)Recycleforvalueofrecoverablematerials


BatteryComparisonTable(I)

Primary(singleuse)Batteries

BatteryType Alkaline ZincCarbon ButtonCell

CommonName(s) "Coppertop",Alkaline"Classic",Super,HeavyDuty,

GeneralPurposeButtonCell

CommonApplications

radios,toys,clocks,household*flashlights,toys,radios,remote

controls,household*watches,toys,calculators,

hearingaids

Advantagesbetterperformancethanzinc

carbonlowcost,goodstoragelife,no

mercuryhighenergydensity,relatively

inexpensive

DisadvantagesMoreexpensivethanzinc

carbon,cancontainmercuryverylowenergydensity(i.e.short

lifespan)limitedapplications,can

containmercury

Toxicity1 Lowtohigh(ifcontainsmercury) LowVariesbychemistry.LowtoHigh(ifcontainsmercury)

Disposal

Linedlandfillatminimum.RecycleorHazardousWasteDisposalrecommended.Nolandfilldisposalifcontains

mercury.

Linedlandfillatminimum.RecycleorHazardousWasteDisposal

recommended.

Variesbychemistry.Linedlandfillatminimum.RecycleorHazardousWasteDisposalrecommended.Nolandfilldisposalifcontainsmercury.

Recycling2Zinc,steelandferromanganesecanberecovered.Lowmarketvalueforreclaimedmetal.

Zinc,steelandferromanganesecanberecovered.Lowmarketvalueforreclaimedmetal.

Recycletorecovervaluablesilver.Zinc,mercuryandsteel

canalsoberecovered.Marketvalueforreclaimedmetalvariesbychemistry.

1batteryuniversity.com

2RelativemarketpricesforbatteryscrapmetalwereobtainedfromToddCoy,Toxcobatteryrecyclers,phoneinterview,24June2008.

*CommonlyfoundinAA,AAA,9V,etcsizesforregularhouseholduse.


BatteryComparisonTable(II)Rechargeable(secondary)Batteries

BatteryType NickelCadmium NickelMetalHydride Lithium‐Ion LeadAcid SealedLeadAcid

CommonName(s)

Ni‐Cd,Ni‐Cad NiMH,Ni‐Li,Ni‐HydrideLi‐Ion,LithiumIronPhosphate

carbattery,startingbattery,wetcell,deep

cycle

SLA,SSLA,valve‐regulated,VRLA,Gel

CommonApplications

modernoff‐gridlighting,powertools,cordlessphones,

professionalradios,medical,household*

modernoff‐gridlighting,laptops,cellphones,

household*

laptops,cellphones,handheldelectronics

Cars,trucks,andothervehicles,standby/backup

systems

off‐gridlighting,wheelchairs,backup

powersystems

EstimatedCycleLife1

300‐1000 500‐1000 500‐2000 200‐700 300‐1000

AdvantagesLowcost,rugged,

higherenergydensitythanSLA

HigherenergydensitythanNi‐Cd,nocadmium

lightweight,highenergydensity

inexpensive,rugged

inexpensive,rugged

Disadvantagescontainscadmiummemoryeffect

HighselfdischargehighercostcomparedtoNi‐Cd

highestcostrechargeable,

requiresprotectioncircuit

Heavy,lowenergydensity,lowcyclelife,containslead

Heavy,lowenergydensity,containslead

Toxicity1Highlytoxic‐contains

cadmiumLowtoModerate Low

Highlytoxic‐containslargeamountsoflead

Highlytoxic‐containslargeamountsoflead

DisposalRecycleorHazardous

WasteDisposal

Landfillinsmallquantities(<10cells).Recycling

recommended.

Landfillinsmallquantities(<10cells).Recyclingrecommended.

RecycleorHazardousWaste

Disposal

RecycleorHazardousWasteDisposal

Recycling2

Cadmiumandferronickelcanbe

recoveredwhichyieldamoderatemarketprice.

Recycletorecovernickel.NiMHisthemostcost‐

effectivebatterytorecyclebecauseofthehigh

marketvalueforscrapnickel.

Cobaltandothermetalscanbe

recoveredwhichhaveahigh

resalevalue,buttherecycling

processismorecomplex(iemore

expensive).

Themostcommonly

recycledbatteryworldwide.Leadandplasticcasingscanberecovered.Moderatemarketvalueforscrap

leadandamatureresalemarket.

Themostcommonlyrecycledbattery

worldwide.Leadandplasticcasingscanberecovered.Moderatemarketvalueforscrapleadandamatureresale

market.1BatteryUniversity:http://www.batteryuniversity.com/partone‐3.htmProduct 2RelativemarketpricesforbatteryscrapmetalwereobtainedfromToddCoy,Toxcobatteryrecyclers,phoneconversation,24June2008.

*CommonlyfoundinAA,AAA,9V,etcsizesforregularhouseholduse.



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