ecm 167416 v1 course-description-form · cricos provider no. 00103d page 3 of 1 it is emphasised...
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CRICOS Provider No. 00103D Warning: uncontrolled when prin ted. Authorised by: Academic Board Original Issue: Document owner: Chair, Curriculum Committee Current Version:
Version: 1, Version Date: 10/02/2017 Document Set ID: 167416
School: Federation Business School
Course Title: Leadership
Course Code: BUMGT5970
Teaching Location: IIBIT Adelaide
Credit Points: 15
Semester, Year: Semester 1, 2019
Prerequisite(s): Nil
Corequisite(s): Nil
Exclusions(s): Nil
ASCED Code:
Description of the course for handbook entry: This course involves a
comprehensive examination of leadership in Australia and internationally. Students study
individual, group and organisational issues, specifically in terms of current and traditional
leadership models and paradigms; gender, ethical, and strategic issues; and the relationships
between leadership and performance, group dynamics, and organisational culture.
Page 1 of 9
00/00/0000 07/07/2016
Program Level:
Level of course in Program AQF Level(s) of Program
5 6 7 8 9 10
Introductory
Intermediate X
Advanced
Course Description
( Higher Education )
Course Description (Higher Education)
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Organisation:
Staff
Prescribed Text This course will be conducted on the presumption that students have a copy of:
DuBrin, AJ, Dalglish, C and Miller, P (2012). Leadership; (2nd Ed.). Sydney: Cengage Learning Australia
OR
Daft, R.L. (2018). The Leadership Experience (7th Ed.). Sydney: Cengage Learning Australia. Please note this
book is publishes only as an eBook
(https://cengage.com.au/product/division/university/title/the-leadership-experience/isbn/9781337102278 )
The following textbook is also useful as it is written by an Australian, is a recent publication (2017)
and challenges mnay of the old ideas about how leadership is framed that circulate in the
contemporary debate on this topic.
Salicru, S (2017) Leadership Results: how to create adaptive leaders and high performing organisations for an uncertain world, John Wiley & Sons, Australia
A general textbook helps you to get an overview of many of the topics. It can also provide a useful
summary of the history of approaches to the topic of leadership.
Student Responsibility It is the responsibility of every student to be aware of the requirements for this course, and understand the specific details included in this document. For full details of programs and school procedures, please refer to the Federation Business School Programs Handbook available at http://federation.edu.au/faculties-and-schools/federation-business-school/student-resources/continuing-students/timetables Students should be aware of the content of the handbook, particularly:
Special Consideration process and forms
Assignment Coversheet
Submission of tasks and assignments
Grading codes
Appeal process
Unsatisfactory progress - Early Intervention
Lecturer Details
Tutor Details (if relevant)
Name Christine Edwards - 0457 828 556
Email Contact [email protected]
Office Location & Campus
Adelaide
Phone Contact
Consultation Hours By appointment
Course Description (Higher Education)
CRICOS Provider No. 00103D Page 3 of 13
It is emphasised that this course requires a significant commitment outside of formal class contact. The learning tasks in this course may include classes (lectures, tutorials or seminars), required reading, the preparation of answers to set questions, exercises and problems, and self-study. In addition, students may be required to complete an assignment, test or examination.
Attendance and Participation It is in students’ interest to make every effort to “attend” by keeping in touch with the lecturer, access Moodle regualy and read about leadership in the populkar press. You also need to complete all preparatory and assessment tasks. It is our experience that those students who do not engage with the lecturer or carry out the associated activities are more likely to do poorly or to fail the course completely.
Late Submission Assessment tasks submitted after the due date, without prior approval/arrangement, will be penalised at 10% of the available marks per day. Please call me if you have any issues with due dates. Requests for extension of time must be made with the lecturer concerned and based on Special Consideration guidelines http://policy.federation.edu.au/student_services_and_administration/enrolment/special_consideration/ch01.php
Course Evaluation We welcome feedback as one way to keep improving this course. Students are encouraged to provide course feedback through eVALUate, the University’s online student feedback system. eVALUate will be available to students during Weeks 10 and 11 by the Student Survey dashboard system using FedUni student user names and passwords.
Learning Outcomes:
Knowledge K1 Define the purpose and scope of leadership theories using evidence-based research K2 Evaluate management principles and practices with respect to leadership theories K3 Interpret influences on leadership styles through variables including culture and gender K4 Appraise leadership approaches contextualised by the different organisational situations and
settings Skills S1 Assess the multifaceted nature of leadership in Australia and internationally S2 Evaluate, by formal research-based literature review, the trends in and implications of leadership
and management in organisations and the ensuing impacts on work environments S3 Critically analyse and report on theoretical developments in leadership understanding with
regard to current research and practical applications S4 Communicate leadership learning through a variety of formal and informal channels S5 Reflect on one’s own leadership skills in the workplace or comparable settings Application of knowledge and skills A1 Apply management principles and practices supported by suitable leadership approaches to
achieve organisational goals. A2 Use initiative to identify suitable applications of leadership theories to real-life situations
Course Content:
Course Description (Higher Education)
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• Introduction: prepare a personal definition of leadership • Leadership: Definitions, models and classical schools of thought • Nature or nurture; are leaders born or made? • Values and ethics • Leadership and gender • Leadership and organisational culture • International approaches to leadership • Leadership development • Public and not-for-profit leadership • Dysfunctional leadership • Leadership trends
Values: Students completing this course will value:
The importance of different perspectives of leading and leadership.
The significance of leadership within the organisational context.
The magnitude and role of the international importance of leadership.
The benefits of socially responsible leadership.
Graduate attributes:
FedUni graduate attributes statement. To have graduates with knowledge, skills and competence
that enable them to stand out as critical, creative and enquiring learners who are capable, flexible
and work ready, and responsible, ethical and engaged citizens.
Describe how this course develops these:
Graduate Attribute
Brief Description Low Focus
Medium Focus
High Focus
Knowledge, skills and competence
Understanding one’s own leadership style in context of leadership research and theory.
X
– Critical, creative and enquiring learners
Gaining of knowledge and confidence in one’s own leadership capabilities.
X
Capable, flexible and work ready
Becoming cognisant of one’s own leaderships roles in the work place and attendant responsibilities.
X
Responsible, ethical and engaged citizens
Becoming aware of the international and cultural dimensions associated with leadership.
X
Learning Task and Assessment:
At the University a PASS is usually achieved at 50%.
Students are strongly advised to attempt ALL assessment tasks. Students who do not submit a task(s) or fail a task(s) in the semester will be identified as a ‘student at risk’ of unsatisfactory academic progress (outlined in the School Handbooks) and will be directed to the School’s Intervention Program. Students who encounter difficulties or who are otherwise concerned regarding their progress should consult their lecturer.
Assessment criteria set out the details by which performance in each task will be judged. This information will give a clear and explicit understanding of the expected standards to be achieved relative to the marks awarded.
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Learning outcomes assessed
Assessment Task Assessment Type Weighting
1. K1, K3,K4 S1, S2, S3, S4
Students will be asked to analyse an aspect of leadership.
Essay
20% Due Sunday Week 3 7th April 2019 By 11:30pm on Moodle Via Turnitin
2 K1, K2, K3, K4 S1,S3, S4
Student write an essay that discussed the challenges of leading today and how we might improve our approaches to leadership development
Essay 40% Due Sunday Week 7 5th May 2019 By 11:30pm on Moodle Via Turnitin
3 K4 S3, S4, S5 A1, A2
Students keep a reflective journal that contributes to a report that outlines how the unit has shaped ideas and developed skills useful for learning and leading in the future
Report based on reflective journal
40% Due Sunday Week 12 By 11:30pm on Moodle Via Turnitin
Assessment criteria set out the details by which your performance in each task will be judged. This information will give you a clear and explicit understanding of the standards you are expected to achieve relative to the marks awarded.
High Distinction (HD) An excellent piece of work. You have fulfilled the criteria of a
distinction and beyond. Your work introduces new concepts, makes extensive and useful
applications. Your answer has moved beyond the information given, extended the topic and
challenged the reader.
Distinction (D) Your work fulfils the criteria of a credit but to a higher standard - argues
well, articulate, convincing, and well supported with research. Your answer shows
comprehension of the whole situation and implications in an organisation.
Credit (C) You have moved beyond a pass standard by showing evidence of wider reading
and a higher level of understanding and analysis. Your answer focuses on several relevant
issues.
Pass (P) A reasonable attempt to cover the reading. Demonstrates some level of
understanding, but poor analysis. A "pass" grade means you have adequately covered the
topic.
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Fail (MN) There is little or no evidence of research. You have not addressed the topic
adequately, you have used irrelevant information and you clearly have not understood the
issues relevant to the topic.
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Assessment Task 1: The Leadership Context essay
DUE DATE Sunday Week 3 via Moodle WEIGHT 20%
LENGTH 1500 WORDS
Details of task
Consider the roles and situations, and the leadership behaviours that might be required, in the table below. Choose two of these and write up to 750 words (per topic) on how leadership might be exercised and what are the contextual factors that are relevant.
The topic
By the CEO of a multinational firm
Leading an inner city street gang
Conducting a symphony orchestra
By a sports coach
In an emergency rescue squad
In a Hollywood film cast and crew
In a hospital emergency room
By a Prime Minister/President
On a battlefield
By a social worker in an aged care home
By a diplomat
By a prison guard
By a supervisor on a construction site
In a sales presentation
After an earthquake
During a meeting where a person is informed he/she has been fired.
In a heart-to-heart talk among close friends.
In a rock group
By a maitre d’ in a restaurant
In a fundraising campaign
Assessment Task 2: Essay: The challenge of leadership today?
DUE DATE Sunday Week 7 via Moodle WEIGHT 40%
LENGTH 3000 WORDS
“The life of a modern-day leader clearly is not easy. Inside their organizations, they need to lead and
motivate a diversified group of people, work across organizational boundaries, improve efficiency,
and achieve growth. Externally, they face a complex and globalized environment; they have to
manage the requirements of government, keep up with competitors, and meet the expectations of
other stakeholders. And within this global environment, there are many cultural considerations leaders
must face to be effective. They must work across cultural boundaries and alongside others who, at
times, are very different from them and have different ways of getting work completed”
Gentry W.A, Eckert, R.H, Stawiski SA, and Zhao S (2016) Center For Creative Leadership, “The
Challenges Leaders Face Around the World More Similar than Different” p3
Accessed on June 24 2018:
http://insights.ccl.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/ChallengesLeadersFace.pdf
There is a copy of this white paper on Moodle.
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You are to write an essay where you discuss what you consider to be the major challenges of leadership in today’s world.
Your essay needs to show evidence of reading widely on this topic. You must consider the following questions:
1. What are the challenges of leading an organisation in today’s world? 2. What needs to change in the way we frame and understand leadership if we are to meet the
challenges of leading in such complex and uncertain times? 3. What would be your main recommendations for improving the quality of leadership
development programs? Comment on how your recommendations would help to address some of the limitations of approaches used to date to develop both leaders and leadership.
LENGTH 2500 -3000 WORDS
Assessment Task 3: Reflective Journal and Report
DUE DATE Due Sunday Week 12 via Moodle WEIGHT 40%
LENGTH 3000 WORDS
Effective leadership is central to leading and managing an organisation at all levels. Reflection is
increasingly being recognised as an important tool to “cultivate on-the-job learning conditions”
(Seibert 1999, p.201).
Reflection is a critical aspect of an authentic learning environment (Herrington, 2012; Herrington,
Reeves, & Oliver, 2010; Lombardi, 2007).
You are required to keep a journal over the course of the semester that outlines how your
understanding of the topic of leaders and leadership has been shaped by your participation in the
course.
Your task is to produce a report that describes your growth, or journey, showing how your reading,
participation in on-line work and reflection have shaped your view of what leadership is and isn’t. It
can incorporate any reflections you may have noted during, or following, a class.
You will need to:
1. Demonstrate an understanding of the ways in which reflection is defined and understood
academically
2. Describe how the various class activities have shaped your understanding of yourself and
others and the effect this is having on your capacity to lead, as well as to follow.
3. You must in some way connect or relate your reflection to the readings assigned throughout
the course. You must reference at least 10 academic articles as well as making use of the
textbooks on the topic of leadership. These references must be cited correctly.
4. Describe other experiences that you consider relevant to describing how your thoughts, ideas
and views of leading and leadership have emerged, or remained constant, for example, any
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work place experience such as a restructure, change of manager, or significant change that
affected your employer, or your employment, or your life circumstances generally.
Assistance with Online Submission
Students are often asked to submit assessments online. Here are a few useful links that introduce
students to the Turnitin software:
• About Turnitin
• Student Guidance on Turnitin
• Student Turnitin Access 2013 (Moodle Support Shell)
Closing the loop: In order to facilitate student reflection and learning, Assignment 3 requires the students to keep a
journal and track their ‘journey’ over the period of the course. This Assignment has proven to be an
excellent vehicle for enhancing students’ knowledge and understanding and developing their
practical skills. The extracts below are from the journals produced by students in Semester 1, 2018:
The fact that I will be attending an interview for a senior management role, on the day this essay task is due, has proven an invaluable foundation for this reflective journal and act of reflexivity (as applied to the preparation for a job interview).
We have chaged the text book after student feedback that the set text was expensive and was not very useful.
The comments in the students’ journal also allow the Lecturing staff to reflect upon what has
worked and what has not and provide valuable feedback for continuous improvement.
Special Consideration:
If students are adversely affected by life circumstances a discretionary assessment extension of up to five
University working days for one assessment task may be granted at the discretion of the tutor, lecturer, or
course coordinator (dependent on faculty process) upon a direct request by the student via the Discretionary
Assessment Extension form.
However if a student has experienced or encountered some form of disadvantage or impediment (medical
reasons; hardship/trauma; compassionate grounds; other significant cause) in more than one course and
requires more than five working days’ extension, then they may apply for Special Consideration.
For further information on Discretionary Assessment Extensions and Special Consideration, including access
to the policy, procedures or associated forms, see http://federation.edu.au/current-students/essential-
info/administration/specialconsideration
Plagiarism:
Plagiarism is the presentation of the expressed thought or work of another person as though it is one's own
without properly acknowledging that person.
Students must not allow other students to copy their work and must take care to safeguard against this
happening. In cases of copying, normally all students involved will be penalised equally; an exception will be if
the student can demonstrate the work is their own and they took reasonable care to safeguard against copying.
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Plagiarism is a serious offence. Please refer to the following documents:
• Statute 6.1: Student Discipline • Regulation 6.1: Student Discipline • Regulation 6.1.1: Plagiarism
Sequence:
As semesters and contact hours vary between teaching locations, delivery is usually scheduled across three hours a week for 12 weeks. As the University offers many programs in a variety of formats please contact local lecturers for further information about the schedule.
Please note that the sequence and content of lectures and tutorials may need to be changed and the following
information should be used as a guide only.
Week Topics Reading
1 Definitions and significance of leadership See Topics 1 on Moodle
2 Leadership characteristics and behaviours
See Topics 2 on Moodle
3 Theories of leadership Assessment Task 1: The Leadership Context essay
DUE Sunday Week 3 via Moodle
See Topic 3 on Moodle
4 Contemporary models of leadership See Topic 4 on Moodle
5 Organisational Culture and Leadership
See Topic 5 on Moodle
6 Leading teams See Topic 6 on Moodle
7 Leading change
Assessment Task 2:
Essay: The challenge of leadership today?
DUE Sunday Week 7 via Moodle
See Topics 7 on Moodle
8 Leadership and Ethical Considerations
See topics 8 on Moodle
9 Leadership trends – Gender issues, international leadership etc
See Topic 9 on Moodle
10 Power and Leadership
See Topic 10 on Moodle
11 Leadership Development
See Topic 11 on Moodle
12 Reflection:
Assessment Task 3: Reflective Journal and Report
Due Sunday Week 12 via Moodle
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Adopted Reference Style:
Australian Psychological Association (APA) 6th ed. (2010) Other (please specify)
Additional Resources: The link to the library website for more information is: FedUni Library - Referencing
Readings:
Leadership: Nature or Nurture?
Bryman, A. (1996) Leadership in organizations, in Handbook of Organization Studies, London: Sage, pp.276-292.
Cawthon, D.L. (1996). Leadership: The great man theory revisited. Business Horizons, 39(3), 1-4. Conger, J.A. (1991). Inspiring others: The language of leadership. Academy of Management
Executive, 5(1), 31-45. Goleman, D. (1998). What makes a leader? Harvard Business Review, 76(6), November-
December, 92-102. Kirkpatrick, S.A. and Locke, E.A. (1991). Leadership: do traits matter? Academy of Management
Executive, 5(2), 48-60. Leadership: Values and Ethics Bagozzi, R.P., Sekerka L.E., Hill V., Sguera. F. (2013) The Role of Moral Values in Instigating
Morally Responsible Decisions, The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(1) 69–94 Brown, M.E. and Trevino, L.K. (2006) Ethical leadership: A review and future directions. Leadership
Quarterly, 17, 596-616. Nesbitt, P. (2012) The Role of Self-Reflection, Emotional Management
of Feedback, and Self- Regulation Processes in Self-Directed Leadership Development, Human Resource Development Review 11(2) 203–226 DOI: 10.1177/1534484312439196 DOI: 10.1177/1523422316645883 adhr.sagepub.com
Ralston, D.A., Holt, D.H., Terpstra, R.H. and Yu, K.C. (1997). The impact of national culture and economic ideology on managerial work values: A study of the United States, Russia, Japan, and China. Journal of International Business Studies, First Quarter, 177-207.
Resick, C.J., Martin, G.S., Keating, M.A., Dickson, M.W., Kwan, H.K. & Peng. C. (2011). What Ethical Leadership Means to me: Asian, American and European Perspectives. Journal of
Business Ethics. 101: 435-457. Sarros, J.C. and Santora, J.C. (2001). Leaders and values: A cross-cultural study. Leadership and
Organization Development Journal, 22(5), 243-248. Trevino, L.K., Hartman, L.P. and Brown, M. (2000). Moral person and moral manager: how
executives develop a reputation for ethical leadership. California Management Review, 42(4), 128-142.
Leadership and Gender Ayman, R. and Korabik,K. (2010). Leadership: Why Gender and Culture Matter. American
Psychologist, 65(3), 157-170. Bierema, L. (2016) Women’s Leadership: Troubling Notions of the “Ideal” (Male) Leader Advances
in Developing Human Resources, Vol. 18(2) 119–136
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Burke, S., and Collins, K.M. (2001). Gender differences in leadership styles and management skills.
Women in Management Review, 16(5), 244-256. Eagly, A (2007) Female Leadership Advantage and Disadvantage: Resolving the Contradictions,
Psychology of Women Quarterly 31, 1 -12 Genat, A. Wood, R. Sojo, V. (2012) Gender Equality Project, Evaluation Bias and Backlash: Dimensions, Predictors and Implications for Organisations, Centre for Ethical Leadership, Melbourne Business School, retrieved May 3 2016, www.globalwomen.org.nz/assets/Uploads/resources/People-and-culture-resources-Gender-Equality-Project-Melbourne-Business-School.pdf Lyness, K.S. and Schrader, C.A. (2006). Moving ahead or just moving?: An examination of gender
differences in senior corporate management appointments. Group and Organization Management, 31(6), 641-676.
Ragins, B.R., Townsend, B. and Mattis, M. (1998). Gender gap in the executive suite: CEOs and female executives report on breaking the glass ceiling. Academy of Management Executive, 12(1), 28-42.
Sczesny, S. Bosak, J. Neff, D, and Schyns B. (2004) Gender Stereotypes and the Attribution of Leadership Traits: A cross-cultural comparison. Sex Roles, 51(11/12), 631-645.
Still, L.V. (2006). Where are the women in leadership in Australia? Women in Management Review,20(3), 180-194.
Leadership and Organizational Culture Baumgartner, R.J. (2009) Organizational culture and leadership: Preconditions for the development
of a sustainable corporation. Sustainable Development,17(2), 102-113. Gilberson, T., Resick, C., Dickson, M., Mitchelson, I., Randall, K. and Clark, M. (2009) Leadership
and organisational culture. Journal of Business and Psychology,24(2) 123-137. Prati, L.M., McMillan-Capehart, A. and Karriker, Joy.H. (2009) Affecting organizational identity: A
manager's influence. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies. 15, 404-415. Australian and international approaches to leadership Ashkanasy, N.M., Trevor-Roberts, E., and Earnshaw, L. (2002). The Anglo cluster: Legacy of the
British Empire. Journal of World Business, 37, 28-39. Dorfman, P.W., Howell, J.P., Shozo, H., Lee, J.K., Tate, U., and Bautista, A. (1997). Leadership in
Western and Asian countries: Commonalities and differences in effective leadership processes across cultures. Leadership Quarterly, 8(3), 233-274.
Gahan, P., Adamovic, M., Bevitt, A., Harley, B., Healy, J., Olsen, J.E., Theilacker, M. (2016) Leadership at Work: Do Australian leaders have what it takes? Melbourne: Centre for Workplace Leadership, University of Melbourne. Available at: workplaceleadership.com.au/sal
House, R., Javidan, M., Hanges, P. and Dorfman, P. (2002). Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories around the globe: an introduction to project GLOBE. Journal of World Business, 37, 3-10.
Javidan, M., House, R.J., Dorfman, P.W., Hanges, P.J., and Sully de Luque, M. (2006) Conceptualizing and measuring cultures and their consequences: a comparative review of GLOBE's and Hofstede's approaches. Journal of International Business Studies. 37(6) 897-917.
Vogelgesang G, Clapp Smith R, Osland J, (2014) The Relationship Between Positive Psychological and Global Mindset in the Context of Global Leadership, Journal of Organisational Studies, Vol 21 (2) p166
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Wang L, Turnbull Jones J, Denyer D, Bailey C, (2014), Western Views and Chinese Whispers: Rethinking global leadership competency in multinational corporations, Leadership Vol 10 (4) pp 471 - 495
Wood, E., Whiteley, A. and Zhang, S. (2002). The cross model of guanxi usage in Chinese
leadership. The Journal of Management Development, 21(3/4), 263-284.
Leadership Development Cox, Bachkirova, Clutterbuck (2014) Theoretical Traditions and Coaching Genres: Mapping the
Territory, Advances in Developing Human Resources, Vol 16 (2) 139 –160 Cumberland, D.M. Herd, A. Alagaraja M. Kerrick, S.A. (2016) Assessment and Development of
Global Leadership Competencies in the Workplace: A Review of Literature Advances in Developing Human Resources 2016, Vol. 18(3) 301–317 DOI: 10.1177/1523422316645883 adhr.sagepub.com
Day, D.V. (2000). Leadership development: A review in context. Leadership Quarterly, 11, 581-613.
Gahan, P. Adamovic, M., Bevitt, A., Harley, B., Healy, J., Olsen, J.E., Theilacker, M. (2016) Leadership at Work: Do Australian leaders have what it takes? Melbourne: Centre for Workplace Leadership, University of Melbourne
Gentry, W.A Eckert, R.H. Munusamy, V.P. Stawiski, S.A. Martin, J.L (2014) The Needs of Participants in Leadership Development Programs: A Qualitative and Quantitative Cross-Country Investigation, Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies Vol. 21(1) 83–101 DOI:
10.1177/1548051813483832
Gentry W.A, Eckert, R.H,. Stawiski SA., and Zhao S (2016) Center For Creative Leadership, “The Challenges Leaders Face Around the World More Similar than Different” Accessed July 13 2016 http://insights.ccl.org/wp content/uploads/2015/04/ChallengesLeadersFace.pdf Goleman, D. (1998). What makes a leader? Harvard Business Review, 76(6), November-
December, 92-102. Lunsford G.A and Brown B.A, (2016) Preparing Leaders While Neglecting Leadership: An Analysis
of U.S. Collegiate Leadership Centers Journal of Leadership &Organizational Studies 1–17 DOI: 10.1177/1548051816662613
McCall, M. (2010). Recasting Leadership Development. Industrial and Organizational Psychology 3,
pp.3-19. Pina e Cunha. M., Pacheco, M., Castanheira F., Rego A. (2015) Reflexive work and the duality of
self-leadership Leadership 0(0) 1–24 Petrie, Nick (2014) Future Trends in Leadership Development, Center For Creative Leadership
White Paper accessed July 14th 2016: http://insights.ccl.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/futureTrends.pdf
Quatro, S, A., Waldman, D.A. and Galvin, B.M. (2007). Developing holistic leaders: Four domains for leadership development and practice. Human Resource Management Review.,17, 427-441. Riggio, R. E. and Lee, J. (2007), Emotional and interpersonal competencies and leader
development. Human Resource Management Review. 17, 418-426 Witherspoon, R (2014) Double-Loop Coaching for Leadership Development, The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science Vol. 50 (3) 261 – 283