Earth Science

SOL ES 1

Density Relationship between mass and volume D = m/v Density is always given as g/ml or g/cm3

Mass can be determined by using a scale or triple beam balance

Volume is determined by using a graduated cylinder

Temperature decreases with depth Salinity increases with depthDensity increases with depth

Pressure also increases with depth

Atmosphere Temperature and Pressure

EXOSPHERE ABOVE 600 KM

The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere and is where all weather occurs

The stratosphere is the second layer of the atmosphere. This layer contains the ozone which is responsible for blocking some forms of UV radiation from reaching the earth.

Topographic Maps

Topographic Maps

Measure changes in elevation A profile is a side view of an elevation When contour lines are close together, the area is steep. Contour lines always point upstream (opposite of flow) Depressions or holes are identified by lines within a circle Valleys will have contour lines very spread apart

7.5 Quadrant (Minute) Topographic map

Latitude Longitude N and S of Equator E and W of the Prime Meridian

SOL ES 2

Scientific Method Scientists use observations of phenomena

to make predictions of future events and explain what has happened in the past

Hypothesis Tentative explanation Only hypotheses that are testable are valid

Theories offer explanations for observed patterns in nature

Laws describe patterns and relationships in nature and are based on data that has been observed

Observations are made using the senses

Inferences are not based on observations. They are conclusions made on data that is known to be true

Variables Independent

Variable changed in an experiment Should only be one

Dependent Variable measured in an experiment

Scientific Laws and Theories Plate tectonics

Convergent, divergent, transform Superposition

Youngest on top, oldest on bottom Uniformitarianism

Processes today are same as in the past Original horizontality

All rock layers are originally laid down horizontally

Cross cutting An intrusion or fault is younger than the

rock it cuts through

Continental drift Matching fossils, rock types, mountain

ranges, and changes in climate Seafloor spreading

Divergent boundary on ocean floor was the mechanism for movement of continents

Big bang theory Formation of the universe

Solar nebula theory Formation of the solar system Sun formed first Solid inner planets – able to withstand heat,

more dense material, settle out first Gaseous outer planets – moved to distant

parts of the solar system due to solar wind Formation of the moon – Impact Theory

SOL ES 3 Earth

Third planet from the sun Solid inner planet Consists of layers

Crust – lithosphere (oceanic and continental crust)

Mantle – asthenosphere (upper) and mesosphere (lower)

Outer core and inner core One satellite – the moon Water occurs in three forms due to position in

solar system Solid, liquid, and gas

Only planet to support life as we know it due to oxygen in the atmosphere and liquid water

Earth along with the other planets revolves around the sun in paths called ellipses

The earth’s axis is tilted. This tilt is responsible for the amount of solar energy reaching the earth’s surface and the seasons

The rotation of the earth on it’s axis causes days and nights

The tilt of earth’s axis is responsible for duration of days and nights

The moon revolves around the earth causing moon phases and eclipses

The tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun There are 2 types of tides: spring and

neap

New andFull moons

1st and 3rd Quarter moons

Parts of an eclipse Umbra

Dark part of the moons shadow

Total Solar eclipse Penumbra

Light part of the moons shadow

Partial solar eclipse

Full moon phase

New moon phase

Sun The sun is a MAIN

SEQUENCE STAR! Consists mostly

of hydrogen Energy is

produced by nuclear fusion of hydrogen to helium

The Planets Inner

terrestrial Smaller Solid Higher densities Thinner atmospheres

Mercury – none Venus – thick, CO2

Earth – nitrogen, oxygen, argon

Mars – Thin, CO2

Faster orbital periods Slower periods of

rotation Few natural satellites

Outer Jovian Larger Gas giants possibly

with solid cores Lower densities Thicker atmospheres

Hydrogen, helium, methane, ammonia

Slower orbital periods Faster periods of

rotation Many natural

satellites

Mercury Smallest planet Fastest orbital velocity No CONSISTENT atmosphere (TENUOUS) Greatest temperature RANGE No moons

Venus Earth’s twin or sister planet Hottest temperatures due to thick

atmosphere of CO2 which causes run away greenhouse effect

Evidence of volcanism and tectonic activity Opposite rotation (retrograde – very slow) No moons

Mars The red planet due to iron oxide which causes

rust Evidence that there was once liquid water at

the surface. The only water found now is either below the surface or in polar ice caps

Very thin atmosphere of CO2 causing it to be very cold

Hurricane force winds and extensive dust storms

Many volcanoes including olympus mons which is the largest volcano in the solar system

Half the size of earth 2 moons

Jupiter Largest planet Contains the red spot which is believed to

be a giant hurricane Banded appearance is due to layering of

the atmosphere from convection and high rotational speed

Fastest rotation of all planets Greatest number of moons (63) One of the moons, Io, is volcanically active

caused by gravitational pull of Jupiter and moons

Saturn System of rings made up of ice and rock Least dense planet (will float on water) Second greatest number of moons Titan, the largest moon, is believed to be

the only body other than earth to have liquid at the surface and nitrogen in the atmosphere

62 moons

Uranus Axis of rotation lies parallel to its orbit

causing it to appear like it is on it’s side 27 moons

Neptune One of the windiest places in the solar

system Has the great dark spot which is believed to

be a giant storm 13 moons The moon triton is the coldest body in the

solar system

Pluto Called a dwarf planet because it only

meets 2 of the 3 criteria of planets orbits the sun – yes Mass for gravity to produce round shape –

yes Gravity to clear neighborhood – no

Very elliptical orbit Largest moon is Charon Part of the Kuiper belt

Asteroids Large objects found in asteroid belt which is

between Mars and Jupiter Believed to be fragments of preexisting

planets or large bodies that never became planets

Comets Rocky and metallic core called the coma held

together by ice, ammonia, methane, CO2 and CO

Orbit the sun in very long ellipses The tail always points away from the sun due

to solar winds Produced in Oort clouds and Kuiper belt

• All revolve in

a plane

•Revolve around

sun

•Revolve in the same direction

Terrestrial Planets Jovian Planets

The Planets

Close to sun Far from sun

Closely spaced orbits Widely space orbits

Slow rotation Faster rotation

Small radii Large radii

Small masses Large masses

Mostly rock Mostly gaseous

High density Low density

Few moons Many moons

Thinner atmospheres Thicker atmospheres H,He, Methane

The solar system

Meteoroids Remains of a comet believed to form

when the earth passes through the tail of a comet

Meteoroids are small solid particles in space

Meteor are meteoroids that burn up in our atmosphere

Meteorites are solid particles that come in contact with earth

The moon Craters of the moon were caused by

meteoroid impact No erosion due to no winds or rains Dark regions are called maria which is

composed of basaltic lava Light colored regions are called highlands Covered with regolith which is composed of

rock fragments. Similar to the surface of earth The moon formed when an Mars-sized object

struck the earth. The ejected debris entered an orbit around earth and combined. This is called the impact theory.

SOL ES 4 All rocks are composed of minerals Minerals

Naturally occurring Inorganic Solid Definite chemical composition and

structure The major elements in earth’s crust are

oxygen, silicon, aluminum, and iron These elements are rarely found in the

native state because they undergo oxidation very easily

Most Abundant Elements in Earth’s Crust

The most abundant group of minerals on earth are the silicates Most common silicates are quartz (used to

make glass) and feldspar (decomposes to clay)

The carbonates (CO3) Most common carbonates are limestone

(calcite) and dolomite (cement and building materials)

Easily weathered chemically The oxide group is composed minerals

that contain oxygen and a metal Hematite and magnetite (iron ores)

The silicon-oxygen tetrahedron is the basic structure for all silicate minerals. The silicates are the most common minerals on earth’s surface.

Some of the most important metallic minerals are produced by igneous processes (cooling of magma)

Most of the nonmetallic minerals form through metamorphic processes (heat and pressure)

Major rock forming minerals Quartz (silicate) Feldspar (silicate) Calcite (carbonate) Mica (silicate)

Physical properties of minerals Hardness Color Luster Streak Cleavage and fracture

Special features of Minerals Magnetism – magnetite Specific gravity – ratio of the density of

mineral to the density of water - galena is very dense (Pb ore)

Fluorescence – glowing under a blacklight (fluorite and calcite)

Radioactivity – minerals that contain uranium

Double refraction – bending of light (calcite) Acid reaction – calcite and limestone Malleability – able to be hammered into

objects (gold, copper, and silver)

Major Rock Forming Minerals

The concentration of many ore minerals is small in the earth’s crust

Ore minerals Pyrite (fools gold) (iron) Magnetite and hematite (iron) Galena (lead) Graphite (carbon) Sulfur Calcopyrite (copper) Sphalerite (zinc)

Mineral uses Apatite – phosphorus fertilizers Calcite – cement and building stone Kaolinite – ceramics and bricks Corundum, diamond, garnet –

gemstones, valued because they are rare, beautiful or brilliant, and extremely hard

Fluorite – steel Graphite – pencil lead Gypsum – plaster and wallboard

Halite – table salt Muscovite – electronics insulator Quartz – glass Sulfur – chemicals Sylvite – potassium fertilizers Talc – powder used in paint and

cosmetics

SOL ES 5

Rocks are identified based on mineral content and texture

The rock cycle is the process that shows how one type of rock can be changed into another type

Igneous Rock Form by cooling (crystallization) of

magma (melted, molten material) Extrusive

Small crystals because they cool quickly at the surface

Fine grained or glassy texture Rhyolite, andesite, basalt, obsidian,

pumice Intrusive

Large crystals because they cool slowly beneath the surface

Coarse grained Granite, diorite, gabbro

Igneous rock can also be classified by composition Granitic – light in color (granite, rhyolite,

obsidian, and pumice) Andesitic – mixture of light and dark color

(diorite and andesite) Basaltic – dark in color (gabbro and

basalt)

Sedimentary rock Formed by compaction and cementation

of weathered material The following terms are always

associated with sedimentary rock: Weathered Eroded Compacted Cemented Lithification Deposited

Clastic Sediments from preexisting rock Breccia, sandstone, shale, conglomerate Larger grains and coarser texture

Chemical Evaporation or precipitation Rock salt and limestone

Organic Made from biological processes Some forms of limestone and coal

There are certain features that are only associated with sedimentary rock Strata – rock layers Fossils Ripple marks from water Mud cracks from drying

Metamorphic Rock From by heat and pressure that occurs

below the earth’s surface Foliated (layers) and nonfoliated (no

layers) The heat is the most important agent and

is most responsible for change Contact metamorphism: contact with

magma causes elevated heat Regional metamorphism: plate tectonics

causes increased heat and pressure

Foliated (parent rock in parentheses) Slate (shale) Schist (slate) Gneiss (granite)

Nonfoliated Marble (limestone) Quartzite (sandstone) Anthracite (hardest form of coal)

Physiographic Provinces of Virginia

Coastal Plain Youngest Deposition of weathering and erosion of

the appalachian mountains Sedimentary rock -- FOSSILS

Piedmont Rolling hills and deeply weathered

bedrock Metamorphic rock from N. America /

Africa collision Igneous rocks are the remains of ancient

volcanoes Rift zones from pulling apart of Pangaea

Blue Ridge Igneous and metamorphic rock Oldest rock in the state Highest area in state Formed during collision between Africa and

N. America Valley and Ridge

Folded and faulted sedimentary rock -FOSSILS

Formed by collision between Africa and N. America

Karst topography of carbonates (limestone)

Appalachian Plateau Ancient flat sedimentary rock - FOSSILS Coal, natural gas, and petroleum Formation of fossil fuels originally

occurred in swamp areas that were uplifted during the collision between Africa and N. America

SOL ES 6 Formation of Fossil Fuels (hydrocarbons)

Coal Heat and pressure transforming plants Stages of coal formation

Peat Lignite (sedimentary) Bituminous (sedimentary) Anthracite (metamorphic)

Petroleum and Natural Gas Formed from remains of organisms that were

buried in ancient seas Pressure from surrounding rock layers

squeezes the oil and gas out of sedimentary rock

CAP ROCK

Nonrenewable Resources of Virginia Coal is Virginia’s most important natural

resource Crushed stone and gravel – road construction Limestone – concrete Kyanite – ceramics, electronics, and insulation Vermiculite – insulation, packing materials, and

potting soil Quartz – glass and electronics Zircon – ceramics Rutile – source of titanium Ilmenite – source of titanium SILICA - ELECTRONICS

Renewable resources of Virginia Soil Forests FRESH Water

These resources have a great deal of potential in Virginia due to the large amounts that are found in the state

The production and use of nonrenewable resources in Virginia has increased over the last 150 years

When extracting resources from earth the benefits and costs must be weighed

Renewable resources can be replaced and nonrenewable resources cannot be replaced

Fossil fuels are nonrenewable and may cause pollution but they are cheap and easy to use

Energy Resources on EarthEnergy Source Advantages Disadvantages

Oil Efficient; can be converted into different types of fuel

Causes air pollution; risk of spills while drilling/transporting; nonrenewable

Natural gas Available in US; clean Difficult to store and transport; mostly nonrenewable

Coal Abundant in US; inexpensive

Causes air pollution and acid rain; mining practices harmful to miners’ health

Nuclear Highly efficient; does not cause air pollution; inexpensive

Thermal pollution; radioactive waste; nuclear accidents

Hydroelectric No air pollution; inexpensive; renewable

Not available in all areas; effects local ecology

Wind No pollution; clean; inexpensive; renewable

Winds not always constant; not practical for large-scale

Solar No pollution; clean; renewable

Expensive to convert into usable form

Layers of the Earth Solid inner core composed of iron and

nickel. Remains solid due to pressure from surrounding layers

Liquid outer core composed of iron. Causes the earth’s magnetosphere

The mantle is composed of a plastic like material that is solid but able to flow

The crust is rocky and brittle

It was determined that the outer core is liquid because S-waves could not penetrate the molten layer and P-waves were slowed.

It was determined that the inner core is solid because there is a sudden increase in P-wave activity. The inner core is the most dense layer of the earth

The lithosphere Divided into plates Composed of the crust and upper mantle Two types of crust

Oceanic: more dense, relatively thin, and young

Continental: less dense, thick, and old

The asthenosphere The UPPER mantle The lithosphere rides on the asthenosphere

Plate boundaries Earthquakes,

volcanoes, and mountain building are a result of motion along plate boundaries

Plate boundaries and formations Continents : divergent boundaries that broke

apart Pangaea Mountain chains : continental – continental

convergent boundaries Island arcs : oceanic – oceanic convergent

boundaries Deep ocean trenches: oceanic – continental

convergent boundaries Earthquake zones: convergent and transform

boundaries Continental volcanoes: oceanic – continental

convergent boundaries Oceanic volcanoes: oceanic divergent boundaries

Volcanism and geothermal activity Hawaii: oceanic hot spot volcanoes Yellowstone: continental hot spot

volcanoes Iceland: divergent boundary volcanoes

formed over the mid ocean ridge Mt. St. Helens: cascade mountain range,

oceanic-continental convergent boundary

Catoctin greenstone: basaltic geothermal flows indicating that the area was once under water

Tambora (Indonesia): formed by a subduction zone between 2 oceanic crusts, largest volcanic eruption in history

Deccan Traps (India): largest volcanic provinces in the world, consists of layers of basalt

Plate boundaries Japan and Aleutian Islands: oceanic – oceanic

convergent boundary (currently active) California: transform boundary (currently

active) New Madrid, MO: divergent boundary (very

active between 100 and 200 years ago) Appalachian System: convergent boundary

between Africa and N. America (very active billions of years ago)

Iceland: divergent (currently active) Tonga: convergent boundary between 2

oceanic plates (currently active)

Evidence for Plate Tectonics The seafloor gets older as you move away

from the mid ocean ridge Magnetic reversal on the ocean floor. Both

sides are mirror images of each other Similar fossils and rock types and have been

found on separated continents At the mid ocean ridge magma moves up

through a divergent boundary. The new ocean crust formed pushes older crust away.

When the oceanic crust comes in contact with continental crust, the oceanic crust is subducted

Features associated with convergent boundaries Continental – continental: folded and

thrust fault mountains Continental – oceanic: trenches and

continental volcanoes, subduction zones Oceanic – oceanic: trenches and island

arcs, subduction zones

Features associated with divergent boundaries Rift valleys Mid ocean ridges Seafloor spreading Fissure volcanoes

Features associated with transform boundaries Strike slip faults

There is much more tectonic activity along the Pacific coast than there is along the Atlantic coast because the Pacific coast is closely associated with plate boundaries

Earthquake activity Earthquake activity is associated with all

types of plate boundaries The major parts of an earthquake are

the focus and epicenter There are 3 types of earthquakes:

shallow focus (cause the most damage), intermediate focus, and deep focus

In order to determine the epicenter of an earthquake you need information from 3 seismograph stations

The Richter scale measures the amount of energy released by an earthquake. Each number is 10 times greater.

The Mercalli scale measures the intensity or amount of damage created by an earthquake

Volcanic Activity Most volcanic activity is associated with

subduction (cascades and andes), rifting (Fissure volcanoes), and seafloor spreading (mid-ocean ridges)

Hot spot volcanic activity (Hawaii and Yellowstone) are not associated with plate boundaries but are associated with a stationary magma source called a plume

A fold is a permanent bend in rock where there is no break. A change in the shape of rock is called a deformation.Anticlines and Synclines are formed by compressionMonoclines are formed by tension/basement block faulting

A fault is a break in rock where movement occurs

shearing

Weathering Chemical

LIQUID Water OR HUMIDITY is the most important agent

One or more compounds are formed Quartz weathers very slowly Examples include hydrolysis and oxidation

Mechanical Rock is broken down into smaller pieces

without changing the mineral composition Examples include frost/ICE wedging,

exfoliation, and biological activity

Erosion Weathered materials are moved by

wind, water, or ice The more energy, the farther/FASTER

the material will travel Deposition

Occurs when eroded materials settle out Heavier materials settle first

The processes of weathering, erosion, and deposition form sedimentary rock

2 major depositional features are deltas and alluvial fans Deltas form where a river meets a larger

body of water and velocity decreases Alluvial fans form at the base of a

mountain where the velocity of water decreases

SOL ES 8 Soil is formed by

weathered material and organic material (humus)

Organic

Topsoil

Subsoil/CLAY AND LEACHED MINERALS

Partially weathered material (regolith)

Karst Topography Underlain by carbonate rocks including

limestone and dolomite Forms by chemical weathering when

limestone is dissolved by acidic groundwater (CaCO3)

The valley and ridge province has an abundance of karst topography

Features include sinkholes, caverns, stalactites (ceiling), and stalagmites (floor)

Freshwater can be found in rivers, streams, lakes, aquifers, and groundwater

Earth’s freshwater supply is finite and can be polluted

Hydrologic Cycle

Porosity is the ability of a rock to hold water Permeability is the ability of a rock to transmit

water Water does not pass through impermeable

material Sandstone is permeable Permeable rock that is full of water is called an

aquifer. A rock can have a high porosity but a low

permeability if the pore space is too small or the pores are not connected

Rock that is permeable is well sorted (sediments are the same size)

Watersheds of Virginia

The Chesapeake Bay Largest estuary in the US An estuary is a body of water found where

rivers meet the sea The Chesapeake Bay is home to

thousands of birds, fish, and mammals The water of the bay is brackish which

means it has a higher level of salts and dissolved minerals

The Chesapeake Bay receives nutrients, sediment, and pollutants from land

Excessive nutrients in the bay come from treatment plants, runoff, and air pollution

Excessive nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus increase the growth of dense algal blooms.

The algal blooms block sunlight that grasses need and consume the oxygen that organisms need

Sediment can also cloud up the water Contaminants alter the food chain

The saltwater intrusions that occur in the aquifers located in eastern Virginia were caused by a meteor impact off the coast of Virginia.

The crater formed by the meteorite has caused large amounts of seawater to enter the aquifers.

SOL ES 9

Fossils Only found in sedimentary rock (very RARELY in

metamorphic rock that is only slightly metamorphosed – fossils are distorted/stretched.)

Remains, impressions, or evidence of previous life Fossil evidence shows that life has changed and

become more complex over time Examples of fossils include molds, casts, and

organism remains Index fossils are useful for correlation because

they are widespread and abundant but limited to one area of geologic time

Relative Dating Provides a sequence but not actual dates Fossils, superposition, and crosscutting are

examples of relative dating techniques Absolute Dating

Provides a numerical age Radioactive dating (U-238 to Pb-206) and

Carbon dating are examples Uranium – rocks Carbon – organic (fossils)

Parent (radioactive) material and daughter (stable) material are compared

Absolute ages are given in half lives

It is believed that the earth is about 4.6 billion years old.

Most of the fossils found in Virginia are located in the Coastal Plain, Valley & Ridge, and Appalachian Plateau.

Most of the fossils are marine which means that the state was once covered with seawater.

Fossils from the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic Eras are found in Virginia

Divisions of Time Eons – Eras – Periods – Epochs – Years

Each era ended with a major event.

The end of each era is normally associated with a major extinction.

The extinction of the dinosaurs was caused by an asteroid impact with Earth.

The Appalachians formed during the Ordovician Period (Paleozoic)

Remember that intrusions are always igneous (usually granite)

SOL ES 10 The most

abundant elements in ocean water are hydrogen and oxygen

The most abundant salts in ocean water are sodium and chloride

The gases nitrogen, oxygen, and CO2 are the most abundant dissolved gases in ocean water just like the atmosphere

Oxygen is used for respiration CO2 is one of the most important gases

that dissolves in the oceans Plants and algae use it to undergo

photosynthesis which produces oxygen It can become calcium carbonate which

some marine animals use to make shells

CO2 dissolves easier in ocean water than other gases

Cold water dissolves more gases than warm water

Oceans with lower salinity hold more gases

Deep ocean water holds more gases As ocean depth increase

Density increases Salinity increases Pressure increases Temperature decreases

Sea level falls when ice caps grow Sea level rises when ice caps melt Large current systems in the ocean

carry warm water toward the poles and cold water toward the equator.

Upwelling is a type of deep current that carries nutrient rich water from the deep ocean to the surface along coastlines. It replaces surface water that was blown from the coast.

Ekman Transport

El Nino Unusually warm ocean temperatures in the

Pacific ocean around the equator The temperature of the ocean water rises

because the trade winds slow and the thermocline drops

The consequences of El Nino are increased rainfall and changes to water temperature which affects the productivity of the oceans

Temperatures in winter are warmer in the northern US and cooler than normal in the southern US

La Nina Unusually cold ocean temperatures in

the Pacific around the equator Winter temperatures are warmer in the

southern US and cooler in the northern US

La Nina can also increase hurricane activity

Ocean currents Move clockwise in the northern hemisphere Move counterclockwise in the southern

hemispher The movement of currents is due largely to

the Coriolis effect and the global wind patterns

Currents from low latitude areas transfer heat from warmer to cooler areas

Currents from high latitude areas help moderate temperatures of adjacent land

Waves and surface currents are generated by winds

Affects of Climate Change on Oceans Warmer oceans will affect the organisms of

the oceans and decrease upwelling Melting sea ice affects the habitats of

organisms and decreases salinity Rising sea levels affect the habitats of

organisms and can affect the locations where millions of people live

Changes in current systems which will affect the climates of continents and the location of nutrients in the ocean

Ocean water can become more acidic due to burning of fossil fuels

Storms such as hurricanes are more likely to form over warm water such as the water in the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic ocean between 5 and 20 degrees latitude.

The waters in these areas are at their warmest during the late summer and early fall which is peak time for hurricane season

The tides are the rise and fall of water level due to the gravitational pull of the moon, and to a lesser degree, the sun

Resources obtained from the ocean floor Oil and natural gas Gas hydrates Salts Sand and gravel Manganese nodules which contain small

amounts of other valuable minerals. The costs of extraction outweigh the benefits however

The ocean is the largest reservoir of heat at the earth’s surface

The ocean drives much of the earth’s weather

The ocean causes climates near the ocean to be milder than the climate in the interior of continents

Convection is the major mechanism of energy transfer in the oceans, atmosphere, and earth’s interior

Features on the ocean floor associated with plate tectonics Mid ocean ridges trenches

Other features on the ocean floor Continental shelf, slope, and rise Abyssal plain seamounts

-Plankton – drifters-Nekton - swimmers-Benthos – bottom dwellers-Photic zone – light zone, all plants-Aphotic zone – no sunlight-Intertidal zone – shallow area affected by tides-Neritic zone – covers the continental shelf, most productive-Oceanic zone – open ocean-Pelagic zone – open ocean of any depth-Benthic zone – sea bottom surface-Abyssal zone – deep ocean floor

Particles in a wave move in a circular patternThe amount of movement decreases as you go deeper

Swash and Backwash

Depositional features of the coast Spit Tombolo Bars Barrier islands

Erosional features of the coast Cliffs Sea arches Sea stacks

Human activities have important consequences for oceans Waste disposal Construction agriculture

These all affect water quality Pollution and overfishing can harm or

deplete valuable resources

SOL ES 11

Earth’s atmosphere is the only atmosphere to contain oxygen (21%)

Earth has had 3 atmospheres: Helium and hydrogen CO2, CO, and water vapor (after the

moon formed) Nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and trace

gases such as argon and CO2 (1%)

The oxygen in our atmosphere was generated by photosynthesis.

The first organisms to undergo photosynthesis were cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)

These organisms consumed the CO2 and produced oxygen

Factors that affect the composition of the atmosphere Increases in greenhouse gas emission,

especially CO2, by the burning of fossil fuels Increased greenhouse effect has caused the

warming of earth by trapping more infrared radiation

Chemicals (CFCs) have decreased the ozone composition which has increased the amount of UV radiation reaching the earth

Volcanic activity and meteorite impacts can eject large amounts of gas and dust into the atmosphere

Water vapor and CO2 are gases in the atmosphere that are able to absorb and retain heat

How plate tectonics affects climate change Changes in plate positions alter ocean

currents and therefore heat transport Alters atmospheric circulation If more glaciers form on land then the earth

has a higher albedo (reflects sunlight back) which causes cooler temperatures

Plate movement also generate more volcanic activity

Increased volcanic activity leads to more water vapor and CO2 released which leads to warmer temperatures

In a positive feedback mechanism the impact of initial events are enhanced

Example Increased CO2 emissions Increased greenhouse effect Increased temperatures on earth Increased melting of polar ice caps Increased sea level

SOL ES 12 Energy transfer between the earth’s

surface and atmosphere creates weather Weather and climate are different

Weather describes day to day changes in atmospheric conditions

Climate describes the typical weather patterns from data collected over many years 4 major factors that affect climate:

Latitude, altitude, bodies of water, and mountains

Major climate zones: Tropical, temperate, and polar

Weather instruments Temperature – thermometer Barometer (aneroid or mercury) –

atmospheric pressure Psychrometer or hair hygrometer–

humidity (amount of water vapor in the atmosphere)

Anemometer – wind speed Wind vane – wind direction

The amount of energy reaching any point on the earth’s surface is controlled by the angle of the sunlight which varies with seasons

The closer to 90° the sun’s rays strike the earth, the more energy

Winds are created by uneven heating of the earth’s surface and are changed by the rotating of the earth

The deflection of winds to the right in the north and to the left in the south is called the Coriolis Effect

Convection in the atmosphere is the major cause of weather and winds

Cloud formation Air temperature at or below the dew

point Air is saturated Condensation nuclei are needed Adiabatic cooling: as air expands it cools

Fog Formation Forms by cooling when warm moist air

moves over a cool land surface and cools below its dew point

Forms by evaporation when cool air moves over warm water. Moisture evaporates from the water surface to produce saturation. Common over lakes and rivers.

Precipitation Formation Occurs in cold clouds Supercooling: water in a liquid state that is

below O° C, will readily freeze if it touches a solid object

Ice crystals form as the condensation nuclei accumulate more water vapor

When the crystals become large enough they fall as precipitation

If the temperature is above 4°, they melt and form rain. Below this temperature they become snow

Sea breezes occur during the day when the air over the land is warmer and rises. This air is replaced by air from over the sea

Land breezes occur at night when the air over the sea is warmer and rises. This air is replaced by air from land.

Mountain and Valley Breezes Valley breeze

During the day heating causes warm air to rise from the valley floor

Mountain breeze At night cooling causes cool air to move

down mountain slopes This cool air can come in contact with

warm rivers and streams in valleys forming fog

The jet stream Very fast movement

of air in the upper atmosphere

Moves from west to east

Boundary between cold and warm air masses

Weather tends to follow the path of the jet stream

High pressure systems Air descends and diverges anticyclone Associated with good weather Air moves clockwise

Low pressure systems Air converges ascends Cyclone (travel west to east, stormy weather) Rising air is associated with cloud formation

and rain Associated with poor weather Air moves counterclockwise

Fronts Warm front

Light to moderate precipitation over a large area

Cold Front Stormy weather with cumulonimbus clouds Weather clears quickly after front passes

Stationary front Gentle to moderate precipitation

Occluded front Complex/Light precipitation

Mid latitude cyclones, which affect the weather of the US, are formed by a stationary front that becomes an occluded front

Air masses cP: cold continent origin mP: cold ocean origin cT: warm continent origin mT: warm ocean origin

Air Mass Sources

Isotherms connect points of equal temperature

Isobars connect points of equal pressure

Hurricanes Tropical cyclones Form within 20° of the equator Form over warm water such as the Gulf

of Mexico or the Atlantic near the equator Most form in late summer or early fall

when the water temperature is highest Fueled by energy given off when huge

quantities of water vapor condense The eye is the calm area in the center Measured by the Saffir Simpson scale

Tornadoes Form in association with thunderstorms Vortex inside a cumulonimbus cloud April – June Form from mesocyclones which is a

vertical cylinder of rotating air Measured by the Fujita Scale

Thunderstorms Associated with cumulonimbus clouds Warm moist air moves up into the cloud

causing the clouds to grow The large amount of water is too great

for the cloud to support so large amounts of rain falls

3 stages: cumulus, mature, dissipating

SOL ES 13

The universe is very vast and is believed to be approximately 14 billion years old

The theory for the formation of the universe is the Big Bang Theory

According to this theory the universe began as a very large, hot, and dense mass that expanded and condensed into galaxies

The solar nebula theory is the theory for the formation of our solar system

According to this theory The sun and planets formed from a rotating

disk of dust and gases The material contracted due to gravity

causing most of the material to accumulate near the center (the sun)

The remaining material in the flat rotating disk became the planets

The solid inner materials became the inner planets and the gases and ices became the outer planets

Stars form by condensing and gravitational compression of interstellar gas and dust in a nebula

The fate of a star is determined by its mass

Hertzsprung – Russell (H-R) Diagram

Hottest Coolest

Galaxies are collections of billions of stars

There are 3 types of galaxies Spiral (Milky

Way) Elliptical Irregular

The Milky Way is actually a barred spiral

Our solar system is located in the Milky Way Galaxy

We are in the Milky Way so the shape appears different to us from Earth

A light year is the distance light travels in one year. It is the most commonly used measurement of distance in astronomy

Parallax is the movement of a star or object in space compared to a background of stars. Stars that are closer appear to move more over

a set amount of time (6 months) and stars that are farther away appear to move less

Magnitude is a measure of brightness of stars Apparent: brightness from earth Absolute: how bright the star actually is

Stars produce energy by the process of nuclear fusion of Hydrogen to Helium

In giant stars the fusion of heavier elements occurs forming all of the elements Giants – up to iron Supergiants – all elements

As a star reaches the giant stages the core condenses because hydrogen fusion ends but the outer layers expand

Key Moments in Space Exploration 1957 – Sputnik is the first artificial satellite to

orbit the Earth (Russia) 1958 – First American satellite to orbit Earth 1961 – First human in space (Yuri Gagarin –

Soviet Union) 1962 – First American to orbit the Earth (John

Glenn) 1965 – first spacewalk 1968 – first manned moon orbital launch

(Apollo 8 – United States) 1969 – First human to walk on the moon

(Apollo 11 - Neil Armstrong – United States)