EARTH AND SPACE EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCESCIENCE

WHAT YOU WHAT YOU

NEED TO KNOWNEED TO KNOW

Explain how evidence from stars and other Explain how evidence from stars and other celestial objects provide information celestial objects provide information about the processes that cause changes about the processes that cause changes in the composition and scale of the in the composition and scale of the physical universe.physical universe.

1.1. Describe that stars produce energy from nuclear Describe that stars produce energy from nuclear reactions and that processes in stars have led to the reactions and that processes in stars have led to the formation of all elements beyond hydrogen and helium.formation of all elements beyond hydrogen and helium.

2.2. Describe the current scientific evidence that supports the Describe the current scientific evidence that supports the theory of the explosive expansion of the universe, the Big theory of the explosive expansion of the universe, the Big Bang, over 10 billion years ago.Bang, over 10 billion years ago.

STARS AND ELEMENTSSTARS AND ELEMENTS

• Elements heavier than lithium are all synthesized Elements heavier than lithium are all synthesized in stars. During the late stages of a star’s life cycle, in stars. During the late stages of a star’s life cycle, massive stars burn helium to carbon, oxygen, massive stars burn helium to carbon, oxygen, silicon, sulfur, and iron. silicon, sulfur, and iron.

• Elements heavier than iron are produced in two Elements heavier than iron are produced in two ways: in the outer envelopes of super-giant stars ways: in the outer envelopes of super-giant stars and in the explosion of a supernovae. All these and in the explosion of a supernovae. All these heavy elements are produced in stars through heavy elements are produced in stars through nuclear fusionnuclear fusion. All carbon-based life on Earth is . All carbon-based life on Earth is literally composed of stardust. Most of the material literally composed of stardust. Most of the material in our universe, however, is still hydrogen.in our universe, however, is still hydrogen.

• Keep in mind that our Sun is a star and currently Keep in mind that our Sun is a star and currently does, and will continue to do, these things.does, and will continue to do, these things.

BIG BANG THEORYBIG BANG THEORY• The Big Bang Theory is the The Big Bang Theory is the dominantdominant scientific theory about the scientific theory about the

origin of the universe. According to the Big Bang, the universe origin of the universe. According to the Big Bang, the universe was created sometime between 10 billion and 20 billion years was created sometime between 10 billion and 20 billion years ago from a cosmic explosion that hurled matter and in all ago from a cosmic explosion that hurled matter and in all directions. directions.

• There are three tests of the Big Bang theory (the expansion of There are three tests of the Big Bang theory (the expansion of the universe, the abundance of light elements, and cosmic the universe, the abundance of light elements, and cosmic microwave background radiation). These tests are supports for microwave background radiation). These tests are supports for this theory.this theory.

• The universe is expanding because galaxies can be observed The universe is expanding because galaxies can be observed moving away from us at great speeds. There is a red shift in the moving away from us at great speeds. There is a red shift in the light from these.light from these.

• Light elements, including H and He, make up the majority of Light elements, including H and He, make up the majority of elements in the universe.elements in the universe.

• The Big Bang Theory received its strongest confirmation when The Big Bang Theory received its strongest confirmation when the cosmic radiation was discovered in 1964 by Arno Penzias the cosmic radiation was discovered in 1964 by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, who later won the Nobel Prize for this and Robert Wilson, who later won the Nobel Prize for this discovery. discovery.

• Although the Big Bang Theory is widely accepted, it probably will Although the Big Bang Theory is widely accepted, it probably will never be proved; consequentially, leaving a number of tough, never be proved; consequentially, leaving a number of tough, unanswered questions. Most theories will never be proved!unanswered questions. Most theories will never be proved!

Explain that many processes Explain that many processes occur in patterns within the occur in patterns within the Earth’s systems.Earth’s systems.

1.1. Explain the relationships of the oceans to the Explain the relationships of the oceans to the lithosphere and atmosphere (e.g., transfer of lithosphere and atmosphere (e.g., transfer of energy, ocean currents, and landforms).energy, ocean currents, and landforms).

2.2. Summarize the relationship between the Summarize the relationship between the climatic zone and the resultant biomes.climatic zone and the resultant biomes.

3.3. Explain climate and weather patterns Explain climate and weather patterns associated with certain geographical locations associated with certain geographical locations and features (e.g., tornado alley, tropical and features (e.g., tornado alley, tropical hurricanes, and lake effect snow).hurricanes, and lake effect snow).

EARTH AND CLIMATEEARTH AND CLIMATEGlobal circulations explain how air and storm systems Global circulations explain how air and storm systems

travel over the Earth's surface. The global circulation travel over the Earth's surface. The global circulation would be simple if the Earth did not rotate, if the would be simple if the Earth did not rotate, if the rotation was not tilted relative to the sun, and if Earth rotation was not tilted relative to the sun, and if Earth had no water.had no water.

The sun heats the entire Earth, but where the sun is The sun heats the entire Earth, but where the sun is more directly overhead it heats the Earth and more directly overhead it heats the Earth and atmosphere more. The result is that the equator atmosphere more. The result is that the equator becomes very hot with the hot air rising into the upper becomes very hot with the hot air rising into the upper atmosphere. That air would then move toward the atmosphere. That air would then move toward the poles where it would become very cold and sink, then poles where it would become very cold and sink, then return to the equator. One large area of high pressure return to the equator. One large area of high pressure would be at each of the poles with a large belt of low would be at each of the poles with a large belt of low pressure around the equator. However, since the earth pressure around the equator. However, since the earth rotates, since the axis is tilted, and since there is more rotates, since the axis is tilted, and since there is more land mass in the northern hemisphere than in the land mass in the northern hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere, the actual global pattern is southern hemisphere, the actual global pattern is much more complicated than this.much more complicated than this.

EARTH AND CLIMATEEARTH AND CLIMATEUsually, fair and dry/hot Usually, fair and dry/hot

weather is associated with weather is associated with high pressure, with rainy high pressure, with rainy and stormy weather is and stormy weather is associated with low associated with low pressure. You can see the pressure. You can see the results of these results of these circulations on a globe. circulations on a globe.

Look at the number of Look at the number of deserts located along the deserts located along the 30°N/S latitude around the 30°N/S latitude around the world. Now, look at the world. Now, look at the region between 50°-60° region between 50°-60° N/S latitude. These areas, N/S latitude. These areas, especially the west coast especially the west coast of continents, tend to of continents, tend to have more precipitation have more precipitation due to more storms due to more storms moving around the earth moving around the earth at these latitudes.at these latitudes.

CLIMATE AND BIOMESCLIMATE AND BIOMESBiomes are defined as "the world's major communities, Biomes are defined as "the world's major communities,

classified according to the predominant vegetation and classified according to the predominant vegetation and characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular environment“.environment“.

The importance of biomesThe importance of biomes cannot be overestimated. Biomes have cannot be overestimated. Biomes have changed and moved many times during the history of life on Earth. changed and moved many times during the history of life on Earth. More recently, human activities have drastically altered these More recently, human activities have drastically altered these communities. Thus, conservation and preservation of biomes should communities. Thus, conservation and preservation of biomes should be a major concern to all.be a major concern to all.

The five biomes are aquatic, tundra, forests, deserts, and grasslands.

Think about what it would be like to live in

each!

EARTH AND CLIMATEEARTH AND CLIMATE• Tornado alley: Tornado alley:

This is where This is where warm, warm, humidhumid air air from the Gulf of from the Gulf of Mexico Mexico collidescollides with cooler, drier with cooler, drier air from Canada. air from Canada. These These collisionscollisions create the huge create the huge thunderstormsthunderstorms that can form that can form tornadoes. tornadoes.

EARTH AND CLIMATEEARTH AND CLIMATE

Tropical hurricanes: The terms Tropical hurricanes: The terms "hurricane""hurricane" and and "typhoon""typhoon" are other are other names for a strong names for a strong "tropical cyclone""tropical cyclone". Five factors are necessary . Five factors are necessary to possibly form tropical cyclones:to possibly form tropical cyclones:

• Warm waters (or, more specifically, the moisture in the air above Warm waters (or, more specifically, the moisture in the air above them) are the energy source for tropical cyclones. When these them) are the energy source for tropical cyclones. When these storms move over land or cooler areas of water, they weaken storms move over land or cooler areas of water, they weaken rapidly. rapidly.

• Upper level conditions must be conducive to Upper level conditions must be conducive to thunderstormthunderstorm formation. formation.

• A pre-existing weather disturbance. This is most frequently A pre-existing weather disturbance. This is most frequently provided by provided by tropical wavestropical waves—non-rotating areas of thunderstorms —non-rotating areas of thunderstorms that move through the world's tropical oceans. that move through the world's tropical oceans.

• A distance of approximately 10 degrees or more from the A distance of approximately 10 degrees or more from the equatorequator, , so that the so that the CoriolisCoriolis effect effect is strong enough to initiate the cyclone's is strong enough to initiate the cyclone's rotation. rotation.

• Lack of vertical Lack of vertical wind shearwind shear (change in wind velocity or direction (change in wind velocity or direction over height). High levels of wind shear can break apart the vertical over height). High levels of wind shear can break apart the vertical structure of a tropical cyclone. structure of a tropical cyclone.

EARTH AND CLIMATEEARTH AND CLIMATE• Lake effect snow: Lake-generated snow squalls form Lake effect snow: Lake-generated snow squalls form

when cold air, passing for long distances over the when cold air, passing for long distances over the relatively warm waters of a large lake, picks up relatively warm waters of a large lake, picks up moisture and heat and is then forced to drop the moisture and heat and is then forced to drop the moisture in the form of snow upon reaching the moisture in the form of snow upon reaching the downwind shore. Lake-effect snows are common over downwind shore. Lake-effect snows are common over the Great Lakes region because these large bodies of the Great Lakes region because these large bodies of water can hold their summer heat well into the winter, water can hold their summer heat well into the winter, rarely freeze over, and provide the long distance rarely freeze over, and provide the long distance which allows the air to gain the heat and moisture which allows the air to gain the heat and moisture required to fuel the snow squalls. required to fuel the snow squalls.

Lake-effect snows are Lake-effect snows are most pronounced and most pronounced and effective wherever terrain effective wherever terrain features such as small features such as small hills or mountains are hills or mountains are oriented along the lee oriented along the lee shores. This is what it shores. This is what it would be like in would be like in Cleveland!Cleveland!

EARTH EARTH AND AND CLIMATECLIMATE Moisture for storms Moisture for storms

comes from large comes from large bodies of water, bodies of water, primarily oceans, and primarily oceans, and are pushed over the are pushed over the continents by air continents by air currents. When this currents. When this moist air comes over moist air comes over a land and hits a a land and hits a mountain, it is forced mountain, it is forced up the range where it up the range where it cools, condenses, and cools, condenses, and often falls as rain. often falls as rain. Mountains often Mountains often receive much more receive much more precipitation than the precipitation than the areas around them. areas around them.

As this air pushes over the top of As this air pushes over the top of the mountain and down the the mountain and down the other side, it can again expand, other side, it can again expand, although it has now lost much of although it has now lost much of its moisture. This "Rain Shadow" its moisture. This "Rain Shadow" effect can be so strong that the effect can be so strong that the area behind a mountain is a area behind a mountain is a desert. In fact, all the deserts of desert. In fact, all the deserts of North America are influenced by North America are influenced by this "Rain Shadow" effect. this "Rain Shadow" effect.

Explain the 4.5 billion-year-history of Explain the 4.5 billion-year-history of Earth and the 4 billion-year-history of Earth and the 4 billion-year-history of life on Earth based on observable life on Earth based on observable scientific evidence in the geologic scientific evidence in the geologic record.record.

1. Explain that gravitational forces govern the 1. Explain that gravitational forces govern the characteristics and movement patterns of the characteristics and movement patterns of the planets, comets, and asteroids in the solar planets, comets, and asteroids in the solar system.system.

2. Explain how geologic time can be estimated by 2. Explain how geologic time can be estimated by multiple methods (e.g., rock sequences, fossil multiple methods (e.g., rock sequences, fossil correlation and radiometric dating).correlation and radiometric dating).

3. Describe how organisms on Earth3. Describe how organisms on Earth contributed to contributed to the dramatic change in oxygen content of the dramatic change in oxygen content of Earth’s early atmosphere.Earth’s early atmosphere.

SOLAR SYSTEMSOLAR SYSTEM• How does gravity work? There are two ideas you need How does gravity work? There are two ideas you need

to know. These ideas work throughout the universe. to know. These ideas work throughout the universe. The more massive an object is, the more gravity it The more massive an object is, the more gravity it has. The closer two objects are, the stronger the has. The closer two objects are, the stronger the gravitational pull between them. SO, putting these two gravitational pull between them. SO, putting these two rules together, the more massive and the closer two rules together, the more massive and the closer two objects are, the greater the gravitational attraction objects are, the greater the gravitational attraction between them. Think of Newton when you think of between them. Think of Newton when you think of gravity! Think of how early scientists got in trouble for gravity! Think of how early scientists got in trouble for thinking the Sun, rather than the Earth, was the center thinking the Sun, rather than the Earth, was the center of our solar system!of our solar system!

Asteroids are rocky lumps of material, sometimes known as minor planets and exist mostly between Mars and Jupiter. Comets are a bit like giant dirty ice-balls with diameters between five and fifty kilometers. They, like the planets, are kept in orbit by the force of gravity.

GEOLOGIC TIMEGEOLOGIC TIME

• Fossil correlation – Fossil correlation – Fossils can often be Fossils can often be used to estimate dates of rocks in which they are used to estimate dates of rocks in which they are embedded. They can also be used to make embedded. They can also be used to make guesses about what earlier times were like guesses about what earlier times were like (climate, etc).(climate, etc).

• Radiometric dating – Radiometric dating – Rocks often contain Rocks often contain radioactive materials that are decaying at a radioactive materials that are decaying at a constant rate. Looking at the fractions of these constant rate. Looking at the fractions of these materials now present helps us date things. materials now present helps us date things. Carbon dating is a good example.Carbon dating is a good example.

Describe the finite nature of Earth’s Describe the finite nature of Earth’s resources and those human activities resources and those human activities that can conserve or delete Earth’s that can conserve or delete Earth’s resources.resources.

• Use of resourcesUse of resources• Urban growth and waste disposalUrban growth and waste disposal• Farming (C and N cycles, erosion, Farming (C and N cycles, erosion,

crop rotation, fertilizers)crop rotation, fertilizers)• Pest controlPest control• Global warmingGlobal warming• Exponential population growthExponential population growth

Explain the processes that move and Explain the processes that move and shape Earth’s surface.shape Earth’s surface.

• Explain how the slow movement of material Explain how the slow movement of material within Earth results from: within Earth results from:

a. thermal energy transfer (conduction and a. thermal energy transfer (conduction and convection) from the deep interior; convection) from the deep interior;

b. the action of gravitational forces on regions of b. the action of gravitational forces on regions of different density.different density.

• Explain the results of plate tectonic activity (e.g., Explain the results of plate tectonic activity (e.g., magma generation, igneous intrusion, magma generation, igneous intrusion, metamorphism, volcanic action, earthquakes, metamorphism, volcanic action, earthquakes, faulting, and folding).faulting, and folding).

• Explain sea-floor spreading and continental drift Explain sea-floor spreading and continental drift using scientific evidence (e.g., fossil distributions, using scientific evidence (e.g., fossil distributions, magnetic reversals, and radiometric dating).magnetic reversals, and radiometric dating).

CONTINENTAL DRIFTCONTINENTAL DRIFT Wegener was intrigued (like people before him) by plant and animal fossils found on the matching coastlines of South America and Africa, now widely separated by the Atlantic Ocean. He reasoned that it was impossible for most of these organisms to have swum or have been transported across the ocean. To him, the presence of identical fossil species along the coastal parts of Africa and South America was the best evidence that the two continents were once joined. His theory was also supported by the discovery of both fossils of tropical plants and dinosaurs in Antarctica that led him to the conclusion that this now frozen land once must have been situated closer to the equator where lush, swampy vegetation could grow. His downfall: HOW? WHAT FORCES?

EARTH’S STRUCTUREEARTH’S STRUCTURE

In the picture, In the picture, you can see you can see the thin the thin crust, over crust, over the mantle the mantle and then the and then the core. Most core. Most of the of the mantle and mantle and core are core are liquid and liquid and can flow.can flow.

PLATE TECTONICSPLATE TECTONICSThe Earth’s crust is made up The Earth’s crust is made up

of a dozen or so major of a dozen or so major plates and several minor plates and several minor plates. These tectonic plates. These tectonic plates are constantly on the plates are constantly on the move. The fastest plate move. The fastest plate races along at 15 races along at 15 centimeters (6 inches) per centimeters (6 inches) per year while the slowest year while the slowest plates crawl at less than plates crawl at less than 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) per 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) per year. year.

You'll notice that most plates You'll notice that most plates are part continental and are part continental and part oceanic. Continental part oceanic. Continental plates tend to be made of plates tend to be made of lighter, less dense rocks lighter, less dense rocks and oceanic plates are and oceanic plates are made of heavier, more made of heavier, more dense rocks. dense rocks.

What causes these plates to move?

Since plates move, do they run into each other?

CONVERGENT BOUNDARIESCONVERGENT BOUNDARIESIn a contest between a dense oceanic plate and a less dense continental plate, it’s the dense oceanic plate that sinks. In this case, one plate is pulled beneath another (subduction), forming a deep trench. The long, narrow zone where the two plates meet is called a subduction zone. Look for curved volcanic mountain ranges with deep trenches alongside. Boundaries like this are known to produce historic earthquakes of great magnitudes.

When two oceanic plates collide, the plate that is older, therefore colder and denser, is the one that will sink.

MORE ON CONVERGENT MORE ON CONVERGENT BOUNDARIESBOUNDARIES

• The Himalayan mountain range The Himalayan mountain range provides a spectacular example provides a spectacular example of continent vs. continent of continent vs. continent collision. When two continental collision. When two continental plates meet head-on, plates meet head-on, sometimes neither one can sink sometimes neither one can sink because both plates are too because both plates are too buoyant. buoyant.

• It is here that the highest It is here that the highest mountains in the world grow. At mountains in the world grow. At these boundaries solid rock is these boundaries solid rock is crumpled and crumpled and faultedfaulted. Huge . Huge slivers of rock, many kilometers slivers of rock, many kilometers wide are thrust on top of one wide are thrust on top of one another, forming a towering another, forming a towering mountain range. mountain range.

Look at how older rocks that are colder and denser may now be layers under younger rocks!

DIVERGENT BOUNDARIESDIVERGENT BOUNDARIES

If plates collide, canIf plates collide, can

they also separate? they also separate?

An example of divergent plate boundaries is in East Africa where a spreading process has already torn Saudi Arabia away from the rest of the African continent, forming the Red Sea. A new spreading center may be developing under Africa along the East African Rift Zone.

Geologists believe that, if spreading continues, the three plates that meet at the edge of the present-day African continent will separate completely, allowing the Indian Ocean to flood the area and making the easternmost corner of Africa (the Horn of Africa) a large island.

TRANSFORM PLATE TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARIESBOUNDARIESAt transform plate boundaries plates grind past each other side by side. Unlike convergent or divergent boundaries, the plates do not go under or over each other. A good example of this type of boundary is the one that separates the North American plate from the Pacific plate along the San Andreas fault, a famous transform plate boundary that’s responsible for many of California’s earthquakes. The San Andreas fault is unusual because most transform boundaries occur on the ocean floor.

Movement along the San Andreas (or any other fault) can occur either in sudden jolts or in a slow, steady motion called creep. Which is a bigger problem for us here on Earth?

CARTOON ACTIVITYCARTOON ACTIVITY

• Take your cartoon and place it in line Take your cartoon and place it in line with the others so that the pictures with the others so that the pictures tell a story. This is very similar to how tell a story. This is very similar to how we take fossil pieces and put them we take fossil pieces and put them together to tell a story about the together to tell a story about the past.past.