E. Gyimah-Boadi, Ghana Center for Democratic E. Gyimah-Boadi, Ghana Center for Democratic Development (CDD-Ghana); and Dept of Political Science, Development (CDD-Ghana); and Dept of Political Science,

University of Ghana, LegonUniversity of Ghana, Legon

TOPIC: THE SEARCH FOR A DEVELOPMENTAL PUBLIC TOPIC: THE SEARCH FOR A DEVELOPMENTAL PUBLIC SERVICE IN AFRICA:SERVICE IN AFRICA:

CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTSCHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS

IntroductionIntroduction

The attributes of “developmental” The attributes of “developmental” states and public services are well states and public services are well known by now. They embody the known by now. They embody the following capacities:following capacities:

Regulatory capacity – Regulatory capacity – ability to ability to establish and enforce rules establish and enforce rules throughout the society, including the throughout the society, including the traditional and religious realms traditional and religious realms

Administrative capacity - Administrative capacity - ability to ability to manage the personnel and resources manage the personnel and resources of the state and to ensure of the state and to ensure accountability and efficiency in accountability and efficiency in service delivery service delivery

Technical capacity- Technical capacity- expertise and expertise and knowledge required to make and knowledge required to make and implement technical decisions as implement technical decisions as well as the policy tools and well as the policy tools and instruments necessary to implement instruments necessary to implement those decisions effectively those decisions effectively

Extractive capacity -Extractive capacity - to raise the to raise the revenues needed by the state to pay revenues needed by the state to pay for the expenses of implementing for the expenses of implementing state policies and goals – which of state policies and goals – which of course includes the revenue for course includes the revenue for hiring, paying, and providing public hiring, paying, and providing public servants with the resources to work servants with the resources to work with with

Developmental states and public Developmental states and public services (by the above definition) are services (by the above definition) are rare in Africa - outside of South rare in Africa - outside of South Africa, Namibia Botswana and Africa, Namibia Botswana and Mauritius; the quest for the Mauritius; the quest for the developmental state elsewhere in developmental state elsewhere in Africa is understood to have proved Africa is understood to have proved highly elusive.highly elusive.

The emergence of the crisis of The emergence of the crisis of public service incapacity in public service incapacity in

Africa: some caveats Africa: some caveats

Relatively short time span: the Relatively short time span: the development of a high level of state development of a high level of state and bureaucratic capacity took and bureaucratic capacity took several centuries in other parts of several centuries in other parts of the world: the world:

Compared to other developing Compared to other developing

countries, African states are very countries, African states are very new - formed during colonial rule new - formed during colonial rule and emerged as a nation state less and emerged as a nation state less than 50 years ago. (Compare with than 50 years ago. (Compare with most places in Latin America where most places in Latin America where European colonialism had ended by European colonialism had ended by the mid-19th century; or with Asian the mid-19th century; or with Asian societies that can can boast of societies that can can boast of bureaucratic traditions that predate bureaucratic traditions that predate those of Europe).those of Europe).

The colonial factor is also relevant to post-The colonial factor is also relevant to post-colonial failure to develop developmental colonial failure to develop developmental

states and effective public servicesstates and effective public services i in n much of Africa (outside of the settler much of Africa (outside of the settler

colonies):colonies):

The colonial state’s neo-mercantilist The colonial state’s neo-mercantilist orientations - in which it sustained orientations - in which it sustained itself largely on taxing surpluses itself largely on taxing surpluses generated by peasant grown primary generated by peasant grown primary commodities, exports of minerals commodities, exports of minerals and timber extracted by foreign and timber extracted by foreign companies, and imports of consumer companies, and imports of consumer goods; goods;

The colonial state that relied very The colonial state that relied very little or not all on direct taxes (and little or not all on direct taxes (and almost exclusively on the almost exclusively on the mechanisms of marketing boards mechanisms of marketing boards and other forms of official monopoly; and other forms of official monopoly; control over export/ import business control over export/ import business through licensing; and foreign through licensing; and foreign exchange/currency control) – leading exchange/currency control) – leading to…………. to………….

Emergence of a political economy and Emergence of a political economy and politics whose central feature was politics whose central feature was contestation for control of the rents contestation for control of the rents generated by central government generated by central government through the control over the trading through the control over the trading activities of the state.activities of the state.

The often heterogeneous character of The often heterogeneous character of the state created by the colonial rule the state created by the colonial rule and the many and varied forms of and the many and varied forms of social loyalties and identities available social loyalties and identities available to be mobilized politically to make to be mobilized politically to make sectarian claims on the state and to sectarian claims on the state and to seek exemptions from regulations, seek exemptions from regulations, extractions and bureaucratic extractions and bureaucratic administration (Note the continuous administration (Note the continuous struggle over the power of eminent struggle over the power of eminent domain between central government domain between central government and traditional authorities rulers in and traditional authorities rulers in Ghana).Ghana).

Post-colonial contributions and Post-colonial contributions and aggravations to the crisis of aggravations to the crisis of public service incapacity:public service incapacity:

Vast expansion of state activities and Vast expansion of state activities and public service to cater for nationalist public service to cater for nationalist ambitions and to meet high popular ambitions and to meet high popular expectations – well beyond existing expectations – well beyond existing capacities to deliver - and without capacities to deliver - and without commensurate levels of resourcescommensurate levels of resources

Extreme politicisation and Extreme politicisation and accompanying erosion of accompanying erosion of bureaucratic restraints and norms in bureaucratic restraints and norms in state organizations.state organizations.

Complicity of public servants (especially Complicity of public servants (especially those in the top and middle ranks) in those in the top and middle ranks) in bureaucratic corruption and economic bureaucratic corruption and economic mismanagement.mismanagement.

Flight of already insufficient bureaucratic Flight of already insufficient bureaucratic personnel and chronic inability to retain personnel and chronic inability to retain good talent or attract new ones into a good talent or attract new ones into a demoralized sector, especially from the demoralized sector, especially from the late 1970slate 1970s..

Requirements for fostering Requirements for fostering developmental public sector ion developmental public sector ion Africa include:Africa include:

Re-emphasising and adhering to Re-emphasising and adhering to Weberian rational–legal bureaucratic Weberian rational–legal bureaucratic principles (particularly meritocratic principles (particularly meritocratic hiring, promoting and rewarding)hiring, promoting and rewarding)

Insulating key or strategic units of the Insulating key or strategic units of the public service from partisan and public service from partisan and sectarian pressures.sectarian pressures.

Reforming administrative procedures to Reforming administrative procedures to enhance clarity and transparency.enhance clarity and transparency.

Meaningful salary reform/rationalization.Meaningful salary reform/rationalization.

Who should do it? What Who should do it? What incentives?incentives?

Government?Government? The public service/public servants?The public service/public servants? International development partners?International development partners? Public servants? Public servants? The public/private sector (in multiple The public/private sector (in multiple

and overlapping roles as taxpayers, and overlapping roles as taxpayers, service users, citizens)?service users, citizens)?

Relative potential to be Relative potential to be agents for reform?agents for reform?

GovernmentGovernment

Notionally, governments have an inherent Notionally, governments have an inherent interest in building state and public service interest in building state and public service capacities. Butcapacities. But

African governments lack the discipline to African governments lack the discipline to voluntarily follow the logic of such capacities: voluntarily follow the logic of such capacities: They tend to regard bureaucratic principles as They tend to regard bureaucratic principles as a form of nuisance. For instance, meritocratic a form of nuisance. For instance, meritocratic values undercut short term patronage values undercut short term patronage advantages available to them.advantages available to them.

They often lack the political incentive and They often lack the political incentive and capacity as well as moral authority to protect capacity as well as moral authority to protect public servants or strategic units from public servants or strategic units from sectarian pressures; sectarian pressures;

They themselves are often the principal They themselves are often the principal bearers sectarian pressures on the service bearers sectarian pressures on the service for dispensation of favours and granting for dispensation of favours and granting exemptions; and exemptions; and

(Until recently) they largely relied on (Until recently) they largely relied on cooptation and repression rather than cooptation and repression rather than effective service delivery and popular effective service delivery and popular acceptance for survival.acceptance for survival.

Governments also lack the incentive to Governments also lack the incentive to promote meaningful salary reforms because it promote meaningful salary reforms because it often entails vigorous internal revenue often entails vigorous internal revenue mobilization, which could provoke tax payer mobilization, which could provoke tax payer revolt and stimulate popular demand for revolt and stimulate popular demand for representation. And representation. And

They have also learnt to expect donors to They have also learnt to expect donors to provide bail outs: paying for expensive provide bail outs: paying for expensive technocrats and consultants, and thereby technocrats and consultants, and thereby saving them from suffering the full effects of saving them from suffering the full effects of governmental inactiongovernmental inaction

Public servantsPublic servants They have a direct interest in building They have a direct interest in building

or restoring capabilitiesor restoring capabilities But they are not in a good position to But they are not in a good position to

initiate reforms; andinitiate reforms; and They tend to resist or sabotage reforms They tend to resist or sabotage reforms

that threaten their short term interests.that threaten their short term interests.

Donors/development partnersDonors/development partners Donors/IFIs have been responsible some of the important Donors/IFIs have been responsible some of the important

public service reforms in Africa in the past two decades – public service reforms in Africa in the past two decades – rebuilding revenue secretariats, introducing user fees, rebuilding revenue secretariats, introducing user fees, salary reforms, admin decentralization, etc. salary reforms, admin decentralization, etc.

But effectiveness of donor-driven reforms blunted But effectiveness of donor-driven reforms blunted ‘ownership’ problems. ‘ownership’ problems.

MDBS and other donor approaches to reforms which MDBS and other donor approaches to reforms which acknowledge the sovereign mandate and aim to enhance acknowledge the sovereign mandate and aim to enhance local ownership are generally promising. local ownership are generally promising.

But the implicit ceding of external oversight may ignore But the implicit ceding of external oversight may ignore persistently weak governmental accountability and persistently weak governmental accountability and inclusion deficit; due diligence gives way to expediency and inclusion deficit; due diligence gives way to expediency and managerial costs savings. Thus, donors relaxing pressure managerial costs savings. Thus, donors relaxing pressure on govts despite deficits in micro-economic reforms, control on govts despite deficits in micro-economic reforms, control of official rent-seeking and anti-corruption.of official rent-seeking and anti-corruption.

The public/private sector as The public/private sector as agent for reformagent for reform

The democracy advantage?The democracy advantage? Democracy generates negative pressures against public Democracy generates negative pressures against public

service reforms. For example, it intensifies pressure for service reforms. For example, it intensifies pressure for patronage; populist politicians bring pressure to bear on patronage; populist politicians bring pressure to bear on bureaucratic decision making; social groups and private bureaucratic decision making; social groups and private sector operators demand exemptions and concessions etc. sector operators demand exemptions and concessions etc. ButBut

Democratic politics also enhances ‘voice’ for the public and Democratic politics also enhances ‘voice’ for the public and demand for accountability and responsiveness. Votes demand for accountability and responsiveness. Votes increasingly tied to performance in competitive elections.increasingly tied to performance in competitive elections.

It also generates political legitimacy, which enables It also generates political legitimacy, which enables government to introduce and sustain painful but necessary government to introduce and sustain painful but necessary measures such as vigorous internal revenue mobilization. measures such as vigorous internal revenue mobilization. E.g., Ghana improving revenue mobilization efforts under E.g., Ghana improving revenue mobilization efforts under elected governments.elected governments.

With democratization, Africa may well be With democratization, Africa may well be approaching an era of enhanced multi-approaching an era of enhanced multi-

stakeholder and multiple opportunities to resolve stakeholder and multiple opportunities to resolve its public service reform impasse.its public service reform impasse.

THANK YOUTHANK YOU