北  京

高校转型发展系列教材

对外汉语教学理论与实务

刘 巍 张冬秀 孙熙春 编著

内 容 简 介对外汉语教学是一门专业性强、理论与实践并重的课程，是对外汉语专业、汉语言文学专业的基础

课程。通过对该课程的学习，学生应具备基本的对外汉语教学理论知识与实践能力，为以后从事本专业

的教学和科研工作打下坚实的基础。

本书分为三个模块：专业理论模块，主要介绍对外汉语教学的学科发展及语言习得等相关理论；知

识与能力模块，从语言要素及文化角度说明汉语语音、词汇、语法、汉字等语言要素教学的原则与方法，

同时介绍了对外汉语教学设计与课堂管理的方法，使学习者能对汉语教学有直观认识；教学与实践模块，

主要从课型角度，讲解综合课、听力课、口语课、阅读课、写作课的教学原则、教学方法等内容。本书

深入浅出、详细地介绍了对外汉语教学领域的相关知识，将引领学生由此步入对外汉语教学之门。

本书既可以作为高等院校汉语言文学、对外汉语教学、汉语国际教育等专业学生入门的基础教材，

也可作为国际汉语教学基础培训的教材，服务于“对外汉语教学”“汉语作为第二语言教学法”等课程

的教学与训练指导。

本书封面贴有清华大学出版社防伪标签，无标签者不得销售。

版权所有，侵权必究。侵权举报电话：010-62782989 13701121933

图书在版编目(CIP)数据

对外汉语教学理论与实务 / 刘巍，张冬秀，孙熙春 编著. —北京：清华大学出版社，2017( 高校转型发展系列教材 )ISBN 978-7-302-47975-8

Ⅰ. ①对… Ⅱ. ①刘… ②张… ③孙… Ⅲ. ①汉语—对外汉语教学—高等学校—教材 Ⅳ. ①H195.4

中国版本图书馆 CIP 数据核字(2017)第 207688 号

责任编辑：施 猛 王旭阳封面设计：常雪影

版式设计：方加青

责任校对：曹 阳责任印制：沈 露

出版发行：清华大学出版社

网　　址：http://www.tup.com.cn，http://www.wqbook.com 地　　址：北京清华大学学研大厦 A 座 邮　　编：100084 社 总 机：010-62770175 邮　　购：010-62786544 投稿与读者服务：010-62776969，c-service@tup.tsinghua.edu.cn 质　量　反　馈：010-62772015，zhiliang@tup.tsinghua.edu.cn印 装 者：北京密云胶印厂经　　销：全国新华书店

开　　本：185mm×260mm 印　　张：18.25 字　　数：421 千字版　　次：2017 年 8 月第 1 版 　 印　　次：2017 年 8 月第 1 次印刷定　　价：36.00 元—————————————————————————————————————————————

产品编号：074465-01

编 委 会

主 任 委 员：李继安 李 峰

副主任委员：王淑梅

委员(按姓氏笔画排序)：

马德顺 王 焱 王小军 王建明 王海义 孙丽娜

李 娟 李长智 李庆杨 陈兴林 范立南 赵柏东

侯 彤 姜乃力 姜俊和 高小珺 董 海 解 勇

高校转型发展系列教材

前    言

《对外汉语教学理论与实务》是沈阳大学“转型发展教材建设专项支持计划”资助项

目，为汉语言文学及相关专业的“对外汉语教学”课程的配套教材。

“对外汉语教学”是一门专业性强、理论与实践并重的课程。本书从培养对外汉语教

师的需要出发，从语言习得和教学理论的视角讲授汉语作为第二语言教学的基本理论和应

用问题，使学生具备基本的对外汉语教学理论知识与实践能力，为以后从事本专业的教学

和科研工作打下坚实的基础。

本书分为三个模块：专业理论模块介绍对外汉语教学的学科发展及语言习得的相关

理论；知识与能力模块结合汉语的特点，从语言要素及文化角度说明汉语语音、词汇、语

法、汉字等语言要素教学的原则与方法，其中结合大量教学案例，便于学生学习与理解，

同时讲解了对外汉语教学设计与课堂管理的方法，使学习者能对汉语教学有直观认识；教

学与实践模块主要从课型角度，讲解综合课、听力课、口语课、阅读课、写作课的教学原

则、教学方法等内容。本书深入浅出、详细地介绍了对外汉语教学领域的相关知识，将引

领学生由此步入对外汉语教学之门。

编者在编写本书的过程中，力求汲取对外汉语教学研究的新成果，把知识讲解和相

关教学方法、手段、技巧的解释结合起来，并辅以大量的教学案例、教案示范以及试卷说

明。本书不仅概念解释清楚，叙述简单明了，例子通俗易懂，而且具有规范性、科学性、

易学性和易操作性。

近年来，我国的对外汉语教学事业获得了蓬勃发展，汉语快速走向世界，希望本书能

为我国的对外汉语教学工作贡献力量，为一线教学培养出更多既掌握汉语知识，又具有中

华文化底蕴，懂得教育规律和教学技巧的对外汉语教学工作者。

编者 2017年6月

编 者 2017年2月

第一篇 专业理论模块

第一章 绪论 ···················································································································· 2第一节 对外汉语教学的学科特点 ············································································· 2

一、对外汉语教学的内涵 ···································································································3

二、对外汉语教学的特点与原则 ·······················································································4

第二节 对外汉语教学的发展历程 ············································································· 8一、国外对外汉语教学的发展 ···························································································8

二、我国对外汉语教学的发展 ·························································································10

第三节 对外汉语教学的理论基础 ··········································································· 15一、语言学 ·························································································································16

二、社会语言学 ·················································································································18

三、教育学 ·························································································································19

四、心理学 ·························································································································20

五、现代教育技术 ·············································································································21

第二章 汉语作为第二语言习得 ····················································································· 23第一节 语言习得理论概述 ······················································································· 23

一、语言习得研究的基本概念 ·························································································23

二、汉语作为第二语言习得的研究 ·················································································25

第二节 第二语言习得的主要理论和假说 ······························································· 26一、对比分析假说 ·············································································································26

二、偏误分析假说 ·············································································································28

三、中介语理论 ·················································································································33

四、克拉申的5个假说 ·······································································································35

第二篇 知识与能力模块

第三章 语言要素及文化教学 ························································································· 40第一节 语音与语音教学 ··························································································· 40

目    录

VI 对外汉语教学理论与实务

一、汉语语音的基础知识 ·································································································40

二、语音教学的意义和基本原则 ·····················································································46

三、语音教学的方法 ·········································································································47

四、外国人学习汉语的语音难点及其对策 ·····································································50

第二节 词汇与词汇教学 ··························································································· 51一、汉语词汇的基础知识 ·································································································52

二、词汇教学的意义和基本原则 ·····················································································55

三、词汇教学的方法 ·········································································································57

第三节 语法与语法教学 ··························································································· 62一、汉语语法的基础知识 ·································································································62

二、对外汉语教学语法的特点 ·························································································67

三、对外汉语语法教学的原则 ·························································································70

四、汉语常用句式及其教学 ·····························································································72

五、语法教学的方法 ·········································································································77

六、若干语法点的教学示例 ·····························································································80

第四节 汉字与汉字教学 ··························································································· 83一、汉字的基础知识 ·········································································································83

二、汉字教学的意义 ·········································································································88

三、汉字教学的原则 ·········································································································89

四、汉字教学的内容和方法 ·····························································································91

第五节 文化与文化教学 ··························································································· 97一、跨文化交际 ·················································································································97

二、文化教学的内容 ·········································································································99

三、文化教学的原则与方法 ···························································································100

第四章 对外汉语教学设计 ·························································································· 103第一节 教学设计模式 ····························································································· 103

一、教学设计概述 ···········································································································103

二、教学设计要素 ···········································································································104

第二节 教案编写 ····································································································· 108一、教案编写的目的与原则 ···························································································108

二、教案编写的要素与格式 ···························································································109

三、教案编写示例 ···········································································································112

第五章 对外汉语课堂教学 ·························································································· 129第一节 对外汉语课堂教学的特点 ········································································· 129

一、实践性 ·······················································································································129

二、趣味性 ·······················································································································130

三、表演性 ·······················································································································130

VII目 录

第二节 对外汉语课堂教学的本质 ········································································· 130一、教什么 ·······················································································································130

二、怎么教 ·······················································································································131

三、怎么学 ·······················································································································133

第三节 课堂教学要注意的几个问题 ····································································· 134一、讲与练的关系 ···········································································································134

二、目的语和媒介语使用的关系 ···················································································135

第四节 课堂用语 ····································································································· 136一、对外汉语课堂用语的特点 ·······················································································136

二、课堂用语的原则 ·······································································································137

第三篇 教学与实践模块

第六章 综合课教学 ····································································································· 142第一节 综合课教学概述 ························································································· 142

一、综合课的特点 ···········································································································142

二、综合课与技能课的关系 ···························································································143

三、综合课教学原则 ·······································································································144

第二节 综合课的教学过程 ····················································································· 146一、热身环节 ···················································································································146

二、学习新知环节 ···········································································································147

三、归纳总结环节 ···········································································································156

四、布置作业环节 ···········································································································156

第三节 教案示例 ····································································································· 156第四节 综合课测试 ································································································· 163

一、测试的性质 ···············································································································163

二、测试的设计 ···············································································································164

三、测试的题型 ···············································································································165

四、样卷 ···························································································································167

第七章 听力课教学 ····································································································· 171第一节 听力概述 ····································································································· 171

一、听力理解能力 ···········································································································171

二、影响听力理解的因素 ·······························································································172

第二节 听力教学的要点 ························································································· 174一、教学目标 ···················································································································174

二、教学内容 ···················································································································175

三、教学原则 ···················································································································175

四、听力课的课型 ···········································································································176

第三节 听力训练的方法 ························································································· 177

VIII 对外汉语教学理论与实务

一、声韵调训练 ···············································································································177

二、反应能力训练 ···········································································································178

三、捕捉信息能力训练 ···································································································179

四、概括总结能力训练 ···································································································180

五、预测能力训练 ···········································································································181

六、跨越障碍能力训练 ···································································································182

第四节 教案示例 ····································································································· 182第五节 听力课测试 ································································································· 186

一、测试的设计 ···············································································································186

二、测试的题型 ···············································································································187

三、样卷 ···························································································································188

第八章 口语课教学 ····································································································· 192第一节 口语交际能力概述 ····················································································· 192

一、口语交际 ···················································································································192

二、口语交际能力 ···········································································································193

三、口语交际能力的评价标准 ·······················································································194

第二节 口语教学的要点 ························································································· 196一、教学目标 ···················································································································196

二、教学内容 ···················································································································197

三、教学原则 ···················································································································199

第三节 口语训练的方法 ························································································· 200一、猜测型活动 ···············································································································200

二、对比型活动 ···············································································································200

三、排序与分类活动 ·······································································································201

四、拼图型活动 ···············································································································201

五、解决问题型活动 ·······································································································202

六、游戏型活动 ···············································································································202

第四节 教案示例 ····································································································· 203第五节 口语课测试 ································································································· 205

一、测试的设计 ···············································································································205

二、测试的题型 ···············································································································206

三、评价标准 ···················································································································209

四、样卷 ···························································································································212

第九章 阅读课教学 ····································································································· 214第一节 阅读概述 ····································································································· 214

一、阅读能力 ···················································································································214

二、阅读模式 ···················································································································215

三、有关阅读理解的评价 ·······························································································216

IX目 录

四、影响阅读理解的因素 ·······························································································217

第二节 阅读教学的要点 ························································································· 218一、教学目标 ···················································································································218

二、教学内容 ···················································································································219

三、教学原则 ···················································································································220

第三节 阅读训练的方法 ························································································· 220一、词汇训练 ···················································································································220

二、语段训练 ···················································································································222

三、篇章训练 ···················································································································226

四、阅读方式训练 ···········································································································228

第四节 教案示例 ····································································································· 232第五节 阅读课测试 ································································································· 237

一、测试的设计 ···············································································································237

二、测试的题型 ···············································································································237

三、样卷 ···························································································································238

第十章 写作课教学 ····································································································· 247第一节 写作概述 ····································································································· 247

一、写作能力 ···················································································································247

二、写作的特点 ···············································································································248

三、影响写作的因素 ·······································································································248

第二节 写作教学的要点 ························································································· 249一、教学目标 ···················································································································249

二、教学内容 ···················································································································250

三、教学原则 ···················································································································251

第三节 写作训练的方法 ························································································· 252一、汉字书写阶段 ···········································································································252

二、读写结合阶段 ···········································································································253

三、篇章写作阶段 ···········································································································255

第四节 教案示例 ····································································································· 255第五节 写作课测试 ································································································· 258

一、测试的设计 ···············································································································259

二、测试的题型 ···············································································································259

三、样卷 ···························································································································260

附 录 HSK六级样题 ································································································· 264一、听力 ···························································································································265

二、阅读 ···························································································································268

三、书写 ···························································································································275

后 记 ······················································································································· 277

第一篇专业理论模块

第一章

绪论◎ 课前思考

1. 你了解到的中国对外汉语教学现状是怎样的？2. 你认为汉语作为第二语言教学与汉语作为母语教学有何不同？3. 对外汉语教学的理论基础包括哪些内容？

◎ 概述本章共分为三节：第一节对外汉语教学的学科特点，介绍了对外汉语教学的内涵，探

讨了对外汉语教学的特点与原则；第二节对外汉语教学的发展历程，重点介绍了中华人民

共和国成立后对外汉语教学的发展；第三节对外汉语教学的理论基础，探讨了语言学、社

会语言学、教育学、心理学、现代教育技术等学科与对外汉语教学的关系。

第一节 对外汉语教学的学科特点

近年来，中国实施“汉语加快走向世界”战略，全球出现了轰轰烈烈的“汉语热”，

汉语在韩国、法国、德国等国家已跃居为第二外语。在韩国、泰国、新加坡等国家，汉

语水平已成为大学录取、企业人员录用、国家资格考试、奖学金申请的重要依据之一。

泰国副总理兼教育部部长曾说：“想要学习汉语的泰国人每年都在成倍地增长。”泰国

亦有逾千所大、中、小学开设汉语课程，全泰国学习汉语的人数近百万。前英国首相卡

梅伦也公开表示：“英国学校应多教中文少点德法语。”俄杜马第一副主席说：“俄罗

斯正努力推广学汉语”。目前全俄有300多个大学设有汉语专业。韩国也已经成为赴中国留学生人数较多的国家之一，目前韩国有近四分之三的四年制大学开设了与中国关联的

学科专业。

在2005年首届世界汉语大会之后，传统的对外汉语教学主课堂逐渐从国内转向国外。截至2016年12月31日，全球140个国家(地区)建立512所孔子学院和1073个孔子课堂，其中亚洲32国(地区)115所，非洲33国48所，欧洲41国170所，美洲21国161所，大洋洲3国18所。孔子课堂74国(地区)共1073个(科摩罗、缅甸、马里、突尼斯、瓦努阿图、格林纳达、莱索托、库克群岛、安道尔、欧盟只有课堂，没有学院)，其中，亚洲20国100个，非洲15国27个，欧洲29国293个，美洲8国554个，大洋洲4国99个。据不完全统计，目前世界上通过各种方式学习汉语的人数已超过2亿人，并还在大幅度增长。

3第一章 绪论

一、对外汉语教学的内涵

尽管对外汉语教学在中国乃至世界发展得如火如荼，但“对外汉语教学”作为一个学

科名称却一直饱受争议，它的内涵也经历了比较大的变化。

我国的对外汉语教学事业开始于1950年，经过30多年的不懈努力，在1983年成立了全国性的学术团体——“中国教育学会对外汉语教学研究会”，这标志着对外汉语教学学

科正式诞生，“对外汉语教学”这个称谓也正式确定下来。按《中国大百科全书·语言文

字》的解释，“对外汉语教学是指对外国人的汉语教学”。这个称谓提出后被广为使用。

到今天为止，国内对外国学生的汉语教学仍然使用此称谓。

但这个称谓有一个很大的局限，即它在提出时仅将来到中国国内的外国学生视为教学

对象，而在国外进行的汉语教学难以使用此称谓。例如，如果教师在英国，对英国人进行

汉语教学时就很难说是对外国人的汉语教学了。因此后来又先后出现过“汉语教学”“华

语(华文)教学”“汉语作为第二语言的教学”“汉语作为外语的教学”“对外汉语教育学”“汉语国际教育”“国际汉语”等称谓。每一种称谓都有其可取之处，都在某一领域

中有所使用，但也都有其局限性。目前，“对外汉语教学”仍然是在我国使用得最久、最

广泛的称谓。

人们对“对外汉语教学”这一学科的认识，也经过不断地深化。早期的对外汉语教学

“语”“文”不分，后来由于在对外汉语教学中大力提倡中国文化的传播，学界对在对外

汉语教学中如何处理语言和文化的关系，如何正确认识对外汉语教学的学科性质、学科定

位，也产生了不少争论。直至1994年12月，“对外汉语教学的定性、定位、定量问题座谈会”在北京召开。在本次座谈会中，与会人员经过严肃的探讨，在学术方向上达成共识，

明确了学科的性质：它是对外国人进行的汉语作为第二语言的教学，其性质是一种外语教

学，也可以说是一种第二语言教学。该会议还规定了学科的任务：研究汉语作为第二语言

教学的原理；教学的全过程；教学体系中各种因素的相互关系和相互作用；教学规律和学

习规律。由此制定出对外汉语教学的基本原则和方法，用以指导教学实践，提高教学效率

和教学水平。此外，厘清了学科的根本目的：培养外国汉语学习者用汉语进行社会交际的

能力。简单地说，就是培养汉语交际能力。

虽然经过讨论，学界取得了一定的共识，但学者们对于“对外汉语教学”这一学科

的认识仍在不断深化中，争论也没有停止过。吕必松先生认为“对外汉语教学作为一门学

科，研究对象是作为第二语言或外语的汉语学习和教学，研究目的就是揭示作为第二语言

或外语学习和教学的客观规律，以便指导教学实践”。刘珣认为“对外汉语教学应定位于

语言教育学科，它与外语教育、母语文教育、少数民族汉语教育、双语教育等都是语言教

育学的分支学科”。这两种看法代表了“教学基础论”的观点，“教学基础论”将教学作

为对外汉语教学的研究中心。

针对“教学基础论”展开争论的是“汉语基础论”。郭熙认为“对外汉语教学”只是

一个约定俗成的名称，虽然从总体上来说，教学内容、教学方法和学习方法都是重要的，

但教学内容应该被作为教学的前提。因此，他提出要以汉语研究为中心建立整个对外汉语

4 对外汉语教学理论与实务

教学学科，并提出“对外汉语教学”的名称建议。

潘文国认为“所谓对外汉语研究应该是一种以对比为基础、以教学为目的、以外国人

为对象的汉语本体研究”，并指出“对外汉语学”的核心研究是对外汉语研究。

近年来，随着中国国力的不断提升，世界上学习汉语的人数与日俱增。对外汉语已经

发展成“国家和民族的事业。它将持续发展，显示出旺盛的生命力，并将在全世界发挥更

大的影响”。2000年以后，对外汉语事业的重心由“请进来”向“走出去”转移，传统的对外汉语教学主课堂也逐渐从国内转向国外。2007年初，国务院学位委员会办公室批准试办汉语国际教育硕士专业学位(Master of Teaching Chinese to Speakers of Other Languages)，全国有24所大学试点开设该专业学位。2008年，“汉语国际教育”列入一级学科“中国语言文学”之下的二级学科。直到2016年中国已经有近百所高校开设了“汉语国际教育”硕士专业。

现在一些学者通常用“对外汉语教学”来指称“在国内对来华留学生进行的汉语教

学”，用“汉语国际教育”来指称“在海外进行的汉语作为外语的教学”。这样区分虽然

将两个名称的内涵狭义化，但是能够明确地区分国内、国外两种教学情况，可以避免很多

无意义的争论。

本书按照约定俗成，仍然采用“对外汉语教学”这个名称，更多的是指“面向来华

留学生的汉语作为第二语言的教学”。这样做的原因：一是本书所面对的对象，主要还是

国内的本专业或本方向的学生，他们接触的外国学生更多的是来华学生。二是虽然国内和

国外的对外汉语教学在教学方法上存在一定的不同，但基本的教学内容、教学原则是一致

的，无论是国内的还是国外的对外汉语教学其本质都是相同的。所以在下文的讨论中，主

要还是使用“对外汉语教学”这一称谓。

二、对外汉语教学的特点与原则

对外汉语教学发展到今天，已经成为一门独立的学科并建立了完整的学科体系，具有

明确的研究目标和研究对象，已经由经验型转为科学型。它既具备语言理论、语言学习理

论、文化理论、教育理论等基础理论，又具备课程设计、教材编写、课堂教学、测试等各

个教学环节的教学理论。它的学科理论体系可以概括为“一体两翼”：“一体”是汉语语

言学本体；“两翼”是对外汉语教学论和中外文化素养。

(一) 对外汉语教学的特点

对外汉语教学作为一门独立的学科，已经走过五十多年的历史，形成了自己的特点。

1. 具有第二语言教学的一般性首先，对外汉语教学是一种语言教学，而不是语言学教学。因此，在课堂中，知识的

讲授并不是目的，技能的训练才是最重要的。同时，如何把知识转化为技能也是对外汉语

教师的必备能力。因此，课堂上应当精讲多练，让学生多开口、多运用所学知识。第二语

5第一章 绪论

言教学是以交际能力的培养为目标、以语言技能训练为中心的，因此应当以初级阶段的教

学为重点、以对比的方式为基础来确定教学重点和难点。

其次，对外汉语教学是一种第二语言，也就是外语教学，因此它必然会受到学生第一

语言的影响。在授课过程中，教师应当尽量使用目的语，也就是汉语。因为目的语才是学

生要掌握的语言，多听、多输入有利于达到培养学生运用目的语交际的能力。如果是在国

内进行汉语教学，其教学班级往往是混合班型，学生来自不同的国家，使用不同的母语，

教师很难使用某一种统一的媒介语。如果是在国外，学生的母语虽然统一，但他们是在学

习目的语，大量的媒介语教学不利于学生对目的语的掌握，而且汉语的各要素知识也很难

仅仅依靠媒介语讲解清楚。

2. 具有第二语言教学的特殊性汉语作为第二语言的教学，除了具有第二语言教学的一般性外，也因为汉语本身的特

点而具有特殊性。

首先在语音上，汉语是一种有声调的语言，声调在汉语中能够起区别意义的作用。不

同国别的学生在学习汉语一声、二声、三声、四声时都具有一定的困难。此外，汉语中还

有大量的轻声、儿化、语流音变等现象，也是多数语言没有的，这些对于多数外国学生来

说是较难掌握的。

其次在词汇上，词汇学习是掌握一种语言的重要内容，学生掌握和正确运用词汇的程

度是衡量其语言水平的重要标志。而汉语词汇中有大量的同音词(如，一、衣、医、依、伊)，近义词(如，旅行、旅途、旅游)，多义词(长、深、一般)，较难掌握。赵金铭(2007)在《对外汉语教学概论》中进一步指出，汉语中还有别的语言没有的“国俗词语”，以及

汉语和外语都有的“对应词语”。

国俗词语可分为5类。(1) 名物词语。反映汉民族所创造的特有的物质文化的词语。例如，“旗袍”“元

宵”“四合院”“京剧”等。

(2) 制度词语。反映汉民族社会特有的政治、经济、文化、军事等各方面制度的词语。例如，“离休”“半边天”“红娘”等。

(3) 熟语。基于汉民族所创造出来的特有的语言表达形式，诸如成语、惯用语、俗语、谚语、格言、歇后语等。例如，“自相矛盾”“吹牛皮”“种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆”“外甥打

灯笼——照旧”等。这些熟语往往蕴含独特而深厚的文化渊源，富有语义的双层性。

(4) 征喻词语。在汉民族文化思想和精神的基础上形成的具有象征意义和联想意义的词语。例如，“红豆”“月亮”“蝴蝶”等。

(5) 交际词语。反映汉民族在社会交往生活中所使用的表示招呼、道别、致谢、禁忌、赞扬、恭维等行为时所使用的词语。

所谓的对应词语是指不同的语言中所表达的概念意义基本相同或相当的词语。例如，

汉语的“花”和英语的“flower”。可以说对应词语在不同的语言系统中是大量存在的，但是对应词语并非完全相同。有些即使在基本义上相同但在用法上也会存在差异，这就会

6 对外汉语教学理论与实务

影响学习者的理解和掌握，因此我们也必须重视对应词语的教学。

再次在语法上，汉语语法体系中存在不少其他语言里少有的语法项目。例如，“把

字句”“被字句”、各类“补语”等。还有大量的在句法、语义或语用上既相互联系又

相互区别的语法项目。例如，虚词“刚”“刚刚”“刚才”，比较句中的“没有”“不

比”“不如”等。

最后在汉字方面，汉字是汉语的书写符号形式，是具有表意体系的方块字，汉字的识

记和书写对于非汉字文化圈的外国学生来说也是极为困难的。

3. 理论性和实践性并重“对外汉语教学”因其对象(对外)、内容(汉语)、方式(教学)，兼具理论性与实践性并

重的特点。“对外”是指外国学生，外国学生因其成长背景、文化背景的不同，在学习汉

语时，不仅要学习一门语言，还要学习一种文化，是一种跨文化的学习，因此需要跨文化

交际等理论。同时，对外汉语教学也是一门交叉性学科，它的发展既离不开汉语语言学本

体，又要遵循第二语言教学的规律，还要有选择地吸收各个学科的研究成果，用来构建具

有个性的学科理论和学科体系。

对外汉语教学是一门实践性很强的学科，学生学习汉语的最终目的是交际，而实践性

也是对外汉语教师知识与能力形成的核心特征。因此课堂教学中应精讲多练，以练为主。

对知识点的讲解要深入浅出、简洁明了，练习的形式、内容、方法应当丰富多彩。要调动

学生的积极性，让学生参与和创造课堂，在实践中体验汉语，运用汉语。除了在课堂上开

展多种教学活动以外，还有必要让学生参与大量课外实践，把课上与课下结合起来。

(二) 对外汉语教学的原则

正是因为对外汉语教学兼具汉语作为第二语言教学的一般性与特殊性、理论性与实践

性，所以在对外汉语教学中应当遵循如下原则。

1. 以培养学生汉语交际能力为目的语言是交际的工具。学习语言的最终目的是在某种场合、某种程度上进行交际。对外

汉语教学的根本目的是培养外国汉语学习者用汉语进行社会交际的能力，因此一切教学活

动当以此为出发点。而交际能力的培养应从语言知识的学习和语言技能的训练入手。语言

知识的学习包括语音、词汇、语法、汉字等方面，技能的训练也就是听说读写的练习。因

此，在基础阶段可以通过语音、词汇、语法和汉字的单项语言要素的教学，达到培养言语

技能和交际能力的目的。但是这些要素的教学要以实用、运用为主，而不是追求知识的系

统性与完整性。

2. 以技能训练为中心对外汉语的课堂应当精讲多练，以技能训练为中心，对知识点的讲解处理要少而精。

一堂成功的对外汉语课，不在于教师将某个知识点讲解得全面、精深，而在于学生能在教

师的引导下，自主运用所学的知识进行交际。因此，无论在课上还是课下都要“多练”。

练习时不仅要重视语言要素的单项练习，更要重视综合性和交际性的练习。同时，由于句

7第一章 绪论

子是语言交际的最小的能表达完整意义的基本单位，是语音、词汇、语法的综合，应以句

子的操练为重点。

3. 循序渐进、由易到难语言的学习不是一蹴而就的，而汉语的知识也非常庞杂，因此在教学中应当遵循循

序渐进、由易后难的原则。在语音教学时，可以根据语音项目的难易程度，先教容易发的

“i”，再由i带出u、ü来。教韵母时，先教单韵母，再教复元音韵母，最后引入带鼻音的

韵母。汉语的词汇和语法都有相应的等级大纲，一般教材中也是按照循序渐进的方式安排

词汇和语法点的出现顺序。词汇教学时，当由常用的、构词能力强的词汇入手，再去学习

其他词汇。语法教学时，应从最基本的词性入手，然后是句子成分，主、谓、宾、定、

状、补，再逐渐学习其他语法项目。汉字教学时，虽然有一定的特殊性，即语言学习的顺

序与涉及的汉字本身在汉字系统内部的难易顺序并不一致，但总体来说，还应由笔画少

的、易构成部件的汉字学起。

4. 加大汉语输入，听、说、读、写全面要求语言的学习首先要获得大量的目的语输入，在此基础上才能将部分输入转换为可理

解输入。因此，要充分强化学习者的学习环境。对来华留学生而言，要充分利用目的语环

境，尽量使用目的语进行讲解，加强课内外活动与社会语言实践。对海外汉语教学而言，

在初始阶段可根据实际情况在课堂上适当借助学生的母语，但要控制其用量，能不用尽量

不用。此外，由于缺少语言环境，在课堂中要更加重视教学活动的设计，可通过合适的话

题选取、情境设置等方式来加大学习者对汉语的接触面和输入量。

语言中的各要素都是相互联系的，因而对汉语交际技能的培养，也就是对听、说、

读、写的培养，应当同时进行。在学习时，不能因为汉字难写或其他原因而有所偏颇。实

践证明，只有全面掌握听、说、读、写才能真正学会一门语言，但是在不同的学习阶段可

以有所侧重。初级阶段，可以听、说领先，读、写跟上；中级阶段，应当听、说、读、写

并重；到了高级阶段，学生已经掌握一定数量的汉字，可侧重读、写。

5. 与文化紧密结合语言本身就是文化的一部分，学习一门语言就是学习一种文化。每个民族的语言都

体现出该民族特有的文化痕迹。概念、意义相同的词汇在不同的语言里，文化意义可能并

不相同。例如“老”这个字，在汉语里可用来表达“尊敬”“老祖宗”“老爷爷”“老先

生”“老张”等。但在西方国家，极少有人愿意自称“old”，在他们看来，“old”是跟“老而无用”的含义连在一起的。不同民族之间的这些文化差异导致人们在第二语言习得

的过程中，会遇到不熟悉的或难以理解的文化障碍。所以，在教学时，尤其是词汇教学和

汉字教学时，一定要和文化因素密切联系起来，尤其是语言教学范围里的文化。在跨文化

交际中，由于文化差异而影响交际的语言文化因素以及目的语国家的基本国情和文化背景

知识都是应教授的内容。

8 对外汉语教学理论与实务

第二节 对外汉语教学的发展历程

一、国外对外汉语教学的发展

(一) 法国的汉语教学

法国的汉语教学有悠久的历史。1814年11月29日，法兰西学院(Collegede France)创立“汉语和塔塔尔—— 满族语言文学讲座”，汉学在法国第一次被列入大学专业课程。从此时到19世纪50年代，汉学一直在大学的汉语教学中占有主导地位。在20世纪50年代初期，法国只有巴黎东方语言学院设有中文系，到20世纪50年代后期，巴黎大学、波尔多大学和里昂大学也相继设立了汉语专业。这些新开办的专业改变了以汉学研究和汉学教学为主的

情况，现代汉语教学成为这些大学的主要教学内容。

1958年，蒙日虹高中(Lycée pilote de Montgeron)首次设立汉语课程。1964年，法国和中国建立外交关系，自此许多法国学生相继来到中国学习。到20世纪80年代，汉语教学已进入很多中小学课堂。从1974年开始，每年有2名教师被授予中学汉语教师资格证书。1988年，法国已有60所中、小学开设汉语课，选修中文的学生每年达到2500人。2006年3月1日，著名汉学家白乐桑成为第一届法国国家汉语教学总督学，负责在全国中学推广汉语教学。

白乐桑(Joël Bellassen)说：“汉语教学发展非常迅速，地理分布也很广，接下来的几年里，供需矛盾将更加突出。汉语逐渐由第9名跃升至第5名，位列英语、西班牙语、德语和意大利语之后。中国已成为欧洲青年向往的3个国家(美国、英国、中国)之一，15年前中国排在第6位。”

(二) 美国的汉语教学

美国汉语教学的兴起、发展与中国向美国的移民潮息息相关。1888年，中国驻旧金山领事馆为解决美国当地华人子女学习中文的需要，建立了旧金山中西学堂。如今，由中国

移民所兴办的各种中文学校已成为美国汉语教学的中坚力量。总体来说，第二次世界大战

之前，中文教育发展缓慢。第二次世界大战当中与战后，中文教育发展快速。中美建交、

改革开放以后进入成熟发展期。

1994年5月10日，全美中文学校协会(Chinese School Association in the United State，CSAUS)在美国首都华盛顿成立。目前，全美中文学校协会有会员学校284所，遍布美国41个州的大、中城市，协会会员学校的学生人数达5万余人。

除了中文学校的快速发展以外，开设汉语课程的大学及注册学习汉语的学生也呈逐渐

增加的趋势，其中最为引人注目的是美国明德学院(Middlebury College)在汉语教学方面所取得的成就。除大学外，高中、小学及幼儿园的汉语教学也在逐步开展中。

9第一章 绪论

2006年是美国的外语年，据统计，在中国驻纽约总领馆领区的正规中小学中，从2003年到2005年，开设中文课的中小学从102所增加到191所，增长了87.3%，选修中文课的中小学生人数从3112人增加到12 551人，增长了300%。美国教育部于1994年规定汉语为SATⅡ(Scholastic Assessment Test)的外语之一。自1994年4月26日实施以来，到2004年为止，每年有3000～5000人参加考试。2003年，AP(Advanced Placement)中文课程启动，大学理事会也于2007年正式推出AP中文测试。

不过，自2007至2009年的巅峰时期之后，美国大学的中文学生人数虽然还以每年大约2%的幅度增加，但这主要是由新增中文项目带来的，部分已经开设中文项目的大学中文注册人数出现了小幅减少的情况。

(三) 波兰的汉语教学

波兰的华沙大学于1816年建校，于1925年开设汉语课程，于1933年成立远东学院汉语教研室，于1937年成立汉学系，隶属东方学院。该系有本、硕、博三个层次，分为全日制白班学生和夜班学生。系内有专职教师6人，兼职10人。1984年，中国政府开始派遣汉语老师。主要设置实用汉语、古代汉语、汉语阅读、中国历史、中国文学等课程。

卢布林约翰·保罗二世天主教大学，开设了“中国哲学流派”及“古代汉语”等课

程。此外，卢布林居里夫人大学、波兹南现代语言大学、罗兹大学、罗兹理工大学、弗罗

茨瓦夫大学、弗罗茨瓦夫高等职业大学、华沙理工大学、华沙维斯瓦大学、华沙商务与计

算机技术大学、奥波莱工业大学、琴斯托霍瓦高等师范学校等也设有汉语课程。开设汉语

课程的中小学则有数十所，其中波兹南戴高乐第二高级完全中学在小学、初中及高中均开

设汉语课，并经教育部批准，汉语正式成为学历教育课程，进入教学大纲。

2006年12月，波兰第一所孔子学院在克拉科夫成立，由北京外国语大学与雅盖隆大学共建。2008年6月，第二所孔子学院在波兹南成立，由天津理工大学与密茨凯维奇大学共建。2008年10月，奥波莱孔子学院成立，由北京工业大学与奥波莱工业大学共建。2008年12月，弗罗茨瓦夫孔子学院成立，由厦门大学与弗罗茨瓦夫大学共建。2015年9月，格但斯克孔子学院成立，由中国青年政治学院与格但斯克大学共建。

总体来说，对外汉语教学在国外的影响和发展十分显著，主要表现为以下几个方面。

(1) 汉语教学逐步被很多国家纳入主流教育体系，美国、加拿大、日本、韩国、泰国、澳大利亚等国已先后将汉语列为大学入学考试的外语科目之一，泰国教育部甚至决定

在全国中小学普遍开设汉语课程并在皇家教育电视台开播电视汉语教学节目。

(2) 学生人数不断增加，汉语教学排位普遍提高。汉语在日本早已是仅次于英语的第二大外语。在韩国，汉语也成了第二大外语。在美国大学中，选修汉语作为外语的学生人

数增长幅度最大。此外，汉语还被选作儿童的启蒙语言进入一些国家和地区。

(3) 汉语学习者的成分和目的发生了很大的变化。汉语学习的目的已经由过去的对中国文化的兴趣和爱好，转移为掌握一门外语技能以赢得职业竞争，为了与中国进行经贸、

科技、外交、文化交流等而学习汉语已成为主流。学汉语的学生已经由以非洲、东欧少数

几个国家为主，发展到世界180多个国家和地区，现已遍布世界各地。

10 对外汉语教学理论与实务

二、我国对外汉语教学的发展

对外汉语教学历史悠久，早在两千五六百年前，周末的《周礼》及秦汉之初的《礼

记》中就有所提及。但对外汉语教学真正发展成为一项事业，是在中华人民共和国成立后

的1950年。1950年7月，清华大学正式成立东欧交换生中国语文专修班，标志着我国对外汉语教学事业正式开始，到现在我国对外汉语教学已走过50多年的历程，大致可分为两大时期，即实行改革开放前30年的形成时期和改革开放后30年的发展时期。

(一) 对外汉语教学的形成时期

从1950年到1978年改革开放前，是对外汉语教学的形成时期。这期间又经历了三个阶段。

1. 初创阶段：20世纪50年代初至20世纪60年代初1950年6月，周恩来总理亲自召开会议，决定与捷克斯洛伐克、波兰、罗马尼亚、匈

牙利、保加利亚、朝鲜等国各交换5名留学生。1950年7月，中国政府在清华大学专门成立了东欧交换生中国语文专修班，周培源先生为第一任班主任。该班于1951年初正式开始上课，学制两年，第一年只有33名留学生，吕叔湘、邓懿、王还等6名教师任教。这是中华人民共和国成立以后的第一个专门从事对来华留学生进行汉语教学的机构，标志着我国对

外汉语教学事业正式开始。

1952年暑期，由于院系调整，东欧交换生中国语文专修班调整到北京大学，改名为北京大学外国留学生中国语文专修班。

1953年9月，为了就近培养越南留学生，中国政府在广西桂林开办了越南留学生中国语文专修班，当年共接收越南留学生257名，该班于1954年改名为桂林中国语文专修学校，同时接收了一批朝鲜留学生，1957年停办。

1960年，北京外国语学院成立了非洲留学生办公室，当年接收非洲留学生200名左右。1961年，北京大学外国留学生中国语文专修班与北京外国语学院非洲留学生办公室合

并成立了北京外国语学院外国留学生办公室。1961年，我国在校留学生总数为471人。此间10年，共接收来自60多个国家的3315名留学生，生源主要来自亚洲、非洲、东欧

一些友好国家，学生人数很有限。此间，还从无到有建立了我国从事对外汉语教学的专门

教学机构，初步组成一支专职对外汉语教师队伍，并开始向东欧社会主义国家派遣汉语教

师。1952年，朱德熙先生被派遣至保加利亚索非亚大学从事汉语教学工作，这是我国派出的第一位汉语教师。从1961年起，高教部决定从一部分重点大学的中文系选拔优秀应届毕业生作为储备出国汉语师资到北京外国语学院或北京大学进修3年外语，至“文革”共培养了4批一百多人，他们后来成为我国对外汉语教学的中坚骨干力量。

初创阶段从无到有初步建立了预备教育体系，明确了“对外”的汉语教学不同于国内

“语文”教学。不过这一时期教学类型单一，重知识讲授，轻语言实践，教学规模较小。

2. 进展阶段：20世纪60年代初期至中期1962年，北京外国语学院留学生办公室与出国留学生部合并后独立建校，成立了外国

11第一章 绪论

留学生高等预备学校。该校的成立使我国的对外汉语教学有了一个稳固的基地。1964年，经高教部批准，将预备学校升格改名为北京语言学院，成为我国唯一一所以对外汉语教学

与研究为主要任务的高等学校。该校于1996年更名为北京语言文化大学，于2002年更名为北京语言大学，迄今为止，仍然是我国唯一一所以对外汉语教学与研究为主要任务的高等

学校。

1964年，出国师资系在北京语言学院成立。当时的高等教育部决定除了继续选拔一部分大学毕业生作为出国汉语储备师资进行培养外，还开设相关专业，专门培养出国汉语教

师。当年就开始招生，一共录取了50名应届高中毕业生。按照课程精简的原则，开设了汉语、外语、政治、体育4门课程，要求四年制本科生“系统地掌握汉语语文知识，初步掌握教外国人汉语的技能和方法，具有较高的写作水平和较好的汉语口头表达能力。外语方

面要求具有较好的外语基础知识和较熟练的外语表达能力，能使用外语教授汉语，并且能

适应国外工作和生活的需要”。1965年，出国师资系又从一批理工院校的大学毕业生中招收了一批学生作为出国师资培养。

1965年夏，两千多名越南留学生来华，使全国又有20多所著名高校承担了对外汉语教学任务，仅1965年留学生总数已达到3312人。留学生规模的增大，使对外汉语师资队伍急需扩充，高教部委托北京语言学院于1965年暑期为各院校新从事对外汉语教学的教师举办了一期培训班。这是我国第一次举办全国性的对外汉语教师培训班。为便于各院校之间展

开教学经验交流，高教部决定由北京语言学院创办《外国留学生基础汉语教学通讯》，于

1965年下半年创刊，共出版11期。这一阶段的时间虽然短，却是对外汉语教学事业迅速发展的一个阶段。一是教学规模

不断扩大，学生数量有较大幅度增加。二是以北京语言学院为基地，教学点不断增加，师

资队伍不断扩大。从1961年至1964年，共培养了118名出国汉语储备师资，这些教师成为日后对外汉语教学与研究的重要力量。三是教学类型不断增加，在原来的预备教育的基础

上，又增加了汉语翻译专业。在教学理论的研究方面，采用“精讲多练，课内外结合”的

实践性教学原则，注重“语、文并进”。在教学法方面，将听、说技能的训练放到语言教

学的首位，课堂教学基本采用归纳的方式，主要采用汉语，必要时才使用学生母语。

1966年夏天，“文革”爆发，来华留学生教育事业陷入低谷。1967年，高教部决定停办出国汉语教学储备师资班。不仅如此，全国的对外汉语教学基本停止。1971年10月，北京语言学院被撤销，唯一的专业刊物也遭停刊。只有《中国建设》上的“中文月课”和驻

华外交人员的汉语教学得以幸免，向国外派遣汉语教师的工作也没有完全中断。

3. 恢复阶段：20世纪70年代初到改革开放20世纪70年代初，我国在外交领域取得一系列重大突破。1971年，联合国恢复我国合

法席位。1972年，中美签署了《上海联合公报》，两国开始正常的外交往来。同年9月，中日发表联合声明，实现了邦交正常化。1973年，联合国大会第28届会议一致通过将汉语列为大会和安理会的5种工作语言之一。

1972年，因我国援建坦赞铁路，要为这两国长期培养数百名专业技术人员，他们首先需要学习汉语，许多因“文革”中断学业的外国留学生也纷纷要求复学。所以，在1972

12 对外汉语教学理论与实务

年，北方交通大学首先接收了200名坦桑尼亚和赞比亚留学生。1972年，经周恩来总理批准恢复北京语言学院，并于1973年接收了42个国家的383名留学生。1974年9月9日，毛泽东主席为北京语言学院题写了校名，标志着国家最高领导人对我国对外汉语教学的关心和

重视。为了配合教学工作的开展，师资培养又被提上日程。1975年，北京语言学院开办以外国留学生为对象，以汉语作为第二语言教学的四年制“汉语言”专业本科，主要培养汉

语教师、翻译和汉语研究人才。

由于受到“文革”的影响，在这一时期，虽然招生和教学得到一定程度的恢复，但

在基础设施、师资力量、管理建设方面都存在严重不足，师资力量薄弱。20世纪70年代初期，虽然有两批在“文革”前受到专业培训的储备出国师资陆续走上了对外汉语教学岗

位，但远不能满足教学需求。

1972年到1975年，我国共接收留学生2266名，1977年在校留学生总数为1217人，远未达到“文革”前的规模。这一阶段，我国开始关注教材对教学效果的重要影响。1972年，在北京语言学院复校的同时，为了加强教材建设和研究工作，成立了编辑研究部，

这是我国第一个编写对外汉语教材和研究对外汉语教学的专门机构。在教学法方面，句

型和结构的讲述重于语言交际技能的训练；针对语法点设计语句，实用性较差；政治色

彩浓厚，缺乏趣味性。

(二) 对外汉语教学的发展时期

1978年，党的十一届三中全会提出以经济建设为中心的方针策略。随着国力的增强及国际地位的提高，世界需要了解中国，加强与中国的交往，由此在世界范围内扩大了对学

习汉语的需求。这种需求相比过去长期处于缓慢、反复的状况，是一个质的飞跃和突破，

取得了令人瞩目的成就。

改革开放后，来华留学生教育工作也进入了恢复和上升期。留学生的生源地扩展到

西方工业化发达国家，一些高校允许招收自费来华留学生。1979年，全国自费留学生数量为300余名。1989年，已经发展到2500名，增加了7倍多。从1978年到1989年，全国共接收和培养了40 221名留学生，其中政府奖学金生13 699名，自费留学生26 522名。1990年到2000年，全国共接收和培养了310 000多名留学生，其中政府奖学金生18 360名，自费留学生292 000多名。但这一时期的来华留学生无论从规模上还是从层次上来看，都还处于一个比较低的发展水平，自费留学生的来源国主要是日本、美国、德国、英国、法国等20多个发达国家。

从1990年到现在，随着中国进一步深化改革，扩大开放，来华留学生教育事业也迎来了空前的大发展。来华留学生的数量快速增长，学习者的层次稳步提高，学习目的和学习

形式也日趋多样化。

除了2003年由于受到“非典”影响来华留学生数量有所减少外，其他年份来华留学生人数逐年创新高：2004年达到11万人；2005年超过14万人；2006年突破16万人；2007年超过19万人；2008年突破20万人；2009年突破22万人。2001年到2008年，来华留学生人数年均增长率超过20%。仅2008年当年在华学习的各类留学人员就达到223 500人，其中政府

13第一章 绪论

奖学金生14 000人，自费生209 500人，接收留学生的学校已经达到592所。留学生来源国也增加到180多个国家和地区。学习者的层次由语言预备教育延伸到本科、硕士和博士各个层次的学历教育。学科分布由语言类、中医类、农学类等少数学科扩展到文、史、哲、

政、经、法、理、工、医等各个门类。

对外汉语教学现在已经成为国家和民族的事业，也已经成为一个新型学科。

1. 对外汉语教学已经成为国家和民族的事业自1988年9月第一次“全国对外汉语教学工作会议”明确提出“对外汉语教学是国家

和民族的事业”后，这一指导思想越来越深入人心，并逐步得到体现。国家有关部门加大

了对对外汉语教学工作的关心、支持和领导。1993年，由国家教委制定的《中国教育改革和发展纲要》中明确提出要“大力加强对外汉语教学工作”，这是我国第一次把对外汉语

教学工作写入国家教育法规。此后，“对外汉语”便作为学科名称出现在我国正式的学

科、专业目录上。

从20世纪90年代至今，对外汉语教学规模不断扩大，教学结构逐渐完善。为适应迅速发展的教学规模，1983年，北京语言学院在外语系内开设对外汉语教学本科专业，培养对外汉语教师；1985年，这一专业独立成为语言文学系。随后，北京外国语学院、上海外国语学院、华东师范大学等院校也相继开设了类似的专业。1986年，北京大学和北京语言学院开始招收对外汉语教学研究方向的硕士研究生。1992年至1995年，北京语言学院从中文系和外语系毕业生中招收了四届对外汉语教学第二学士学位生。1997年，北京语言学院(更名为“北京语言文化大学”)建立了第一个对外汉语教学“课程与教学论”硕士专业以及带有对外汉语教学方向的“语言学和应用语言学”博士专业。仅2016年一年，共有来自205个国家和地区的442 773名各类外国留学人员在31个省、自治区、直辖市的829所高等学校、科研院所和其他教学机构中学习，比2015年增加45 138人，增长比例为11.35%。

为适应世界各地汉语学习者对汉语考试的需求，孔子学院总部/国家汉办自1990年起，先后研发并实施了汉语水平考试(HSK)、汉语水平口语考试(HSKK)、中小学生汉语考试(YCT)、商务汉语考试(BCT)和孔子学院/课堂测试(HSKE)等多种汉语考试，为汉语学习者测试学习成绩、留学中国、申请来华留学奖学金、学校开展教学评估以及用人单位员工

招聘和晋升等提供客观有效的测试标准。截至目前，全球共有汉语考试考点860个。其中海外考点530个，分布于112个国家；国内考点330个，分布于71个城市。2013年，全球共有500万人参加由孔子学院总部/国家汉办举办的各类汉语考试。汉语水平考试(HSK)已跻身世界上类似英语“托福”考试的较重要的第二语言或外语水平测试之一，并成为世界上

极具权威性和影响力的汉语水平测试。这是我国对外汉语教学领域中一项重大突破�